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THE 


ENCYCLOPEDIA    BRITANNICA 


ELEVENTH     EDITION 


FIRST 

SECOND 

THIRD 

FOURTH 

FIFTH 

SIXTH 

SEVENTH 

EIGHTH 

NINTH 

TENTH 

ELEVENTH 


edition,  published  in  three                volumes,  1768 — 1771- 

ten  1777—1784. 

eighteen  1788—1797. 

twenty  1801 — 1810. 

twenty  1815—1817. 

twenty  1823 — 1824. 

twenty-one  1830 — 1842. 

twenty-two  1853 — 1860. 

twenty-five  1875—1889. 
ninth  edition  and  eleven 

supplementary  volumes,  1902 — 1903. 

published  in  twenty-nine  volumes,  1910 — 1911* 


COPYRIGHT 

in  all  countries  subscribing  to  the 
Bern  Convention 

by 
THE  CHANCELLOR.  MASTERS  AND  SCHOLARS 

of  the 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CAMBRIDGE 


All  rtfhts  reserved 


THE 


ENCYCLOPAEDIA  BRITANNICA 


DICTIONARY 

OF 

ARTS,    SCIENCES,    LITERATURE    AND    GENERAL 

INFORMATION 

ELEVENTH    EDITION 

VOLUME  XIII 

HARMONY   to   HURSTMONCEAUX 


Cambridge,  England: 

at  the  University  Press 

New  York,   35  West  32nd  Street 
IQIO 


•E3 


Copyright,  in  the  United  States  of  America,  1910, 

by 
The  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  Company. 


INITIALS    USED   IN    VOLUME    XIII.    TO    IDENTIFY    INDIVIDUAL 

CONTRIBUTORS,1  WITH    THE    HEADINGS    OF    THE 

ARTICLES    IN    THIS    VOLUME  SO  SIGNED. 


A.  E.  G.*  REV.  ALFRED  ERNEST  GARVIE,  M.A.,  D.D.  [ 

Principal  of  New  College,  Hampstead.     Member  of  the  Board  of  Theology  and  J  Harocu  i  •  ,\ 

the  Board  of  Philosophy,  London  University.    Author  of  Studies  in  the  Inner  Life  ]        resy  <*  rart>- 
of  Jesus,  &c. 

A.  D.  HENRY  AUSTIN  DOBSON,  LL.D.  J  Hogarth. 

See  the  biographical  article,  DOBSON,  H.  A.  I 

A.  E.  T.  W.       ALFRED  EDWARD  THOMAS  WATSON.  f  w        .,  , . 

Editor  of  the  Badminton  Library  and  Badminton  Magazine.     Formerly  Editor  J  „  R     K&cmS  (tn  part); 
of  the  Illustrated  Sporting  and  Dramatic  News.    Author  of  The  Racing  World  and  ]  Hunting. 
its  Inhabitants;  &c. 

A.  C.  S.  ALGERNON  CHARLES  SWINBURNE.  J  Hugo   victor 

See  the  biographical  article,  SWINBURNE,  A.  C.  I 

A.  Cy.  ARTHUR  ERNEST  COWLEY,  M.A.,  LITT.D.  f  Hebrew  Language; 

Sub-Librarian  of  the  Bodleian  Library,  Oxford.    Fellow  of  Magdalen  College.  \  Hebrew  Literature. 

A.  F.  P.  ALBERT  FREDERICK  POLLARD,  M.A.,  F.R.HisT.S.  r  Heath,  Nicholas; 

Professor  of  English  History  in  the  University  of  London.     Fellow  of  All  Souls  I  Henry  VIII.  of  England* 
College,  Oxford.    Assistant  Editor  of  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography,  1893-  H  rfnnn        p-  "u 
1901.    Lothian  Prizeman  (Oxford),  1892,  Arnold  Prizeman,  1898.    Author  of  England     no°Pel>  B'snop; 
under  the  Protector  Somerset;  Henry  VIII.;  Life  of  Thomas  Cranmer;  &c.  I  Humphrey,  Lawrence. 

A.  Go.*  REV.  ALEXANDER  GORDON,  M.A.  /  Hofmann,  Melchior; 

Lecturer  on  Church  History  in  the  University  of  Manchester.  I  Hotman. 

A.  H.  S.  REV.  ARCHIBALD  HENRY  SAYCE,  D.D. ,  LITT.D.,  LL.D.  Humboldt    Karl  W    Von 

See  the  biographical  article,  SAYCE,  A.  H.  \ 

A.  H.-S.  SIR  A.  HOUTUM-SCHINDLER,  C.I.E.  f  ~  _ 

General  in  the  Persian  Army.    Author  of  Eastern  Persian  Irak.  \  Hormuz  (tn  part). 

A.  J.  H.  ALFRED  J.  HIPKINS,  F.S.A.  (1826-1903).  , 

Formerly  Member  of  Council  and  Hon.  Curator  of  the  Royal  College  of  Music, 
London.    Member  of  Committee  of  the  Inventions  and  Music  Exhibition,  1885;  oM  Harp  (in  part). 
the  Vienna  Exhibition,  1892;  and  of  the  Paris  Exhibition,  1900.    Author  of  Musical  I 
Instruments ;  &c. 

A.  L.  ANDREW  LANG.  f  Hauntings. 

See  the  biographical  article,  LANG,  ANDREW.  I 


A.  M.  C.  AGNES  MARY  CLERKE. 


See  the  biographical  article,  CLERKE,  A.  M. 


A.  N.  ALFRED  NEWTON,  F.R.S. 


See  the  biographical  article,  NEWTON,  ALFRED. 


Herschel,  Sir  F.  W.  (in  part) ; 
Herschel,  Sir  J.  F.  W. 

(in  part). 

Hevelius;  Hipparchus; 
Horroeks;  Huggins; 
Humboldt. 

Harpy;  Harrier;  Hawfinch; 
Hawk;  Heron;  Hoactzin; 
Honeyeater;  Honey  Guide; 


Hoopoe;  Hornbill; 
.  Humming-Bird. 
A.  SI.  ARTHUR  SHADWELL,  M.A.,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  F.R.C.P.  r 

Member  of  Council  of  Epidemiological  Society.     Author  of  Industrial  Efficiency;  J  Housing. 
The  London  Water  Supply;  Drink,  Temperance  and  Legislation. 

A.  W.  H.*          ARTHUR  WILLIAM  HOLLAND.  f  Henry  IV.:  Roman  Emperor; 

Formerly  Scholar  of  St  John's  College,  Oxford.    Bacon  Scholar  of  Gray's  Inn,  1900.  •<  Hide;  Hohenzollern; 

[Honorius  II.;  Anti-Pope. 

A.  W.  W.  ADOLPHUS  WILLIAM  WARD,  LITT.D.,  LL.D.  f  _ 

See  the  biographical  article,  WARD,  A.  W.  \  Hrosvitna. 

C.  A.  M.  F.         CHARLES  AUGUSTUS  MAUDE  FENNELL,  M.A.,  LITT.D.  [" 

Formerly  Fellow  of  Jesus  College,  Cambridge.    Editor  of  Pindar's  Odes  and  Frag-  -I  Hercules. 
mints ;  and  of  the  Stanford  Dictionary  of  A  nglicised  Words  and  Phrases. 

1  A  complete  list,  showing  all  individual  contributors,  with  the  articles  so  signed,  appears  in  the  final  volume. 

V 


VI 

C.  B.« 
C.  El. 

C.  F.  A. 
C.  H.  Ha. 
C.  J.  L. 

C.  L.  K. 

C.  Mo. 
C.  P. 

C.  Pf. 

C.  R.  B. 

C.  S. 

C.  W.  W. 

D.  B.  M. 
D.  F.  T. 

D.  Gi. 

D.  G.  H. 

D.  H. 

D.  Mn. 

D.  S.* 

E.  C.  B. 
E.  D.  B. 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 

CHARLES  BEMONT,  Lirr.D.  (Oxon.).  jHavet; 

See  the  biographical  article,  BEMONT,  C.  I  Hozier. 

SIR  CHARLES  NORTON  EDGCUMBE  ELIOT,  K.C.M.G.,  C.B,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  D^C.L.     ( 

Vice-Chancellor  of   Sheffield   University.     Formerly   Fellow   of  Trinity   College,      Hissar  (in  part), 

Oxford.     H.M.'s  Commissioner  and   Commander-in-Chief   for  the   British   East -4  Hungary:  Language; 

Africa  Protectorate;  Agent  and  Consul-General  at  Zanzibar;  and  Consul-General     Huns. 

for  German  East  Africa,  1900-1904. 

CHARLES  FRANCIS  ATKINSON. 

Formerly   Scholar  of  Queen's   College,   Oxford.     Captain,    1st   City  of   London 
(Royal  Fusiliers).    Author  of  The  Wilderness  and  Cold  Harbour. 


Hohenlohe  (in  part). 


Member  1  Honorius  II.,  III.,  IV. 


CARLTON  HUNTLEY  HAYES,  A.M.,  PH.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  History  in  Columbia  University,  New  York  City, 
of  the  American  Historical  Association. 

SIR  CHARLES  JAMES  LYALL,  K.C.S.I.,  C.I.E.,  LL.D.  (Edin.). 

Secretary  Judicial  and  Public  Department,  India  Office.    Fellow  of  King  s  College,  J  _ 

London.      Secretary   to   Government   of    India,    Home    Department,    1889-1894. 1  Hmdostam 
Chief  Commissioner,  Central  Provinces,  India,  1895-1898.    Author  of  Translations 
of  Ancient  Arabic  Poetry;  &c. 

CHARLES  LETHBRIDGE  KINGSFORD,  M.A.,  F.R.HisT.S.,  F.S.A. 

Assistant  Secretary  to  the  Board  of  Education.     Author  of  Life  of  Henry   V. 
Editor  of  Chronicles  of  London,  and  Stow's  Survey  of  London. 

WILLIAM  COSMO  MONKHOUSE. 

See  the  biographical  article,  MONKHOUSE,  W.  C. 


Henry  IV.,  V.,  VI.: 


REV.  CHARLES  PRITCHARD,  M.A. 

See  the  biographical  article,  PRITCHARD,  CHARLES. 


|  Hunt,  W.  Holman. 

f  Hersehel,  Sir  F.  W. 

(in  part); 

I  Hersehel,  Sir  J.  F.  W. 
L      (in  part). 


CHRISTIAN  PFISTER,  D.-ES-L. 

Professor  at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris.     Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour. 
of  Etudes  sur  le  regne  de  Robert  le  Pieux. 

CHARLES  RAYMOND  BEAZLEY,  M.A.,  D.Lnr. 

Professor  of  Modern  History  in  the  University  of  Birmingham.  Formerly  Fellow 
of  Merton  College,  Oxford,  and  University  Lecturer  in  the  History  of  Geography. 
Author  of  Henry  the  Navigator;  The  Dawn  of  Modern  Geography;  &c. 

CARL  SCHTJRZ,  LL.D. 

See  the  biographical  article,  SCHURZ,  CARL. 

SIR  CHARLES  WILLIAM  WILSON,  K.C.B.,  K.C.M.G.,  F.R.S.  (1836-1907). 

Major-General,  Royal  Engineers.  Secretary  to  the  North  American  Boundary 
Commission,  1858-1862.  British  Commissioner  on  the  Servian  Boundary  Com- 
mission. Director-General  of  the  Ordnance  Survey,  1886-1894.  Director-General 
of  Military  Education,  1895-1898.  Author  of  From  Korti  to  Khartoum;  Life  of 
Lord  Clive;  &c. 

DAVID  BINNING  MONRO,  M.A.,  Lrrr.D. 

See  the  biographical  article,  MONRO,  DAVID  BINNING. 


Author  j  Hunald. 


Hayton;  Henry 
the  Navigator. 


|  Hayes, 


Rutherford  B. 


Hierapolis  (in  part). 


Homer 


DONALD  FRANCIS  TOVEY. 

Author  of  Essays  in  Musical  Analysis:  comprising  The  Classical  Concerto,   The  -I  Harmony. 
Goldberg  Variations,  and  analyses  of  many  other  classical  works.  (_ 


SIR 


DAVID  GILL,  K.C.B.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S.,  D.Sc. 

H.M.  Astronomer  at  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  1879-1907.    Served  in  Geodetic  Survey 

of   Egypt,   and  on  the  expedition  to  Ascension   Island   to  determine  the  Solar  J  Heliometer. 

Parallax  by  observations  of  Mars.    Directed  Geodetic  Survey  of  Natal,  Cape  Colony  i 

and  Rhodesia.    Author  of  Geodetic  Survey  of  South  Africa;  Catalogues  of  Stars  for 

the  Equinoxes  (1850,  1860,  1885,  1890,  1900);  &c. 


DAVID  GEORGE  HOGARTH,  M.A. 

Keeper  of  the  Ashmolean  Museum,  Oxford.  Fellow  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford. 
Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.  Excavated  at  Paphos,  1888;  Naucratis,  1899  and 
1903;  Ephesus,  1904-1905;  Assiut,  1906-1907.  Director,  British  School  at  Athens, 
1897-1900.  Director,  Cretan  Exploration  Fund,  1899. 


DAVID  HANNAY. 

Formerly  British  Vice-Consul  at  Barcelona. 
Navy;  Life  of  Emilia  Castelar;  &c. 


Author  of  Short  History  of  the  Royal 


REV.  PUGALD  MACFADYEN,  M.A. 

Minister  of  South  Grove  Congregational  Church,  Highgate.  Author  of  Constructive 
Congregational  Ideals;  &c. 

DAVID  SHARP,  M.A.,  M.B.,  F.R.S.,  F.Z.S. 

Editor  of  the  Zoological  Record.  Formerly  Curator  of  Museum  of  Zoology,  Univer- 
sity of  Cambridge.  President  of  Entomological  Society  of  London.  Author  of 
"  Insecta  "  (Cambridge  Natural  History);  &c. 

RT.  REV.  EDWARD  CUTHBERT  BUTLER,  O.S.B.,  M.A.,  D.Lrrr. 

Abbot  of  Downside  Abbey,  Bath.  Author  of  "  The  Lausiac  History  of  Palladius  " 
in  Cambridge  Texts  and  Studies,  vol.  vi. 

EDWIN  DAMPIER  BRICKWOOD. 
Author  of  Boat-Racing ;  &c. 


•  Heraclea  (in  part); 
Hierapolis  (in  part); 
Hittites;  Horus. 

f  Heyn;  Hood,  Viscount; 
"I  Howe,  Earl;  Humour. 

f  Henderson,  Alexander 
(_      (in  part). 

f 
Hexapoda  (in  part). 


f  Hieronymites; 
|  Hilarion,  Saint. 

f  Horse:  History; 
\Horse-Racing  (in  part). 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES  vii 

E.  D.  Bu.  EDWARD  DUNDAS  BUTLER. 

Formerly  Assistant  in  the  Department  of  Printed  Books,  British  Museum.    Foreign  J  *  ungary:  Literature 
Member  of  the  Hungarian  Academy  of  Sciences.    Author  of  Hungarian  Poems  and          (in  part). 
Fables  for  English  Readers ;  &c. 

E.  E.  S.  ERNEST  EDWARD  SIKES,  M.A.  f 

Fellow,  Tutor  and  Lecturer,  St  John's  College,  Cambridge.     Newton  Student  at  J  Hephaestus; 
Athens,  1890.    Editor  of  the  Prometheus  Vinctus  of  Aeschylus,  and  of  The  Homeric  1  Hera;  Hermes. 
Hymns. 

E.  F.  S.  EDWARD  FAIRBROTHER  STRANGE.  C 

Assistant-Keeper,  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  South  Kensington.  Member  of  J  Hiroshige; 

Council,  Japan  Society.    Author  of  numerous  works  on  art  subjects.  Joint-editor  1  Hokusai 
of  Bell's  "  Cathedral     Series.  I 

E.  G.  EDMUND  GOSSE,  LL.D.  J  Heroic  Romances; 

See  the  biographical  article,  GOSSE,  EDMUND,  W.  Heroic  Verse; 

I  Herrick;  Holberg. 

Ed.  M.  EDUARD  MEYER,  PH.D.,  D.Lirr.  (Oxon.),  LL.D.  f 

Professor  of  Ancient  History  in  the  University  of  Berlin.     Author  of  Geschichte  S  Hormizd. 
des  Alterthums ;  Geschichte  des  alien  Aegyptens ;  Die  Israeliten  und  ihre  Nachbarstamme.  {, 

E.  M.  W.  REV.  EDWARD  MEWBURN  WALKER,  M.A.  J  Herodotus  (;*,  *»ri\ 

Fellow,  Senior  Tutor  and  Librarian  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford.  I 

E.  0.*  EDMUND  OWEN,  M.B.,  F.R.C.S.,  LL.D.,  D.Sc. 

Consulting  Surgeon  to  St  Mary's  Hospital,  London,  and  to  the  Children's  Hospital,  I  Heart:   Sttreerv 
Great  Ormond  Street,  London.    Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.    Late  Examiner  H  wprnja 
in  Surgery  at  the  Universities  of  Cambridge,  London  and  Durham.     Author  of 
A  Manual  of  Anatomy  for  Senior  Students.  [ 

E.  Pr.  EDGAR  PRESTAGE.  f 

Special  Lecturer  in  Portuguese  Literature  at  the  University  of  Manchester.    Com-  I  Herculano  de  Carvalho  e 
mendador,   Portuguese  Order  of  S.  Thiago.     Corresponding   Member  of  Lisbon  |       Araiyo. 
Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  and  Lisbon  Geographical  Society.  I 

E.  Re.*  EMIL  REICH,  Doc. JURIS.,  F.R.HisT.S.  /Huiwarv-  m*rni,,r,  (;*,  *n,t 

Author  of  Hungarian  Literature ;  History  of  Civilization ;  &c.  \  *  'Dgary '  Llterature  (™  P« 

E.  R.  B.  EDWYN  ROBERT  BEVAN,  M.A.  f 

New  College,  Oxford.    Author  of  The  House  of  Seleucus;  Jerusalem  under  the  High  1  Hellenism. 
Priests.  I 

F.  B.  FELICE  BARNABEI,  LITT.D. 

Formerly  Director  of  Museum  of  Antiquities  at  Rome.     Author  of  archaeological 
papers  in  Italian  reviews  and  in  the  Athenaeum. 

F.  C.  C.  FREDERICK  CORNWALLIS  CONYBEARE,  M.A.,  D.Tn.  (Giessen).  f 

Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.     Formerly  Fellow  of  University  College,  Oxford.  \  Holy  Water. 
Author  of  The  Ancient  Armenian  Texts  of  Aristotle;  Myth,  Magi?  and  Morals;  &c.  { 

F.  G.  M.  B.        FREDERICK  GEORGE  MEESON  BECK,  M.A.  f  Heruli. 

Fellow  and  Lecturer  of  Clare  College,  Cambridge.  \ 

F.  G.  P.  FREDERICK  GYMER  PARSONS,  F.R.C.S.,  F.Z.S.,  F.R.ANTHROP.INST.  f 

Vice-President,  Anatomical  Society  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.     Lecturer  oirj  Heart-    A      t 
Anatomy  at  St  Thomas's  Hospital  and  the  London  School  of  Medicine  for  Women.  1 
Formerly  Hunterian  Professor  at  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons.  L 

F.  G.  S.  F.  G.  STEPHENS.  f 

Formerly  art  critic  of  the  Athenaeum.     Author  of  Artists  at  Home;  George  Cruik-  I  jjoj]    Frank. 

shank;  Memorials  of  W.  Mulready;  French  and  Flemish  Pictures;  Sir  E.  Landseer;\ 
T.  C.  Hook,  R.A.;&c. 

F.  H.  B.  FRANCIS  HENRY  BUTLER,  M.A.  f  Honey;  Hunter,  John; 

Worcester  College,  Oxford.    Associate  of  the  Royal  School  of  Mines.  \  Hunter,  William. 

F.  LL  G.  FRANCIS  LLEWELLYN  GRIFFITH,  M.A.,  PH.D.,  F.S.A.  r  Heliopolis; 

Reader  in  Egyptology,  Oxford  University.     Editor  of  the  Archaeological  Survey!    iorrnec  TVi«mo<ri<:tii<:' 
and  Archaeological  Reports  of  the  Egypt  Exploration  Fund.     Fellow  of  Imperial  1  flerl 
German  Archaeological  Institute.  I  Horus. 

F.  0.  B.  FREDERICK  ORPEN  BOWER,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S.  r 

Regius  Professor  of  Botany  in  the  University  of  Glasgow.     Author  of  Practical  J  Hofmeister. 
Botany  for  Beginners. 

F.  Px.  FRANK  PUAUX.  r 

President  of  the  Societe  de  1'Histoire  du  Protestantisme  francais.       Author  of  J  _  , 

Les  Precurseurs  francais  de  la  tolerance ;  Histoire  de  I' etablissement  des  protestants  l  HUguenoiS. 
fran$ais  en  Suede;  L'Eglise  reformee  de  France;  &c. 

G.  A.  Gr.  GEORGE  ABRAHAM  GRIERSON,  C.I.E.  PH.D.,  D.Lrrr. 

Member  of  the  Indian  Civil  Service,  1873—1903.     In  charge  of  Linguistic  Survey 

of  India,   1898-1902.     Gold  Medallist,  Asiatic  Society,   1909.     Vice-President  of -|  Hindustani. 

the  Royal  Asiatic  Society.     Formerly  Fellow  of  Calcutta  University.     Author  of 

The  Languages  of  India ;  &c. 

G.  C.  R.  GEORGE  GROOM  ROBERTSON  M.A.  J  Hobbes   Thomas  (in  part). 

See  the  biographical  article,  ROBERTSON,  G.  C.  \ 

G.  C.  W.  GEORGE  CHARLES  WILLIAMSON,  LITT.D.  f  Hilliard    Lawrence* 

Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.    Author  of  Portrait  Miniatures;  Life  of  Richard  J  '.  'U-CIH_ 

Cosway,  R.A.;  George  Engleheart;  Portrait  Drawings;  &c.     Editor  of  new  edition  1  ira>  w 

of  Bryan's  Dictionary  of  Printers  and  Engravers.  [  Humphry,  Ozias. 


viii  INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 

0.  G.  S.      GEORGE  GREGORY  SMITH,  M.A.  f 

Professor  of  English  Literature,  Queen's  University  of  Belfast.     Author  of  The\  Henryson. 
Days  of  James  IV.;  The  Transition  Period;  Specimens  of  Middle  Scots;  &c. 

G.  E.  REV.  GEORGE  EDMUNDSON,  M.A.,  F.R.HisT.S.  f  Holland:  History. 

Formerly  Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Brasenose  College,  Oxford.    Ford's  Lecturer,  1909.  J  Holland:  County  and 

Hon.  Member,  Dutch  Historical  Society,  and  Foreign  Member,  Netherlands  Associa-  1 

tion  of  Literature.  Province  of. 

G.  H.  C.  GEORGE  HERBERT  CARPENTER,  B.Sc.  f 

Professor  of  Zoology  in  the  Royal  College  of  Science,  Dublin.     President  of  the!  *     rniptera; 
Association  of  Economic  Biologists.    Member  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy.    Author]  Hexapoda  (in  part). 
of  Insects:  their  Structure  and  Life;  &c.     ' 

G.  J.  T.  GEORGE  JAMES  TURNER. 

Barrister-at-Law,  Lincoln's  Inn.     Editor  of  Select  Pleas  for  the  Forests  for  the  H  Hundred. 
Selden  Society.  L 

G.  K.  GUSTAV  KRUGER.  f  „=__„,„,, 

Professor   of   Church    History   in   the    University   of   Giessen.     Author   of   Das']     llPP0'ylus- 
Papsitum;  &c. 

G.  R.  REV.  GEORGE  RAWLINSON,  M.A.  f  Herodotus  (in  part). 

See  the  biographical  article,  RAWLINSON,  GEORGE.  I 

G.  W.  T.  REV.  GRIFFITHES  WHEELER  THATCHER,  M.A.,  B.D.  f  Hasan-ul-Basn£ 

Warden  of  Camden  College,  Sydney,  N.S.W.    Formerly  Tutor  in  Hebrew  and  Old  1  Hassan  ibn  Thablt; 
Testament  Histony  at  Mansfield  College,  Oxford.  [  Hisham  ibn  al-Kalbi. 

H.  LORD  HOUGHTON.  /Hood,  Thomas. 

See  the  biographical  article,  HOUGHTON,  IST  BARON. 

H.  Br.  HENRY  BRADLEY,  M.A.,  PH.D.  J 

Joint-editor  of  the  New  English  Dictionary  (Oxford).    Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.  ]  Holland. 

Author  of  The  Story  of  the  Goths;  The  Making  of  English;  &c. 
H.  Bt.  SIR  HENRY  BURDETT,  K.C.B.,  K.C.V.O.  f 

Founder  and  Editor  of  The  Hospital.     Formerly  Superintendent  of  the  Queen's  J  Hospital. 

Hospital,    Birmingham,    and    the    Seamen's    Hospital,    Greenwich.      Author    of  1 

Hospitals  and  Asylums  of  the  World;  &c. 

H.  Ch.  HUGH  CHISHOLM,  M.A. 

Formerly  Scholar  of  Corpus  Christ!  College,  Oxford.     Editor  of  the  nth  edition^  Howe'  Samuel  Gndley. 
of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica;  Co-editor  of  the  loth  edition. 

H.  De.  HIPPOLYTE  DELEHAYE,  S.J.  f 

Assistant  in  the  compilation  of  the  Bollandist  publications:  Analecta  Bollandianai         ena>  5t»  *      ert»  st> 
and  A  eta  sanctorum. 

H.  L.  HENRI  LABROSSE.  f  Hugh  of  St  Cher. 

Assistant  Librarian  at  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Paris.    iOfficer  of  the  Academy.  L 

H.  L.  C.  HUGH  LONGBOURNE  CALLENDAR,  F.R.S.,  LL.D.  J 

Professor  of  Physics,  Royal  College  of  Science,  Condon.     Formerly  Professor  of "l  Heat. 
Physics  in  McGill  College,  Montreal,  and  in  University  College,  London.  I 

H.  M.  V.  HERBERT  M.  VAUGHAN,  F.S.A.  [  Henry,  Stuart  (Cardinal 

Keble  College,  Oxford.    Author  of  The  Last  of  the  Royal  Stuarts;  The  Medici  Popes;  1       York) 
The  Las:  Stuart  Queen. 

H.  W.  C.  D.       HENRY  WILLIAM  CARLESS  DAVIS,  M.A.  f  Henry  L» IL'  IIL: 

Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Balliol  College,  Oxford.    Fellow  of  All  Souls  College,  Oxford,  1       °f  England.  _ 
1895-1902.    Author  of  England  under  the  Normans  and  Angevins;  Charlemagne.          [  Henry  of  Huntingdon. 

H.  W.  R.*          REV.  HENRY  WHEELER  ROBINSON,  M.A.  I" 

Professor  of  Church  History  in  Rawdon  College,  Leeds.    Senior  Kennicott  Scholar,  J  Hosea  (in  part). 

Oxford,  IQOI.     Author  of  Hebrew  />-""'•-'•—-  -'-  D-I-I..'...-  >„   «„.,;,•„„   ^  „<;..„>,„; —  i 

(in  Mansfield  College  Essays) ;  &c. 
H.  W.  S.  H.  WICKHAM  STEED. 

Correspondent  of  The  Times  at  Vienna.     Correspondent  of  The  Times  at  Rome,  *j  Humbert,  King. 

1897-1902.- 

H.  Y.  SIR  HENRY  YULE,  K.C.S.I.,  C.B.  f  Hormuz  (in  part); 

See  the  biographical  article,  YuLE/-SlR  H.  |_  Hsiian  Tsang  (in  part). 

1.  A.  ISRAEL  ABRAHAMS,  M.A.  f  Hasdai  ibn  Shaprut; 

Reader  in  Talmudic  "and  Rabbinic  Literature  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.  J  Herzl' 

Formerly  President,  Jewish  Historical  Society  of  England.     Author  of  A  Short  \        ,,.L    c-mcnn  n 

History  of  Jewish  literature ;  Jewish  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages ;  Judaism ;  &c.  I  H  rscn'  aar 

J.  A.  C.  SIR  JOSEPH  ARCHER  CROWE,  K.C.M.G.  /Hnhhpma-  Hnlhcin 

See  the  biographical  article,  CROWE,  SIR  J.  A.  I  H 

J.  A.  R.  VERY  REV.  JOSEPH  ARMITAGE  ROBINSON,  D.D.  f 

Dean  of  Westminster.    Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.     Hon.  Fellow  of  Christ's 

College,  Cambridge.    Formerly  Fellow  of  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  and  Norris-  J.  Hippolytus,  The  Canons  Of. 
ian  'Professor  of  Divinity  in  the  University.     Author  of  Some   Thoughts  on  the 
Incarnation;  &c. 

J.  Bt.  JAMES  BARTLETT.  f 

Lecturer  on  Construction,   Architecture,  Sanitation,   Quantities,  &c.,   at   King's  J  Heating. 

College,   London.     Member  of  Society  of  Architects.     Member  of   Institute  of  1 
Junior  Engineers. 


Oxford,  15)01.  ^Author^of  Hebrew  Psychology  in  Relation  to  Pauline  Anthropology^ 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES  ix 

J.  B.  T.  SIR  JOHN  BATTY  TUKE,  M.D.,  F.R.S.  (Edin.),  D.Sc.,  LL.D.  f 

President  of  the  Neurological  Society  of  the  United  Kingdom.     Medical  Director  J  «,„„ 

of  New  SaughtoA  Hall  Asylum,  Edinburgh.    M.P.  for  the  Universities  of  Edinburgh  1  M'PP°crates. 

and  St  Andrews,  1900-1910.  (_ 

J.  Da.  REV.  JAMES  DAVIES,  M.A.  (1820-1883).  f 

Formerly  Head  Master  of  Ludlow  Grammar  School  and  Prebendary  of  Hereford  J  D        j   / 
Cathedral.    Translated  classical  authors  for  Bohn's  "  Classical  Library."    Author  1  Hesloa  U»  part). 
of  volumes  in  Collins's  Ancient  Classics  for  English  Readers. 

J.  E.  H.  JULIUS  EGGELING,  PH.D.  f 

Professor  of  Sanskrit   and   Comparative   Philology,    University  of      Edinburgh.  *!  Hinduism. 
Formerly  Secretary  and  Librarian  to  Royal  Asiatic  Society. 

J.  F.  F.  JOHN  FAITHFULL  FLEET,  C.I.E.  f 

Commissioner  of  Central  and  Southern  Divisions  of  Bombay,  1891-1897.    Author  •{  Hindu  Chronology. 

of  Inscriptions  of  the  Early  Gupta  Kings ;  &c. 

J.  F.  H.  B.         SIR  JOHN  FRANCIS  HARPIN  BROADBENT,  BART.,  M.A.,  M.D.  r 

Physician  to  Out-Patients,  St  Mary's  Hospital,  London,  and  to  the  Hampstead      n      t.    „ 

General  Hospital.    Assistant  Physician  to  the  London  Fever  Hospital.    Author)      e8rl>  Heart  Disease. 

of  Heart  Disease  and  Aneurysm;  &c. 

J.  G.*  REV.  JAMES  Gow,  M.A.,  LITT.D.  /- 

Head  Master  of  Westminster  School.    Fellow  of  King's  College,  London.    Formerly  I  •» 

Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.    Editor  of  Horace's  Odes  and  Satires.    Author  1  Horace  (w  part). 

of  A  Companion  to  the  School  Classics;  &c. 

J.  Ga.  JAMES  GAIRDNER,  C.B.  r 

See  the  biographical  article,  GAIRDNER,  J.  \  Henry  VII.:  of  England. 

J.  G.  M.  JOHN  GRAY  MCKENDRICK,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.R.C.P.  (Edin.)  f  „ 

Emeritus  Professor  of  Physiology  at  the  University  of  Glasgow.     Author  of  Life  -|  f 
in  Motion ;  Life  of  Helmholtz ;  &c.  \  Helmholtz. 

J.  G.  R.  JOHN  GEORGE  ROBERTSON,  M.A. ,  PH.D.  [Heine  (in  part); 

Professor  of  German  at  the  University  of  London.    Formerly  Lecturer  on  the  English  -|  Hildebrand    Lay  of- 
Language,  Strassburg  University.    Author  of  History  of  German  Literature;  &c.  Hoffmann  *E    T    W 

J.  Hn.  JUSTUS  HASHAGEN,  PH.D.  f  Hecker,  F.  F.  K.; 

Privatdozent  in  Medieval  and  Modern  History,  University  of  Bonn.     Author  of-    Hertzberg    Count  Von' 
Das  Rheinland  unter  der  franzosischen  Herrschaft.  Hormavr 

J.  H.  A.  H.        JOHN  HENRY  ARTHUR  HART,  M.A.  /- 

Fellow,  Theological  Lecturer  and  Librarian,  St  John's  College,  Cambridge.  \  Herod;  Herodians. 

J.  H.  F.  JOHN  HENRY  FREESE,  M.A.  r 

Formerly  Fellow  of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge.  -j  Herald;  Hesiod  (in  part). 

J.  H.  Mu.  JOHN  HENRY  MUIRHEAD,  M.A.,  LL.D.  /• 

Professor  of  Philosophy  in  the  University  of  Birmingham.     Author  of  Elements  \  HeSe!:  Hegelianism  in 
of  Ethics;  Philosophy  and  Life;  &c.     Editor  of  Library  of  Philosophy.  1         England. 

3.  H.  R.  JOHN  HORACE  ROUND,  M.A.,  LL.D.  (Edin.).  r 

Author  of  Feudal  England;  Studies  in  Peerage  and  Family  History;  Peerage  andJ  Here  ward. 
Pedigree. 

3.  J.  F.  REV.  JAMES  J.  Fox.  ( 

St  Thomas's  College,  Brookland,  D.C.,  U.S.A.  \  Hecker,  I.  T. 

J.  K.  L.  SIR  JOHN  KNOX  LAUGHTON,  M.A.,  LITT.D.  r 

Professor  of   Modern   History,   King's  College,  London,  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
Records  Society.    Served  in  the  Baltic,  1854-1855;  in  China,  1856-1850.    Honorary      Tr     j 
Fellow,  Gonville  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge.    Fellow,  King's  College,  London.  ]  Hood  of 
Author  of  Physical  Geography  in  its  Relation  to  the  Prevailing  Winds  and  Currents; 
Studies  in  Naval  History;  Sea  Fights  and  Adventures;  &c. 

J.  M.  M.  JOHN  MALCOLM  MITCHELL.  r 

Sometime  Scholar  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford.    Lecturer  in  Classics,  East  London  J  Heraclitus; 

College  (University  of  London).    Joint-editor  of  Grote's  History  of  Greece.  1  Hume,  David  (in  part). 

3.  P.-B.  JAMES  GEORGE  JOSEPH  PENDEREL-BRODHURST.  r 

Editor  of  the  Guardian  (London).  •!  Hepplewhite. 

J.  P.  Pe.  REV.  JOHN  PUNNETT  PETERS,  PH.D.,  D.D.  r 

Canon  Residentiary,  Cathedral  of  New  York.     Formerly  Professor  of  Hebrew  in 

the    University    of    Pennsylvania.      Director    of    the    University    Expedition    to  J  Hillah;  Hit. 

Babylonia,  1888-1895.    Author  of  Nippur,  or  Explorations  and  Adventures  on  the  \ 

Euphrates. 

3.  S.  Co.  JAMES  SUTHERLAND  COTTON,  M.A. 

Editor  of  The  Imperial  Gazetteer  of  India.    Hon.  Secretary  of  the  Egyptian  Explora- 
tion Fund.     Formerly  Fellow  and  Lecturer  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford.     Author  1  Hastings,  Warren. 
of  India  in  the  "  Citizen  "  Series;  &c. 

J.  S.  F.  JOHN  SMITH  FLETT,  D.Sc.,  F.G.S. 

Petrographer  to  the  Geological  Survey.        Formerly  Lecturer  on   Petrology   in  J  Homfels. 


Edinburgh  University.    Neill  Medallist  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh.    Bigsby  ' 
Medallist  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London.  L 

J.  T.  Be.  JOHN  T.  BEALBY. 

Joint-author  of  Stanford's  Europe.    Formerly  Editor  of  the  Scottish  Geographical  \  Hissar  (in  part). 
Magazine.    Translator  of  Sven  Hedin's  Through  Asia,  Central  Asia,  and  Tibet;  &c.     \_ 


x  INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 

J.  T.  C.  JOSEPH  THOMAS  CUNNINGHAM,  M.A.,  F.Z.S.  f 

Lecturer  on  Zoology  at  the  South-Western  Polytechnic,  London.    Formerly  Fellow  J  Op™,-,,,, 
of  University   College,  Oxford.     Assistant   Professor  of   Natural   History  in'the  1 
University  of  Edinburgh  and  Naturalist  to  the  Marine  Biological  Association.  I 

J.  T.  Mo.  JOHN  TORREY  MORSE,  Jr.  / 

Author  of  The  Life  and  Letters  of  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes.  \  Uo™es,  Oliver  Wendell. 

J.  T.  S.*  JAMES  THOMSON  SHOTWELL,  PH.D.  f 

Professor  of  History  in  Columbia  University,  New  York  City.  \ 

J.  V.*  JULES  VIARD.  f 

Archivist  at  the  National  Archives,  Paris.     Officer  of  Public  Instruction.     Author  T  Hundred  Years'  War. 
of  La  France  sous  Philippe  VI.  de  Valois ;  &c.  I 

J.  V.  B.  JAMES  VERNON  BARTLET,  M.A.,  D.D.  (St  Andrews).  fHphrPW<:    PnktiA  tn  «,». 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Mansfield  College,  Oxford.    Author  of  The  Apostolic  \  '. 

Age;  &c.  L  Hennas,  Shepherd  of. 

J.  Ws.  JOHN  WEATHERS,  F.R.H.S.  f  „.„ 

Lecturer  on  Horticulture  to  the  Middlesex  Countv  Council.     Author  of  Practical\ 

Guide  to  Garden  Plants;  French  Market  Gardening;  &c.  I  Horticulture  U«  part). 

J.  W.*  JAMES  WARD,  D.Sc.,  LL.D.  C 

Professor^of  Mental  Philosophy  and  Logic  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.    Fellow  J  „ 

of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.     Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.     Fellow  of  the  1  HerDart. 

New  York  Academy  of  Sciences.  I 

J.  W.  F.  J.  WALTER  FERRIER.  r 

Translated  George  Eliot  and  Judaism  from  the  German  of  Kaufmann.     Author  of  -\  Heine  (in  tart) 
Mottiscliffe. 

J.  W.  Fo.  THE  HON.  JOHN  WATSON  FOSTER,  A.M.,  LL.D.  (" 

Professor  of  American  Diplomatics,  George  Washington  University,  Washington,  -j  Harrison,  Benjamin. 
U.S.A.     Formerly  U.S.  Secretary  of  State.     Author  of  Diplomatic  Memoirs;  &c.  I 

K.  S.  KATHLEEN  SCHLESINGER.  f Harp  ,(i*  parJ} ' 

Editor  of  The  Portfolio  of  Musical  Archaeology.     Author  of  The  Instruments  of  the  \  mrP-Lute;   Harpsichord; 
Orchestra.  Holtztrompete; 

L  Horn;  Hurdy-Gurdy. 

L.  H.  B.  LIBERTY  HYDE  BAILEY,  LL.D.  f  H0rtif nitiirc-    A 

Director  of  the  College  of  Agriculture,  Cornell  University    Chairman  of  Roosevelt  1 
Commission  on  Country  Life.  I      CofcWMf  (in  part). 

L.  J.  S.  LEONARD  JAMES  SPENCER,  M.A.  r  „ 

Assistant  in  Department  of  Mineralogy,  British  Museum.     Formerly  Scholar  of  I  Harmotome;   Hemimorphlte; 
Sidney  Sussex  College,  Cambridge,  and  Harkness  Scholar.    Editor  of  the  Mineralo-  1  Heulandite;   Hornblende; 
gical  Magazine.  ^  Humite. 

L.  W.  LDCIEN  WOLF. 


Vice-President  of  the  Jewish  Historical  Society  of  England.     Formerly  President  ~]  Hirsch,  Baron, 
of  the  Society.    Joint-editor  of  the  Bibliotheca  Anglo-judaica.  I 

M.  G.  MOSES  CASTER,  Pn.D.  (Leipzig). 

Chief  Rabbi  of  the  Sephardic  Communities  of  England.     Vice-President,  Zionist 
Congress,  1898,  1899,  1900.    Ilchester  Lecturer  at  Oxford  on  Slavonic  and  Byzantine  -\  Hasdeu 
Literature,  1886  and  1891.    President,  Folk  lore  Society  of  England.    Vice-President 
Anglo-Jewish  Association.    Author  of  History  of  Rumanian  Popular  Literature;  &c.  [ 

M.  Ha.  MARCUS  HARTOG,  M.A.,  D.Sc.,  F.L.S. 

Professor  of  Zoology,  University  College,  Cork.     Author  of  "  Protozoa  "  in  Cam-  •]  Heliozoa. 
bridge  Natural  History;  and  papers  for  various  scientific  journals. 

M.  H.  C.  MONTAGUE  HUGHES  CRACKANTHORPE,  K.C.,  D.C.L. 

President  of  the  Eugenics  Education  Society.    Honorary  Fellow,  St  John's  College, 

Oxford.     Bencher  of  Lincoln's  Inn.     Formerly  Member  of  the  General  Council  of  1  HerSChell    1st  Baron, 
the  Bar  and  of  the  Council  of  Legal  Education,  and  Standing  Counsel  to  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford. 

M.  N.  T.  MARCUS  NIEHBUR  TOD,  M.A.  f 

Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Oriel  College,  Oxford.     University  Lecturer  in  Epigraphy.  -I  Helots. 
Joint-author  of  Catalogue  of  the  Sparta  Museum. 

M.  0.  B.  C.         MAXIMILIAN  OTTO  BISMARCK  CASPARI.  C 

Reader  in  Ancient  History  at  London  University.    Lecturer  in  Greek  at  Birmingham  \  Heraclius. 
University,  1905-1908. 

M.  T.  M.  MAXWELL  T.  MASTERS,  M.D.,  F.R.S.  (1833-1907).  r 

Formerly  Editor  of  Gardeners'  Chronicle;  and  Lectureron  Botany,  St  George's  Hos-      HnrtinnHnro   (•  t\ 

pital,  London.     Author  of  Plant  Life;  Botany  for  Beginners;  and  numerous  mono- 1  {ln  part>- 

graphs  in  botanical  works. 

N.  D.  M.  NEWTON  DENNISON  MERENESS,  A.M.,  PH.D.  f  Henry,  Patrick; 

Author  of  Maryland  as  a  Proprietary   Province.  J\  Homestead  and  Exemption 

[     Laws. 

0.  Ba.  OSWALD  BARRON,  F.S.A.  f  Heraldry; 

Editor  of  The  Ancestor,  1902-1905.     Hon.  Genealogist  to  Standing  Council  of  the  J  Herbert:  family; 
Honourable  Society  of  the  Baronetage.  Howard:  family 

0.  Br.  OSCAR  BRILIANT.  f  Hungary:  Geography 

\     and  Statistics. 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES  xi 

0.  C.  W.  REV.  OWEN  CHARLES  WHITEHOUSE,  M.A.,  D.D.  [ 

Christ's  College,  Cambridge.    Professor  of  Hebrew,  Biblical  Exegesis  and  Theology,  i  Hebrew  Religion. 
and  Theological  Tutor,  Cheshunt  College,  Cambridge. 

P.  A.  PAUL  DANIEL  ALPHANDERY.  [  Henry  of  Lausanne; 

Professor  of  the  History  of  Dogma,  Ecole  pratique  des  hautes  Etudes,  Sorbonne,  J  U,IO.K  „•  c* 

Paris.    Author  of  Les  Ue.es  morales  chez  les  heterodoxes  Latines  au  debut  du  XIII"  \ 

stick.  I  Humiliate. 

P.  C.  M.  PETER  CHALMERS  MITCHELL,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  F.Z.S.,  D.Sc.,  LLD. 

Secretary  to  the  Zoological  Society  of  London.    University  Demonstrator  in  Com-      Hpmiphnr- 
paratiye   Anatomy  and   Assistant   to   Linacre   Professor   at   Oxford,     1888-1891.      ™ 
Examiner  in  Zoology  to  the  University  of  London,  1903.     Author  of  Outlines  of  \  "^realty. 
Biology;  &c. 


P.  C.  Y. 


PHILIP  CHESNEY  YORKE,  M.A.  -f  Hollo* 

Magdalen  College,  Oxford.    Editor  of  Letters  of  Princess  Elizabeth  of  England.  \         6S> 


P.  H.  PETER  HENDERSON  (1823-1800).      _..-_„.  f  Horticulture:  American 

Formerly  Horticulturist,  Jersey  City  and  New  York.     Author  of  Gardening  for~\       r  ,     ,       /• 
Profit;  Garden  and  Farm  Topics.  I      Caltndar.  (tit  part). 

P.  H.  P.-S.         PHILIP  HENRY  PYE-SMITH,  M.D.,  F.R.S.  f 

Consulting  Physician  to  Guy's  Hospital,  London.     Formerly  Vice-Chancellor  of  the  -j  Harvey,  William. 
University  of  London.    Joint-author  of  A  Text  Book  of  Medicine;  &c.  I 

P.  La.  PHILIP  LAKE,  M.A.,  F.G.S.  f 

Lecturer  on  Physical  and  Regional  Geography  in  Cambridge  University.  Formerly  I  TT|IM«I«II«.  r-    ; 

of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India.     Author  of  Monograph  of  British  Cambrian  1  *       alaya'   «•*** 
Trilobites.    Translator  and  Editor  of  Kayser's  Comparative  Geology.  I 

R.  A.*  ROBERT  ANCHEL  f  Herault  de  s6cneUes. 

Archivist  to  the  Department  de  1  Eure.  L 

R.  Ad.  ROBERT  ADAMSON,  LL.D.  f  „          _ 

See  the  biographical  article,  ADAMSON,  R.  \  Hume»  David  WB  part). 

R.  A.  S.  M.         ROBERT  ALEXANDER  STEWART  MACALISTER,  M.A.,  F.S.A.  (" 

St  John's  College,  Cambridge.    Director  of  Excavations  for  the  Palestine  Explora-  -!  Hebron;   Hor,  Mt. 
tion  Fund. 

R.  A.  W.  ROBERT  ALEXANDER  WAHAB,  C.B.,  C.M.G.,  C.I.E. 

Colonel,  Royal  Engineers.     Formerly  H.M.  Commissioner,  Aden  Boundary  Delimi-   j  „          _.     „  . 
tation,  and  Superintendent,  Survey  of  India.     Served  with  Tirah  Expeditionary      nasa,  fcl;   Hejaz. 
Force,  1897-1898;  Anglo-Russian  Boundary  Commission,  Pamirs,  1895;  &c. 

R.  H.  S.  RICHARD  HENRY  STODDARD.  f  Hawthorne    Nathaniel 

See  the  biographical  article,  STODDARD,  RICHARD  HENRY.  |_  a 

R.  L  P.  REGINALD  INNES  POCOCK,  F.Z.S.  f  Harvester;  Hibernation. 

Superintendent  of  the  Zoological  Gardens,  London.  \_ 

R.  J.  M.  RONALD  JOHN  MCNEILL,  M.A.  (" 

Christ   Church,  Oxford.     Barrister-at-Law.     Formerly    Editor   of  the  St  James's      Hely-Hutehinson. 
Gazette,  London. 

R.  J.  S.  HON.  ROBERT  JOHN  STRUTT,  M.A.,  F.R.S.  C 

Professor  of  Physics  in  the  Imperial  College  of  Science  and  Technology,    South  -J  Helium. 
Kensington.    Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 

R.  K.  D.  SIR  ROBERT  KENNAWAY  DOUGLAS.  f 

Formerly  Keeper  of  Oriental  Printed  Books  and  MSS.  at  the  British  Museum,]  HsQan  Tsang  (in  tart). 
and  Professor  of  Chinese,  King's  College,  London.     Author  of  The  Language  and  ] 
Literature  of  China;  &c. 

R.  L.*  RICHARD  LYDEKKER,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  F.Z.S.  [  Hedgehog; 

Member  of  the  Staff  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India,  1874-1882.     Author  of  J  Hippopotamus' 

Catalogue  of  Fossil  Mammals,  Reptiles  and  Birds  in  the  British  Museum;  The  Deer  )  „ 

of  all  Lands ;  The  Game  Animals  of  Africa ;  &c.  L  Horse  W»  *»*)  J  Howler. 

R.  N.  B.  ROBERT  NISBET  BAIN  (d.  1909).  f  Hopken;  Horn,  A.  B.,  Count; 

Assistant   Librarian,    British   Museum,    1883-1909.      Author  of   Scandinavia,   the      Hunparv    HVc/n™  (i* 
Political  History  of  Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden,  1513-1900;  The  First  Romanovs  J.  J        ""g*  „" 
1611-172$;  Slavonic  Europe,  the  Political  History  of  Poland  and  Russia  from  1469         myaai,  janos, 
toi796;&c.  I  Hunyadi,  Laszl6. 


Secretary  of  the   Ecole  des  Chartes.     Honorary  Librarian  at  the  Bibliotheque  I  Hinemar 
Nationale,  Paris.    Author  of  Le  Royaume  de  Provence  sous  les  Carolingiens ;  Recueil  | 


R.  Po.  RENE  POUPARDIN,  D.-ES-L. 

Secretary  of  the   Ecole 

Nationale,  Paris.     Author  01  Lie  noyavme  ue  .rruverace  suu*  *cj  t^urunngicns ;  i^ecueit  i 
des  chartes  de  Saint-Germain ;  &c.  L 

R.  P.  S.  R.  PHENE  SPIERS,  F.S.A.,  F.R.I.B.A.  f 

Formerly   Master  of  the  Architectural  School,   Royal  Academy,  London.     Past  1 
President  of  Architectural  Association.     Associate  and  Fellow  of  King's  College,  -j  House. 
London.    Corresponding  Member  of  the  Institute  of  France.    Editor  of  Fergusson's 
History  of  Architecture.    Author  of  Architecture:  East  and  West;  &c. 

R.  S.  C.  ROBERT  SEYMOUR  CONWAY,  M.A.,  D.LITT.  (Cantab.).  r 

Professor  of  Latin  and  Indo-European  Philology  in  the  University  of  Manchester.  J  'Cl; 

Formerly  Professor  of  Latin  in  University  College,  Cardiff;  and  Fellow  of  Gonville  1  Hirpini. 
and  Caius  College,  Cambridge.    Author  of  The  Italic  Dialects.  L 

R.  S.  T.  RALPH  STOCKMAN  TARR.  /  Hudson  River. 

Professor  of  Physical  Geography,  Cornell  University.  L 


xii  INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 

R.  W.  ROBERT  WALLACE,  F.R.S.  (Edin.),  F.L.S. 

Professor  of  Agriculture  and  Rural  Economy  at  Edinburgh  University,  and  Carton 

Lecturer  on  Colonial  and  Indian  Agriculture.     Professor  of  Agriculture,  R.A.C.,J  Horse  (in  tart) 

Cirencester,  1882-1885.    Author  of  Farm  Live  Stock  of  Great  Britain;  The  Agricul-^ 

ture  and  Rural  Economy  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand;  Farming  Industries  of  Cape 

Colony;  &c. 

S.  F.  B.  SPENCER  FULLERTON  BAIRD,  LL.D.  f  n 

See  the  biographical  article,  BAIRD,  S.  F.  \  M  inry'  JosePn- 

S.  A.  C.  STANLEY  ARTHUR  COOK,  M.A. 

Lecturer  in  Hebrew  and  Syriac,  and  formerly  Fellow,  Gonville  and  Caius  College,     H      t-  fc. 
Cambridge.     Editor  for  Palestine  Exploration  Fund.     Examiner  in  Hebrew  and  J  * 
Aramaic,  London  University,  1904-1908.    Author  of  Glossary  of  Aramaic  Inscrip-     Hoshea. 
/ ions ;  The  Laws  of  Moses  and  the  Code  of  Hammurabi ;  Critical  Notes  on  Old  Testament 
History;  Religion  of  Ancient  Palestine;  &c. 

T.  A.  I.  THOMAS  ALLAN  INGRAM,  M.A.,  LL.D.  f  Holiday. 

Trinity  College,  Dublin.  I 

T.  As.  THOMAS  ASHBY,  M.A.,  D.Lrrr.  (Oxon.).  f 

Director  of  British  School  of  Archaeology  at  Rome.    Formerly  Scholar  of  Christ  I  Heraelea  (in  part) ; 
Church,  Oxford.    Craven  Fellow,  1897.     Conington  Prizeman,  1906.     Member  of  J  Hispellum. 
the  Imperial  German  Archaeological  Institute. 

T.  Ba.  SIR  THOMAS  BARCLAY,  M.P.  (" 

Member  of  the  Institute  of  International  Law.    Member  of  the  Supreme  Council  I  gieh  Seas 
of  the  Congo  Free  State.    Officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.    Author  of  Problems  | 
of  International  Practice  and  Diplomacy;  &c.    M.P.  for  Blackburn,  1910.  I 

T.  B.*  THOMAS  BROWN.  f  Hosierv 

Incorporated  Weaving,  Dyeing  and  Printing  College,  Glasgow.  \ 

T.  F.  H.  T.  F.  HENDERSON.  f  HAftlr__ 

Author  of  The  Casket  Letters  and  Mary  Queen  of  Scots;  Life  of  Robert  Burns;  &c.      \  a       'er' 

T.  Gi.  THOMAS  GILRAY  M.A.  f  Henderson,  Alexander 

Formerly  Professoi  of  Modern  History  and  English  Literature,  University  College,  J       / . 
Dundee.  [      (ln  Part>- 

T.  H.  H.*  COLONEL  SIR  THOMAS  HUNGERFORD  HOLDICH,  K.C.M.G.,  K.C.I.E.,  HON.  D.Sc.  r  Helmund-  Herat- 

Superintendent  Frontier  Surveys,   India,   1892-1898.     Gold   Medallist,   R.G.S.,  J 
London,   1887.     Author  of  The  Indian  Borderland;  The  Countries  of  the  King's]  * 
Award;  India;  Tibet;  &c.  I  Hindu  Kush. 

T.  L.  H.  SIR  THOMAS  LITTLE  HEATH,  K.C.B.,  D.Sc.  f 

Assistant  Secretary  to  the  Treasury.    Formerly  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cam-  H  Hero  01  Alexandria, 
bridge. 

T.  Se.  THOMAS  SECCOMBE,  M.A.  r 

Balliol  College,  Oxford.    Lecturer  in  History,  East  London  and  Birkbeck  Colleges,  J  Hayward,  Abraham; 
University   of   London.     Stanhope   Prizeman,   Oxford,    1887.     Assistant   Editor  H  jjUKjjes    Thomas 
of  Dictionary  of  National  Biography,  1891-1901.    Author  of  The  Age  of  Johnson; 
joint-author  of  Bookman  History  of  English  Literature;  &c. 

T.  Wo.  THOMAS  WOODHOUSE.  J"  Hose-Pine 

Head  of  the  Weaving  and  Textile  Designing  Department,  Technical  College,  Dundee.  \ 

T.  W.  A.  THOMAS  WILLIAM  ALLEN,  M.A.  /  D_mo,  /•          A 

Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford.    Joint-editor  of  The  Homeric  Hymns.  \a        r  Un  Part>- 

W.  A.  B.  C.        REV.  WILLIAM  AUGUSTUS  BREVOORT  COOLIDGE,  M.A.,  F.R.G.S.,  PH.D.  r  Hautes  Alpes- 

Fellow  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford.     Professor  of  English  History,  St  David's  I  Po_oavnio- 

College,  Lampeter,  1880-1881.    Author  of  Guide  to  Switzerland;  The  Alps  in  Nature  1 

and  in  History;  &c.    Editor  of  The  Alpine  Journal,  1880-1889.  I  Herzog,  Hans. 

,,  .  rHohenlohe  (in  part). 

W.  A.  P.  WALTER  ALISON  PHILLIPS,  M.A.  „  ,     AiiianpA   Th«- 

Formerly  Exhibitioner  of  Merton  College  and  Senior  Scholar  of  St  John's  College,  J  *  lce>   l 

Oxford.    Author  of  Modern  Europe;  &c.  Hononus  I.; 

L  Hungary:  History  (in  part). 

W.  Ba.  WILLIAM  BACKER,  D.Pn.  f  TTJII.I 

Professor  of  Biblical  Studies  at  the  Rabbinical  Seminary,  Budapest.  |_ 

W.  Fr.  WILLIAM  FREAM,  LL.D.  (d.  1907).  c  „ 

Formerly  Lecturer  on  Agricultural  Entomology,  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  J  I 
Agricultural  Correspondent  of  The  Times.  [  Horse  (in  part). 

W.  F.  C.  WILLIAM  FEILDEN  CRAIES,  M.A.  r 

Barrister-at-Law,  Inner  Temple.     Lecturer  on  Criminal   Law  at  King's  College,  -I  Homicide. 
London.    Editor  of  Archbold's  Criminal  Pleading  (2yd  ed.). 

W.  G.  H.  WALTER  GEORGE  HEADLAM  (1866-1908). 

Fellow  of  King's  College,  Cambridge.    Editor  of  Herodas.    Translator  of  the  plays  J  Herodas. 
of  Aeschylus. 

W.  H.  F.  SIR  WILLIAM  HENRY  FLOWER,  F.R.S.  f  _         , .          . 

See  the  biographical  article,  FLOWER,  SIR  W.  H.  \  *     '' 

W.  H.  Ha.          WILLIAM  HENRY  HADOW,  M.A.,  Mus.Doc.  f 

Principal,  Armstrong  College,  Newcastle-on-Tyne.  Formerly  Fellow  and  Tutor  J 
of  Worcester  College,  Oxford.  Member  of  Council,  Royal  College  of  Music.  Editor  ] 
of  Oxford  History  of  Music.  Author  of  Studies  in  Modern  Music;  &c.  L 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 


Xlll 


W.  L.  G. 

W.  M.  R. 
W.  P.  J. 

W.  R.  Nl. 
W.  R.  S. 
W.  R.  S.-R. 

W.  R.  W. 

W.  T.  H. 

W.  W. 
W.  Wr. 

W.  Y.  S. 


4  Haydon,  Benjamin  Robert 


WILLIAM  LAWSON  GRANT,  M.A. 

Professor  at  Queen's  University,  Kingston,  Canada.  Formerly  Beit  Lecturer  in  J 
Colonial  History  at  Oxford  University.  Editor  of  Acts  of  the  Privy  Council,  Colonial  | 
Series;  Canadian  Constitutional  Development  (in  collaboration). 

WILLIAM  MICHAEL  ROSSETTI. 

See  the  biographical  article,  ROSSETTI,  DANTE  GABRIEL. 

WILLIAM  PRICE  JAMES. 

University  College,  Oxford.     Barrister-at-Law.     High  Bailiff  of  County  Courts,  -\  Henley,  W.  E. 
Cardiff.    Author  of  Romantic  Professions ;  &c. 

SIR  WILLIAM  ROBERTSON  NICOLL,  LL.D. 

See  the  biographical  article,  NICOLL,  SIR  W.  R. 

WILLIAM  ROBERTSON  SMITH,  LL.D. 

See  the  biographical  article,  SMITH,  WILLIAM  ROBERTSON. 

WILLIAM  RALSTON  SHEDDEN-RALSTON,  M.A.  f 

Assistant  in  the  Department  of  Printed  Books,  British  Museum.    Author  of  Russian  -\  Hertzen. 
Folk  Tales  ;&c. 

WILLIAM  ROBERT  WORTHINGTON  WILLIAMS,  F.L.S.  f 

Superintendent  of  London  County  Council  Botany  Centre. 


|  Harris,  Thomas  Lake. 
Hosea  (in  part). 


in  Botany,  Birkbeck  College  (University  of  London). 
Association. 


Assistant  Lecturer 


entre.     Assistant  Lecturer  J  HnrficiiltnrA  (i~  A^.rt 
Member  of  the  Geologists' 1  *  ortlculture  «•  Part). 


Homoeopathy. 


WILLIAM  TOD  HELMUTH,  M.D.,  LL.D.  (d.  1901). 

Formerly  Professor  of  Surgery  and  Dean  of  the  Homoeopathic  and  Medical  College 
and  Hospital;  New  York.  President  of  the  Collins  State  Homoeopathic  Hospital. 
Sometime' President  of  the  American  Institute  of  Homoeopathy  and  the  New  York 
State  Homoeopathic  Medical  Society.  Author  of  Treatise  on  Diphtheria;  System 
of  Surgery ;  &c. 

WILLIAM  WALLACE,  LL.D. 

See  the  biographical  article,  WALLACE,  WILLIAM  (1844-1897). 

WILLISTON  WALKER,  PH.D.,  D.D. 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Yale  University.    Author  of  History  of  the  Congrega-  ~\  Hopkins,  Samuel. 
tional  Churches  in  the  United  States ;  The  Reformation ;  John  Calvin ;  &c. 

WILLIAM  YOUNG  SELLAR,  LL.D. 

See  the  biographical  article,  SELLAR,  W.  Y. 


Hegel    (in  part). 


( 


-I  Horace  (in  part). 


PRINCIPAL  UNSIGNED  ARTICLES 


Harrow. 

Hartford. 

Hartlepool. 

Harvard  University. 

Harz  Mountains. 

Hat. 

Havana. 

Hawaii. 

Hazel. 

Health. 


Heath. 

Hebrides,  The. 

Heidelberg  Catechism. 

Heligoland. 

Heliostat. 

Hellebore. 

Helmet. 

Hemp. 

Herbarium. 


Herefordshire. 

Hero. 

Hertfordshire. 

Hesse. 

Hesse-Cassel. 

Hesse-Darmstadt. 

High  Place. 

Highway. 

Hockey. 


Holly. 

Homily. 

Honduras. 

Hong-Kong. 

Hostage. 

Hottentots. 

Household,  Royal. 

Hudson's  Bay  Company. 

Huntingdonshire. 


ENCYCLOPAEDIA    BRITANNICA 


ELEVENTH    EDITION 


VOLUME   XIII 


HARMONY  (Gr.  appovia,  a  concord  of  musical  sounds, 
apfio^av  to  join;  apuoviKr]  (sc.  rexy-q)  meant  the  science  or 
art  of  music,  juowitcq  being  of  wider  significance),  a  combination 
of  parts  so  that  the  effect  should  be  aesthetically  pleasing.  In 
its  earliest  sense  in  English  it  is  applied,  in  music,  to  a  pleasing 
combination  of  musical  sounds,  but  technically  it  is  confined 
to  the  science  of  the  combination  of  sounds  of  different  pitch. 

I.  Concord  and  Discord. — By  means  of  harmony  modern 
music  has  attained  the  dignity  of  an  independent  art.  In  ancient 
times,  as  at  the  present  day  among  nations  that  have  not  come 
under  the  influence  of  European  music,  the  harmonic  sense  was, 
if  not  altogether  absent,  at  all  events  so  obscure  and  undeveloped 
as  to  have  no  organizing  power  in  the  art.  The  formation  by 
the  Greeks  of  a  scale  substantially  the  same  as  that  which  has 
received  our  harmonic  system  shows  a  latent  harmonic  sense, 
but  shows  it  in  a  form  which  positively  excludes  harmony  as  an 
artistic  principle.  The  Greek  perception  of  certain  successions 
of  sounds  as  concordant  rests  on  a  principle  identifiable  with  the 
scientific  basis  of  concord  in  simultaneous  sounds.  But  the 
Greeks  did  not  conceive  of  musical  simultaneity  as  consisting  of 
anything  but  identical  sounds;  and  when  they  developed  the 
practice  of  magadizing — i.e.  singing  in  octaves — they  did  so 
because,  while  the  difference  between  high  and  low  voices  was 
a  source  of  pleasure,  a  note  and  its  octave  were  then,  as  now, 
perceived  to  be  in  a  certain  sense  identical.  We  will  now  start 
from  this  fundamental  identity  of  the  octave,  and  with  it  trace 
the  genesis  of  other  concords  and  discords;  bearing  in  mind 
that  the  history  of  harmony  is  the  history  of  artistic  instincts 
and  not  a  series  of  progressive  scientific  theories. 

The  unisonous  quality  of  octaves  is  easily  explained  when  we 
examine  the  "  harmonic  series  "  of  upper  partials  (see  SOUND). 
Every  musical  sound,  if  of  a  timbre  at  all  rich  (and  hence 
pre-eminently  the  human  voice),  contains  some  of  these  upper 
partials.  Hence,  if  one  voice  produce  a  note  which  is  an  upper 

Ex.  i.— The  notes 
marked  *  are  out  of 

tune. 

•&" 

9    IO     II      12 

partial  of  another  note  sung  at  the  same  time  by  another  voice, 
the  higher  voice  adds  nothing  new  to  the  lower  but  only  rein- 
forces what  is  already  there.  Moreover,  the  upper  partials  of  the 

XIII.   I 


higher  voice  will  also  coincide  with  some  of  the  lower.  Thus, 
if  a  note  and  its  octave  be  sung  together,  the  upper  octave  is 
itself  No.  2  in  the  harmonic  series  of  the  lower,  No.  2  of  its  own 
series  is  No.  4  of  the  lower,  and  its  No.  3  is  No.  6,  and  so  on.  The 
impression  of  identity  thus  produced  is  so  strong  that  we  often 
find  among  people  unacquainted  with  music  a  firm  conviction 
that  a  man  is  singing  in  unison  with  a  boy  or  an  instrument  when 
he  is  really  singing  in  the  octave  below.  And  even  musical 
people  find  a  difficulty  in  realizing  more  than  a  certain  brightness 
and  richness  of  single  tone  when  a  violinist  plays  octaves  per- 
fectly in  tune  and  with  a  strong  emphasis  on  the  lower  notes. 
Doubling  in  octaves  therefore  never  was  and  never  will  be  a 
process  of  harmonization. 

Now  if  we  take  the  case  of  one  sound  doubling  another  in  the 
1 2th,  it  will  be  seen  that  here,  too,  no  real  addition  is  made  by 
the  higher  sound  to  the  lower.  The  1 2th  is  No.  3  of  the  harmonic 
series,  No.  2  of  the  higher  note  will  be  No.  6  of  the  lower,  No.  3 
will  be  No.  9,  and  so  on.  But  there  is  an  important  difference 
between  the  I2th  and  the  octave.  However  much  we  alter  the 
octave  by  transposition  into  other  octaves,  we  never  get  anything 
but  unison  or  octaves.  Two  notes  two  octaves  apart  are  just 
as  devoid  of  harmonic  difference  as  a  plain  octave  or  unison. 
But,  when  we  apply  our  principle  of  the  identity  of  the  octave 
to  the  1 2th,  we  find  that  the  removal  of  one  of  the  notes  by  an 
octave  may  produce  a  combination  in  which  there  is  a  distinct 
harmonic  element.  If,  for  example,  the  lower  note  is  raised  by 
an  octave  so  that  the  higher  note  is  a  fifth  from  it,  No.  3  of  the 
harmonic  series  of  the  higher  note  will  not  belong  to  the  lower 
note  at  all.  The  sth  is  thus  a  combination  of  which  the  two  notes 
are  obviously  different;  and,  moreover,  the  principle  of  the 
identity  of  octaves  can  now  operate  in  a  contrary  direction  and 
transfer  this  positive  harmonic  value  of  the  sth  to  the  12th, 
so  that  we  regard  the  i2th  as  a  5th  plus  an  octave,  instead  of 
regarding  the  sth  as  a  compressed  1 2th.1  At  the  same  time,  the 
relation  between  the  two  is  quite  close  enough  to  give  the  sth 
much  of  the  feeling  of  harmonic  poverty  and  reduplication  that 
characterizes  the  octave;  and  hence  when  medieval  musicians 

1  Musical  intervals  are  reckoned  numerically  upwards  along  the 
degrees  of  the  diatonic  scales  (described  below).  Intervals  greater 
than  an  octave  are  called  compound,  and  are  referred  to  their  simple 
forms,  e.g.  the  I2th  is  a  compound  5th. 


HARMONY 


doubled  a  melody  in  sths  and  octaves  they  believed  themselves 
to  be  doing  no  more  than  extending  and  diversifying  the  means 
by  which  a  melody  might  be  sung  in  unison  by  different  voices. 
How  they  came  to  prefer  for  this  purpose  the  4th  to  the  sth 
seems  puzzling  when  we  consider  that  the  4th  does  not  appear 
as  a  fundamental  interval  in  the  harmonic  series  until  that  series 
has  passed  beyond  that  part  of  it  that  maintains  any  relation 
to  our  musical  ideas.  But  it  was  of  course  certain  that  they 
obtained  the  4th  as  the  inversion  of  the  sth;  and  it  is  at  least 
possible  that  the  singers  of  lower  voices  found  a  peculiar  pleasure 
in  singing  below  higher  voices  in  a  position  which  they  felt 
harmonically  as  that  of  a  top  part.  That  is  to  say,  a  bass,  in 
singing  a  fourth  below  a  tenor,  would  take  pleasure  in  doubling 
in  the  octave  an  alto  singing  normally  a  5th  above  the  tenor.1 
This  should  also,  perhaps,  be  taken  in  connexion  with  the  fact 
that  the  interval  of  the  downward  4th  is  in  melody  the  earliest 
that  became  settled.  And  it  is  worth  noticing  that,  in  any 
singing-class  where  polyphonic  music  is  sung,  there  is  a  marked 
tendency  among  the  more  timid  members  to  find  their  way  into 
their  part  by  a  gentle  humming  which  is  generally  a  4th  below 
the  nearest  steady  singers. 

The  limited  compass  of  voices  soon  caused  modifications  in 
the  medieval  parallelisms  of  4ths  and  sths,  and  the  introduction 
of  independent  ornaments  into  one  or  more  of  the  voices  increased 
to  an  extent  which  drew  attention  to  other  intervals.  It  was 
long,  however,  before  the  true  criterion  of  concord  and  discord 
was  attained;  and  at  first  the  notion  of  concord  was  purely 
acoustic,  that  is  to  say,  the  ear  was  sensitive  only  to  the  difference 
in  roughness  and  smoothness  between  combinations  in  them- 
selves. And  even  the  modern  researches  of  Helmholtz  fail  to 
represent  classical  and  modern  harmony,  in  so  far  as  the  pheno- 
mena of  beats  are  quite  independent  of  the  contrapuntal  nature 
of  concord  and  discord  which  depends  upon  the  melodic  intelligi- 
bility of  the  motion  of  the  parts.  Beats  give  rise  to  a  strong 
physical  sense  of  discord  akin  to  the  painfulness  of  a  flickering 
light  (see  SOUND).  Accordingly,  in  the  earliest  experiments  in 
harmony,  the  ear,  in  the  absence  of  other  criteria,  attached 
much  more  importance  to  the  purely  acoustic  roughness  of 
beats  than  our  ears  under  the  experience  of  modern  music. 
This,  and  the  circumstance  that  the  imperfect  concords2  (the 
3rds  and  6ths)  long  remained  out  of  tune  owing  to  the  incom- 
pleteness of  the  Pythagorean  system  of  harmonic  ratios, 
sufficiently  explain  the  medieval  treatment  of  these  combinations 
as  discords  differing  only  in  degree  from  the  harshness  of  2nds 
and  7ths.  In  the  earliest  attempts  at  really  contrapuntal 
writing  (the  astonishing  i3th-  and  I4th-  century  motets,  in  which 
voices  are  made  to  sing  different  melodies  at  once,  with  what 
seems  to  modern  ears  a  total  disregard  of  sound  and  sense)  we 
find  that  the  method  consists  in  a  kind  of  rough-hewing  by  which 
the  concords  of  the  octave,  sth  and  4th  are  provided  at  most 
of  the  strong  accents,  while  the  rest  of  the  harmony  is  left  to 
take  care  of  itself.  As  the  art  advanced  the  imperfect  concords 
began  to  be  felt  as  different  from  the  discords;  but  as  their 
true  nature  appeared  it  brought  with  it  such  an  increased  sense 
of  the  harmonic  poverty  of  octaves,  sths  and  4ths,  as  ended  in 
a  complete  inversion  of  the  earliest  rules  of  harmony. 

The  harmonic  system  of  the  later  isth  century,  which  cul- 
minated in  the  "  golden  age  "  of  the  16th-century  polyphony,  may 
be  described  as  follows:  Imagine  a  flux  of  simultaneous  inde- 
pendent melodies,  so  ordered  as  to  form  an  artistic  texture  based 
not  only  on  the  variety  of  the  melodies  themselves,  but  also  upon 
gradations  between  points  of  repose  and  points  in  which  the 
roughness  of  sound  is  rendered  interesting  and  beautiful  by 
means  of  the  clearness  with  which  the  melodic  sense  in  each  part 
indicates  the  convergence  of  all  towards  the  next  point  of  repose. 
The  typical  point  of  repose  owes  its  effect  not  only  to  the  acoustic 
smoothness  of  the  combination,  but  to  the  fact  that  it  actually 

1  It   is  at  least  probable  that  this  is  one  of   the  several  rather 
obscure  reasons  for  the  peculiar  instability  of  the  4th  in  modern 
harmony,  which  is  not  yet  satisfactorily  explained. 

2  The  perfect  concords  are  the  octave,  unison,  5th  and  4th.     Other 
diatonic  combinations,  whether  concords  or  discords,  are  called 
imperfect. 


consists  of  the  essential  elements  present  in  the  first  five  notes 
of  the  harmonic  series.  The  major  3rd  has  thus  in  this-  scheme 
asserted  itself  as  a  concord,  and  the  fundamental  principle  of 
the  identity  of  octaves  produces  the  result  that  any  combination 
of  a  bass  note  with  a  major  3rd  and  »  perfect  sth  above  it,  at 
any  distance,  and  with  any  amount  of  doubling, 
may  constitute  a  concord  available  even  as  the 
final  point  of  repose  in  the  whole  composition. 
And  by  degrees  the  major  triad,  with  its  major 
3rd,  became  so  familiar  that  a  chord  consisting  of  a  bare  sth, 
with  or  without  an  octave,  was  regarded  rather  as  a  skeleton 
triad  without  the  3rd  than  as  a  concord  free  from  elements 
of  imperfection.  Again,  the  identity  of  the  octave  secured  for 
the  combination  of  a  note  with  its  minor  3rd  and  minor  6th  a 
place  among  concords;  because,  whether  so  recognized  by  early 
theorists  or  not,  it  was  certainly  felt  as  an  inversion  of  the  major 
triad.  The  fact  that  its  bass  note  is  not  the  fundamental  note 
(and  therefore  has  a  series  of  upper  partials  not  compatible  with- 
the  higher  notes)  deprives  it  of  the  finality  and  perfection  of  the 
major  triad,  to  which,  however,  its  relationhsip  is  too  near  for  it 
to  be  felt  otherwise  than  as  a  concord.  This  sufficiently  explains 
why  the  minor  6th  ranks  as  a  concord 
in  music,  though  it  is  acoustically  nearly  Ex.  3. 
as  rough  as  the  discord  of  the  minor  7th, 
and  considerably  rougher  than  that  of  the  7th  note  of  the 
harmonic  series,  which  has  not  become  accepted  in  our  musical 
system  at  all. 

But  the  major  triad  and  its  inversion  are  not  the  only  concords 
that  will  be  produced  by  our  flux  of  melodies.  From  time  to 
time  this  flux  will  arrest  attention  by  producing  a  combination 
which,  while  it  does  not  appeal  to  the  ear  as  being  a  part  of  the 
harmonic  chord  of  nature,  yet  contains  in  itself  no  elements  not 
already  present  in  the  major  triad.  Theorists  have  in  vain  tried 
to  find  in  "  nature  "  a  combination  of  a  note  with  its  minor  3rd 
and  perfect  sth;  and  so  long  as  harmony  was  treated  unhistori- 
cally  and  unscientifically  as  an  a  priori  theory  in  which  every 
chord  must  needs  have  a  "  root,"  the  minor  triad,  together  with 
nearly  every  other  harmonic  principle  of  any  complexity, 
remained  a  mystery.  But  the  minor  triad,  as  an  artistic  and 
not  purely  acoustic  phenomenon,  is  an  inevitable  thing.  It 
has  the  character  of  a  concord  because  of  our  intellectual  percep- 
tion that  it  contains  the  same  elements  as  the  major  triad;  but 
its  absence  of  connexion  with  the  natural  harmonic  series  deprives 
it  of  complete  finality  in  the  simple  system  of  16th-century 
harmony,  and  at  the  same  time  gives  it  a  permanent  contrast 
with  the  major  triad;  a  contrast  which  is  acoustically  intensified 
by  the  fact  that,  though  its  intervals  are  in  themselves  as  con- 
cordant as  those  of  the  major  triad,  their  relative  position 
produces  decidedly  rough  combinations  of  "resultant  tones." 

By  the  time  cur  flux  of  melodies  had  come  to  include  the 
major  and  minor  triads  as  concords,  the  notion  of  the  independence 
of  parts  had  become  of  such  paramount  importance  as  totally 
to  revolutionize  the  medieval  conception  of  the  perfect  concords. 
Fifths  and  octaves  no  longer  formed  an  oasis  in  a  desert  of 
cacophony,  but  they  assumed  the  character  of  concord  so  nearly 
approaching  to  unison  that  a  pair  of  consecutive  sths  or  octaves 
began  to  be  increasingly  felt  as  violating  the  independence  of 
the  parts.  And  thus  it  came  about  that  in  pure  16th-century 
counterpoint  (as  indeed  at  the  present  day  whenever  harmony 
and  counterpoint  are  employed  in  their  purest  significance) 
consecutive  sths  and  octaves  are  strictly  forbidden.  When  we 
compare  our  laws  of  counterpoint  with  those  of  medieval  discant 
(in  which  consecutive  sths  and  octaves  are  the  rule,  while  con- 
secutive 3rds  and  6ths  are  strictly  forbidden)  we  are  sometimes 
tempted  to  think  that  the  very  nature  of  the  human  ear  has 
changed.  But  it  is  now  generally  recognized  that  the  process 
was  throughout  natural  and  inevitable,  and  the  above  account 
aims  at  showing  that  consecutive  sths  are  forbidden  by  our 
harmonic  system  for  the  very  reason  which  inculcated  them  in 
the  system  of  the  1 2th  century. 

II.  Tonality. — As  soon  as  the  major  and  minor  triad  and  their 
first  inversions  were  well-defined  entities,  it  became  evident  that 


HARMONY 


the  successions  of  these  concords  and  their  alternations  with 
discord  involved  principles  at  once  larger  and  more  subtle  than 
those  of  mere  difference  in  smoothness  and  artificiality.  Not 
only  was  a  major  chord  (or  at  least  its  skeleton)  necessary  for 
the  final  point  of  repose  in  a  composition,  but  it  could  not  itself 
sound  final  unless  the  concords  as  well  as  the  discords  before  it 
showed  a  well-defined  tendency  towards  it.  This  tendency  was 
best  realized  when  the  penultimate  concord  had  its  fundamental 
note  at  the  distance  of  a  5th  or  a  4th  above  or  below  that  of  the 
final  chord.  When  the  fundamental  note  of  the  penultimate 
chord  is  a  5th  above  or  (what  is  the  same  thing)  a  4th1  below 
that  of  the  final  chord,  we  have  an  "  authentic  "  or  "  perfect  " 
cadence,  and  the  relation  between  the  two  chords  is  very  clear. 
While  the  contrast  between  them  is  well  marked,  they  have  one 
note  in  common — for  the  root  of  the  penultimate  chord  is  the 
5th  of  the  final  chord;  and  the  statement  of  this  common  note, 
first  as  an  octave  or  unison  and  then  as  a  5th,  expresses  the 
.first  facts  of  harmony  with  a  force  which  the  major  3rds  of  the 
chords  can  only  strengthen,  while  it  also  involves  in  the  bass 
that  melodic  interval  of  the  4th  or  the  5th  which  is  now  known 

f^  j    to  be  the  germ  of  all  melodic  scales.     The 
|p3   relation  of  the  final  note  of  a  scale  with  its 
•=*  upper   5th   or  lower  4th   thus   becomes   a 

fundamental  fact  of  complex  harmonic  significance — that  is  to 
say,  of  harmony  modified  by  melody  in  so  far  as  it  concerns  the 
succession  of  sounds  as  well  as  their  simultaneous  combination. 
In  our  modern  key-system  the  final  note  of  the  scale  is  called  the 
tonic,  and  the  5th  above  or  4th  below  it  is  the  dominant.  (In 
the  i6th  century  the  term  "  dominant  "  has  this  meaning  only 
in  the  "  authentic  "  modes  other  than  the  Phrygian,  but  as 
an  aesthetic  fact  it  is  present  in  all  music,  though  the  theory 
here  given  would  not  have  been  intelligible  to  any  composers 
before  the  iSth  century).  Another  penultimate  chord  asserts 
itself  as  the  converse  of  the  dominant — namely,  the  chord  of 
which  the  root  is  a  5th  below  or  a  4th  above  the  final.  This 
chord  has  not  that  relationship  to  the  final  which  the  dominant 
chord  shows,  for  its  fundamental  note  is  not  in  the  harmonic 
series  of  the  final.  But  the  fundamental  note  of  the  final  chord 
is  in  its  harmonic  series,  and  in  fact  stands  to  it  as  the  dominant 
stands  to  the  final.  Thus  the  progression  from  subdominant, 
as  it  is  called,  to  tonic,  or  final,  forms  a  full  close  known  as  the 
"  plagal  cadence,"  second  only  in  importance  to  the  "  perfect  " 

f.          .    or  "  authentic  cadence."    In  our  modern 
EEj§E±ESii3    key-system  these  three  chords,  the  tonic, 
the  dominant  and  the  subdominant,  form 

a  firm  harmonic  centre  in  reference  to  which  all  other  chords  are 
grouped.  The  tonic  is  the  final  in  which  everything  ultimately 
resolves:  the  dominant  stands  on  one  side  of  it  as  a  chord  based 
on  the  note  harmonically  most  closely  related  to  the  tonic, 
and  the  subdominant  stands  on  the  other  side  as  the  converse 
and  opposite  of  the  dominant,  weaker  than  the  dominant  because 
not  directly  derived  from  the  tonic.  The  other  triads  obtainable 
from  the  notes  of  the  scale  are  all  minor,  and  of  less  importance; 
and  their  relationship  to  each  other  and  to  the  tonic  is  most 
definite  when  they  are  so  grouped  that  their  basses  rise  and  fall 
in  4th  and  sths,  because  they  then  tend  to  imitate  the  relation- 
ship between  tonic,  dominant  and  subdominant. 


Ex.6. 


Tonic.  Supertonic.  Mediant.     Sub-  Dominant.     Sub- 
dominant.  mediant.1 


Here  are  the  six  common  chords  of  the  diatonic  scale.  The  triad 
on  the  yth  degree  or  "  leading-note  "  (B)  is  a  discord,  and  is  therefore 
not  given  here. 

Now,  in  the  i6th  century  it  was  neither  necessary  nor  desirable 
that  chords  should  be  grouped  exclusively  in  this  way.  The 
relation  between  tonic,  dominant  and  subdominant  must 
necessarily  appear  at  the  final  close,  and  in  a  lesser  degree  at 

The  submediant  is  so-called  because  if  the  subdominant  is  taken 
a  5th  below  the  tonic,  the  submediant  will  come  midway  between 
it  and  the  tonic,  as  the_  mediant  comes  midway  between  tonic  and 
dominant. 


subordinate  points  of  repose;  but,  where  no  harmonies  were 
dwelt  on  as  stable  and  independent  entities  except  the  major 
and  minor  triads  and  their  first  inversions,  a  scheme  in  which 
these  were  confined  to  the  illustration  of  their  most  elementary 
relationship  would  be  intolerably  monotonous.  It  is  therefore 
neither  surprising  nor  a  sign  of  archaism  that  the  tonality  of 
modal  music  is  from  the  modern  point  of  view  often  very  in- 
definite. On  the  contrary,  the  distinction  between  masterpieces 
and  inferior  works  in  the  i6th  century  is  nowhere  more  evident 
than  in  the  expressive  power  of  modal  tonality,  alike  where  it 
resembles  and  where  it  differs  from  modern.  Nor  is  it  too  much 
to  say  that  that  expressive  power  is  based  on  the  modern  sense  of 
key,  and  that  a  description  of  modal  tonality  in  terms  of  modern 
key  will  accurately  represent  the  harmonic  art  of  Palestrina 
and  the  other  supreme  masters,  though  it  will  have  almost  as 
little  in  common  with  16th-century  theory  and  inferior  16th- 
century  practice  as  it  has  with  modern  custom.  We  must 
conceive  modal  harmony  and  tonality  as  a  scheme  in  which 
voices  move  independently  and  melodiously  in  a  scale  capable 
of  bearing  the  three  chords  of  the  tonic,  dominant  and  sub- 
dominant,  besides  three  other  minor  triads,  but  not  under  such 
restrictions  of  symmetrical  rhythm  and  melodic  design  as  will 
necessitate  a  confinement  to  schemes  in  which  these  three  cardinal 
chords  occupy  a  central  position.  The  only  stipulation  is  that 
the  relationship  of  at  least  two  cardinal  chords  shall  appear  at 
every  full  close.  At  other  points  the  character  and  drift  of  the 
harmony  is  determined  by  quite  a  different  principle — namely, 
that,  the  scale  being  conceived  as  indefinitely  extended,  the 
voices  are  agreed  in  selecting  a  particular  section  of  it,the  position 
of  which  determines  not  only  the  melodic  character  of  each  part 
but  also  the  harmonic  character  of  the  whole,  according  to  its 
greater  or  less  remoteness  from  the  scale  in  which  major  cardinal 
chords  occupy  a  central  position.  Historically  these  modes 
were  derived,  with  various  errors  and  changes,  from  the  purely 
melodic  modes  of  the  Greeks.  Aesthetically  they  are  systems 
of  modern  tonality  adapted  to  conditions  in  which  the  range  of 
harmony  was  the  smallest  possible,  and  the  necessity  for  what 
we  may  conveniently  call  a  clear  and  solid  key-perspective 
incomparably  slighter  than  that  for  variety  within  so  narrow  a 
range.  We  may  thus  regard  modal  harmony  as  an  essentially 
modern  scheme,  presented  to  us  in  cross-sections  of  various 
degrees  of  obliquity,  and  modified  at  every  close  so  as  either  to 
take  us  to  a  point  of  view  in  which  we  see  the  harmony  sym- 
metrically (as  in  those  modes2  of  which  the  final  chord  is  normally 
major,  namely  the  Ionian,  which  is  practically  our  major  scale, 
the  Mixolydian  and  the  Lydian,  which  last  is  almost  invariably 
turned  into  Ionian  by  the  systematic  flattening  of  its  4th  degree) 
or  else  to  transform  the  mode  itself  so  that  its  own  notes  are 
flattened  and  sharpened  into  suitable  final  chords  (as  is  necessary 
in  those  modes  of  which  the  triad  on  the  final  is  normally  minor, 
namely,  the  Dorian,  Phrygian  and  Aeolian).  In  this  way  we 
may  describe  Mixolydian  tonality  as  a  harmonic  scheme  in  which 
the  keys  of  G  major  and  C  major  are  so  combined  that  sometimes 
we  feel  that  we  are  listening  to  harmony  in  C  major  that  is 
disposed  to  overbalance  towards  the  dominant,  and  sometimes 
that  we  are  in  G  major  with  a  pronounced  leaning  towards  the 
subdominant.  In  the  Dorian  mode  our  sensations  of  tonality 
are  more  confused.  We  seem  to  be  wandering  through  all  the 
key-relationships  of  a  minor  tonic  without  defining  anything, 
until  at  the  final  close  the  harmonies  gather  strength  and  bring 
us,  perhaps  with  poetic  surprise,  to  a  close  in  D  with  a  major 
chord.  In  the  Phrygian  mode  the  difficulty  in  forming  the  final 
close  is  such  that  classical  Phrygian  compositions  actually  end 
in  what  we  feel  to  be  a  half-close,  an  impression  which  is  by  the 
great  masters  rendered  perfectly  artistic  by  the  strong  feeling 
that  all  such  parts  of  the  composition  as  do  not  owe  their  ex- 
pression to  the  variety  and  inconstancy  of  their  harmonic  drift 
are  on  the  dominant  of  A  minor. 

It  cannot  be  too  strongly  insisted  that  the  expression  of  modal 
music  is  a  permanent  artistic  fact.  Its  refinements  maybe 
crowded  out  by  the  later  tonality,  in  which  the  much  greater 
2  See  PLAIN  SONG. 


4 


HARMONY 


Ex.?. 
Suspension. 


No.  8. 
Passing  Note 


variety  of  fixed  chords  needs  a  much  more  rigid  harmonic 
scheme  to  control  it,  but  they  can  never  be  falsified.  And  when 
Beethoven  in  his  last  "  Bagatelle  "  raises  the  6th  of  a  minor 
scale  for  the  pleasure  he  takes  in  an  unexpectedly  bright  major 
chord;  or  when,  in  the  Incarnatus  of  his  Mass  in  D,  he  makes  a 
free  use  of  the  Dorian  scale,  he  is  actuated  by  precisely  the  same 
harmonic  and  aesthetic  motives  as  those  of  the  wonderful 
opening  of  Palestrina's  eight-part  Stabat  Mater;  just  as  in  the 
Lydian  figured  chorale  in  his  A  minor  Quartet  he  carries  out  the 
principle  of  harmonic  variety,  as  produceable  by  an  oblique 
melodic  scale,  with  a  thoroughness  from  which  Palestrina  himself 
would  have  shrunk.  (We  have  noted  that  in  16th-century  music 
the  Lydian  mode  is  almost  invariably  lonicized.) 

III.  Modern  Harmony  and  Tonality. — In  the  harmonic  system 
of  Palestrina  only  two  kinds  of  discord  are  possible,  namely, 
suspensions  and  passing-notes.  The  principle  of  the  suspension 

is  that  while  parts  are  moving 
from  one  concord  to  another 
one  of  the  parts  remains 
behind,  so  as  to  create  a 
discord  at  the  moment  when 
the  other  parts  proceed.  The 
suspended  part  then  goes  on 
to  its  concordant  note,  which  must  lie  on  an  adjacent  (and 
in  most  cases  a  lower)  degree  of  the  scale.  Passing-notes 
are  produced  transiently  by  the  motion  of  a  part  up  or  down  the 
scale  while  other  parts  remain  stationary.  The  possibilities  of 
these  two  devices  can  be  worked  out  logically  so  as  to  produce 
combinations  of  extreme  harshness.  And,  when  combined  with 
the  rules  which  laid  on  the  performers  the  responsibility  for 
modifying  the  strict  scale  of  the  mode  in  order  to  form  satis- 
factory closes  and  avoid  melodic  harshness,  they  some- 
times gave  rise  to  combinations  which  the  clearest  artistic 
intellects  of  the  i6th  century  perceived  as  incompatible  with 
the  modal  style.  For  example,  in  a  passage  written  thus 
J?  ,u  _  -  ^ .  _  F^t^  I  I  the  singer  of  the  lower 

^ — 1   part  would  be  obliged 
Ex- 9.     d~  to    flatten    his    B    in 

[|(g|-0t  <a        p_^=r[^=:          =     \  order    to    avoid    the 

=3  Ugiy  "tritone"  be- 
tween F  and  B,  while  the  other  singer  would  be  hardly 
less  likely  on  the  spur  of  the  moment  to  sharpen  his  G 
under  the  impression  that  he  was  making  a  close;  and  thus  one 
of  the  most  complex  and  characteristically  modern  discords,  that 
of  the  augmented  6th,  did  trequently  occur  in  16th-century 
performances,  and  was  not  always  regarded  as  a  blunder.  But 
if  the  technical  principles  of  16th-century  discord  left  much  to 
the  good  taste  of  composers  and  singers,  they  nevertheless  in 
conjunction  with  that  good  taste  severely  restricted  the  resources 
of  harmony;  for,  whatever  the  variety  and  artificiality  of  the 
discords  admitted  by  them,  they  all  had  this  in  common,  that 
every  discord  was  transient  and  could  only  arise  as  a  phenomenon 
of  delay  in  the  movement  of  one  or  more  parts  smoothly  along 
the  scale  ("  in  conjunct  motion  ")  or  of  a  more  rapid  motion  up 
and  down  the  scale  in  which  none  but  the  rigorously  concordant 
first  and  last  notes  received  any  emphasis.  No  doubt  there  were 
many  licenses  (such  as  the  "  changing-note  ")  which  introduced 
discords  by  skip,  or  on  the  strong  beat  without  preparation,  but 
these  were  all  as  natural  as  they  were  illogical.  They  were 
artistic  as  intelligible  accidents,  precisely  like  those  which  make 
language  idiomatic,  such  as  "  attraction  of  the  relative  "  in  Greek. 
But  when  Monteverde  and  his  fellow  monodists  tried  experi- 
ments with  unprepared  discords,  they  opened  up  possibilities 
far  too  vast  to  be  organized  by  them  or  by  the  next  three  genera- 
tions. We  have  elsewhere  compared  the  difference  between 
early  and  modern  harmony  with  that  between  classical  Greek, 
which  is  absolutely  literal  and  concrete  in  expression,  and  modern 
English,  which  is  saturated  with  metaphors  and  abstractions. 
We  may  go  further  and  say  that  a  16th-century  discord,  with  its 
preparation  and  resolution,  is,  on  a  very  small  scale,  like  a 
simile,  in  which  both  the  figure  and  its  interpretation  are  given, 
whereas  modern  discord  is  like  the  metaphor,  in  which  the  figure 


is  a  substitute  for  and  not  an  addition  to  the  plain  statement. 
It  is  not  surprising  that  the  sudden  opening  up  of  the  whole 
possibilities  of  modern  harmony  at  the  end  of  the  i6th  century 
at  first  produced  a  chaos  of  style. 

Another  feature  of  the  harmonic  revolution  arose  from  the 
new  habit  of  supporting  a  single  voice  on  chords  played  by  an 
instrument.  This,  together  with  the  use  of  discords  in  a  new 
sense,  drew  attention  to  the  chords  as  things  in  themselves  and 
not  as  moments  of  greater  or  less  repose  in  a  flux  of  independent 
melodies.  This  was  as  valuable  an  addition  to  musical  thought 
and  expression  as  the  free  use  of  abstract  terms  is  in  literature, 
but  it  had  precisely  the  same  dangers,  and  has  until  recent 
times  vitiated  harmonic  theory  and  divorced  it  from  the 
modest  observation  of  the  practice  of  great  masters.  When, 
early  in  the  i8th  century,  Rameau  devoted  much  of  his  best 
energy  to  the  elaboration  of  a  theory  of  harmony,  his  field  of 
observation  was  a  series  of  experiments  begun  in  chaos  and 
resolved,  not  as  yet  in  a  great  art,  but  in  a  system  of  conventions, 
for  the  contemporary  art  of  Bach  and  Handel  was  beyond  the 
scope  of  contemporary  theory.  He  showed  great  analytical 
genius  and  sense  of  tonality  in  his  development  of  the  notion 
of  the  "  fundamental  bass,"  and  it  is  rather  to  his  credit  than 
otherwise  that  he  did  not  emphasize  the  distinction  between 
discords  on  the  dominant  and  those  on  other  degrees  of  the  scale. 
But  his  system,  with  all  subsequent  improvements,  refutations 
and  repairs  only  led  to  that  bane  of  19th-century  theory  and 
source  of  what  may  be  called  the  journalese  of  harmonic  style, 
according  to  which  every  chord  (no  matter  how  obviously 
artificial  and  transient)  must  be  regarded,  so  to  speak,  as  a 
literal  fact  for  which  a  root  and  a  scientific  connexion  with  the 
natural  harmonic  series  must  at  all  cost  be  found.  Some  modern 
theorists  have,  however,  gone  too  far  in  denying  the  existence  of 
harmonic  roots  altogether,  and  certainly  it  is  neither  scientific 
nor  artistic  to  regard  the  coincidence  of  the  major  triad  with  the 
first  five  notes  of  the  harmonic  series  as  merely  accidental.  It 
is  not  likely  that  the  dominant  7th  owes  all  its  naturalness  to  a 
resemblance  to  the  flat  7th  of  the  harmonic  series,  which  is  too 
far  out  of  tune  even  to  pass  for  an  augmented  6th.  But  the 
dominant  major  pth  certainly  gains  in  sonorousness  from  its 
coincidence  with  the  gth  harmonic,  and  many  cases  in  music 
could  be  found  where  the  dominant  7th  itself  would  gain  from 
being  so  far  flattened  as  to  add  coincidence  with  a  natural 
harmonic  to  its  musical  significance  as  an  unprepared  discord 
(see,  for  example  the  "  native  wood-notes  wild  "  of  the  distant 
huntsmen  in  the  second  act  of  Tristan  und  Isolde,  where  also  the 
9th  and  nth  are  involved,  and,  moreover,  on  horns,  of  which  the 
natural  scale  is  the  harmonic  series  itself).  If  the  distinction 
between  "  essential  "  and  "  unessential  "  discords  is,  in  the  light 
of  history  and  common  sense,  a  difference  only  in  degree,  it  is 
thus  none  the  less  of  great  aesthetic  importance.  Arithmetic 
and  acoustics  show  that  in  proportion  as  musical  harmony 
emphasizes  combinations  belonging  to  the  lower  region  of  the 
harmonic  series  the  effect  will  be  sonorous  and  natural;  but 
common  sense,  history  and  aesthetics  also  show  that  the  inter- 
action of  melody,  harmony  and  rhythm  must  produce  a  host 
of  combinations  which  acoustics  alone  cannot  possibly  explain. 
These  facts  are  amply  competent  to  explain  themselves.  To 
describe  them  in  detail  is  beyond  the  scope  of  the  present  article, 
but  a  few  examples  from  different  periods  are  given  at  the  end  in 
musical  type. 

IV.  The  Minor  Mode. — When  the  predecessors  of  Bach  and 
Handel  had  succeeded  in  establishing  a  key-system  able  to  bear 
the  weight  of  free  discord,  that  key-system  took  two  forms,  in 
both  of  which  the  three  chords  of  tonic,  dominant  and  sub- 
dominant  occupied  cardinal  points.  In  the  one  form  the  tonic 
chord  was  natural,  that  is  to  say,  major.  In  the  other  form 
the  tonic  chord  was  artificial,  that  is  to  say,  minor.  In  the  minor 
mode  so  firm  is  the  position  of  the  tonic  and  dominant  (the 
dominant  chord  always  being  major)that  it  is  no  longer  necessary, 
as  in  the  i6th  century,  to  conclude  with  a  major  chord,  although 
it  long  remained  a  frequent  practice,  rather  because  of  the 
inherent  beauty  and  surprise  of  the  effect  than  because  of  any 


HARMONY 


mere  survival  of  ancient  customs,  at  least  where  great  masters 
are  concerned.  (This  final  major  chord  is  known  as  the  Tierce 
de  Picardie.)  The  effect  of  the  minor  mode  is  thus  normally 
plaintive  because  it  centres  round  the  artificial  concord  instead 
of  the  natural;  and,  though  the  keynote  bears  this  minor 
artificial  triad,  the  ear  nevertheless  has  an  expectation  (which 
may  be  intensified  into  a  powerful  emotional  effect)  that  the 
final  conclusion  of  the  harmonic  scheme  may  brighten  out  into 
the  more  sonorous  harmonic  system  of  major  chords.  Let  us 
once  more  recall  those  ecclesiastical  modes  of  which  the  3rd 
degree  is  normally  minor.  We  have  seen  how  they  may  be 
regarded  as  the  more  oblique  of  the  various  cross-sections  of  the 
16th-century  harmonic  scheme.  Now,  the  modern  minor  mode 
is  too  firmly  rooted  in  its  minor  tonic  chord  for  the  16th-century 
feeling  of  an  oblique  harmonic  scheme  to  be  of  more  than 
secondary  importance,  though  that  feeling  survives,  as  the 
discussion  of  key-relationships  will  show  us.  But  it  is  constantly 
thrust  into  the  background  by  the  new  possibility  that  the  minor 
tonic  chord  with  its  attendant  minor  harmonies  may  give  place 
to  the  major  system  round  the  same  tonic,  and  by  the  certainty 
that  if  any  change  is  made  at  the  conclusion  of  the  work  it  will 
be  upon  the  same  tonic  and  not  have  reference  to  some  other 
harmonic  centre.  In  other  words,  a  major  and  minor  key  on 
the  same  tonic  are  felt  as  identical  in  everything  but  expression 
(a  point  in  which  the  Tonic  Sol  Fa  system,  as  hitherto  practised, 
with  its  identification  of  the  minor  key  with  its  "  relative  " 
instead  of  its  tonic  major,  shows  a  most  unfortunate  confusion 
of  thought).  The  characteristics  of  the  major  and  minor  modes 
may  of  course  be  modified  by  many  artistic  considerations,  and 
it  would  be  as  absurd  to  develop  this  account  into  a  scheme  of 
pigeon-holed  passions  as  to  do  the  same  for  the  equally  obvious 
and  closely  parallel  fact  that  in  drama  a  constant  source  of 
pathos  is  the  placing  of  our  sympathies  in  an  oblique  relation 
to  the  natural  sequence  of  events  or  to  the  more  universal  issues 
of  the  subject. 

V.  Key-Relationships. — On  the  modern  sense  of  the  identity 
of  the  tonic  in  major  and  minor  rests  the  whole  distinctive 
character  of  modern  harmony,  and  the  whole  key-system  of  the 
classical  composers.  The  masters  of  the  i6th  century  naturally 
found  it  necessary  to  make  full  closes  much  more  frequently 
than  would  be  desirable  if  the  only  possible  close  was  that  on  the 
final  of  the  mode.  They  therefore  formed  closes  on  other  notes, 
but  they  formed  them  on  these  exactly  as  on  a  final.  Thus,  a 
close  on  the  second  degree  of  the  Ionian  mode  was  identical  with 
a  Dorian  final  close.  The  notes,  other  than  the  final,  on  which 
closes  could  be  made  were  called  modulations.  And  what 
between  the  three  "  regular  modulations "  (known  as  the 
dominant,  mediant,  and  participant)  and  the  "  conceded  modula- 
tions," of  which  two  were  generally  admitted  in  each  mode 
simply  in  the  interests  of  variety,  a  composer  was  at  liberty  to 
form  a  full  close  on  any  note  which  did  not  involve  too  many 
extraneous  sharps  or  flats  for  its  correct  accomplishment.  But 
there  was  a  great  difference  between  modal  and  modern  con- 
ceptions of  modulation.  We  have  said  that  the  close  on  the 
second  degree  of  the  Ionian  mode  was  Dorian,  but  such  a  modula- 
tion was  not  regarded  as  a  visit  paid  to  the  Dorian  mode,  but 
merely  as  the  formation  of  a  momentary  point  of  repose  on  the 
second  degree  of  the  Ionian  mode.  When  therefore  it  is  said 
that  the  modulations  of  16th-century  music  are  "  purposeless 
and  shifting,"  the  criticism  implies  a  purpose  in  change  of  key 
which  is  wholly  irrelevant.  The  modal  composers'  purpose  lay 
in  purely  local  relationships  of  harmony,  in  various  degrees  of 
refinement  which  are  often  crowded  out  of  the  larger  and  more 
coarse-grained  scheme  of  modern  harmony,  but  which  modern 
harmony  is  perfectly  capable  of  employing  in  precisely  the  same 
sense  whenever  it  has  leisure. 

Modulation,  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  term,  is  a  different 
thing.  The  modern  sense  of  tonality  is  so  firm,  and  modern 
designs  so  large,  that  it  is  desirable  that  different  portions  of  a 
composition  should  be  arranged  round  different  harmonic 
centres  or  keys,  and  moreover  that  the  relation  between  these 
keys  and  the  primary  key  should  be  ielt,  and  the  whole  design 


should  at  last  return  to  the  primary  key,  to  remain  there  with 
such  emphasis  and  proportion  as  shall  leave  upon  the  mind  the 
impression  that  the  whole  is  in  the  primary  key  and  that  the 
foreign  keys  have  been  as  artistically  grouped  around  it  as  its 
own  local  harmonies.  The  true  principles  on  which  keys  are 
related  proved  so  elastic  in  the  hands  of  Beethoven  that  their 
results  utterly  outstripped  the  earlier  theory  which  adhered 
desperately  to  the  limitations  of  the  i6th  century;  and  so 
vast  is  the  range  of  key  which  Beethoven  is  able  to  organize 
in  a  convincing  scheme  of  relationship,  that  even  modern 
theory,  dazzled  by  the  true  harmonic  possibilities,  is  apt  to 
come  to  the  conclusion,  more  lame  and  impotent  than  any 
ancient  pedantry,  that  all  keys  are  equally  related.  A  vague 
conception,  dubbed  "  the  unity  of  the  chromatic  scale,"  is  thus 
made  to  explain  away  the  whole  beauty  and  power  of  Wagner's 
no  less  than  Beethoven's  harmonic  system.  We  have  not  space 
to  dispute  the  matter  here,  and  it  must  suffice  to  state  dog- 
matically and  statistically  the  classical  facts  of  key-relationship, 
including  those  which  Beethoven  established  as  normal  possi- 
bilities on  the  suggestion  of  Haydn,  in  whose  works  they  appear 
as  special  effects. 

a.  Direct  Relationships. — The  first  principle  on  which  two  keys 
are  considered  to  be  related  is  a  strengthening  of  that  which 
determined  the  so-called  modulations  of  the  16th-century  modes. 
Two  keys  are  directly  related  when  the  tonic  chord  of  the  one 
is  among  the  common  chords  of  the  other.  Thus,  D  minor  is 
related  to  C  major  because  the  tonic  chord  of  D  minor  is  the 
common  chord  on  the  supertonic  of  C  (see  Ex.  6).  In  the  same 
way  the  four  other  related  keys  to  C  major  are  E  minor  the 
mediant,  F  major  the  subdominant,  G  major  the  dominant 
and  A  minor  the  submediant. 

This  last  key-relationship  is  sometimes  called  the  "  relative  " 
minor,  partly  because  it  is  usually  expressed  by  the  same  key- 
signature  as  the  tonic,  but  probably  more  justifiably  because  it 
is  the  point  of  view  from  which  to  reckon  the  key-relationships 
of  the  minor  tonic.  If  we  take  the  minor  scale  in  its  "  harmonic  " 
form  (i.e.  the  form  deducible  from  its  chords  of  minor  tonic, 
minor  subdominant  and  major  dominant,  without  regard  to 
the  exigencies  of  melody  in  concession  to  which  the  "  melodic  " 
minor  scale  raises  the  6th  in  ascent  and  flattens  the  7th  in 
descent),  we  shall  find  it  impossible  to  build  a  common  chord 
upon  its  mediant  (Ex.  10).  But  we  have 
seen  that  A  minor  is  related  to  C  major;  EX.  10. 
therefore  it  is  absurd  to  suppose  that  C 
major  is  not  related  to  A  minor.  Clearly  then  we  must  deduce 
some  of  the  relationships  of  a  minor  tonic  as  the  converse  of 
those  of  a  major  tonic.  Thus  we  may  read  Ex.  6  backwards  and 
reason  as  follows:  A  minor  is  the  submediant  of  C  major; 
therefore  C  major  is  the  mediant  or  relative  major  of  A  minor. 
D  minor  is  the  supertonic  of  C  major;  therefore  C  major  is 
related  to  D  minor  and  may  be  called  its  flat  7th.  Taking  A 
minor  as  our  standard  key,  G  major  is  then  the  flat  7th  to  A  minor. 
The  remaining  major  keys  (C  major  to  E  minor  =  F  major  to 
A  minor)  may  be  traced  directly  as  well  as  conversely;  and 
the  subdominant,  being  minor,  does  not  involve  an  appeal  to 
the  major  scale  at  all.  But  with  the  dominant  we  find  the  curious 
fact  that  while  the  dominant  chord  of  a  minor  key  is  major  it 
is  impossible  to  regard  the  major  dominant  key  as  directly 
related  to  the  minor  tonic,  since  it  does  not  contain  the  minor 
tonic  chord  at  all;  e.g.  the  only  chord  of  A  in  E  major  is  A  major. 
But  the  dominant  minor  key  contains  the  tonic  chord  of  the 
primary  minor  key  clearly  enough  as  subdominant,  and  therefore 
when  we  modulate  from  a  minor  tonic  to  a  minor  dominant 
we  feel  that  we  have  a  direct  key-relationship  and  have  not  lost 
touch  with  our  tonic.  Thus  in  the  minor  mode  modulation  to 
the  dominant  key  is,  though  frequent  and  necessary,  a  much 
more  uphill  process  than  in  the  major  mode,  because  the  naturally 
major  dominant  chord  has  first  to  be  contradicted.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  contrast  between  minor  tonic  and  major  dominant  key 
is  very  difficult  to  work  on  a  large  scale  (as,  for  example,  in  the 
complementary  key  for  second  subjects  of  sonata  movements) 
because,  while  the  major  dominant  key  behaves  as  if  not  directly 


HARMONY 


related  to  the  minor  tonic,  it  also  gives  a  curious  sensation  of 
being  merely  on  the  dominant  instead  of  in  it;  and  thus  we  find 
that  in  the  few  classical  examples  of  a  dominant  major  second 
subject  in  a  minor  sonata-movement  the  second  subject  either 
relapses  into  the  dominant  minor,  as  in  Beethoven's  Kreulzer 
Sonata  and  the  finale  of  Brahms's  Third  Symphony,  or  begins  in 
it,  as  in  the  first  movement  of  Brahms's  Fourth  Symphony. 

The  effect  of  a  modulation  to  a  related  key  obviously  depends 
upon  the  change  of  meaning  in  the  chords  common  to  both  keys, 
and  also  in  the  new  chords  introduced.  Thus,  in  modulating 
to  the  dominant  we  invest  the  brightest  chord  of  our  first  key 
with  the  finality  and  importance  of  a  tonic;  our  original  tonic 
chord  becomes  comparatively  soft  in  its  new  position  as  sub- 
dominant;  and  a  new  dominant  chord  arises,  surpassing  in 
brilliance  the  old  dominant  (now  tonic)  as  that  surpassed  the 
primary  tonic.  Again,  in  modulating  to  the  subdominant  the 
softest  chord  of  the  primary  key  becomes  tonic,  the  old  tonic 
is  comparatively  bright,  and  a  new  and  softer  subdominant 
chord  appears.  We  have  seen  the  peculiarities  of  modulation 
to  the  dominant  from  a  minor  tonic,  and  it  follows  from  them 
that  modulation  from  a  minor  tonic  to  the  subdominant  involves 
the  beautiful  effect  of  a  momentary  conversion  of  the  primary 
tonic  chord  to  major,  the  poetic  and  often  dramatically  ironical 
power  of  which  is  manifested  at  the  conclusion  of  more  than  half 
the  finest  classical  slow  movements  in  minor  keys,  from  Bach's 
Et>  minor  Prelude  in  the  first  book  of  the  Forty-eight  to  the  slow 
movement  of  Brahms's  G  major  String  Quintet,  Op.  in. 

The  effect  of  the  remaining  key-relationships  involves  contrasts 
between  major  and  minor  mode;  but  it  is  otherwise  far  less 
defined,  since  the  primary  tonic  chord  does  not  occupy  a  cardinal 
position  in  the  second  key.  These  key-relationships  are  most 
important  from  a  minor  tonic,  as  the  change  from  minor  to 
major  is  more  vivid  than  the  reverse  change.  The  smoothest 
changes  are  those  to  "  relative  "  minor,  "  relative  "  major 
(C  to  A  minor;  C  minor  to  Et>);  and  mediant  minor  and  sub- 
mediant  major  (C  to  E  minor;  C  minor  to  At>).  The  change 
from  major  tonic  to  supertonic  minor  is  extremely  natural  on  a 
.small  scale,  i.e.  within  the  compass  of  a  single  melody,  as  may  be 
seen  in  countless  openings  of  classical  sonatas.  But  on  a  large 
scale  the  identity  of  primary  dominant  with  secondary  sub- 
dominant  confuses  the  harmonic  perspective,  and  accordingly 
in  classical  music  the  supertonic  minor  appears  neither  in  the 
second  subjects  of  first  movements  nor  as  the  key  for  middle 
movements.1  But  since  the  key-relationships  of  a  minor  tonic 
are  at  once  more  obscure  harmonically  and  more  vivid  in  con- 
trast, we  find  that  the  converse  key-relationship  of  the  flat  7th, 
though  somewhat  bold  and  archaic  in  effect  on  a  small  scale, 
has  once  or  twice  been  given  organic  function  on  a  large  scale 
in  classical  movements  of  exceptionally  fantastic  character, 
of  which  the  three  great  examples  are  the  ghostly  slow  movement 
of  Beethoven's  D  major  Trio,  Op.  70,  No.  i,  the  scherzo  of  his 
Ninth  Symphony,  and  the  finale  of  Brahms's  D  minor  Violin 
Sonata  (where,  however,  the  C  major  theme  soon  passes  per- 
manently into  the  more  orthodox  dominant  minor). 

Thus  far  we  have  the  set  of  key-relationships  universally 
recognized  since  the  major  and  minor  modes  were  established, 
a  relationship  based  entirely  on  the  place  of  the  primary  tonic 
chord  in  the  second  key.  It  only  remains  for  us  to  protest 
against  the  orthodox  description  of  the  five  related  keys  as  being 
the  "  relative  "  minor  or  major  and  the  dominant  and  sub- 
dominant  with  their  "  relative  "  minors  or  majors;  a  conception 
which  expresses  the  fallacious  assumption  that  keys  which  are 
related  to  the  same  key  are  related  to  one  another,  and  which 
thereby  implies  that  all  keys  are  equally  related  and  that  classical 
composers  were  fools.  It  cannot  be  too  strongly  insisted  that 
there  is  no  foundation  for  key-relationship  except  through  a 
tonic,  and  that  it  is  through  the  tonic  that  the  most  distant  keys 

1  Until  Beethoven  developed  the  resources  for  a  wider  scheme  of 
key-contrasts,  the  only  keys  for  second  subjects  of  sonata-movements 
were  the  dominant  (when  the  tonic  was  major)  and  the  "  relative  " 
major  or  dominant  minor  (when  the  tonic  was  minor).  A  wider 
range  was  possible  only  in  the  irresponsible  style  of  D.  Scarlatti. 


have  always  been  connected  by  every  composer  with  a  wide 
range  of  modulation,  from  Haydn  to  Brahms  and  (with  due 
allowance  for  the  conditions  of  his  musical  drama)  Wagner. 

b.  Indirect  Relationships. — So  strong  is  the  indentity  of  the 
tonic  in  major  and  minor  mode  that  Haydn  and  Mozart  had  no 
scruple  in  annexing,  with  certain  reservations,  the  key-relation- 
ships of  either  as  an  addition  to  those  of  the  other.     The  smooth- 
ness of  Mozart's  style  makes  him  prefer  to  annex  the  key-relation- 
ships of  the  tonic  minor  (e.g.  C  major  to  Ab,  the  submediant  of 
C  minor),  because  the  primary  tonic  note  is  in  the  second  key, 
although  its  chord  is  transformed.     His  range  of  thought  does 
not  allow  him  to  use  these  keys  otherwise  than  episodically; 
but  he  certainly  does  not  treat  them  as  chaotically  remote  by 
confining    them    to    rapid    modulations    in    the    development- 
portions  of  his  movements.     They  occur  characteristically  as 
beautiful  purple  patches  before  or  during  his  second  subjects. 
Haydn,   with   his   mastery  of   rational   paradox,   takes   every 
opportunity,  in  his  later  works,  of  using  all  possible  indirect 
key-relationships  in  the  choice  of  key  for  slow  movements  and 
for  the  trios  of  minuets.     By  using  them  thus  sectionally  (i.e. 
so  as  not  to  involve  the  organic  connecting  links  necessary  for  the 
complementary  keys  of  second  subjects)  he  gives  himself  a  free 
hand;  and  he  rather  prefers  those  keys  which  are  obtained  by 
transforming  the  minor  relationships  of  a  major  primary  key 
(e.g.  C  to  A  major  instead  of  A  minor).     These  relationships  are 
of  great  brilliance  and  also  of  some  remoteness  of  effect,  since 
the  primary  tonic  note,  as  well  as  its  chord,  disappears  entirely. 
Haydn  also  obtains  extreme  contrasts  by  changing  both  modes 
(e.g.  C  minor  to  A  major,  as  in  the  G  minor  Quartet,  Op.  72, 
No  6,  where  the  slow  movement  is  in  E  major),  and  indeed 
there  is  not  one  key-contrast  known  to  Beethoven  and  Brahms 
which  Haydn  does  not  use  with  complete  sense  of  its  meaning, 
though  his  art  admits  it  only  as  a  surprise. 

Beethoven  rationalized  every  step  in  the  whole  possible  range 
of  key-relationship  by  such  harmonic  means  as  are  described  in 
the  article  BEETHOVEN.  Haydn's  favourite  key-relationships 
he  used  for  the  complementary  key  in  first  movements;  and 
he  at  once  discovered  that  the  use  of  the  major  mediant  as 
complementary  key  to  a  major  tonic  implied  at  all  events  just 
as  much  suggestion  of  the  submediant  major  in  the  recapitula- 
tion as  would  not  keep  the  latter  half  of  the  movement  for  too 
long  out  of  the  tonic.  The  converse  is  not  the  case,  and  where 
Beethoven  uses  the  submediant  major  as  complementary  key 
in  a  major  first  movement  he  does  not  subsequently  introduce 
the  still  more  remote  and  brilliant  mediant  in  the  recapitulation. 
The  function  of  the  complementary  key  is  that  of  contrast  and 
vividness,  so  that  if  the  key  is  to  be  remote  it  is  as  well  that  it 
should  be  brilliant  rather  than  sombre;  and  accordingly  the 
easier  key-relationships  obtainable  through  transforming  the 
tonic  into  minor  do  not  appear  as  complementary  keys  until 
Beethoven's  latest  and  most  subtle  works,  as  the  Quartet  in 
Bb,  Op.  130  (where  we  again  note  that  the  flat  submediant  of 
the  exposition  is  temporarily  answered  by  the  flat  mediant  of 
the  recapitulation). 

c.  Artificial  Key-relationships. — Early  in  the  history  of  the 
minor  mode  it  was  discovered  that  the  lower  tetrachord  could 
be  very  effectively  and  naturally  altered  so  as  to  resemble  the 
upper  (thus  producing  the  scale  C  Db  Et[  F,  G  Ab  Bit  C).     This 
produces  a  flat  supertonic  (the  chord  of  which  is  generally  pre- 
sented in  its  first  inversion,  and  is  known  as  the  Neapolitan  6th. 
from  its  characteristic  use  in  the  works  of  the  Neapolitan  school 
which  did  so  much  to  establish  modern  tonality)  and  its  origin, 
as  just  described,  often  impels  it  to  resolve  on  a  major  tonic 
chord.     Consequently  it  exists  in  the  minor  mode  as  a  pheno- 
menon  not  much   more  artificial  than  the  mode  itself;  and 
although  the  keys  it  thus  connects  are  extremely  remote,  and 
the  effect  of  their  connexion  very  surprising,  the  connexion  is 
none  the  less  real,  whether  from  a  major  or  a  minor  tonic,  and 
is  a  crucial  test  of  a  composer's  sense  of  key-perspective.     Thus 
Philipp  Emanuel  Bach  in  a  spirit  of  mere  caprice  puts  the 
charming  little  slow  movement  of  his  D  major  Symphony  into 
Eb   and  obliterates  all  real  relationship   by   chaotic  operatic 


HARMONY 


connecting  links.  Haydn's  greatest  pianoforte  sonata  (which, 
being  probably  his  last,  is  of  course  No.  i  in  most  editions) 
is  in  Eb,  and  its  slow  movement  is  in  Fl)  major  (  =  Ft>).  That 
key  had  already  appeared,  with  surprising  effect,  in  the  wander- 
ings of  the  development  of  the  first  movement.  No  attempt  is 
made  to  indicate  its  connexion  with  Eb;  and  the  finale  begins 
in  Et»,  but  its  first  bar  is  unharmonized  and  starts  on  the  one 
note  which  most  contradicts  Ei;  and  least  prepares  the  mind  for 
Et».  The  immediate  repetition  of  the  opening  phrase  a  step 
higher  on  the  normal supertonic  strikes  the  note  which  the, open- 
ing had  contradicted,  and  thus  shows  its  function  in  the  main 
key  without  in  the  least  degree  explaining  away  the  paradoxical 
effect  of  the  key  of  the  slow  movement.  Brahms's  Violoncello 
Sonata  Op.  99,  is  in  F;  a  prominent  episode  in  the  development 
of  the  first  movement  is  in  E#  minor  (  =  Gb),  thus  preparing  the 
mind  for  the  slow  movement,  which  is  in  F$  major  (  =  Gt>),  with 
a  central  episode  in  F  minor.  The  scherzo  is  in  F  minor,  and 
begins  on  the  dominant.  Thus  if  we  play  its  first  chord  immedi- 
ately after  the  last  chord  of  the  slow  movement  we  have  exactly 
that  extreme  position  of  flat  supertonic  followed  by  dominant 
which  is  a  favourite  form  of  cadence  in  Wagner,  who  can  even 
convey  its  meaning  by  its  mere  bass  without  any  harmonies 
(Walkiire,  Act  3,  Scene  2:"Was  jetzt  du  bist,das  sage  dir  selbst"). 

Converse  harmonic  relationships  are,  as  we  have  seen,  always 
weaker  than  their  direct  forms.  And  thus  the  relation  of  C  major 
to  B  major  or  minor  (as  shown  in  the  central  episode  of  the  slow 
movement  just  mentioned)  is  rare.  Still  more  rare  is  the  obtain- 
ing of  indirect  artificial  relationships,  of  which  the  episode  in 
the  first  movement  just  mentioned  is  an  illustration  in  so  far 
as  it  enhances  the  effect  of  the  slow  movement,  but  is  incon- 
clusive in  so  far  as  it  is  episodic.  For  with  remote  key-relation- 
ships everything  depends  upon  whether  they  are  used  with  what 
may  be  called  cardinal  function  (like  complementary  keys)  or  not. 
Even  a  near  key  may  occur  in  the  course  of  wandering  modula- 
tions without  producing  any  effect  of  relationship  at  all,  and  this 
should  always  be  borne  in  mind  whenever  we  accumulate 
statistics  from  classical  music. 

d.  Contrary  and  Unconnected  Keys. — There  remain  only  two 
pairs  of  keys  that  classical  music  has  not  brought  into  connexion, 
a  circumstance  which  has  co-operated  with  the  utter  vagueness 
of  orthodox  theories  on  the  subject  to  confirm  the  conventionally 
progressive  critic  in  his  conviction  that  all  modulations  are 
alike.  We  have  seen  how  the  effect  of  modulation  from  major 
tonic  to  minor  supertonic  is,  on  a  large  scale,  obscured  by  the 
identity  of  the  primary  dominant  with  the  secondary  sub- 
dominant,  though  the  one  chord  is  major  and  the  other  minor. 
Now  when  the  supertonic  becomes  major  this  difference  no 
longer  obviates  the  confusion,  and  modulation  from  C  major 
to  D  major,  though  extremely  easy,  is  of  so  bewildering  effect 
that  it  is  used  by  classical  composers  only  in  moments  of  intensely 
dramatic  surprise,  as,  for  example,  in  the  recapitulation  of  the 
first  subject  of  Beethoven's  Eroica  Symphony,  and  the  last 
variation  (or  coda)  cf  the  slow  movement  of  his  Trio  in  B\>, 
Op.  97.  And  in  both  cases  the  balance  is  restored  by  the 
converse  (and  equally  if  not  more  contradictory)  modulation 
between  major  tonic  and  major  fiat  yth,  though  in  the  slow 
movement  of  the  B\>  Trio  the  latter  is  represented  only  by  its 
dominant  chord  which  is  "  enharmonically  "  resolved  into  quite 
another  key.  The  frequent  attempts  made  by  easy-going 
innovators  to  treat  these  key-contrasts  on  another  footing  than 
that  of  paradox,  dramatic  surprise  or  hesitation,  only  show  a 
deficient  sense  of  tonality,  which  must  also  mean  an  inability 
to  see  the  intensely  powerful  effect  of  the  true  use  of  such 
modulations  in  classical  music,  an  effect  which  is  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  any  ability  to  formulate  a  theory  to  explain  it.1 

1  Many  theorists  mistake  the  usual  extreme  emphasis  on  the 
dominant  chord  of  the  dominant  key,  in  preparation  for  second 
subjects,  for  a  modulation  to  the  major  supertonic,  but  this  can 
deceive  no  one  with  any  sense  of  tonality.  A  good  practical  test 
is  to  see  what  becomes  of  such  passages  when  translated  into  the 
minor  mode.  Illusory  modulation  to  the  flat  yth  frequently  occurs 
as  a  bold  method  of  throwing  strong  emphasis  on  to  the  subdominant 
at  the  outset  of  a  movement,  as  in  Beethoven's  Sonata,  Op.  31,  No.  I. 


There  now  remains  only  one  pair  of  keys  that  have  never  been 
related,  namely,  those  that  (whether  major  or  minor)  are  at  the 
distance  of  a  tritone  4th.  In  the  first  place  they  are  unrelated 
because  there  is  no  means  of  putting  any  form  of  a  tonic  chord 
of  F$  into  any  form  of  the  key  of  C,  or  vice  versa;  and  in  the 
second  place  because  it  is  impossible  to  tell  which  of  two  precisely 
opposite  keys  the  second  key  may  be  (e.g.  we  have  no  means  of 
knowing  that  a  direct  modulation  from  C  to  F$  is  not  from  C  to  Gt>, 
which  is  exactly  the  same  distance  in  the  opposite  direction) .  And 
this  brings  us  to  the  only  remaining  subjects  of  importance  in 
the  science  and  art  of  harmony,  namely,  those  of  the  tempered 
scale,  enharmonic  ambiguity  and  just  intonation.  Before 
proceeding  we  subjoin  a  table  of  all  the  key-relationships  from 
major  and  minor  tonics,  representing  the  degrees  by  capital 
Roman  figures  when  the  second  key  is  major  and  small  figures 

TABLES  OF  KEY-RELATIONSHIPS 
A.  From  Major  Tonic 


—  i  — 

1 

1 

1 

Indirect  through  both 
i  and  the  second  key 

i  ! 

Indirect,  through  i           \ 
III>           \{It                  \ 

Indirect  through  the 
second  key 

HI                Vl 

i                 i 

Doubly  indirect  through  the 
farmer  indirect  keys 
Hi*           Vik 

\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 
t 

Artificial,  direct 

\ 

\ 

IH>  \ 

VII    &   vfi 

Artificial,  indirect* 

\ 

S 

I*         \ 

\ 
\ 
\ 

Unrelated 

\i 

> 

!V\IVt&  ivff-Vk  &vk 

Contradictory 

1        \, 
£       VII>   &  viib 

B. 
i 

From  Minor  Tonic  * 
Direct    Relationships   III       iv      v     VI    V,II 

jt 
1 
I 
i 
I 
Indirect,  through  I 
iji»                viS 

i        i        i         i 
,lil 

Indirect  'through  both                     !                i 
I  and  the  second  key           IV    V              ,' 

Indirect  through  the                                    / 
second  key           ill                       vi  / 

Dcjmbly   indirect 
III*              VI» 

\ 

Artificial,  direct 
Artificial,  indirect* 

* 
1                                                                                                             X 

\          Ilk 

'<          il*                    VlHt'it    vii# 

>                                     , 
f 
* 
/ 
\                            / 

Unrelated 

\                         / 
\IV4t  &  MI=|V>  &v(> 

Contradictory6 

; 

\l       II       viik 

2  Very  rare,  but  the  slow  movement  of  Schubert's  C  major  String 
Quintet  demonstrates  it  magnificently. 

3  All  the  indirect  relationships  from  a  minor  tonic  are  distinctly 
strained  and,  except  in  the  violently  contrasted  doubly  indirect 
keys,  obscure  as  being  themselves  minor.     But  the  direct  artificial 
modulation  is  quite  smooth,  and  rich  rather  than  remote.     See 
Beethoven's  C$  minor  Quartet. 

4  No  classical  example,  though  the  clearer  converse  from  a  major 
tonic  occurs  effectively. 

6  Not  (with  the  exception  of  II)  so  violent  as  when  from  major 
tonic.  Bach,  whose  range  seldom  exceeds  direct  key-relationships, 
is  not  afraid  to  drift  from  D  minor  to  C  minor,  though  nothing  would 
induce  him  to  go  from  D  major  to  C  major  or  minor. 


8 


HARMONY 


when  minor.  Thus  I  represents  tonic  major,  iv  represents 
subdominant  minor,  and  so  on.  A  flat  or  a  sharp  after  the  figure 
indicates  that  the  normal  degree  of  the  standard  scale  has  been 
lowered  or  raised  a  semitone,  even  when  in  any  particular  pair 
of  keys  it  would  not  be  expressed  by  a  flat  or  a  sharp.  Thus 
vib  would,  from  the  tonic  of  Bb  major,  express  the  position  of  the 
slow  movement  of  Beethoven's  Sonata,  Op.  106,  which  is  written 
in  F#  minor  since  Gb  minor  is  beyond  the  practical  limits  of 
notation. 

VI.  Temperament  and  Enharmonic  Changes. — As  the  facts 
of  artistic  harmony  increased  in  complexity  and  range,  the 
purely  acoustic  principles  which  (as  Helmholtz  has  shown) 
go  so  far  to  explain  16th-century  aesthetics  became  more  and 
more  inadequate;  and  grave  practical  obstacles  to  euphonious 
tuning  began  to  assert  themselves.  The  scientific  (or  natural) 
ratios  of  the  diatonic  scale  were  not  interfered  with  by  art  so 
long  as  no  discords  were  "fundamental";  but  when  discords 
began  to  assume  independence,  one  and  the  same  note  often 
became  assignable  on  scientific  grounds  to  two  slightly  different 
positions  in  pitch,  or  at  all  events  to  a  position  incompatible 
with  even  tolerable  effect  in  performance.  Thus,  the  chord  of 
the  diminished  7th  is  said  to  be  intolerably  harsh  in  "  just 
intonation,"  that  is  to  say,  intonation  based  upon  the  exact 
ratios  of  a  normal  minor  scale.  In  practical  performance  the 
diminished  7th  contains  three  minor  3rds  and  two  imperfect 
5ths  (such  as  that  which  is  present  in  the  dominant  7th),  while 
the  peculiarly  dissonant  interval  from  which  the  chord  takes  its 
name  is  very  nearly  the  same  as  a  major  6th.  Now  it  can  only 
be  said  that  an  intonation  which  makes  nonsense  of  chords  of 
which  every  classical  composer  from  the  time  of  Corelli  has  made 
excellent  sense,  is  a  very  unjust  intonation  indeed;  and  to 
anybody  who  realizes  the  universal  relation  between  art  and 
nature  it  is  obvious  that  the  chord  of  the  diminished  7th  must 
owe  its  naturalness  to  its  close  approximation  to  the  natural 
ratios  of  the  minor  scale,  while  it  owes  its  artistic  possibility 
to  the  extremely  minute  instinctive  modification  by  which  its 
dissonance  becomes  tolerable.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  although 
we  have  shown  here  and  in  the  article  Music  how  artificial 
is  the  origin  and  nature  of  all  but  the  very  scantiest  materials 
of  the  musical  language,  there  is  no  art  in  which  the  element  of 
practical  compromise  is  so  minute  and  so  hard  for  any  but  trained 
scientific  observation  to  perceive.  If  a  painter  could  have  a 
scale  of  light  and  shade  as  nearly  approaching  nature  as  the 
practical  intonation  of  music  approaches  the  acoustic  facts 
it  really  involves,  a  visit  to  a  picture  gallery  would  be  a  severe 
strain  on  the  strongest  eyes,  as  Ruskin  constantly  points  out. 
Yet  music  is  in  this  respect  exactly  on  the  same  footing  as  other 
arts.  It  constitutes  no  exception  to  the  universal  law  that 
artistic  ideas  must  be  realized,  not  in  spite  of,  but  by  means  of 
practical  necessities.  However  independent  the  treatment  of 
discords,  they  assert  themselves  in  the  long  run  as  transient. 
They  resolve  into  permanent  points  of  repose  of  which  the 
basis  is  natural;  but  the  transient  phenomena  float  through 
the  harmonic  world  adapting  themselves,  as  best  they  can,  to 
their  environment,  showing  as  much  dependence  upon  the 
stable  scheme  of  "  just  intonation  "  as  a  crowd  of  metaphors 
and  abstractions  in  language  shows  a  dependence  upon  the 
rules  of  the  syllogism.  As  much  and  no  more,  but  that  is  no 
doubt  a  great  deal.  Yet  the  attempt  to  determine  the  point 
in  modern  harmony  where  just  intonation  should  end  and  the 
tempered  scale  begin,  is  as  vexatious  as  the  attempt  to  define 
in  etymology  the  point  at  which  the  literal  meaning  of  a  word 
gives  places  to  a  metaphorical  meaning.  And  it  is  as  unsound 
scientifically  as  the  conviction  of  the  typical  circle-squarer 
that  he  is  unravelling  amysteryandmeasuringaquantityhitherto 
unknown.  Just  intonation  is  a  reality  in  so  far  as  it  emphasizes 
the  contrast  between  concord  and  discord;  but  when  it  forbids 
artistic  interaction  between  harmony  and  melody  it  is  a  chimera. 
It  is  sometimes  said  that  Bach,  by  the  example  of  his  forty-eight 
preludes  and  fugues  in  all  the  major  and  minor  keys,  first  fixed 
the  modern  scale.  This  is  true  practically,  but  not  aesthetically. 
By  writing  a  series  of  movements  in  every  key  of  which  the 


keynote  was  present  in  the  normal  organ  and  harpsichord 
manuals  of  his  and  later  times,  he  enforced  the  system  by  which 
all  facts  of  modern  musical  harmony  are  represented  on  keyed 
instruments  by  dividing  the  octave  into  twelve  equal  semitones, 
instead  of  tuning  a  few  much-used  keys  as  accurately  as  possible 
and  sacrificing  the  euphony  of  all  the  rest.  This  system  of 
equal  temperament,  with  twelve  equal  semitones  in  the  octave, 
obviously  annihilates  important  distinctions,  and  in  the  most 
used  keys  it  sours  the  concords  and  blunts  the  discords  more  than 
unequal  temperament;  but  it  is  never  harsh;  and  where  it  does 
not  express  harmonic  subtleties  the  ear  instinctively  supplies 
the  interpretation;  as  the  observing  faculty,  indeed,  always 
does  wherever  the  resources  of  art  indicate  more  than  they 
express. 

Now  it  frequently  happens  that  discords  or  artificial  chords 
are  not  merely  obscure  in  their  intonation,  whether  ideally  or 
practically,  but  as  produced  in  practice  they  are  capable  of  two 
sharply  distinct  interpretations.  And  it  is  possible  for  music  to 
take  advantage  of  this  and  to  approach  a  chord  in  one  signifi- 
cance and  quit  it  with  another.  Where  this  happens  in  just 
intonation  (in  so  far  as  that  represents  a  real  musical  conception) 
such  chords  will,  so  to  speak,  quiver  from  one  meaning  into  the 
other.  And  even  in  the  tempered  scale  the  ear  will  interpret  the 
change  of  meaning  as  involving  a  minute  difference  of  intonation. 
The  chord  of  the  diminished  7th  has  in  this  way  four  different 
meanings — 


E*.  ii. 


and  the  chord  of  the  augmented  6th,  when  accompanied  by  the 
fifth,  may  become  a  dominant  7th  or  vice  versa,  as  in  the  passage 
already  cited  in  the  coda  of  the  slow  movement  of  Beethoven's 
Bb  Trio,  Op.  97.  Such  modulations  are  called  enharmonic. 
We  have  seen  that  all  the  more  complex  musical  phenomena 
involve  distinctions  enharmonic  in  the  sense  of  intervals  smaller 
than  a  semitone,  as,  for  instance,  whenever  the  progression 
D  E  in  the  scale  of  C,  which  is  a  minor  tone,  is  identified  with  the 
progression  of  D  E  in  the  scale  of  D,  which  is  a  major  tone 
(differing  from  the  former  as  f  from  ^).  But  the  special  musical 
meaning  of  the  word  "  enharmonic  "  is  restricted  to  the  difference 
between  such  pairs  of  sharps  with  flats  or  naturals  as  can  be 
represented  on  a  keyboard  by  the  same  note,  this  difference 
being  the  most  impressive  to  the  ear  in  "  just  intonation  "  and 
to  the  imagination  in  the  tempered  scale. 

Not  every  progression  of  chords  which  is,  so  to  speak,  spelt 
enharmonically  is  an  enharmonic  modulation  in  itself.  Thus  a 
modulation  from  D  flat  to  E  major  looks  violently  enharmonic 
on  paper,  as  in  the  first  movement  of  Beethoven's  Sonata, 
Op.  1 10.  But  E  major  with  four  sharps  is  merely  the  most 
convenient  way  of  expressing  F  flat,  a  key  which  would  need 
six  flats  and  a  double  flat.  The  reality  of  an  enharmonic  modula- 
tion can  be  easily  tested  by  transporting  the  passage  a  semi- 
tone. Thus,  the  passage  just  cited,  put  a  semitone  lower, 
becomes  a  perfectly  diatonic  modulation  from  C  to  E  flat.  But 
no  transposition  of  the  sixteen  bars  before  the  return  of  the  main 
theme  in  the  scherzo  of  Beethoven's  Sonata  in  Ey,  Op.  31, 
No.  3,  will  get  rid  of  the  fact  that  the  diminished  7th  (G  Bb  Db  Efl) , 
on  the  dominant  of  F  minor,  must  have  changed  into  G  Bb  Db  Fb 
(although  Beethoven  does  not  take  the  trouble  to  alter  the 
spelling)  before  it  could  resolve,  as  it  does,  upon  the  dominant 
of  Ab.  But  though  there  is  thus  a  distinction  between  real  and 
apparent  enharmonic  modulations,  it  frequently  happens  that 
a  series  of  modulations  perfectly  diatonic  in  themselves 
returns  to  the  original  key  by  a  process  which  can  only  be 
called  an  enharmonic  circle.  Thus  the  whole  series  of  keys  now 
in  practical  use  can  be  arranged  in  what  is  called  the  circle  of 
fifths  (C  G  D  A  E  B  F#  [  =  Gbl  Db  Ab  Bb  F  C,  from  which 
series  we  now  see  the  meaning  of  what  was  said  in  the  discussion 
of  key-relationships  as  to  the  ambiguity  of  the  relationships 
between  keys  a  tritone  fourth  apart).  Now  no  human  memory 
is  capable  of  distinguishing  the  difference  of  pitch  between  the 


HARMONY 


keys  of  C  and  B#  after  a  wide  series  of  modulations.  The 
difference  would  be  perceptible  enough  in  immediate  juxta- 
position, but  after  some  interval  of  time  the  memory  will  certainly 
accept  two  keys  so  near  in  pitch  as  identical,  whether  in  "just 
intonation  "  or  not.  And  hence  the  enharmonic  circle  of  fifths 
is  a  conception  of  musical  harmony  by  which  infinity  is  at  once 
rationalized  and  avoided,  just  as  some  modern  mathematicians 
are  trying  to  rationalize  the  infinity  of  space  by  a  non-Euclidian 
space  so  curved  in  the  fourth  dimension  as  to  return  upon  itself. 
A  similar  enharmonic  circle  progressing  in  major  3rds  is  of 
frequent  occurrence  and  of  very  rich  effect.  For  example, 
the  keys  of  the  movements  of  Brahms's  C  Minor  Symphony 
are  C  minor,  E  major,  Ab  major  (  =  G#),aridC  (  =  Bft).  And  the 
same  circle  occurs  in  the  opposite  direction  in  the  first  movement 
of  his  Third  Symphony,  where  the  first  subject  is  in  F,  the  transi- 
tion passes  directly  to  Db  and  thence  by  exactly  the  same  step 
to  A  (=  Bbb).  The  exposition  is  repeated,  which  of  course 
means  that  in  "  just  intonation  "  the  first  subject  would  begin 
in  Gbb  and  then  pass  through  a  transition  in  Ebbb  to  the  second 
subject  in  Cbbb.  As  the  development  contains  another  spurious 
enharmonic  modulation,  and  the  recapitulation  repeats  in 
another  position  the  first  spurious  enharmonic  modulation 
of  the  exposition/  it  would  follow  that  Brahms's  movement 
began  in  F  and  ended  in  C  sextuple-flat!  So  much,  then,  for 
the  application  of  bad  metaphysics  and  circle-squaring 
mathematics  to  the  art  of  music.  Neither  in  mathematics  nor  in 
art  is  an  approximation  to  be  confused  with  an  imperfection. 
Brahms's  movement  begins  and  ends  in  F  much  more  exactly 
than  any  wooden  diagonal  fits  a  wooden  square. 

The  following  series  of  musical  illustrations  show  the  genesis  of 
typical  harmonic  resources  of  classical  and  modern  music. 


Ex.  u. — Three  concords  (tonic,  first  inversion  of  sub- 
dominant,  and  dominant  of  A  minor,  a  possible  16th- 
century  cadence  in  the  Phrygian  mode). 


Ex.   13. — The  same  chords  varied   by   a  sus- 
pension (*). 


Ex.  14. — Ditto,  with  the  further  addition 
of  a  double  suspension  (*)  and  two  passing 
notes  (ft). 


1  ,       '  |  i  ,«. 

r  i         J 1 


Ex.  15. — Ditto,  with  a  chromatic  alteration 
of  the  second  chord  (*)  and  an  "essential" 
discord  (dominant  7th)  at  (t). 


Ex.  16.  —  Ditto,  with  chromatic 
passing  notes  (**)  and  appoggiaturas 
(tt). 


Ex.  17.  — The  last  two 
chor  ds  of  Ex.  1 6  at  tacked 
unexpectedly,  the  first  ap- 
poggiatura  (.*)  prolonged  (til 
it  seems  to  make  a  strange 
foreign  chord  before  it  resolves 
on  the  short  note  at  $,  while 
the  second  appoggiatura  (f)  is 
chromatic. 


Ex.  18. — The  same  en- 
harmonically  transformed  so 
as  to  become  a  variation  of 
the  "dominant  ninth"  of  C 
minor.  The  G#  at  *  is 
really  Ab,  and  %  is  no  longer 
a  note  of  resolution,  but  a 
chromatic  passing-note. 


WAGNER. 


"*^>-_  ^S     '    %~'  ^ 


Definitions. 

(Intended  to  comprise  the  general  conceptions  set  forth  in  the 
above  article.) 

1.  Musical  sounds,  or  notes,  are  sensations  produced  by  regular 
periodical  vibrations  in  the  air,  sufficiently  rapid  to  coalesce  in  a 
single  continuous  sensation,  and  not  too  rapid  for  the  mechanism 
or  the  human  ear  to  respond. 

2.  The  pitch  of  a  note  is  the  sensation  corresponding  to  the  degree 
of   rapidity   of   its  vibrations;  being  low  or  gram  where  these  are 
slow,  ana  High  or  acute  where  they  are  rapid. 

3.  An  interval  is  the  difference  in  pitch  between  two  notes. 

4.  Rhythm  is  the  organization,  in  a  musical  scheme,  of  sounds  in 
respect  of  time. 

5.  Melody  is  the  organization,  in  a  musical  scheme,  of  rhythmic 
notes  in  respect  of  pitch. 

6.  Harmony  is  the  organization,  in  a  musical  scheme,  of  simul- 
taneous combinations  of  notes  on  principles  whereby  their  acoustic 
properties  interact  with  laws  of  rhythm  and  melody. 

7.  The  harmonic  series  is  an  infinite  series  of  notes  produced  by 
the  subdivision  of  a  vibrating  body  or  column  of  air  into  aliquot 
parts,  such  notes  being  generally  inaudible  except  in  the  form  of 
the  timbre  which  their  presence  in  various  proportions  imparts  to 
the  fundamental  note  produced  by  the  whole  vibrating  body  or 
air-column. 

8.  A  concord  is  a  combination  which,  both  by  its  acoustic  smooth- 
ness and  by  its  logical  origin  and  purpose  in  a  musical  scheme,  can 
form  a  point  of  repose. 

9.  A  discord  is  a  combination  in  which  both  its  logical  origin  in  a 
musical  scheme  and  its  acoustic  roughness  show  that  it  cannot 
form  a  point  of  repose. 

10.  The  perfect  concords  and  perfect  intervals  are  those  comprised 
within  the  first  four  members  of  the  harmonic  series,  namely,  the 
octave,  as  between  numbers  I  and  2  of  the  series  (see  Ex.  I  above) ; 
the  5th,  as  between  Nos.  2  and  3;  and  the  4th,  as  between  Nos' 
3  and  4. 

11.  All  notes  exactly  one  or  more  octaves  apart  are  regarded  as 
harmonically  identical. 

12.  The  root  of  a  chord  is  that  note  from  which  the  whole  or  the 
most  important  parts  of  the  chord  appear  (if  distributed  in  the  right 
octaves)  as  members  of  the  harmonic  series. 

13.  A  chord  is  inverted  when  its  lowest  note  is  not  its  root. 

14.  The  major  triad  is  a  concord  containing  three  different  notes 
which  (octaves  being  disregarded)  are  identical  with  the  first,  third 
and  fifth  members  of  the  harmonic  series  (the  second  and  fourth 
members  being  negligible  as  octaves). 

15.  The  mino  -  '.riad  is  a  concord  containing  the  same  intervals 
as  the  major  tried  in  a  different  order;  in  consequence  it  is  artificial, 
as  one  of  its  notes  is  not  derivable  from  the  harmonic  series. 

16.  Unessential  discords  are  those  that  are  treated  purely  as  the 
phenomena  of  transition,  delay  or  ornament,  in  an  otherwise  con- 
cordant harmony. 

17.  Essential  discords  are  those  which  are  so  treated  that  the  mind 
tends  to  regard  them  as  definite  chords  possessing  roots. 

1 8.  A  key  is  an  harmonic  system  in  which  there  is  never  any 
doubt  as  to  which  note  or  triad  shall  be  the  final  note  of  music 
in  that  system,  nor  of  the  relations  between  that  note  or  chord 
and  the  other  notes  or  chords.     (In  this  sense  the  church  modes 
are  either  not  keys  or  else  they  are  subtle  mixtures  of  keys.) 

19.  This  final  note  of  a  key  is  called  its  tonic. 

20.  The  major  mode  is  that  of  keys  in  which  the  tonic  triad  and 
the  two  other  cardinal  triads  are  major. 

21.  The  minor  mode  is  that  of  keys  in  which  the  tonic  triad 
and  one  other  cardinal  triad  are  minor. 

22.  A  diatonic  scale  is  a  series  of  the  notes  essential  to  one  major 
or  minor  key,  arranged  in  order  of  pitch  and  repeating  itself  in 
other  octaves  on  reaching  the  limit  of  an  octave. 

23.  Modulation  is  the  passing  from  one  key  to  another. 

24.  Chromatic  notes  and  chords  are  those  which  do  not  belong  to 
the  diatonic  scale  of  the  passage  in  which  they  occur,  but  which  are 
not  so  used  as  to  cause  modulation. 

25.  Enharmonic    intervals    are    minute    intervals    which    never 
occur  in  music  as  directly  measured  quantities,  though  they  exist 
as   differences   between   approximately   equal   ordinary   intervals, 
diatonic  or  chromatic.     In  an  enharmonic  modulation,  two  chords 
differing  by  an  enharmonic  quantity  are  treated  as  identical. 

26.  Pedal  or  organ  point  is  the  sustaining  of  a  single  note  in  the 
bass  (or,  in  the  case  of  an  inverted  pedal,  in  an  upper  part)  while  the 
larmonies  move  independently.     Unless  the  harmonies  are  some- 
:imes  foreign  to  the  sustained  note,  it  does  not  constitute  a  pedal.     In 
modern  music  pedals  take  place  on  either  the  tonic  or  the  dominant, 
other  pedal-notes  being  rare  and  of  complex  meaning.     Double 
medals  (of  tonic  and  dominant,  with  tonic  below)  are  not  unusual. 
The  device  is  capable  of  very  free  treatment,  and  has  produced 
many  very  bold  and  rich  harmonic  effects  in  music  since  the  earlier 
works  of   Beethoven.     It   probably  accounts  for  many  so-called 

essential  discords." 

In  the  form  of  drones  the  pedal  is  the  only  real  harmonic  device 
of  ancient  and  primitive  music.     The  ancient  Greeks  sometimes 


IO 


HARMOTOME— HARNESS 


used  a  reiterated  instrumental  note  as  an  accompaniment  above 
the  melody.  These  primitive  devices,  though  harmonic  in  the  true 
modern  sense  of  the  word,  are  out  of  the  line  of  harmonic  develop- 
ment, and  did  not  help  it  in  any  definite  way. 

27.  The  fundamental  bass  of  a  harmonic  passage  is  an  imaginary 
bass  consisting  of  the  roots  of  the  chords. 

28.  A  figured  bass,  or  continue,  is  the  bass  of  a  composition  supplied 
with  numerals  indicating  the  chords  to  be  filled  in  by  the  accompanist. 
Thorough-bass   (Ger.   Generalbass)   is  the  art  of  interpreting  such 
figures.  (D.  F.  T.) 

HARMOTOME,  a  mineral  of  the  zeolite  group,  consisting  of 
hydrous  barium  and  aluminium  silicate,  HsBaAi^SiOs^+SHjO. 
Usually  a  small  amount  of  potassium  is  present  replacing  part 

of  the  barium.  The  system  of 
crystallization  is  monoclinic;  only 
complex  twinned  crystals  are 
known.  A  common  and  character- 
istic form  of  twinned  crystal,  such 
as  is  represented  in  the  figure,  con- 
sists of  four  intercrossing  indi- 
viduals twinned  together  according 
to  two  twin-laws;  the  compound 
group  resembles  a  tetragonal  crystal 
with  prism  and  pyramid,  but  may 
be  distinguished  from  this  by  the 
grooves  along  the  edges  of  the 
pseudo-prism.  The  faces  of  the 
crystals  are  marked  by  character- 
istic striations,  as  indicated  in  the  figure.  Twinned  crystals  of 
exactly  the  same  kind  are  also  frequent  in  phillipsite  (q.v.). 
Crystals  are  usually  white  and  translucent,  with  a  vitreous 
lustre.  The  hardness  is  45,  and  the  specific  gravity  2-5. 

The  name  harmotome  (from  dp^os,  "  a  joint,"  and  Ttpvuv, 
"  to  cut  ")  was  given  by  R.  J.  Haiiy  in  1801,  and  has  a  crystallo- 
graphic  signification.  Earlier  names  are  cross-stone  (Ger. 
Kreuzstein) ,  ercinite,  andreasbergolite  and  andreolite,  the  two 
last  being  derived  from  the  locality,  Andreasberg  in  the  Harz. 
Morvenite  (from  Morven  in  Argyllshire)  is  the  name  given  to 
small  transparent  crystals  formerly  referred  to  phillipsite. 

Like  other  zeolites,  harmotome  occurs  with  calcite  in  the 
amygdaloidal  cavities  of  volcanic  rocks,  for  example,  in  the 
dolerites  of  Dumbartonshire,  and  as  fine  crystals  in  the  agate- 
lined  cavities  in  the  melaphyre  of  Oberstein  in  Germany.  It 
also  occurs  in  gneiss,  and  sometimes  in  metalliferous  veins. 
At  Andreasberg  in  the  Harz  it  is  found  in  the  lead  and  silver 
veins;  and  at  Strontian  in  Argyllshire  in  lead  veins,  associated 
with  brewsterite  (a  strontium  and  barium  zeolite),  barytes  and 
calcite.  (L.  J.  S.) 

HARMS,  CLAUS  (1778-1855),  German  divine,  was  born  at 
Fahrstedt  in  Schleswig-Holstein  on  the  25th  of  May  1778,  and 
in  his  youth  worked  in  his  father's  mill.  At  the  university  of 
Kiel  he  repudiated  the  prevailing  rationalism  and  under  the 
influence  of  Schleiermacher  became  a  fervent  Evangelical 
preacher,  first  at  Lunden  (1806),  and  then  at  Kiel  (1816).  His 
trenchant  style  made  him  very  popular,  and  he  did  great  service 
for  his  cause  especially  in  1817,  when,  on  the  3ooth  anniversary 
of  the  Reformation,  he  published  side  by  side  with  Luther's 
theses,  ninety-five  of  his  own,  attacking  reason  as  "  the  pope  of 
our  time  "  who  "  dismisses  Christ  from  the  altar  and  throws 
God's  word  from  the  pulpit."  He  also  had  some  fame  as  a  hymn- 
writer,  and  besides  volumes  of  sermons  published  a  good  book  on 
Pastoraltheologie  (1830).  He  resigned  his  pastorate  on  account 
of  blindness  in  1849,  and  died  on  the  ist  of  February  1855. 

See  Autobiography  (2nd  ed.,  Kiel,  1852);  M.  Baumgarten,  Bin 
Denkmalfur  C.  Harms  (Brunswick,  1855). 

HARNACK,  ADOLF  (1851-  ),  German  theologian,  was  born 
on  the  7th  of  May  1851  at  Dorpat,  in  Russia,  where  his  father, 
Theodosius  Harnack  (1817-1889),  held  a  professorship  of  pastoral 
theology. 

Theodosius  Harnack  was  a  staunch  Lutheran  and  a  prolific 
writer  on  theological  subjects;  his  chief  field  of  work  was 
practical  theology,  and  his  important  book  on  that  subject, 
summing  up  his  long  experience  and  teaching,  appeared  at 


Eriangen  (1877-1878,  2  vols.).  The  liturgy  of  the  Lutheran 
church  of  Russia  has,  since  1898,  been  based  on  his  Liturgische 
Formulare  (1872). 

The  son  pursued  his  studies  at  Dorpat  (1869-1872)  and  at 
Leipzig,  where  he  took  his  degree;  and  soon  afterwards  (1874) 
began  lecturing  as  a  Privatdozent.  These  lectures,  which  dealt 
with  such  special  subjects  as  Gnosticism  and  the  Apocalypse, 
attracted  considerable  attention,  and  in  1876  he  was  appointed 
professor  extraordinarius.  In  the  same  year  he  began  the  publica- 
tion, in  conjunction  with  O.  L.  von  Gebhardt  and  T.  Zahn,  of 
an  edition  of  the  works  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  Patrum  apostoli- 
corum  opera,  a  smaller  edition  of  which  appeared  in  1877. 
Three  years  later  he  was  called  to  Giessen  as  professor  ordinarius 
of  church  history.  There  he  collaborated  with  Oscar  Leopold 
von  Gebhardt  in  Texte  und  U  nlersuchungen  zur  Geschichte  der 
altchristlichen  Litleratur  (1882  sqq.),  an  irregular  periodical,  con- 
taining only  essays  in  New  Testament  and  patristic  fields.  In 
1 88 1  he  published  a  work  on  monasticism,  Das  Monchtum,  seine 
Ideale  und  seine  Geschichte  (sth  ed.,  1900;  English  translation, 
1901),  and  became  joint-editor  with  Emil  Schurer  of  the 
Theologische  Literaturzeitung.  In  1885  he  published  the  first 
volume  of  his  epoch-making  work,  Lehrbuch  der  Dogmengeschichte 
(3rd  ed.  in  three  volumes,  1894-1898;  English  translation  in 
seven  volumes,  1894-1899).  In  this  work  Harnack  traces  the 
rise  of  dogma,  by  which  he  understands  the  authoritative 
doctrinal  system  of  the  4th  century  and  its  development  down 
to  the  Reformation.  He  considers  that  in  its  earliest  origins 
Christian  faith  and  the  methods  of  Greek  thought  were  so 
closely  intermingled  that  much  that  is  not  essential  to  Chris- 
tianity found  its  way  into  the  resultant  system.  Therefore 
Protestants  are  not  only  free,  but  bound,  to  criticize  it;  indeed, 
for  a  Protestant  Christian,  dogma  cannot  be  said  to  exist.  An 
abridgment  of  this  appeared  in  1889  with  the  title  Grundriss 
der  Dogmengeschichte  (3rd  ed.,  1898).  In  1886  Harnack  was 
called  to  Marburg;  and  in  1888,  in  spite  of  violent  opposition 
from  the  conservative  section  of  the  church  authorities,  to 
Berlin.  In  1890  he  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
At  Berlin,  somewhat  against  his  will,  he  was  drawn  into  a 
controversy  on  the  Apostles'  Creed,  in  which  the  party  antagon- 
isms within  the  Prussian  Church  had  found  expression.  Harnack 's 
view  is  that  the  creed  contains  both  too  much  and  too  little  to 
be  a  satisfactory  test  for  candidates  for  ordination,  and  he 
would  prefer  a  briefer  symbol  which  could  be  rigorously  exacted 
from  all  (cf.  his  Das  apostolische  Glaubensbekenntnis.  Ein 
geschichtlicher  Bericht  nebst  einem  Nachworte,  1892;  27th  ed., 
1896).  At  Berlin  Harnack  continued  his  literary  labours.  In 
1893  he  published  a  history  of  early  Christian  literature  down 
to  Eusebius,  Geschichte  der  altchrisll.  Litteratur  bis  Eusebius 
(part  2  of  vol.  i.,  1897);  and  in  1900  appeared  his  popular 
lectures,  Das  Wesen  des  Christentums  (sth  ed.,  1901;  English 
translation,  What  is  Christianity?  1901;  3rd  ed.,  1904).  One 
of  his  more  recent  historical  works  is  Die  Mission  und  Ausbreitung 
des  Christentums  in  den  ersten  drei  J ahrhunderten  (1902;  English 
translation  in  two  volumes,  1904-1905).  It  has  been  followed 
by  some  very  interesting  and  important  New  Testament  studies 
(Beitrage  zur  Einleilung  in  das  neue  Testament,  1906  sqq.;  Engl. 
trans.:  Luke  the  Physician,  1907;  Tke  Savings  of  Jesus,  1908). 
Harnack,  both  as  lecturer  and  writer,  was  one  of  the  most 
prolific  and  most  stimulating  of  modern  critical  scholars,  and 
trained  up  in  his  "  Seminar  "  a  whole  generation  of  teachers, 
who  carried  his  ideas  and  methods  throughout  the  whole  of 
Germany  and  even  beyond  its  borders.  His  distinctive  character- 
istics are  his  claim  for  absolute  freedom  in  the  study  of  church 
history  and  the  New  Testament;  his  distrust  of  speculative 
theology,  whether  orthodox  or  liberal;  his  interest  in  practical 
Christianity  as  a  religious  life  and  not  a  system  of  theology. 
Some  of  his  addresses  on  social  matters  have  been  published 
under  the  heading  "  Essays  on  the  Social  Gospel  "  (1907). 

HARNESS  (from  O.  Fr.  harneis  or  harnois;  the  ultimate  origin 
is  obscure;  the  Celtic  origin  which  connects  it  with  the  Welsh 
haiarn,  iron,  has  phonetic  and  other  difficulties;  the  French  is 
the  origin  of  the  Span,  arnes,  and  Ger.  Harnisch),  probably,  in 


HARO— HARP 


n 


origin,  gear,  tackle,  equipment  in  general,  but  early  applied 
particularly  to  the  body  armour  of  a  soldier,  including  the 
trappings  of  the  horse;  now  the  general  term  for  the  gear  of  an 
animal  used  for  draft  purposes,  traces,  collar,  bridle,  girth, 
breeching,  &c.  It  is  usually  not  applied  to  the  saddle  or  bridle 
of  a  riding  animal.  The  word,  in  its  original  meaning  of  tackle 
or  working  apparatus,  is  still  found  in  weaving,  for  the  mechanism 
which  shifts  the  warp-threads  to  form  the  "  shed,"  and  in 
bell-hanging,  for  the  apparatus  by  which  a  large  bell  is  hung. 
The  New  English  Dictionary  quotes  an  early  use  of  the  word  for 
the  lines,  rod  and  hooks  of  an  angler  (Fysshing  with  an  Angle, 

c.  145°)- 

HARO,  CLAMEUR  DE,  the  ancient  Norman  custom  of  "  crying 
for  justice,"  still  surviving  in  the  Channel  Islands.  The  wronged 
party  must  on  his  knees  and  before  witnesses  cry:  "Haro! 
Haro!  Haro!  a  1'aide,  mon  prince,  on  me  fait  tort."  This 
appeal  has  to  be  respected,  and  the  alleged  trespass  or  tort 
must  cease  till  the  matter  has  been  thrashed  out  in  the  courts. 
The  "  cry  "  thus  acts  as  an  interim  injunction,  and  no  inhabitant 
of  the  Channel  Islands  would  think  of  resisting  it.  The  custom 
is  undoubtedly  very  ancient,  dating  from  times  when  there 
were  no  courts  and  no  justice  except  such  as  was  meted  out  by 
princes  personally.  The  popular  derivation  for  the  name  is 
that  which  explains  "Haro"  as  an  abbreviation  of  "Ha! 
Rollo,"  a  direct  appeal  to  Rollo,  first  duke  of  Normandy.  It 
is  far  more  probable  that  haro  is  simply  an  exclamation  to  call 
attention  (O.H.G.  hera,  hara,  "here"!).  Indeed  it  is  clear 
that  the  "  cry  for  justice  "  was  in  no  sense  an  institution  of 
Rollo,  but  was  a  method  of  appeal  recognized  in  many  countries. 
It  is  said  to  be  identical  with  the  "  Legatro  of  the  Bavarians 
and  the  Thuringians,"  and  the  first  mention  of  it  in  France  is 
to  be  found  in  the  "  Grand  coutumier  de  Normandie."  A 
similar  custom,  only  observed  in  criminal  charges,  was  recognized 
by  the  Saxon  laws  under  the  name  of  "  Clamor  Violentiae." 
Thus  there  is  reason  to  think  that  William  the  Conqueror  on  his 
arrival  in  England  found  the  "  cry  "  fully  established  as  far  as 
criminal  matters  were  concerned.  Later  the  "  cry  "  was  made 
applicable  to  civil  wrongs,  and,  when  the  administration  of 
justice  became  systematized,  disappeared  altogether  in  criminal 
cases.  It  naturally  tended  to  become  obsolete  as  the  administra- 
tion of  justice  became  systematized,  but  it  was  long  retained 
in  north-western  France  in  cases  of  disputed  possession, 
and  was  not  actually  repealed  until  the  close  of  the  i8th 
century.  A  survival  of  the  English  form  of  haro  is  possibly  to 
be  found  in  the  "  Ara,"  a  cry  at  fairs  when  "  settling  time  " 
arrived. 

HAROLD  I.  (d.  1040),  surnamed  Harefopt,  the  illegitimate 
son  of  Canute,  king  of  England,  and  ^Elfgifu  of  Northampton. 
On  the  death  of  his  father  in  1035,  he  claimed  the  crown  of 
England  in  opposition  to  Canute's  legitimate  son,  Hardicanute. 
His  claims  were  supported  by  Leofric,  earl  of  Mercia,  and  the 
north;  those  of  Hardicanute  by  his  mother,  Queen  Emma, 
Godwine,  earl  of  the  West-Saxons  and  the  south.  Eventually 
Harold  was  temporarily  elected  regent,  pending  a  final  settle- 
ment on  Hardicanufe's  return  from  Denmark.  Hardicanute, 
however,  tarried,  and  meanwhile  Harold's  party  increased 
rapidly.  In  1037  he  was  definitely  elected  king,  and  banished 
Emma  from  the  kingdom.  The  only  events  of  his  brief  reign 
are  ineffectual  inroads  of  the  Welsh  and  Scots.  Hardicanute 
was  preparing  to  invade  England  in  support  of  his  claims  when 
Harold  died  at  Oxford  on  the  loth  of  March  1040. 

HAROLD  II.  (c.  1022-1066),  king  of  the  English,  the  second 
son  of  Earl  Godwine,  was  born  about  1022.  While  still  very 
young  (before  1045)  he  was  appointed  to  the  earldom  of  the 
East-Angles.  He  snared  his  father's  outlawry  and  banishment 
in  1051;  but  while  Godwine  went  to  Flanders,  Harold  with  his 
brother  Leofwine  took  refuge  in  Ireland.  In  1052  Harold  and 
Leofwine  returned.  Having  plundered  in  the  west  of  England, 
they  joined  their  father,  and  were  with  him  at  the  assembly 
which  decreed  the  restoration  of  the  whole  family.  Harold 
was  now  restored  to  his  earldom  of  the  East-Angles,  and  on  his 
father's  death  in  1053  he  succeeded  him  in  the  greater  earldom 


of  the  West-Saxons.  He  was  now  the  chief  man  in  the  kingdom, 
and  when  the  older  earls  Leofric  and  Siward  died  his  power 
increased  yet  more,  and  the  latter  part  of  Edward's  reign  was 
virtually  the  reign  of  Harold.  In  1055  he  drove  back  the  Welsh, 
who  had  burned  Hereford.  In  1063  came  the  great  Welsh  war, 
in  which  Harold,  with  the  help  of  his  brother  Tostig,  crushed  the 
power  of  Gruffyd,  who  was  killed  by  his  own  people.  But  in 
spite  of  his  power  and  his  prowess,  Harold  was  the  minister  of 
the  king  rather  than  his  personal  favourite.  This  latter  position 
rather  belonged  to  Tostig,  who  on  the  death  of  Siward  in  1053 
received  the  earldom  of  Northumberland.  Here,  however, 
his  harshness  soon  provoked  enmity,  and  in  1065  the  North- 
umbrians revolted  against  him,  choosing  Morkere  in  his  place. 
Harold  acted  as  mediator  between  the  king  and  the  insurgents, 
and  at  length  agreed  to  the  choice  of  Morkere,  and  the  banish- 
ment of  his  brother.  At  the  beginning  of  1066  Edward  died, 
with  his  last  breath  recommending  Harold  as  his  successor. 
He  was  accordingly  elected  at  once  and  crowned.  The  men 
of  Northumberland  at  first  refused  to  acknowledge  him,  but 
Harold  won  them  over.  The  rest  of  his  brief  reign  was  taken 
up  with  preparations  against  the  attacks  which  threatened 
him  on  both  sides  at  once.  William  challenged  the  crown, 
alleging  both  a  bequest  of  Edward  in  his  favour  and  a  personal 
engagement  which  Harold  had  contracted  towards  him — 
probably  in  1064;  and  prepared  for  the  invasion  of  England. 
Meanwhile  Tostig  was  trying  all  means  to  bring  about  his  own 
restoration.  He  first  attacked  the  Isle  of  Wight,  then  Lindesey, 
but  was  compelled  to  take  shelter  in  Scotland.  From  May  to 
September  the  king  kept  the  coast  with  a  great  force  by  sea 
and  land,  but  at  last  provisions  failed  and  the  land  army  was 
dispersed.  Harold  then  came  to  London,  ready  to 'meet  which- 
ever enemy  came  first.  By  this  time  Tostig  had  engaged  Harold 
Hardrada  of  Norway  to  invade  England.  Together  they  sailed 
up  the  Humber,  defeated  Edwin  and  Morkere,  and  received  the 
submission  of  York.  Harold  hurried  northwards;  and  on  the 
25th  of  September  he  came  on  the  Northmen  at  Stamford 
Bridge  and  won  a  complete  victory,  in  which  Tostig  and  Harold 
Hardrada  were  slain.  But  two  days  later  William  landed  at 
Pevensey.  Harold  marched  southward  as  fast  as  possible.  He 
gathered  his  army  in  London  from  all  southern  and  eastern 
England,  but  Edwin  and  Morkere  kept  back  the  forces  of  the 
north.  The  king  then  marched  into  Sussex  and  engaged  the 
Normans  on  the  hill  of  Senlac  near  Battle  (see  HASTINGS).  After 
a  fight  which  lasted  from  morning  till  evening,  the  Normans  had 
the  victory,  and  Harold  and  his  two  brothers  lay  dead  on  the 
field  (i4th  of  October  1066).  . 

HARP  (Fr.  harpe;  Ger.  Harfe;  Ital.  arpa),  a  member  of  the 
class  of  stringed  instruments  of  which  the  strings  are  twanged  or 
vibrated  by  the  fingers.  The  harp  is  an  instrument  of  beautiful 
proportions,  approximating  to  a  triangular  form,  the  strings 
diminishing  in  length  as  they  ascend  in  pitch.  The  mechanism 
is  concealed  within  the  different  parts  of  which  the  instrument 
is  composed,  (i)  the  pedestal  or  pedal-box,  on  which  rest  (2)  the 
vertical  pillar,  and  (3)  the  inclined  convex  body  in  which  the 
soundboard  is  fixed,  (4)  the  curved  neck,  with  (5)  the  comb 
concealing  the  mechanism  for  stopping  the  strings,  supported 
by  the  pillar  and  the  body. 

(1)  The  pedestal  or  pedal-box^  forms  the  base  of  the  harp  and 
contains  seven  pedals  both  in  single  and  double  action  harps,  the 
difference  being  that  in  the  single  action  the  pedals  are  only  capable 
of  raising  the  strings  one  semitone  by  means  of  a  drop  into  a  notch, 
whereas  with  the  double  action  the  pedals,  after  a  first  drop,  can  by 
a  further  drop  into  a  second  and  lower  notch  shorten  the  string  a 
second  semitone,  whereby  each  string  is  made  to  serve  in  turn  for 
flat,  natural  and  sharp.     The  harp  is  normally  in  the  key  of  C  flat 
major,  and  each  of  the  seven  pedals  acts  upon  one  of  the  notes  of 
this  diatonic  scale  throughout  the  compass.     The  choice  of  this 
method  of  tuning  was  imposed  by  the  construction  of  the  harp  with 
double  action.     The  pedals  remain  in  the  notches  until  released  by 
the  foot,  when  the  pedal  returns  to  its  normal  position  through  the 
action  of  a  spiral  spring,  which  may  be  seen  under  each  of  the  pedals 
by  turning  the  harp  up. 

(2)  The  vertical  pillar  is  a  kind  of  tunnel  in  which  are  placed  the 
seven  rods  worked  by  the  pedals,  which  set  in  motion  the  mechanism 
situated  in  the  neck  of  the  instrument.    Although  the  pillar  apparently 


12 


HARP 


rests  on  the  pedestal,  it  is  really  supported  by  a  brass  shoulder  firmly 
screwed  to  the  beam  which  forms  the  lowest  part  of  the  body,  a 
connexion  which  remains  undisturbed  when  the  pedal  box  and  its 
cover  are  removed. 

(3)  The  body  or  sound-chest  of  the  harp  is  in  shape  like  the  longi- 
tudinal section  of  a  cone.    It  was  formerly  composed  of  staves  joined 
together  as  in  the  lute  and  mandoline.    Erard  was  the  first  to  make 
it  in  two  pieces  of  wood,  generally  sycamore,  with  the  addition  of  a 
flat  soundboard   of  Swiss  pine.     The  body  is  strengthened  on  the 
inside,  in  order  to  resist  the  tension  of  the  strings,  by  means  of  ribs; 
there  are  five  soundholes  in  the  back,  which  in  the  older  models  were 
furnished  with  swell  shutters  opened  at  will  by  the  swell  pedal,  the 
fourth  from  the  left  worked  by  the  left  foot.     As  the  increase  of 
sound  obtained  by  means  of  the  swell  was  infinitesimal,  the  device 
has  now  been  discarded.    The  harp  is  strung  by  knotting  the  end  of 
the  string  and  passing  it  through  its  hole  in  the  centre  of  the  sound- 
board, where  it  is  kept  in  position  by  means  cf  a  grooved  peg  which 
grips  the  string. 

(4)  The  neck  consists  of  a  curved  piece  of  wood  resting  on  the  body 
at  the  treble  end  of  the  instrument  and  joining  the  pillar  at  the  bass 
end.    In  the  neck  are  set  the  tuning  pins  round  which  are  wound  the 
strings. 

(5)  The  comb  is  the  name  given  to  two  brass  plates  or  covers 
which  fit  over  both  sides  of  the  neck,  concealing  part  of  the  mechan- 
ism for  shortening  the  strings  and  raising  their  pitch  a  semitone 
when  actuated  by  the  pedals.    On  the  front  plate  of  the  comb,  to  the 
left  of  the  player,  is  a  row  of  brass  bridges  against  which  the  strings 
rest  below  the  tuning  pins,  and  which  determine  the  vibrating  length 
of  the  string  reckoned  from  the  peg  in  the  soundboard.     Below  the 
bridges  are  two  rows  of  brass  disks,  known  as  forks,  connected  by 
steel  levers;  each  disk  is  equipped  with  two  studs  for  grasping  the 
string  and  shortening  it.     The  mechanism  is  ingenious.     When  a 
pedal  is  depressed  to  the  first  notch,  the  corresponding  lower  disk 
turns  a  little  way  on  a  mandrel  keeping  the  studs  clear  of  the  string. 
The  upper  disk,  set  in  motion  by  the  steel  levers  connecting  the  disks, 
revolves  simultaneously  till  the  string  is  caught  by  the  two  studs 
which  thus  form  a  new  bridge,  shortening  the  vibrating  length  of 
the  string  by  just  the  length  necessary  to  raise  the  pitch  a  semitone. 
If  the  same  pedal  be  depressed  to  the  second  notch,  another  move- 
ment causes  the  lower  disk  to  revolve  again  till  the  string  is  a  second 
time  seized  and  shortened,  the  upper  disk  remaining  stationary. 
The  hidden   mechanism  meanwhile  has  gone  through  a  series  of 
movements;  the  pedal  is  really  a  lever  set  upon  a  spring,  and  when 
depressed  it  draws  down  the  connecting  rod  in  the  pillar  which  sets 
in  motion  chains  governing  the  mandrels  of  the  disks. 

The  harp  usually  has  forty-six  strings,  of  gut  in  the  middle  and 
upper  registers,  and  of  covered  steel  wire  in  the  bass;  the  C  strings 
are  red  and  the  F  strings  blue.  The  compass  thus  has  a  range  of 


octaves  from 


The  double  stave  is 


used  as  for  the  pianoforte.  The  single  action  harp  used  to  be  tuned 
to  the  key  of  Efc>  major. 

The  modern  harp  with  double  action  is  the  only  instrument  with 
fixed  tones,  not  determined  by  the  ear  or  touch  of  the  performer, 
which  has  separate  notes  for  naturals,  sharps  and  flats,  giving  it  an 
enharmonic  compass.  On  the  harp  the  appreciable  interval  between 
D#  and  El>  can  be  played.  The  harp  in  its  normal  condition  is  tuned 
to  Ct>  major;  it  rests  with  the  performer  to  transpose  it  at  will  in  a 
few  seconds  into  any  other  key  by  means  of  the  pedals.  Each  of  the 
pedals  influences  one  note  of  the  scale  throughout  the  compass, 
beginning  at  the  left  with  D,  C,  and  B  worked  by  the  left  foot. 
Missing  the  fourth  or  forte  pedal,  and  continuing  towards  the  right 
we  get  the  E,  F,  G  and  A  pedals  worked  by  the  right  foot.  By 
lowering  the  D  pedal  into  the  first  notch  the  Db  becomes  Dti,  and 
into  the  second  notch  D#,  and  so  on  for  all  the  pedals.  If,  for 
example,  a  piece  be  written  in  the  key  of  E  major,  the  harp  is  trans- 
posed into  that  key  by  depressing  the  E,  A,  and  B  pedals  to  the  first 
notch,  and  those  for  F,  G,  C  and  D  to  the  second  or  sharp  notch  and 
so  on  through  all  the  keys.  Accidentals  and  modulations  are 
readily  played  by  means  of  the  pedals,  provided  the  transitions  be 
not  too  rapid.  The  harp  is  the  instrument  upon  which  transposition 
presents  the  least  difficulty,  for  the  fingering  is  the  same  for  all 
keys.  The  strings  are  twanged  with  the  thumbs  and  the  first  three 
fingers. 

The  quality  of  tone  does  not  vary  much  in  the  different  registers, 
but  it  has  the  greatest  brilliancy  in  keys  with  many  flats,  for  the 
strings  are  then  open  and  not  shortened  by  the  forks.  Various 
effects  can  be  obtained  on  the  harp:  (i)  by  harmonics,  (2)  by  damp- 
ing, (3)  by  guitar  tones,  (4)  by  the  glissando.  (i)  Harmonics  are 
produced  by  resting  the  ball  of  the  hand  on  the  middle  of  the  string 
and  setting  it  in  vibration  by  the  thumb  or  the  first  two  fingers  of 
the  same  hand,  whereby  a  mysterious  and  beautiful  tone  is  obtained. 
Two  or  three  harmonics  can  be  played  together  with  the  left  hand, 
and  by  using  both  hands  at  once  as  many  as  four  are  possible. 
(2)  Damping  is  effected  by  laying  the  palm  against  the  string  in  the 


bass  and  the  back  of  the  finger  in  the  treble.  (3)  Guitar  or  pizzicato 
notes  are  obtained  by  twanging  the  strings  sharply  at  the  lower  end 
near  the  soundboard  with  the  nails.  (4)  The  glissando  effect  is 
produced,  as  on  the  pianoforte,  by  sliding  the  thumb  or  finger  along 
the  strings  in  quick  succession;  this  does  not  necessarily  give  the 
diatonic  scale,  for  by  means  of  the  pedals  the  harp  can  be  tuned 
beforehand  to  chords.  It  is  possible  to  play  on  the  harp  all  kinds  of 
diatonic  and  arpeggio  passages,  but  no  chromatic,  except  in  very 
slow  tempo,  on  account  of  the  time  required  by  the  mechanism  of 
the  pedals;  and  chords  of  three  or  four  notes  in  each  hand,  shakes, 
turns,  successions  of  double  notes  can  be  easily  acquired.  The  same 
note  can  also  be  repeated  slowly  or  quickly,  the  next  string  being 
tuned  to  a  duplicate  note,  and  the  two  strings  plucked  alternately 
in  order  to  give  the  string  time  to  vibrate. 

Pleyel's  chromatic  harp,  patented  in  1894  ar>d  improved  in  1903 
by  Gustave  Lyon,  manager  of  the  firm  of  Pleyel,  Wolff  &  Co.,  is 
an  instrument  practically  without  mechanism  which  has  already 
won  great  favour  in  France  and  Belgium,  notably  in  the  orchestra. 
It  has  been  constructed  on  the  familiar  lines  of  the  pianoforte. 
Henry  Pape,  a  piano  manufacturer,  had  in  1845  conceived  the  idea 
of  a  chromatic  harp  of,  which  the  strings  crossed  in  the  centre  as  in 
the  piano,  and  a  report  on  the  construction  was  published  at  the 
time;  the  instrument,  however,  was  not  considered  successful,  and 
was  relegated  to  oblivion  until  Mr  Lyon  revised  the  matter  and 
brought  out  a  successful  and  practical  instrument.  The  advantages 
claimed  for  this  harp  are  the  abandonment  of  the  whole  pedal 
mechanism,  a  metal  framing  which  insures  the  strings  keeping  in 
tune  as  long  as  those  of  a  piano,  and  an  easily  acquired  technique. 
The  chromatic  harp  consists  of  (i)  a  pedestal  on  castors,  (2)  a  steel 
pillar  without  internal  mechanism,  (3)  a  wide  neck  containing  two 
brass  wrest-planks  in  which  are  fixed  two  rows  of  tuning  pins,  and 
(4)  a  soundchest  in  which  is  firmly  riveted  the  steel  plate  to  which 
the  strings  are  fastened,  and  the  soundboard  pierced  with  eyelet 
holes  through  which  the  strings  are  drawn  to  the  string  plate.  There 
is  a  string  for  every  chromatic  semitone  of  the  scale  of  C  major,  the 
white  strings  representing  the  white  keys  of  the  piano  keyboard, 
and  the  black  strings  corresponding  to  the  black  keys.  The  tuning 
pins  for  the  black  strings  are  set  in  the  left  side  of  the  neck  in  alternate 
groups  of  twos  and  threes,  and  those  for  the  white  in  the  right  side 
in  alternate  groups  of  threes  and  fours.  The  strings  cross  half-way 
between  neck  and  soundboard,  this  being  the  point  where  they  are 
plucked;  the  left  hand  finds  the  black  notes  above,  and  the  right 
hand  below  the  crossing.  There  is  besides  in  the  neck  a  set  of  twelve 
tuning  buttons,  each  one  of  which  on  being  pressed  gives  out  one 
note  of  the  chromatic  scale  tuned  to  the  pitch  of  the  diapason  normal. 
It  is  obvious  that  the  repertoire  for  this  harp  is  very  extensive, 
including  many  compositions  written  for  the  piano,  which  however 
cannot  be  played  with  any  legato  effects,  these  being  still  impossible 
on  this  chromatic  harp. 

History. — While  the  instrument  is  of  great  antiquity,  it  is  yet 
from  northern  Europe  that  the  modern  harp  and  its  name  are  derived. 
The  Greeks  and  Romans  preferred  to  it  the  lyre  in  its  different 
varieties,  and  a  Latin  writer,  Venantius  Fortunatus,1  describes  it  in 
the  7th  century  of  our  era  as  an  instrument  of  the  barbarians — 
"  Romanusque  lyra,  plaudat  tibi  barbarus  harpa."  This  is  believed 
to  be  the  earliest  mention  of  the  name,  which  is  clearly  Teutonic, — 
O.H.Ger.  harapha,  A.-S.  hearpe,  Old  Norse  harpa.  The  modern 
Fr.  harpe  retains  the  aspirate;  in  the  Spanish  and  Italian  arpa  it  is 
dropped. 

The  earliest  delineations  of  the  harp  in  Egypt  give  no  indication 
that  it  had  not  existed  long  before.  There  are,  indeed,  representa- 
tions in  Egyptian  paintings  of  stringed  instruments  of  a  bow-form 
having  affinities  with  both  primitive  harp  and  nefer  (a  kind  of  oval 
guitar)  that  support  the  idea  of  the  invention  of  the  harp  from 
the  tense  string  of  the 
warrior's  or  hunter's 
bow.  This  primitive- 
looking  instrument, 
called  nanga,  had  a  boat- 
shaped  sound-chest  with 
a  parchment  or  skin 
soundboard,  down  the 
centre  of  which  one  end 
of  the  string  was  fas- 
tened to  a  strip  of  wood, 
whilst  the  other  was 
wound  round  pegs  in  • 
the  upper  part  of  the  p 

bow.      The   nanga  was  <IG°  '• 

played  horizontally,  being  borne  upon  the  performer's  shoulder.1 
Between  it  and  the  grand  vertical  harps  in  the  frescos  of  the  time  of 
Rameses  III.,  more  than  3000  years  old,  discovered  by  the  traveller 
Bruce3  (fig.  i),  there  are  varieties  that  permit  us  to  bind  the  whole, 


1  Poemala,  lib.  vii.  cap.  8,  p.  245,  Migne's  Patrologiae  cursus 
completes  (Paris,  1857-1866,  vol.  88). 

1 A  few  nangas  (c.  1500  B.C.)  are  preserved  among  the  Egyptian 
antiquities  at  the  British  Museum,  fourth  Egyptian  room. 

*  Bruce's  harps  are  reproduced  by  Champollion,  tome  iii.  p.  261. 


HARP 


from  the  simplest  bow-form  to  the  almost  triangular  harp,  into  one 
family  (see  fig.  2). 

The  Egyptian  harp  had  no  front  pillar,  and  as  it  was  strung  with 
catgut  the  tension  and  pitch  must  necessarily  have  been  low.  The 

harps  above  -  mentioned 
depicted  in  the  tomb  at 
Thebes,  assumed  from 
the  players  to  be  more 
than  6  ft.  high,  have  not 
many  strings,  the  one 
having  ten,  the  other 
thirteen.  What  the 
,  accordance  of  these  strings 
I  was  it  would  be  hard  to 
recover.  We  must  be 
content  with  the  know- 
ledge that  the  old 
Egyptians  possessed  harps 
in  principle  like  our 
..,  own,  the  largest  having 

pedestals  upon  which  they 

bestowed  a  wealth  of  decoration,  as  if  to  show  how  much  they 
prized  them. 

The  ancient  Assyrians  had  harps  like  those  of  Egypt  in  being 
without  a  front  pillar,  but  differing  from  them  in  having  the  sound- 
body  uppermost,  in  which  we  find  the  early  use  of  soundholes; 
while  the  lower  portion  was  a  bar  to  which  the  strings  were  tied  and 
by  means  of  which  the  tuning  was  apparently  effected.1  What  the 
Hebrew  harp  was,  whether  it  followed  the  Egyptian  or  the  Assyrian, 
we  do  not  know.  That  King  David  played  upon  the  harp  as  com- 
monly depicted  is  rather  a  modern  idea.  Medieval  artists  frequently 
gave  King  David  the  psaltery,  a  horizontal  stringed  instrument  from 
which  has  gradually  developed  the  modern  piano.  The  Hebrew 
"  kinnor  "  may  have  been  a  kind  ot  trigonon,  a  triangular  stringed 
instrument  between  a  small  harp  and  a  psaltery,  sounded  by  a 
plectrum,  or  more  probably,  as  advocated  by  Dr  Stainer  in  his  essay 
on  the  music  of  the  Bible,  a  kind  of  lyre. 

The  earliest  records  that  we  possess  of  the  Celtic  race,  whether 
Gaelic  or  Cymric,  give  the  harp  a  prominent  place  and  harpists 
peculiar  veneration  and  distinction.  The  names  for  the  harp  are, 
however,  quite  different  from  the  Teutonic.  The  Irish  "  clairseach," 
the  Highland  Scottish  "  clarsach,"  the  Welsh,  Cornish,  Breton 
"  telyn,  '  "  telein,"  "  te'Ien,"  show  no  etymological  kinship  to  the 
other  European  names.  The  first  syllable  in  clairseach  or  clarsach 
is  derived  from  the  Gaelic  "  clar,"  a  board  or  table  (soundboard), 
while  the  first  syllable  of  telyn  is  distinctly  Old  Welsh,  and  has  a 
tensile  meaning;  thus  resonance  supplies  the  one  idea,  tension 
the  other. 

The  literature  of  these  Celtic  harps  may  be  most  directly  found  in 
Bunting's  Ancient  Music  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1840),  Gunn's  His- 
torical Enquiry  respecting  the  Performance  on  the  Harp  in  the  Highlands 
of  Scotland  (Edinburgh,  1807),  and  E.  Jones's  Musical  and  Poetical 
Memoirs  of  the  Welsh  Bards  (London,  1784).  The  treatises  of  Walker, 
Dalyell,  and  others  may  also  be  consulted ;  but  in  all  these  authorities 
due  care  must  be  taken  of  the  bias  of  patriotism,  and  the  delusive 
aim  to  reconstruct  much  that  we  must  be  content  to  receive  as  only 
vaguely  indicated  in  records  and  old  monuments.  There  is,  however, 
one  early  Irish  monument  about  which  there  can  be  no  mistake,  the 
harp  upon  a  cross  belonging  to  the  ancient  church  of  Ullard  near 
Kilkenny,  the  date  of  which  cannot  be  later  than  830;  the  sculpture 
is  rude,  but  the  instrument  is  clearly  shown  by  the  drawing  in 
Bunting's  work  to  have  no  front  pillar.  This  remarkable  structural 
likeness  to  the  old  harps  of  Egypt  and  Assyria  may  be  accidental, 
but  permits  the  plausible  hypothesis  of  Eastern  descent.  The  oldest 
specimen  of  the  beautiful  form  by  which  the  Irish  harp  is  now 
recognized,  with  gracefully  curved  front  pillar  and  sweep  of  neck 
(the  latter  known  as  the  harmonic  curve),  is  the  famous  harp  in 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  the  possession  of  which  has  been  attributed 
to  King  Brian  Boiroimhe.  From  this  mythic  ownership  Dr  Petrie 
(see  essay  in  Bunting)  has  delivered  it;  but  he  can  only  deduce  the 
age  from  the  ornamentation  and  heraldry,  which  fix  its  date  in  the 
I4th  century  or  a  little  later.  There  is  a  cast  of  it  in  the  Victoria 
and  Albert  Museum.  The  next  oldest  is  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland, 
the  Clarsach  Lumanach,  or  Lament's  Clarschoe,  belonging,  with 
another  of  later  date,  to  the  old  Perthshire  family  of  Robertson  of 
Lude.  Both  are  described  in  detail  by  Gunn.  This  Lamont  harp 
was  taken  by  a  lady  of  that  family  from  Argyleshire  about  1460, 
on  her  marriage  into  the  family  of  Lude.  It  had  about  thirty  strings 
tuned  singly,  but  the  scale  was  sometimes  doubled  in  pairs  of  unisons 
like  lutes  and  other  contemporary  instruments.  The  Dalway  harp 
in  Ireland  (fig.  3)  inscribed  "  Ego  sum  Regina  Cithararum,"  and 
dated  1621,  appears  to  have  had  pairs  of  strings  in  the  centre  only. 
These  were  of  brass  wire,  and  played  with  the  pointed  finger-nails. 
The  Italian  contemporary  "  Arpa  Doppia  "  was  entirely  upon  the 
duplex  principle,  but  with  gut  strings  played  by  the  fleshy  ends  of 
the  fingers.  When  E.  Bunting  met  at  Belfast  in  1792  as 

'  ,RePr?scntati°ns  of  these  may  be  seen  among  the  musical  scenes 
in  the  Nimrod  Gallery  at  the  British  Museum. 


many  Irish  harpers  as  could  be  at  that  late  date  assembled,  he 
found   the  compass  of  their  harps  to  comprise 

thirty  notes  which  were  tuned  diatonically  in  the  key^f  G,  under 
certain  circumstances  transposable  to  C  and  rarely  to  D,  the  scales 
being  the  major  of  these  keys.  The  harp  first  appeared  in  the  coat 
of  arms  of  Ireland  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.;  and  some  years 
after  in  a  map  of  1567  preserved  in  a  volume  of  state  papers,  we 
find  it  truly  drawn  according  to  the  outlines  of  the  national  Irish 
instrument.2  References  to  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  are  of  neces- 
sity included  with  Ireland;  and  in  both  we  find  another  name 
erroneously  applied  by  lexicographers  to  the 
harp,  viz.  "  cruit."  Bunting  particularly 
mentions  the  "  cinnard  cruit  "  (harp  with 
a  high  head)  and  the  "  crom  cruit  "  (the 
curved  harp).  In  the  Ossianic  MSS.  of  the 
Dean  of  Lismore  (1512)  the  word  "  crwt  " 
occurs  several  times,  and  in  Neill  M 'Alpine's 
Gaelic  Dictionary  (1832),  which  gives  the 
dialect  of  Islay,  closely  related  to  that  of 
Ulster,  the  word  "  cruit  "  is  rendered 
"  harp."  The  confusion  doubtless  arose  from 
the  fact  that  from  the  nth  century  cithara 
is  glossed  hearpan  in  Anglo-Saxon  MSS.,  a 
word  which,  like  cilharisare  in  medieval 
Latin,  referred  to  plucking  or  twanging  of 
strings  in  contradistinction  to  those  instru- 
ments vibrated  by  means  of  the  bow.  In  FIG.  3. 
Irish  of  the  8th  and  gth  centuries  (Zeuss)  Irish  (Dalway)  Harp, 
cithara  is  always  glossed  by  "  crot."  The  modern  Welsh  "  crwth  " 
is  not  a  harp  but  a  "  rotta  "  (see  CROWD).  An  old  Welsh  harp, 
not  triple  strung,  exists,  which  bears  a  great  resemblance  to 
the  Irish  harp  in  neck,  soundboard  and  soundholes.  But  this 
does  not  imply  derivation  of  the  harp  of  Wales  from  that  of 
Ireland  or  the  reverse.  There  is  really  no  good  historical  evidence, 
and  there  may  have  been  a  common  or  distinct  origin  on  which 
ethnology  only  can  throw  light.3  The  Welsh  like  the  Irish  harp 
was  often  an  hereditary  instrument  to  be  preserved  with  great 
care  and  veneration,  and  used  by  the  bards  of  the  family,  who  were 
alike  the  poet-musicians  and  historians.  A  slave  was  not  allowed 
to  touch  a  harp,  and  it  was  exempted  by  the  Welsh  laws  from  seizure 
for  debt.  The  old  Welsh  harp  appears  to  have  been  at  one  time 
strung  with  horse-hair,  and  by  the  Eisteddfod  laws  the  pupil  spent 
his  noviciate  of  three  years  in  the  practice  of  a  harp  with  that  string- 
ing. The  comparatively  modern  Welsh  triple  harp  (fig.  4)  is  always 
strung  with  gut.  It  has  a  rising  neck  as  before 
stated,  and  three  rows  of  strings, — the  outer  rows 
tuned  diatonic,  the  centre  one  chromatic  for  the 
sharps  and  flats.  Jones  gives  it  98  strings  and 
a  compass  of  5  octaves  and  one  note,  from 
violoncello  C.  As  in  all  Celtic  harps,  the  left  is 
the  treble  hand,  and  in  the  triple  harps  there  are 
27  strings  on  that  side,  the  right  or  bass  hand 
having  37,  and  the  middle  or  chromatic  row  34. 

The  first  pattern  of  the  modern  harp  is  dis- 
covered in  German  and  Anglo-Saxon  illuminated 
MSS.  as  far  back  as  the  gth  century.4  A  diatonic 
instrument,  it  must  have  been  common  through- 
out Europe,  as  Orcagna,  Fra  Angelico,  and  other 
famous  Italian  painters  depict  it  over  and  over 
again  in  their  masterpieces.  No  accidental 
semitones  were  possible  with  this  instrument, 
unless  the  strings  were  shortened  by  the  player's 
fingers.  This  lasted  until  the  1 7th  century, 
when  a  Tirolese  maker  adapted  hooks6  (perhaps  FIG.  4. 

suggested  by  the  fretted  or  bonded  clavichord)  WelshTripleHarp. 
that,  screwed  into  the  neck,  could  be  turned 
downwards  to  fix  the  desired  semitone  at  pleasure.  At  last,  some- 
where about  1720,  Hochbrucker,  a  Bavarian,  invented  pedals  that, 
acting  through  the  pedestal  of  the  instrument,  governed  by  mechan- 
ism the  stopping,  and  thus  left  the  player's  hands  free,  an  indisput- 
able  advantage;  and  it  became  possible  at  once  to  play  in  no  less 


2  See  also  a  woodcut  in  John  Derrick's  Image  of  Ireland  (1581), 
pi.  iii.  (Edinburgh  ed.  1883). 

3  See  the  fine  volume  Musical  Instruments  on    the    Irish    and 
Scottish  harps  by  Robert  Bruce  Armstrong  (1904),  vol.  i.    Vol.  ii., 
which  deals  with  the  Welsh  harp,  has  unfortunately  been  withdrawn 
from  sale. 

4  See  for  the  medieval  harp  a  careful  article  by  Hortense  Panum, 
"  Harfe  und  Lyra  im  alten  -Nord-Europa,"  in  Intern.   Mus.  Ges. 
vol.  vii.  pt.  I  (Leipzig,  1905);  and  for  references  as  to  illuminated 
MSS.,  early  woodcuts,  paintings,  &c.  see  Hugo  Leichtentritt,  "  Was 
lehren  uns  die  Bildwerke  des  14-17  Jahrhunderts  uber  die   Instru- 
mentalmusik  ihrer  Zeit  ?  "  ibid.  vol.  vii.  p.  3  (Leipzig,  1906). 

6  See  Nauwerk,  "  Die  Hakenharfe,  Die  Vervoilkommnung  des 
Mechanismus  an  der  deutschen  Harfe."  in  Allg.  musik.  Ztg.  (Leipzig, 
1815),  p.  545  seq. 


HARPENDEN— HARPIES 


than  eight  major  scales.  By  a  sequence  of  improvements,  in  which 
two  Frenchmen  named  Cousineau  took  an  important  part,  the 
various  defects  inherent  in  Hochbrucker's  plan  became  ameliorated. 
The  pedals  were  doubled,  and,  the  tuning  of  the  instrument  being 
changed  from  the  key  of  Ei>  to  Ci>,  it  became  possible  to  play  in 
fifteen  keys,  thus  exceeding  the  power  of  the  keyboard  instruments, 
over  which  the  harp  has  another  important  advantage  in  the  sim- 
plicity of  the  fingering,  which  is  the  same  for  every  key. 

It  is  to  Sebastian  Erard  we  owe  the  perfecting  of  the  pedal  harp 
(ng'  5)>  a  triumph  he  gained  in  Paris  by  unremitting  studies  begun 
when  he  adopted  a  "  fork  "  mechanism  in  1786 
and  ended  in  1810  when  he  had  attained  com- 
plete success  with  the  double  action  pedal 
mechanism  already  described  above.  Erard's 
merit  was  not  confined  to  this  improvement 
only;  he  modified  the  structure  of  the  comb 
that  conceals  the  mechanism,  and  constructed 
the  sound-body  of  the  instrument  upon  a 
modern  principle  more  advantageous  to  the 
tone. 

Notwithstanding  these  improvements  and  the 
great  beauty  of  tone  the  harp  possesses,  the 
domestic  use  of  it  in  modern  times  has  almost 
disappeared.  The  great  cost  of  a  good  harp, 
and  the  trouble  to  many  amateurs  of  tuning, 
may  have  led  to  the  supplanting  of  the  harp 
by  the  more  convenient  and  useful  pianoforte. 
With  this  comes  naturally  a  diminution  in 
FIG.  5.  the  number  of  solo-players  on  the  instru- 

Modern  Erard  Harp.  ment.  Were  it  not  for  the  increasing  use  of 
the  harp  in  the  orchestra,  the  colour  of  its 
tone  having  attracted  the  masters  of  instrumentation,  so  that 
the  great  scores  of  Meyerbeer  and  Gounod,  of  Berlioz,  Liszt  and 
Wagner  are  not  complete  without  it,  we  should  perhaps  know 
little  more  of  the  harp  than  of  the  dulcimer,  in  spite  of  the 
efforts  of  distinguished  virtuosi  whose  devotion  to  their  instrument 
maintains  its  technique  on  an  equality  with  that  of  any  other,  even 
the  most  in  public  favour.  The  first  record  of  the  use  of  harps  in  the 
orchestra  occurs  in  the  account  of  the  Ballet  comique  de  la  royne 
performed  at  the  chateau  de  Moutiers  on  the  occasion  of  the  marriage 
of  Mary  of  Lorraine  with  the  due  de  Joyeuse  in  1581,  when  harps 
formed  part  of  the  concert  de  musique. 

See  in  addition  to  the  works  already  referred  to,  Engel's  Musical 
Instruments  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum  (1874);  and  the 
articles  "  Harp,"  in  Rees's  Cyclopaedia,  written  by  Dr  Burney,  in 
Stainer  and  Barrett's  Dictionary  of  Musical  Terms  (1876),  and  in 
Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians.  On  the  origins  of  the 
instrument  see  Proceedings  of  British  Association  (1904)  (address  of 
president  of  anthropological  section).  (K.  S. ;  A.  J.  H.) 

HARPENDEN,  an  urban  district  in  the  Mid  or  St  Albans 
parliamentary  division  of  Hertfordshire,  England,  25  m.  N.W. 
by  N.  from  London  by  the  Midland  railway,  served  also  by  a 
branch  of  the  Great  Northern  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  4725.  It 
is  a  favourite  outlying  residential  district  for  those  whose  work 
lies  in  London.  The  church  of  St  Nicholas  is  a  modern  recon- 
struction with  the  exception  of  the  Perpendicular  tower.  In  the 
Lawes  Testimonial  Laboratory  there  is  a  vast  collection  of 
samples  of  experimentally  grown  produce,  annual  products, 
ashes  and  soils.  Sir  John  Bennet  Lawes  (d.  1900)  provided  an 
endowment  of  £100,000  for  the  perpetuation  of  the  agricultural 
experiments  which  he  inaugurated  here  at  his  seat  of  Rothamsted 
Park.  The  success  of  his  association  of  chemistry  with  botany 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  soil  has  been  made  to  bear  wheat  without 
intermission  for  upwards  of  half  a  century  without  manure. 
The  country  neighbouring  to  Harpenden  is  very  pleasant,  includ- 
ing the  gorse-covered  Harpenden  Common  and  the  narrow 
well-wooded  valley  of  the  upper  Lea. 

HARPER'S  FERRY,  a  town  of  Jefferson  county,  West 
Virginia,  U.S.A.,  finely  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Potomac 
and  Shenandoah  rivers  (which  here  pass  through  a  beautiful 
gorge  in  the  Blue  Ridge),  55  m.  N.W. of  Washington.  Pop. 
(1900)  896;  (19101  766.  It  is  served  by  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio 
railway,  which  crosses  the  Potomac  here,  by  the  Winchester  & 
Potomac  railway  (Baltimore  &  Ohio)  of  which  it  is  a  terminus, 
and  by  boats  on  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio  Canal,  which  passes 
along  the  Maryland  side  of  the  Potomac.  Across  the  Potomac 
on  the  north  rise  the  Maryland  Heights;  across  the  Shenandoah, 
on  the  West  Virginia  side,  the  Virginia  or  Loudoun  Heights: 
and  behind  the  town  to  the  W.  the  Bolivar  Heights.  A  United 
States  arsenal  and  armoury  were  established  at  Harper's  Ferry 
in  1796,  the  site  being  chosen  because  of  the  good  water-power; 


these  were  seized  on  the  i6th  of  October  1859  by  John  Brown 
(q.v.),  the  abolitionist,  and  some  21  of  his  followers.  For  four 
months  before  the  raid  Brown  and  his  men  lived  on  the  Kennedy 
Farm,  in  Washington  county,  Maryland,  about  4  m.  N.W.  of 
Harper's  Ferry.  The  engine-house  in  which  Brown  was  captured 
was  exhibited  at  the  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago  and  was 
later  rebuilt  on  Bolivar  Heights;  a  marble  pillar,  marked 
"  John  Brown's  Fort,"  has  been  erected  on  its  original  site. 
On  Camp  Hill  is  Storer  College  (state-aided),  a  normal  school  for 
negroes,  which  was  established  under  Free  Baptist  control  in 
1867,  and  has  academic,  normal,  biblical,  musical  and  industrial 
departments. 

The  first  settlement  here  was  made  about  1747  by  Robert 
Harper,  who  ran  a  ferry  across  the  Potomac.  The  position 
of  Harper's  Ferry  at  the  lower  end  of  the  Shenandoah  Valley 
rendered  it  a  place  of  strategic  importance  during  the  Civil 
War.  On  the  i8th  of  April  1861,  the  day  after  Virginia  passed 
her  ordinance  of  secession,  when  a  considerable  force  of  Virginia 
militia  under  General  Kenton  Harper  approached  the  town — an 
attack  having  been  planned  in  Richmond  two  days  before — the 
Federal  garrison  of  45  men  under  Lieutenant  Roger  Jones  set  fire 
to  the  arsenal  and  fled.  Within  the  next  few  days  large  numbers 
of  Confederate  volunteers  assembled  here;  and  Harper  was 
succeeded  in  command  (27th  April)  by  "  Stonewall  "  Jackson, 
who  was  in  turn  succeeded  by  Brigadier-General  Joseph  E. 
Johnston  on  the  23rd  of  May.  Johnston  thought  that  the  place 
was  unimportant,  and  withdrew  when  (i^th  June)  the  Federal 
forces  under  General  Robert  Patterson  and  Colonel  Lew  Wallace 
approached,  and  Harper's  Ferry  was  again  occupied  by  a  Federal 
garrison.  In  September  1862,  during  General  Lee's  first  invasion 
of  the  North,  General  McClellan  advised  that  the  place  be 
abandoned  in  order  that  the  10,000  men  defending  it  might  be 
added  to  his  fighting  force,  but  General  Halleck  would  not 
consent,  so  that  when  Lee  needed  supplies  from  the  Shenandoah 
Valley  he  was  blocked  by  the  garrison,  then  under  the  command 
of  Colonel  Dixon  S.  Miles.  On  Jackson's  approach  they  were 
distributed  as  follows:  about  7000  men  on  Bolivar  Heights, 
about  2000  on  Maryland  Heights,  and  about  1800  on  the  lower 
ground.  On  the  i3th  of  September  General  Lafayette  McLaws 
carried  Maryland  Heights  and  General  John  G.  Walker  planted 
a  battery  on  Loudoun  Heights.  On  the  I4th  there  was  some 
fighting,  but  early  on  the  i  $th,  as  Jackson  was  about  to  make 
an  assault  on  Bolivar  Heights,  the  garrison,  surrounded  by  a 
superior  force,  surrendered.  The  total  Federal  loss  (including 
the  garrisons  at  Winchester  and  Martinsburg)  amounted  to 
44  killed  (the  commander  was  mortally  wounded),  12,520 
prisoners,  and  13,000  small  arms.  For  this  terrible  loss  to  the 
Union  army  the  responsibility  seems  to  have  been  General 
Halleck's,  though  the  blame  was  officially  put  on  Colonel  Miles, 
.who  died  immediately  after  the  surrender.  Jackson  rejoined 
Lee  on  the  following  day  in  time  to  take  part  in  the  battle  of 
Antietam,  and  after  the  battle  General  McClellan  placed  a 
strong  garrison  (the  I2th  Corps)  at  Harper's  Ferry.  In  June 
1863  the  place  was  again  abandoned  to  the  Confederates  on  their 
march  to  Pennsylvania.  After  their  defeat  at  Gettysburg,  the 
town  again  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Federal  troops,  and  it 
remained  in  their  possession  until  the  end  of  the  war.  On  the 
4th  of  July  1864  General  Franz  Sigel,  who  was  then  in  command 
here,  withdrew  his  troops  to  Maryland  Heights,  and  from  there 
resisted  Early's  attempt  to  enter  the  town  and  to  drive  the 
Federal  garrison  from  Maryland  Heights.  Harper's  Ferry  was 
seriously  damaged  by  a  flood  in  the  Shenandoah  in  October 
1878. 

HARPIES  (Gr.  "Aprruitu,  older  form  'Aptiruicu,  "  swift 
robbers  "),  in  ancient  mythology,  the  personification  of  the  sweep- 
ing storm-winds.  In  Homer,  where  they  appear  indifferently  under 
the  name  of  apirtucu  and  6vf\\ai,  their  function  is  to  carry  off 
those  whose  sudden  disappearance  is  desired  by  the  gods.  Only 
one  of  them  is  there  mentioned  (Iliad,  xvi.  150)  by  name,  Podarge, 
the  mother  of  the  coursers  of  Achilles  by  Zephyrus,  the  generative 
wind.  According  to  Hesiod  (Thcog.  265)  they  are  two  in  number, 
Ae'llo  and  Ocypete,  daughters  of  Thaumas  and  Elect  ra,  winged 


HARPIGNIES— HARPSICHORD 


goddesses  with  beautiful  locks,  swifter  than  winds  and  birds 
in  their  flight,  and  their  domain  is  the  air.  In  later  times  their 
number  was  increased  (Celaeno  being  a  frequent  addition  and 
their  leader  in  Virgil),  and  they  were  described  as  hateful  and 
repulsive  creatures,  birds  with  the  faces  of  old  women,  the  ears 
of  bears,  crooked  talons  and  hanging  breasts;  even  in  Aeschylus 
(Eumenides,  50)  they  appear  as  ugly  and  misshapen  monsters. 
Their  function  of  snatching  away  mortals  to  the  other  world 
brings  them  into  connexion  with  the  Erinyes,  with  whom  they 
are  often  confounded.  On  the  so-called  Harpy  monument  from 
Lycia,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  the  Harpies  appear  carrying 
off  some  small  figures,  supposed  to  be  the  daughters  of  Pandareus, 
unless  they  are  intended  to  represent  departed  souls.  The 
repulsive  character  of  the  Harpies  is  more  especially  seen  in  the 
legend  of  Phineus,  king  of  Salmydessus  in  Thrace  (Apollodorus 
i.  9,  21 ;  see  also  Diod.  Sic.  iv.  43).  Having  been  deprived  of 
his  sight  by  the  gods  for  his  ill-treatment  of  his  sons  by  his  first 
wife  (or  for  having  revealed  the  future  to  mortals),  he  was  con- 
demned to  be  tormented  by  two  Harpies,  who  carried  off  what- 
ever food  was  placed  before  him.  On  the  arrival  of  the  Argonauts, 
Phineus  promised  to  give  them  particulars  of  the  course  they 
should  pursue  and  of  the  dangers  that  lay  before  them,  if  they 
would  deliver  him  from  his  tormentors.  Accordingly,  when  the 
Harpies  appeared  as  usual  to  carry  off  the  food  from  Phineus's 
table,  they  were  driven  off  and  pursued  by  Calais  and  Zetes,  the 
sons  of  Boreas,  as  far  as  the  Strophades  islands  in  the  Aegean. 
On  promising  to  cease  from  molesting  Phineus,  their  lives  were 
spared.  Their  place  of  abode  is  variously  placed  in  the 
Strophades,  the  entrance  to  the  under-world,  or  a  cave  in  Crete. 
According  to  Cecil  Smith,  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies,  xiii. 
(1892-1893),  the  Harpies  are  the  hostile  spirits  of  the  scorching 
south  wind;  E.  Rohde  (Rlieinisches  Museum,  i.,  1895)  regards 
them  as  spirits  of  the  storm,  which  at  the  bidding  of  the  gods 
carry  off  human  beings  alive  to  the  under-world  or  some  spot 
beyond  human  ken. 

See  articles  in  Roscher's  Lexikon  der  Mythologie  and  Daremberg 
and  Saglio's  Dictionnaire  des  antiquites.  In  the  article  GREEK  ART, 
fig.  14  gives  a  representation  of  the  winged  Harpies. 

HARPIGNIES,  HENRI  (1819-  ),  French  landscape  painter, 
born  at  Valenciennes  in  1819,  was  intended  by  his  parents  for 
a  business  career,  but  his  determination  to  become  an  artist  was 
so  strong  that  it  conquered  all  obstacles,  and  he  was  allowed  at 
the  age  of  twenty-seven  to  enter  Achard's  atelier  in  Paris.  From 
this  painter  he  acquired  a  groundwork  of  sound  constructive 
draughtsmanship,  which  is  so  marked  a  feature  of  his  landscape 
painting.  After  two  years  under  this  exacting  teacher  he  went 
to  Italy,  whence  he  returned  in  1850.  During  the  next  few 
years  he  devoted  himself  to  the  painting  of  children  in  landscape 
setting,  and  fell  in  with  Corot  and  the  other  Barbizon  masters, 
whose  principles  and  methods  are  to  a  certain  extent  re- 
flected in  his  own  personal  art.  To  Corot  he  was  united  by  a 
bond  of  warm  friendship,  and  the  two  artists  went  together  to 
Italy  in  1860.  On  his  return,  he  scored  his  first  great  success 
at  the  Salon,  in  1861,  with  his  "  Lisiere  de  bois  sur  les  bords 
de  1'Allier."  After  that  year  he  was  a  regular  exhibitor  at  the  old 
Salon;  in  1886  he  received  his  first  medal  for  "  Le  Soir  dans  la 
campagne  de  Rome,"  which  was  acquired  for  the  Luxembourg 
Gallery.  Many  of  his  best  works  were  painted  at  Herisson  in 
the  Bourbonnais,  as  well  as  in  the  Nivernais  and  the  Auvergne. 
Among  his  chief  pictures  are  "  Soir  sur  les  bords  de  la  Loire  " 
(1861),  "Les  Corbeaux"  (1865),  "  Le  Soir"  (1866),  "  Le 
Saut-du-Loup  "  (1873),  "  La  Loire  "  (1882),  and  "  Vue  de 
Saint-Prive  "  (1883).  He  also  did  some  decorative  work  for  the 
Paris  Opera — the  "  Vallee  d'Egerie  "  panel,  which  he  Ishowed 
at  the  Salon  of  1870. 

HARP-LUTE,  or  DITAL  HARP,  one  of  the  many  attempts  to 
revive  the  popularity  of  the  guitar  and  to  increase  its  compass, 
invented  in  1798  by  Edward  Light.  The  harp-lute  owes  the  first 
part  of  its  name  to  the  characteristic  mechanism  for  shortening 
the  effective  length  of  the  strings;  its  second  name— dital  harp — 
emphasizes  the  nature  of  the  stops,  which  are  worked  by  the 
thumb  in  contradistinction  to  the  pedals  of  the  harp  worked 


by  the  feet.  It  consists  of  a  pear-shaped  body,  to  which  is  added 
a  curved  neck  supported  on  a  front  pillar  or  arm  springing  from 
the  body,  and  therefore  reminiscent  of  the  harp.  There  are 
12  catgut  strings.  The  curved  fingerboard,  almost  parallel  with 
the  neck,  is  provided  with  frets,  and  has  in  addition  a  thumb- 
key  for  each  string,  by  means  of  which  the  accordance  of  the 
string  is  mechanically  raised  a  semitone  at  will.  The  dital  or 
key,  on  being  depressed,  acts  upon  a  stop-ring  or  eye,  which 
draws  the  string  down  against  the  fret,  and  thus  shortens  its 
effective  length.  The  fingers  then  stop  the  strings  as  usual 
over  the  remaining  frets.  A  further  improvement  was  patented 
in  1816  as  the  British  harp-lute.  Other  attempts  possessing  less 
practical  merit  than  the  dital  harp  were  the  lyra-guitarre,  which 
appeared  in  Germany  at  the  beginning  of  the  igth  century; 
the  accord-guitarre,  towards  the  middle  of  the  same  century; 
and  the  keyed  guitar.  (K.  S.) 

HARPOCRATES,  originally  an  Egyptian  deity,  adopted  by 
the  Greeks,  and  worshipped  in  later  times  both  by  Greeks  and 
Romans.  In  Egypt,  Harpa-khruti,  Horus  the  child,  was  one  of 
the  forms  of  Horus,  the  sun-god,  the  child  of  Osiris.  He  was 
supposed  to  carry  on  war  against  the  powers  of  darkness,  and 
hence  Herodotus  (ii.  144)  considers  him  the  same  as  the  Greek 
Apollo.  He  was  represented  in  statues  with  his  finger  on  his 
mouth,  a  symbol  of  childhood.  The  Greeks  and  Romans,  not 
understanding  the  meaning  of  this  attitude,  made  him  the  god 
of  silence  (Ovid,  Metam.  ix.  691),  and  as  such  he  became  a 
favourite  deity  with  the  later  mystic  schools  of  philosophy. 

See  articles  by  G.  Lafaye  in  Daremberg  and  Saglio's  Dictionnaire 
des  antiquites,  and  by  E.  Meyer  (s.v .  "  Horos  ")  in  Roscher's  Lexikon 
der  Mythologie. 

HARPOCRATION,  VALERIUS,  Greek  grammarian  of  Alex- 
andria. He  is  possibly  the  Harpocration  mentioned  by  Julius 
Capitolinus  (Life  of  Verus,  2)  as  the  Greek  tutor  of  Antoninus 
Verus  (and  century  A.D.);  some  authorities  place  him  much 
later,  on  the  ground  that  he  borrowed  from  Athenaeus.  He 
is  the  author  of  a  Ae!-iK6v  (or  Ilept  rlav  Xe£ewj')  Tuvotna.  prjropuv, 
which  has  come  down  to  us  in  an  incomplete  form.  The  work 
contains,  in  more  or  less  alphabetical  order,  notes  on  well-known 
events  and  persons  mentioned  by  the  orators,  and  explanations 
of  legal  and  commercial  expressions.  As  nearly  all  the  lexicons  to 
the  Greek  orators  have  been  lost,  Harpocration's  work  is  especially 
valuable.  Amongst  his  authorities  were  the  writers  of  Atthides 
(histories  of  Attica),  the  grammarian  Didymus,  Dionysius  of 
Halicarnassus,  and  the  lexicographer  Dionysius,  son  of  Tryphon. 
The  book  also  contains  contributions  to  the  history  of  Attic 
oratory  and  Greek  literature  generally.  Nothing  is  known  of 
an  '\vdripSiv  avva-yuyri,  a  sort  of  anthology  or  chrestomathy 
attributed  to  him  by  Suidas.  A  series  of  articles  in  the  margin 
of  a  Cambridge  MS.  of  the  lexicon  forms  the  basis  of  the  Lexicon 
rheloricum  Canlabrigiense  (see  DOBREE,  P.  P.).  * 

The  best  edition  is  by  W.  Dindprf  (1853);  see  also  J.  E.  Sandys, 
History  of  Classical  Scholarship,  i.  (1906),  p.  325;  C.  Boysen,  De 
Harpocrationis  fontibus  (Kiel,  1876). 

HARPOON  (from  Fr.  harpon,  a  grappling-iron,  O.  Fr.  harpe, 
a  dog's  claw,  an  iron  clamp  for  fastening  stones  together;  the 
source  of  these  words  is  the  Lat.  harpago,  harpa,  &c.,  formed 
from  Gr.  aprajri,  hook,  apwa^tiv,  to  snatch,  tear  away,  cf. 
"  harpy  "),  barbed  spear,  particularly  one  used  for  spearing 
whales  or  other  large  fish,  and  either  thrown  by  hand  or  fired 
from  a  gun  (see  WHALE-FISHERY). 

HARPSICHORD,  HARPSICON,  DOUBLE  VIRGINALS  (Fr.  clavecin; 
Ger.  Clavicymbel,  Kiel-Flilgel;  Ital.  arpicordo,  cembalo,  clavi- 
cembalo, graveccmbalo;  Dutch,  clavisinbal) ,  a  large  keyboard 
instrument  (see  PIANOFORTE),  belonging  to  the  same  family  as 
the  virginal  and  spinet,  but  having  2,  3,  or  even  4  strings  to  each 
note,  and  a  case  of  the  harp  or  wing  shape,  afterwards  adopted 
for  the  grand  pianoforte.  J.  S.  Bach's  harpsichord,  preserved 
in  the  museum  of  the  Hochschule  fiir  Musik  at  Charlottenburg, 
has  two  manuals  and  4  strings  to  each  note,  one  16  ft.,  two 
8  ft.  and  one  4  ft.  By  means  of  stops  the  performer  has  within 
his  power  a  number  of  combinations  for  varying  the  tone  and 
dynamic  power.  In  all  instruments  of  the  harpsichord  family 


i6 


HARPY— HARRAR 


the  strings,  instead  of  being  struck  by  tangents  as  in  the  clavi- 
chord, or  by  hammers  as  in  the  pianoforte,  are  plucked  by  means 
of  a  quill  firmly  embedded  in  the  centred  tongue  of  a  jack  or 
upright  placed  on  the  back  end  of  the  key-lever.  When  the 
finger  depresses  a  key,  the  jack  is  thrown  up,  and  in  passing  the 
crow-quill  catches  the  string  and  twangs  it.  It  is  this  twanging 
of  the  string  which  produces  the  brilliant  incisive  tone  peculiar 
to  the  harpsichord  family.  What  these  instruments  gain  in 
brilliancy  of  tone,  however,  they  lose  in  power  of  expression  and 
of  accent.  The  impossibility  of  commanding  any  emphasis 
necessarily  created  for  the  harpsichord  an  individual  technique 
which  influenced  the  music  composed  for  it  to  so  great  an  extent 
that  it  cannot  be  adequately  rendered  upon  the  pianoforte. 

The  harpsichord  assumed  a  position  of  great  importance 
during  the  i6th  and  lyth  centuries,  more  especially  in  the 
orchestra,  which  was  under  the  leadership  of'  the  harpsichord 
player.  The  most  famous  of  all  harpsichord  makers,  whose 
names  form  a  guarantee  for  excellence,  were  the  Ruckers, 
established  at  Antwerp  from  the  last  quarter  of  the  i6th 
century.  (K.  S.) 

HARPY,  a  large  diurnal  bird  of  prey,  so  named  after  the 
mythological  monster  of  the  classical  poets  (see  HARPIES), — the 
Thrasaetus  harpyia  of  modern  ornithologists — an  inhabitant 
of  the  warmer  parts  of  America  from  Southern  Mexico  to  Brazil. 
Though  known  since  the  middle  of  the  iyth  century,  its  habits 
have  come  very  little  under  the  notice  of  naturalists,  and  what 
is  said  of  them  by  the  older  writers  must  be  received  with  some 


-^ 


Harpy. 

suspicion.  A  cursory  inspection  of  the  bird,  which  is  not  un- 
frequently  brought  alive  to  Europe,  its  size,  and  its  enormous 
bill  and  talons,  at  once  suggest  the  vast  powers  of  destruction 
imputed  to  it,  and  are  enough  to  account  for  the  stories  told  of 
its  ravages  on  mammals — sloths,  fawns,  peccaries  and  spider- 
monkeys.  It  has  even  been  asserted  to  attack  the  human  race. 
How  much  of  this  is  fabulous  there  seems  no  means  at  present  of 
determining,  but  some  of  the  statements  are  made  by  veracious 
travellers — D'Orbigny  and  Tschudi.  It  is  not  uncommon  in  the 
forests  of  the  isthmus  of  Panama,  and  Salvin  says  (Proc.  Zool. 
Society,  1864,  p.  368)  that  its  flight  is  slow  and  heavy.  Indeed 
its  owl-like  visage,  its  short  wings  and  soft  plumage,  do  not  in- 
dicate a  bird  of  very  active  habits,  but  the  weapons  of  offence 
with  which  it  is  armed  show  that  it  must  be  able  to  cope  with 
vigorous  prey.  Its  appearance  is  sufficiently  striking — the  head 
and  lower  parts,  except  a  pectoral  band,  white,  the  former 


adorned  with  an  erectile  crest,  the  upper  parts  dark  grey  banded 
with  black,  the  wings  dusky,  and  the  tail  barred;  but  the  huge 
bill  and  powerful  scutellated  legs  most  of  all  impress  the  be- 
holder. The  precise  affinities  of  the  haroy  cannot  be  said  to 
have  been  determined.  By  some  authors  it  is  referred  to  the 
eagles,  by  others  to  the  buzzards,  and  by  others  again  to  the 
hawks;  but  possibly  the  first  of  these  alliances  is  the  most  likely 
to  be  true.  (A.  N.) 

HARRAN,  HARAN  or  CHARRAN  (Sept.  Happav  or  Kappa :  Strabo, 
Kdppcu:  Pliny,  Carrae  or  Carrhae;  Arab.  Harrdn),  in  biblical 
history  the  place  where  Terah  halted  after  leaving  Ur,  and  ap- 
parently the  birthplace  of  Abraham,  a  town  on  the  stream 
Jullab,  some  nine  hours'  journey  from  Edessa  in  Syria.  At  this 
point  the  road  from  Damascus  joins  the  highway  between 
Nineveh  and  Carchemish,  and  Haran  had  thus  considerable 
military  and  commercial  value.  As  a  strategic  position  it 
is  mentioned  in  inscriptions  as  early  as  the  time  of  Tiglath 
Pileser  I.,  about  noo  B.C.,  and  subsequently  by  Sargon  II.,  who 
restored  the  privileges  lost  at  the  rebellion  which  led  to  the  con- 
quest referred  to  in  2  Kings  xix.  12  C  =  Isa.  xxxvii.  12).  It  was 
the  centre  of  a  considerable  commerce  (Ezek.  xxvii.  23),  and  one 
of  its  specialities  was  the  odoriferous  gum  derived  from  the 
strobus  (Pliny,  H.N.  xii.  40).  It  was  here  that  Crassus  in  his 
eastern  expedition  was  attacked  and  slain  by  the  Parthians  (53 
B.C.)  ;  and  here  also  the  emperor  Caracalla  was  murdered  at  the 
instigation  of  Macrinus  (A.D.  217).  Haran  was  the  chief  home  of 
the  moon-god  Sin,  whose  temple  was  rebuilt  by  several  kings, 
among  them  Assur-bani-pal  and  Nabunidus  and  Herodian  (iv. 
13,  7)  mentions  the  town  as  possessing  in  his  day  a  temple  of  the 
moon.  In  the  middle  ages  it  is  mentioned  as  having  been  the 
seat  of  a  particular  heathen  sect,  that  of  the  Haranite  Sabeans. 
It  retained  its  importance  down  to  the  period  of  the  Arab 
ascendancy;  but  by  Abulfeda  it  is  mentioned  as  having  before 
his  time  fallen  into  decay.  It  is  now  wholly  in  ruins.  The 
Yahwistic  writer  (Gen.  xxvii.  43)  makes  it  the  home  of  Laban 
and  connects  it  with  Isaac  and  Jacob.  But  we  cannot  thus  put 
Haran  in  Aramnaharaim;  the  home  of  the  Labanites  is  rather 
to  be  looked  for  in  the  very  similar  word  Hauran. 

HARRAR  (or  HARAR),  a  city  of  N.E.  Africa,  in  8°  45'  N., 
42°  36'  E.,  capital  of  a  province  of  Abyssinia  and  220  m.  S.S.W. 
of  the  ports  of  Zaila  (British)  and  Jibuti  (French)  on  the  Gulf  of 
Aden.  With  Jibuti  it  is  connected  by  a  railway  (188  m.  long) 
and  carriage-road.  Harrar  is  built  on  the  slopes  of  a  hill  at  an 
elevation  of  over  5000  ft.  A  lofty  stone  wall,  pierced  by  five 
gates  and  flanked  by  twenty-four  towers,  encloses  the  city, 
which  has  a  population  of  about  40,000.  The  streets  are  steep, 
narrow,  dirty  and  unpaved,  the  roadways  consisting  of  rough 
boulders.  The  houses  are  in  general  made  of  undressed  stone 
and  mud  and  are  flat-topped,  the  general  aspect  of  the  city 
being  Oriental  and  un-Abyssinian.  A  few  houses,  including  the 
palace  of  the  governor  and  the  foreign  consulates,  are  of  more 
elaborate  and  solid  construction  than  the  majority  of  the  build- 
ings. There  are  several  mosques  and  an  Abyssinian  church  (of 
the  usual  circular  construction)  built  of  stone.  Harrar  is  a  city 
of  considerable  commercial  importance,  through  it  passing  all 
the  merchandise  of  southern  Abyssinia,  Kaffa  and  Galla  land. 
The  chief  traders  are  Abyssinians,  Armenians  and  Greeks.  The 
principal  article  of  export  is  coffee,  which  is  grown  extensively 
in  the  neighbouring  hills  and  is  of  the  finest  quality.  Besides 
coffee  there  is  a  large  trade  in  durra,  the  kat  plant  (used  by  the 
Mahommedans  as  a  drug),  ghee,  cattle,  mules  and  camels,  skins 
and  hides,  ivory  and  gums.  The  import  trade  is  largely  in  cotton 
goods,  but  every  kind  of  merchandise  is  included. 

Harrar  is  believed  to  owe  its  foundation  to  Arab  immigrants 
from  the  Yemen  in  the  7th  century  of  the  Christian  era.  In  the 
region  of  Somaliland,  now  the  western  part  of  the  British  pro- 
tectorate of  that  name,  the  Arabs  established  the  Moslem  state 
of  Adel  or  Zaila,  with  their  capital  at  Zaila  on  the  Gulf  of  Aden. 
In  the  I3th  century  the  sultans  of  Adel  enjoyed  great  power.  In 
1521  the  then  sultan  Abubekr  transferred  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment to  Harrar,  probably  regarding  Zaila  as  too  exposed  to  the 
attacks  of  the  Turkish  and  Portuguese  navies  then  contending 


HARRATIN— HARRIGAN 


for  the  mastery  of  the  Red  Sea  and  Gulf  of  Aden.  Abubekr's 
successor  was  Mahommed  III.,  Ahmed  ibn  Ibrahim  el-Ghazi 
(1507-1543),  surnamed  Gran  (Granye),  the  left-handed.  He 
was  not  an  Arab  but,  probably,  of  Somali  origin.  The  son  of  a 
noted  warrior,  he  quickly  rose  to  supreme  power,  becoming 
sultan  or  amir  in  1525.  He  is  famous  for  his  invasion  of  Abys- 
sinia, of  which  country  he  was  virtual  master  for  several  years. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  iyth  century  Adel  suffered  greatly 
from  the  ravages  of  pagan  Galla  tribes,  and  Harrar  sank  to  the 
position  of  an  amirate  of  little  importance.  It  was  first  visited 
by  a  European  in  1854  when  (Sir)  Richard  Burton  spent  ten  days 
there  in  the  guise  of  an  Arab.  In  1875  Harrar  was  occupied  by 
an  Egyptian  force  under  Raouf  Pasha,  by  whose  orders  the  amir 
was  strangled.  The  town  remained  in  the  possession  of  Egypt 
until  1885,  when  the  garrison  was  withdrawn  in  consequence  of 
the  rising  of  the  Mahdi  in  the  Sudan.  The  Egyptian  garrison 
and  many  Egyptian  civilians,  in  all  6500  persons,  left  Harrar 
between  November  1884  and  the  25th  of  April  1885,  when  a  son 
of  the  ruler  who  had  been  deposed  by  Egypt  was  installed  as 
amir,  the  arrangement  being  carried  out  under  the  super- 
intendence of  British  officers.  The  new  amir  held  power  until 
January  1887,  in  which  month  Harrar  was  conquered  by 
Menelek  II.,  king  of  Shoa  (afterwards  emperor  of  Abyssinia). 
The  governorship  of  Harrar  was  by  Menelek  entrusted  to  Ras 
Makonnen,  who  held  the  post  until  his  death  in  1906. 

The  Harrari  proper  are  of  a  distinct  stock  from  the  neigh- 
bouring peoples,  and  speak  a  special  language.  Harrarese 
is  "  a  Semitic  graft  inserted  into  an  indigenous  stock  "  (Sir  R. 
Burton,  First  Footsteps  in  East  Africa).  The  Harrari  are 
Mahommedans  of  the  Shafa'i  or  Persian  sect,  and  they  employ 
the  solar  year  and  the  Persian  calendar.  Besides  the  native 
population  there  are  in  Harrar  colonies  of  Abyssinians,  Somalis 
and  Gallas.  By  the  Somalis  the  place  is  called  Adari,  by  the 
Gallas  Adaray. 

See  ABYSSINIA;  SOMALILAND.  Also  P.  Paulitschke,  Harar: 
Forschungsreise  nach  den  Som&l-  und  Calla-Landern  Ost-Afrikas 
(Leipzig,  1888). 

HARRATIN,  black  Berbers,  dwelling  in  Tidikelt  and  other 
Saharan  oases.  Many  of  them  are  blacker  than  the  average 
negro.  In  physique,  however,  they  are  true  to  the  Berber  type, 
being  of  handsome  appearance  with  European  features  and  well- 
proportioned  bodies.  They  are  the  result  of  an  early  crossing 
with  the  Sudanese  negro  races,  though  to-day  they  have  all  the 
pride  of  the  Berbers  (?.».),  and  do  not  live  with  or  intermarry 
among  negroes. 

HARRIER,  or  HEN-HARRIER,  name  given  to  certain  birds  of 
prey  which  were  formerly  very  abundant  in  parts  of  the  British 
Islands,  from  their  habit  of  harrying  poultry.  The  first  of  these 
names  has  now  become  used  in  a  generic  sense  for  all  the  species 
ranked  under  the  genus  Circus  of  Lacepede,  and  the  second  con- 
fined to  the  particular  species  which  is  the  Falco  cyaneus  of 
Linnaeus  and  the  Circus  cyaneus  of  modern  ornithologists. 

One  European  species,  C.  aeruginosus,  though  called  in  books 
the  marsh-harrier,  is  far  more  commonly  known  in  England  and 
Ireland  as  the  moor-buzzard.  But  harriers  are  not,  like  buzzards, 
arboreal  in  their  habits,  and  always  affect  open  country,  generally, 
though  not  invariably,  preferring  marshy  or  fenny  districts,  for 
snakes  and  frogs  form  a  great  part  of  their  ordinary  food.  On 
the  ground  their  carriage  is  utterly  unlike  that  of  a  buzzard,  and 
their  long  wings  and  legs  render  it  easy  to  distinguish  the  two 
groups  when  taken  in  the  hand.  All  the  species  also  have  a  more 
or  less  well-developed  ruff  or  frill  of  small  thickset  feathers 
surrounding  the  lower  part  of  the  head,  nearly  like  that  seen  in 
owls,  and  accordingly  many  systematists  consider  that  the  genus 
Circus,  though  undoubtedly  belonging  to  the  Falconidae,  connects 
that  family  with  the  Striges.  No  osteological  affinity,  however,  can 
be  established  between  the  harriers  and  any  section  of  the  owls, 
and  the  superficial  resemblance  will  have  to  be  explained  in  some 
other  way.  Harriers  are  found  almost  all  over  the  world,1  and 

1  The  distribution  of  the  different  species  is  rather  curious,  while 
the  range  of  some  is  exceedingly  wide, — one,  C.  maillardi,  seems  to  be 
limited  to  the  island  of  Reunion  (Bourbon). 


fifteen  species  are  recognized  by  Bowdler  Sharpe  (Cat.  Birds 
Brit.  Museum,  i.  pp.  50-73).  In  most  if  not  all  the  harriers  the 
sexes  differ  greatly  in  colour,  so  much  so  that  for  a  long  while  the 
males  and  females  of  one  of  the  commonest  and  best  known,  the 
C.  cyaneus  above  mentioned,  were  thought  to  be  distinct  .species, 
and  were  or  still  are  called  in  various  European  languages  by 
different  names.  The  error  was  maintained  with  the  greater 
persistency  since  the  young  males,  far  more  abundant  than  the 
adults,  wear  much  the  same  plumage  as  their  mother,  and  it  was 
not  until  after  Montagu's  observations  were  published  at  the 


v» 


vV^ 


Hen-  Harrier  (Male  and  Female). 


beginning  of  the  ipth  century  that  the  "  ringtail,"  as  she  was 
called  (the  Falco  pygargus  of  Linnaeus),  was  generally  admitted 
to  be  the  female  of  the  "  hen-harrier."  But  this  was  not  Montagu's 
only  good  service  as  regards  this  genus.  He  proved  the  hitherto 
unexpected  existence  of  a  second  species,2  subject  to  the  same 
diversity  of  plumage.  This  was  called  by  him  the  ash-coloured 
falcon,  but  it  now  generally  bears  his  name,  and  is  known  as 
Montagu's  harrier,  C.  cineraceus.  In  habits  it  is  very  similar  to 
the  hen-harrier,  but  it  has  longer  wings,  and  its  range  is  not  so 
northerly,  for  while  the  hen-harrier  extends  to  Lapland,  Mon- 
tagu's is  but  very  rare  in  Scotland,  though  in  the  south  of 
England  it  is  the  most  common  species.  Harriers  indeed  in  the 
British  Islands  are  rapidly  becoming  things  of  the  past.  Their 
nests  are  easily  found,  and  the  birds  when  nesting  are  easily 
destroyed.  In  the  south-east  of  Europe,  reaching  also  to  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  to  India,  there  is  a  fourth  species,  the 
C.  swainsoni  of  some  writers,  the  C.  pallidus  of  others.  In  North 
America  C.  cyaneus  is  represented  by  a  kindred  form,  C.  hudsonius, 
usually  regarded  as  a  good  species,  the  adult  male  of  which  is 
always  to  be  recognized  by  its  rufous  markings  beneath,  in  which 
character  it  rather  resembles  C.  cineraceus,  but  it  has  not  the  long 
wings  of  that  species.  South  America  has  in  C.  cinereus  another 
representative  form,  while  China,  India  and  Australia  possess 
more  of  this  type.  Thus  there  is  a  section  in  which  the  males 
have  a  strongly  contrasted  black  -and  grey  plumage,  and  finally 
there  is  a  group  of  larger  forms  allied  to  the  European  C.  aeru- 
ginosus, wherein  a  grey  dress  is  less  often  attained,  of  which  the 
South  African  C.  raniwrus  and  the  New  Zealand  C.  gouldi  are 
examples.  (A.  N.) 

HARRIGAN,  EDWARD  (1845-  ),  American  actor,  was 
born  in  New  York  of  Irish  parents  on  the  26th  of  October  1845. 
He  made  his  first  appearance  in  San  Francisco  in  1867,  and  soon 
afterwards  formed  a  stage  partnership  with  Tony  Hart,  whose 
real  name  was  Anthony  Cannon.  As  "  Harrigan  and  Hart,"  they 
had  a  great  success  in  the  presentation  of  types  of  low  life  in  New 
York.  Beginning  as  simple  sketches,  these  were  gradually 
worked  up  into  plays,  with  occasional  songs,  set  to  popular  music 

8  A  singular  mistake,  which  has  been  productive  of  further  error, 
was  made  by  Albin,  who  drew  his  figure  (Hist.  Birds,  ii.  pi.  5)  from 
a  specimen  of  one  species,  and  coloured  it  from  a  specimen  of  the 
other. 


i8 


HARRIMAN,  E.  H.— HARRINGTON,  J. 


by  David  Braham.  The  titles  of  these  plays  indicate  their 
character,  The  Mulligan  Guards,  Squatter  Sovereignty,  A  Leather 
Patch,  The  O'Regans.  The  partnership  with  Hart  lasted  from 
1871-1884.  Subsequently  Harrigan  played  in  different  cities  of 
the  United  States,  one  of  his  favourite  parts  being  George  Coggs- 
well  in  Old  Lavender. 

HARRIMAN,  EDWARD  HENRY  (1848-1909),  American 
financier  and  railroad  magnate,  son  of  the  Rev.  Orlando 
Harriman,  rector  of  St  George's  Episcopal  church,  Hempstead, 
L.I.,  was  born  at  Hempstead  on  the  25th  of  February  1848.  He 
became  a  broker's  clerk  in  New  York  at  an  early  age,  and  in 
1870  was  able  to  buy  a  seat  on  the  New  York  Stock  Exchange 
on  his  own  account.  For  a  good  many  years  there  was  nothing 
sensational  in  his  success,  but  he  built  up  a  considerable  business 
connexion  and  prospered  in  his  financial  operations.  Meanwhile 
he  carefully  mastered  the  situation  affecting  American  railways. 
In  this  respect  he  was  assisted  by  his  friendship  with  Mr  Stuy- 
vesant  Fish,  who,  on  becoming  vice-president  of  the  Illinois 
Central  in  1883,  brought  Harriman  upon  the  directorate,  and  in 
1887,  being  then  president,  made  Harriman  vice-president; 
twenty  years  later  it  was  Harriman  who  dominated  the  finance 
of  the  Illinois  Central,  and  Fish,  having  become  his  opponent, 
was  dropped  from  the  board.  It  was  not  till  1898,  however,  that 
his  career  as  a  great  railway  organizer  began  with  his  formation, 
by  the  aid  of  the  bankers,  Kuhn,  Loeb  &  Co.,  of  a  syndicate  to 
acquire  the  Union  Pacific  line,  which  was  then  in  the  hands  of  a 
receiver  and  was  generally  regarded  as  a  hopeless  failure.  It 
was  soon  found  that  a  new  power  had  arisen  in  the  railway  world. 
Having  brought  the  Union  Pacific  out  of  bankruptcy  into 
prosperity,  and  made  it  an  efficient  instead  of  a  decaying  line, 
he  utilized  his  position  to  draw  other  lines  within  his  control, 
notably  the  Southern  Pacific  in  1901.  These  extensions  of  his 
power  were  not  made  without  friction,  and  his  abortive  contest 
in  1901  with  James  J.  Hill  for  the  control  of  the  Northern 
Pacific  led  to  one  of  the  most  serious  financial  crises  ever  known 
on  Wall  Street.  But  in  the  result  he  became  the  dominant 
factor  in  American  railway  matters.  At  his  death,  on  the  9th  of 
September  1909,  his  influence  was  estimated  to  extend  over 
60,000  m.  of  track,  with  an  annual  earning  power  of  $700,000,000 
or  over.  Astute  and  unscrupulous  manipulation  of  the  stock 
markets,  and  a  capacity  for  the  hardest  of  bargaining  and  the 
most  determined  warfare  against  his  rivals,  had  their  place  in 
this  success,  and  Harriman's  methods  excited  the  bitterest 
criticism,  culminating  in  a  stern  denunciation  from  President 
Roosevelt  himself  in  1907.  Nevertheless,  besides  acquiring 
colossal  wealth  for  himself,  he  helped  to  create  for  the 
American  public  a  vastly  improved  railway  service,  the  benefit 
of  which  survived  all  controversy  as  to  the  means  by  which  he 
triumphed  over  the  obstacles  in  his  way. 

HARRIMAN,  a  city  of  Roane  county,  Tennessee,  U.S.A.,  on  the 
Emory  river,  about  35  m.W.  by  S.of  Knoxville.  Pop.  (1900)  3442 
(5 1 6  being  negroes);  (1910)  3061.  Harriman  is  served  by  the  Har- 
riman &  North  Eastern,  the  Tennessee  Central,  and  the  Southern 
railways.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  East  Tennessee  Normal  and 
Industrial  Institute,  for  negroes,  and  of  the  American  University 
of  Harriman  (Christian  Church,  coeducational;  1893),  which 
comprises  primary,  preparatory,  collegiate,  Bible  school,  civic 
research,  commercial,  music  and  art  departments,  and  in  1907- 
1908  had  12  instructors  and  317  students.  Near  the  city  are 
large  deposits  of  iron  and  an  abundance  of  coal  and  timber. 
Among  manufactures  are  cotton  products,  farming  tools,  leather, 
tannic  acid,  furniture  and  flour.  Harriman  was  founded  in  1890 
by  a  land  company.  A  clause  in  this  company's  by-laws  requires 
that  every  conveyance  of  real  estate  by  the  company  "  shall 
contain  a  provision  forbidding  the  use  of  the  property  or  any 
building  thereon,  for  the  purpose  of  making,  storing  or  selling 
intoxicating  beverages  as  such."  Harriman  was  chartered  as  a 
city  in  1891,  and  its  charter  was  revised  in  1899. 

HARRINGTON,  EARLS  OF.  The  first  earl  of  Harrington 
was  the  diplomatist  and  politician,  William  Stanhope  (c.  1690- 
1756),  a  younger  son  of  John  Stanhope  of  Elvaston,  Derbyshire, 
and  a  brother  of  Charles  Stanhope  (1673-1760),  an  active 


politician  during  the  reign  of  George  I.  His  ancestor,  Sir  John 
Stanhope  (d.  1638).  was  a  half-brother  of  Philip  Stanhope,  ist 
earl  of  Chesterfield.  Educated  at  Eton,  William  Stanhope 
entered  the  army  and  served  in  Spain,  but  soon  he  turned  his 
attention  to  more  peaceful  pursuits,  went  on  a  mission  to  Madrid 
and  represented  his  country  at  Turin.  When  peace  was  made 
between  England  and  Spain  in  1720  Stanhope  became  British 
ambassador  to  the  latter  country,  and  he  retained  this  position 
until  March  1727,  having  built  up  his  reputation  as  a  diplomatist 
during  a  difficult  period.  In  1729  he  had  some  part  in  arranging 
the  treaty  of  Seville  between  England,  France  and  Spain,  and  for 
his  services  in  this  matter  he  was  created  Baron  Harrington  in 
January  1730.  Laterin  thesame  year  he  was  appointed  secretary 
of  state  for  the  northern  department  under  Sir  Robert  Walpole, 
but,  like  George  II.,  he  was  anxious  to  assist  the  emperor  Charles 
VI.  in  his  war  with  France,  while  Walpole  favoured  a  policy  of 
peace.  Although  the  latter  had  his  way  Harrington  remained 
secretary  until  the  great  minister's  fall  in  1742,  when  he  was 
transferred  to  the  office  of  president  of  the  council  and  was 
created  earl  of  Harrington  and  Viscount  Petersham.  In  1744, 
owing  to  the  influence  of  his  political  allies,  the  Pelhams,  he 
returned  to  his  former  post  of  secretary  of  state,  but  he  soon 
lost  the  favour  of  the  king,  and  this  was  the  principal  cause 
why  he  left  office  in  October  1746.  He  was  lord  lieutenant 
of  Ireland  from  1747  to  1751,  and  he  died  in  London  on  the  8th 
of  December  1756. 

The  earl's  successor  was  his  son,  William  (1719-1779),  who 
entered  the  army,  was  wounded  at  Fontenoy  and  became  a 
general  in  1770.  He  was  a  member  of  parliament  for  about  ten 
years  and  he  died  on  the  ist  of  April  1779.  This  earl's  wife 
Caroline  (1722-1784),  daughter  of  Charles  Fitzroy,  2nd  duke  of 
Grafton,  was  a  noted  beauty,  but  was  also  famous  for  her 
eccentricities.  Their  elder  son,  Charles(i753-i829),whobccame 
the  3rd  earl,  was  a  distinguished  soldier.  He  served  with  the 
British  army  during  the  American  War  of  Independence  and 
attained  the  rank  of  general  in  1802.  From  1805  to  1812  he  was 
commander-in-chief  in  Ireland;  he  was  sent  on  diplomatic 
errands  to  Vienna  and  to  Berlin,  and  he  died  at  Brighton  on  the 
i  jth  of  September  1829. 

Charles  Stanhope,  4th  earl  of  Harrington  (1780-1851),  the 
eldest  son  of  the  3rd  earl,  was  known  as  Lord  Petersham 
until  he  succeeded  to  the  earldom  in  1829.  He  was  very  well 
known  in  society  owing  partly  to  his  eccentric  habits;  he 
dressed  like  the  French  king  Henry  IV.,  and  had  other  personal 
peculiarities.  He  married  the  actress,  Maria  Foote,  but  when 
he  died  in  March  1851  he  left  no  sons,  and  his  brother  Leicester 
Fitzgerald  Charles  (1784-1862)  became  the  sth  earl.  This 
nobleman  was  a  soldier  and  a  politician  of  advanced  views,  who 
is  best  known  as  a  worker  with  Lord  Byron  in  the  cause  of 
Greek  independence.  He  was  in  Greece  in  1823  and  1824,  where 
his  relations  with  Byron  were  not  altogether  harmonious.  He 
wrote  A  Sketch  of  the  History  and  Influence  of  the  Press  in  British 
India  (1823);  and  Greece  in  1823  and  1824  (English  edition 
1824,  American  edition  1825).  His  son  Sydney  Seymour  Hyde, 
6th  earl  (1845-1866),  dying  unmarried,  was  succeeded  by  a 
cousin,  Charles  Wyndham  Stanhope  (1809-1881),  as  7th  earl, 
and  in  1881  the  latter's  son  Charles  Augustus  Stanhope  (b.  1844) 
became  Sth  earl  of  Harrington. 

Before  the  time  of  the  first  earl  of  Harrington  the  Stanhope  family 
had  held  the  barony  of  Stanhope  of  Harrington,  which  was  created 
in  1605  in  favour  of  Sir  John  Stanhope  (c.  1550-1621)  of  Harrington, 
Northamptonshire.  Sir  John  was  a  younger  son  of  Sir  Michael 
Stanhope  (d.  1552)  of  Shelford,  Nottinghamshire,  who  was  a  brother- 
in-law  of  the  protector  Somerset.  Sir  Michael's  support  of  Somerset 
cost  him  his  life,  as  he  was  beheaded  on  the  26th  of  February  1552. 
Sir  John  was  treasurer  of  the  chamber  from  1596  to  1616  and  was  a 
member  of  parliament  for  several  years.  He  died  on  the  9th  of 
March  1621,  and  when  his  only  son  Charles,  2nd  baron  (c.  1595-1675), 
died  without  issue  in  1675  the  barony  became  extinct. 

HARRINGTON,  or  HARINGTON,  JAMES  (1611-1677),  English 
political  philosopher,  was  born  in  January  161 1  of  an  old  Rutland- 
shire family.  He  was  son  of  Sir  Sapcotes  Harrington  of  Rand, 
Lincolnshire,  and  great-nephew  of  the  first  Lord  Harington  of 
Exton  (d.  1615).  In  1629  he  entered  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  as 


HARRIOT— HARRIS,  J. 


a  gentleman  commoner.  One  of  his  tutors  was  the  famous 
Chillingworth.  After  several  years  spent  in  travel,  and  as  a 
soldier  in  the  Dutch  army,  he  returned  to  England  and  lived  in 
retirement  till  1646,  when  he  was  appointed  to  the  suite  of 
Charles  I.,  at  that  time  being  conveyed  from  Newcastle  as 
prisoner.  Though  republican  in  his  ideas,  Harrington  won  the 
king's  regard  and  esteem,  and  accompanied  him  to  the  Isle  of 
Wight.  He  roused,  however,  the  suspicion  of  the  parliament- 
arians and  was  dismissed:  it  is  said  that  he  was  for  a  short  time 
put  in  confinement  because  he  would  not  swear  to  refuse  assist- 
ance to  the  king  should  he  attempt  to  escape.  After  Charles's 
death  Harrington  devoted  his  time  to  the  composition  of  his 
Oceana,  a  work  which  pleased  neither  party.  By  order  of  Cromwell 
it  was  seized  when  passing  through  the  press.  Harrington,  how- 
ever managed  to  secure  the  favour  of  the  Protector's  favourite 
daughter,  Mrs  Claypole;  the  work  was  restored  to  him,  and 
appeared  in  1656,  dedicated  to  Cromwell.  The  views  embodied 
in  Oceana,  particularly  that  bearing  on  vote  by  ballot  and  rota- 
tion of  magistrates  and  legislators,  Harrington  and  others  (who 
in  1659  formed  a  club  called  the  "  Rota  ")  endeavoured  to  push 
practically,  but  with  no  success.  In  November  1661,  by  order 
of  Charles  II.,  Harrington  was  arrested,  apparently  without 
sufficient  cause,  on  a  charge  of  conspiracy,  and  was  thrown  into 
the  Tower.  Despite  his  repeated  request  no  public  trial  could 
be  obtained,  and  when  at  length  his  sisters  obtained  a  writ  of 
habeas  corpus  he  was  secretly  removed  to  St  Nicholas  Island  off 
Plymouth.  There  his  health  gave  way  owing  to  his  drinking 
guaiacum  on  medical  advice,  and  his  mind  appeared  to  be 
affected.  Careful  treatment  restored  him  to  bodily  vigour,  but 
his  mind  never  wholly  recovered.  After  his  release  he  married, — 
at  what  date  does  not  seem  to  be  precisely  known.  He  died  on 
the  nth  of  September  1677,  and  was  buried  next  to  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  in  St  Margaret's,  Westminster. 

Harrington's  writings  consist  of  the  Oceana,  and  of  papers, 
pamphlets,  aphorisms,  even  treatises,  in  defence  of  the  Oceana. 
The  Oceana  is  a  hard,  prolix,  and  in  many  respects  heavy  exposi- 
tion of  an  ideal  constitution,  "  Oceana  "  being  England,  and  the 
lawgiver  Olphaus  Megaletor,  Oliver  Cromwell.  The  details  are 
elaborated  with  infinite  care,  even  the  salaries  of  officials  being 
computed,  but  the  main  ideas  are  two  in  number,  each  with 
a  practical  corollary.  The  first  is  that  the  determining  element 
of  power  in  a  state  is  property  generally,  property  in  land  in 
particular;  the  second  is  that  the  executive  power  ought  not 
to  be  vested  for  any  considerable  time  in  the  same  men  or  class 
of  men.  In  accordance  with  the  first  of  these,  Harrington  re- 
commends an  agrarian  law,  limiting  the  portion  of  land  held  to 
that  yielding  a  revenue  of  £3000,  and  consequently  insisting  on 
particular  modes  of  distributing  landed  property.  As  a  practical 
issue  of  the  second  he  lays  down  the  rule  of  rotation  by  ballot.  A 
third  part  of  the  executive  or  senate  are  voted  out  by  ballot  every 
year  (not  being  capable  of  being  elected  again  for  three  years). 
Harrington  explains  very  carefully  how  the  state  and  its  govern- 
ing parts  are  to  be  constituted  by  his  scheme.  Oceana  contains 
many  valuable  ideas,  but  it  is  irretrievably  dull. 

His  Works  were  edited  with  biography  by  John  Toland  in  1700; 
Toland's  edition,  with  additions  by  Birch,  appeared  in  1747,  and 
again  in  1771.  Oceana  was  reprinted  by  Henry  Morley  in  1887. 
See  Dwight  in  Political  Science  Quarterly  (March,  1887).  Harrington 
has  often  been  confused  with  his  cousin  Sir  James  Harrington,  a 
member  of  the  commission  which  tried  Charles  I.,  and  afterwards 
excluded  from  the  acts  of  pardon. 

HARRIOT.or  HARRIOTT, THOMAS  (1560-1621), English  mathe- 
matician and  astronomer,  was  born  at  Oxford  in  1560.  After 
studying  at  St  Mary  Hall,  Oxford,  he  became  tutor  to  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  who  appointed  him  in  1585  to  the  office  of  geographer 
to  the  second  expedition  to  Virginia.  Harriot  published  an 
account  of  this  expedition  in  1588,  which  was  afterwards 
reprinted  in  Hakluyt's  Voyages.  On  his  return  to  England, 
after  an  absence  of  two  years,  he  resumed  his  mathematical 
studies,  and  having  made  the  acquaintance  of  Henry  Percy, 
earl  of  Northumberland,  distinguished  for  his  patronage  of 
men  of  science,  he  received  from  him  a  yearly  pension  of  £120. 
He  died  at  London  on  the  2nd  of  July  1621.  A  manuscript  of 


Harriot's  entitled  Ephemeris  chrysometria  is  preserved  in  Sion 
College;  and  his  Artis  analyticae  praxis  ad  aequationes  alge- 
braicas  resolvendas  was  published  at  London  in  1631.  His  con- 
tributions to  algebra  are  treated  in  the  article  ALGEBRA; 
Wallis's  History  of  Algebra  (1685)  may  also  be  consulted.  From 
some  papers  of  Harriot's,  discovered  in  1784,  it  would  appear 
that  he  had  either  procured  a  telescope  from  Holland,  or  divined 
the  construction  of  that  instrument,  and  that  he  coincided  in 
point  of  time  with  Galileo  in  discovering  the  spots  on  the  sun's 
disk. 

See  Charles  Hutton,  Mathematical  and  Philosophical  Dictionary 
(1815),  and  J.  E.  Montucla,  Histoire  des  mathematigues  (1758). 

HARRIS,  GEORGE,  IST  BARON  (1746-1829),  British  general, 
was  the  son  of  the  Rev  George  Harris,  curate  of  Brasted,  Kent, 
and  was  born  on  the  i8th  of  March  1746.  Educated  at  West- 
minster school  and  at  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  Woolwich, 
he  was  commissioned  to  the  Royal  Artillery  in  1760,  transferring 
to  an  ensigncy  in  the  5th  foot  (Northumberland  Fusiliers)  in 
1762.  Three  years  la.ter  he  became  lieutenant,  and  in  1771 
captain.  His  first  active  service  was  in  the  American  War  of 
Independence,  in  which  he  served  at  Lexington,  Bunker  Hill 
(severely  wounded)  and  in  every  engagement  of  Howe's  army 
except  one  up  to  November  1778.  By  this  time  he  had  obtained 
his  majority,  and  his  next  service  was  under  Major-General 
Medows  at  Santa  Lucia  in  1778-1779,  after  which  his  regiment 
served  as  marines  in  Rodney's  fleet.  Later  in  1779  he  was  for  a 
time  a  prisoner  of  war.  Shortly  before  his  promotion  to  lieu- 
tenant-colonel in  his  regiment  (1780)  he  married.  After  com- 
manding the  5th  in  Ireland  for  some  years,  he  exchanged  and 
went  with  General  Medows  to  Bombay,  and  served  with  that 
officer  in  India  until  1792,  taking  part  in  various  battles  and 
engagements,  notably  Lord  Cornwallis's  attack  on  Seringapatam. 
In  1794,  after  a  short  period  of  home  service,  he  was  again  in 
India.  In  the  same  year  he  became  major-general,  and  in  1796 
local  lieutenant-general  in  Madras.  Up  to  1800  he  commanded 
the  troops  in  the  presidency,  and  for  a  short  time  he  exercised  the 
civil  government  as  well.  In  December  1798  he  was  appointed 
by  Lord  Wellesley,  the  governor-general,  to  command  the  field 
army  which  was  intended  to  attack  Tipu  Sahib,  and  in  a  few 
months  Harris  reduced  the  Mysore  country  and  stormed  the 
great  stronghold  of  Seringapatam.  His  success  established  his 
reputation  as  a  capable  and  experienced  commander,  and  its 
political  importance  led  to  his  being  offered  the  reward  (which 
he  declined)  of  an  Irish  peerage.  He  returned  home  in  1800, 
became  lieutenant-general  in  the  army  the  following  year,  and 
attained  the  rank  of  full  general  in  1812.  In  1815  he  was  made  a 
peer  of  the  United  Kingdom  under  the  title  Baron  Harris  of 
Seringapatam  and  Mysore,  and  of  Belmont,  Kent.  In  1820  he 
received  the  G.C.B.,  and  in  1824  the  governorship  of  Dumbarton 
Castle.  Lord  Harris  died  at  Belmont  in  May  1829.  He  had 
been  colonel  of  the  73rd  Highlanders  since  1800. 

His  descendant,  the  4th  Baron  Harris  (b.  1851),  best  known  as 
a  cricketer,  was  under-secretary  for  India  (1883-1886),  under- 
secretary for  war  (1886-1889)  and  governor  of  Bombay  (1890- 

1895). 

See  Rt.  Hon.  S.  Lushington,  Life  of  Lord  Harris  (London,  1840), 
and  the  regimental  histories  of  the  5th  Northumberland  Fusiliers 
and  73rd  Highlanders. 

HARRIS,  JAMES  (1709-1780),  English  grammarian,  was  born 
at  Salisbury  on  the  zoth  of  July  1709.  He  was  educated  at  the 
grammar  school  in  the  Close  at  Salisbury,  and  at  Wadham 
College,  Oxford.  On  leaving  the  university  he  was  entered  at 
Lincoln's  Inn  as  a  student  of  law,  though  not  intended  for  the 
bar.  The  death  of  his  father  in  1733  placed  him  in  possession  of 
an  independent  fortune  and  of  the  house  in  Salisbury  Close.  He 
became  a  county  magistrate,  and  represented  Christchurch  in 
parliament  from  1761  till  his  death,  and  was  comptroller  to  the 
queen  from  1774  to  1780.  He  held  office  under  Lord  Grenville, 
retiring  with  him  in  1765.  The  decided  bent  of  his  mind  had 
always  been  towards  the  Greek  and  Latin  classics;  and  to  the 
study  of  these,  especially  of  Aristotle,  he  applied  himself  with 
unremitting  assiduity  during  a  period  of  fourteen  or  fifteen 


20 


HARRIS,  J.  C.— HARRIS,  SIR  W.  S. 


years.  He  published  in  1744  three  treatises — on  art;  on  music, 
painting  and  poetry;  and  on  happiness.  In  1751  appeared  the 
work  by  which  he  became  best  known,  Hermes,  a  philosophical 
inquiry  concerning  universal  grammar.  He  also  published 
Philosophical  Arrangements  and  Philosophical  Inquiries.  Harris 
was  a  great  lover  of  music,  and  adapted  the  words  for  a  selec- 
tion from  Italian  and  German  composers,  published  by  the 
cathedral  organist,  James  Corfe.  He  died  on  the  22nd  of 
December  1780. 

His  works  were  collected  and  published  in  1801,  by  his  son,  the 
first  earl  of  Malmesbury,  who  prefixed  a  brief  biography. 

HARRIS,  JOEL  CHANDLER  (1848-1908),  American  author, 
was  born  in  Eatonton,  Putnam  county,  Georgia,  on  the  8th  of 
December  1848.  He  started  as  an  apprentice  to  the  printer's 
trade  in  the  office  of  the  Countryman,  a  weekly  paper  published 
on  a  plantation  not  far  from  his  home.  He  then  studied  law, 
and  practised  for  a  short  time  in  Forsyth,  Ga.,  but  soon  took 
to  journalism.  He  joined  the  staff  of  the  Savannah  Daily  News 
in  1871,  and  in  1876  that  of  the  Atlanta  Constitution,  of  which 
he  was  an  editor  from  1890  to  1901,  and  in  this  capacity  did 
much  to  further  the  cause  of  the  New  South.  But  his  most 
distinctive  contribution  to  this  paper,  and  to  American  literature, 
consisted  of  his  dialect  pieces  dealing  with  negro  life  and  folklore. 
His  stories  are  characterized  by  quaint  humour,  poetic  feeling 
and  homely  philosophy;  and  "  Uncle  Remus,"  the  principal 
character  of  most  of  them,  is  a  remarkably  vivid  and  real  creation. 
The  first  collection  of  his  stories  was  published  in  1880  as  Uncle 
Remus:  his  Songs  and  his  Sayings.  Among  his  later  works  are 
Nights  with  Uncle  Remus  (1883),  Mingo  and  Other  Sketches  in 
Black  and  White  (1884),  Free  Joe  and  Other  Georgian  Sketches 
(1887),  Balaam  and  His  Master  and  Other  Sketches  and  Stories 
(1891),  Uncle  Remus  and  His  Friends  (1892),  On  the  Plantation 
(1892),  which  is  partly  autobiographic,  Sister  Jane  (1896),  The 
Chronicles  of  Aunt  Minervy  Ann  (1899),  and  The  Tar- Baby  and 
Other  Rhymes  of  Uncle  Remus  (1904).  More  purely  juvenile  are 
Daddy  Jake  the  Runaway  and  Other  Stories  (1889),  Little  Mr 
Thimblefinger  and  his  Queer  Country  (1894)  and  its  sequel  Mr 
Rabbit  at  Home  (1895),  Aaron  in  the  Wildwoods  (1897),  Plantation 
Pageants  (1899),  Told  by  Uncle  Remus  (1905),  and  Uncle  Remus 
and  Br'er  Rabbit  (1907).  He  was  one  of  the  compilers  of  the 
Life  of  Henry  W.  Grady,  including  his  Writings  and  Speeches 
(1890)  and  wrote  Stories  of  Georgia  (1896),  and  Georgia  from  the 
Invasion  of  De  Soto  to  Recent  Times  (1899).  He  died  in  Atlanta 
on  the  3rd  of  July  1908. 

HARRIS,  JOHN  (c.  1666-1719),  English  writer.  He  is  best 
known  as  the  editor  of  the  Lexicon  technicum,  or  Dictionary 
of  the  Arts  and  Sciences  (1704),  which  ranks  as  the  earliest  of  the 
long  line  of  English  encyclopaedias,  and  as  the  compiler  of  the 
Collection  of  Voyages  and  Travels  which  passes  under  his  name. 
He  was  born  about  1666,  probably  in  Shropshire,  and  was  a 
scholar  of  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  from  1684  to  1688.  He  was 
presented  to  the  vicarage  of  Icklesham  in  Sussex,  and  subse- 
quently to  the  rectory  of  St  Thomas,  Winchelsea.  In  1698  he 
was  entrusted  with  the  delivery  of  the  seventh  series  of  the 
Boyle  lectures — Atheistical  Objections  against  the  Being  of  God 
and  His  Attributes  fairly  considered  and  fully  refuted.  Between 
1702  and  1704  he  delivered  at  the  Marine  Coffee  House  in 
Birchin  Lane  the  mathematical  lectures  founded  by  Sir  Charles 
Cox,  and  advertised  himself  as  a  mathematical  tutor  at  Amen 
Corner.  The  friendship  of  Sir  William  Cowper,  afterwards  lord 
chancellor,  secured  for  him  the  office  of  private  chaplain,  a 
prebend  in  Rochester  cathedral  (1708),  and  the  rectory  of  the 
united  parishes  of  St  Mildred,  Bread  Street  and  St  Margaret 
Moses,  in  addition  to  other  preferments.  He  showed  himself 
an  ardent  supporter  of  the  government,  and  engaged  in  a  bitter 
quarrel  with  the  Rev.  Charles  Humphreys,  who  afterwards  was 
chaplain  to  Dr  Sacheverel.  Harris  was  one  of  the  early  members 
of  the  Royal  Society,  and  for  a  time  acted  as  vice-president. 
At  his  death  on  the  7th  of  September  1719,  he  was  busy 
completing  an  elaborate  History  of  Kent.  He  is  said  to  have 
died  in  poverty  brought  on  by  his  own  bad  management  of  his 
affairs. 


HARRIS,  THOMAS  LAKE  (1823-1906),  American  spiritual- 
istic "prophet,"  was  born  at  Fenny  Stratford  in  Buckinghamshire, 
England,  on  the  isth  of  May  1823.  His  parents  were  Calvinistic 
Baptists,  and  very  poor.  They  settled  at  Utica,  New  York, 
when  Harris  was  five  years  old.  When  he  was  about  twenty 
Harris  became  a  Universalist  preacher,  and  then  aSwedenborgian. 
He  became  associated  about  1847  with  a  spiritualist  of  indifferent 
character  named  Davis.  After  Davis  had  been  publicly  exposed, 
Harris  established  a  congregation  in  New  York.  About  1850 
he  professed  to  receive  inspirations,  and  published  some  long 
poems.  He  had  the  gift  of  improvisation  in  a  very  high  degree. 
About  1859  he  preached  in  London,  and  is  described  as  a  man 
"  with  low,  black  eyebrows,  black  beard,  and  sallow  countenance." 
He  was  an  effective  speaker,  and  his  poetry  was  admired  by 
many;  Alfred  Austin  in  his  book  The  Poetry  of  the  Period  even 
devoted  a  chapter  to  Harris.  He  founded  in  1861  a  community 
at  Wassaic,  New  York,  and  opened  a  bank  and  a  mill,  which 
he  superintended.  There  he  was  joined  by  about  sixty  converts, 
including  five  orthodox  clergymen,  some  Japanese  people,  some 
American  ladies  of  position,  and  especially  by  Laurence  Oliphant 
(q.ii.)  with  his  wife  and  mother.  The  community — the  Brother- 
hood of  the  New  Life— decided  to  settle  at  the  village  of  Brocton 
on  the  shore  of  Lake  Erie.  Harris  established  there  a  wine- 
making  industry.  In  reply  to  the  objections  of  teetotallers  he 
said  that  the  wine  prepared  by  himself  was  filled  with  the 
divine  breath  so  that  all  noxious  influences  were  neutralized. 
Harris  also  built  a  tavern  and  strongly  advocated  the  use  of 
tobacco.  He  exacted  complete  surrender  from  his  disciples — 
even  the  surrender  of  moral  judgment.  He  taught  that  God 
was  bi-sexual,  and  apparently,  though  not  in  reality,  that  the 
rule  of  society  should  be  one  of  married  celibacy.  He  professed 
to  teach  his  community  a  change  in  the  mode  of  respiration 
which  was  to  be  the  visible  sign  of  possession  by  Christ  and  the 
seal  of  immortality.  The  Oliphants  broke  away  from  therestraint 
about  1881,  charging  him  with  robbery  and  succeeding  in  getting 
back  from  him  many  thousands  of  pounds  by  legal  proceedings. 
But  while  losing  faith  in  Harris  himself,  they  did  not  abandon 
his  main  teaching.  In  Laurence  Oliphant's  novel  Masollam 
his  view  of  Harris  will  be  found.  Briefly,  he  held  that  Harris 
was  originally  honest,  greatly  gifted,  and  possessed  of  certain 
psychical  powers.  But  in  the  end  he  came  to  practise  unbridled 
licence  under  the  loftiest  pretensions,  made  the  profession  of 
extreme  disinterestedness  a  cloak  to  conceal  his  avarice,  and 
demanded  from  his  followers  a  blind  and  supple  obedience. 
Harris  in  1876  discontinued  for  a  time  public  activities,  but 
issued  to  a  secret  circle  books  of  verse  dwelling  mainly  on  sexual 
questions.  On  these  his  mind  ran  from  the  first.  In  1891  he 
announced  that  his  body  had  been  renewed,  and  that  he  had 
discovered  the  secret  of  the  resuscitation  of  humanity.  He  pub- 
lished a  book,  Lyra  triumphalis,  dedicated  to  A.  C.  Swinburne. 
He  also  made  a  third  marriage,  and  visited  England  intending 
to  remain  there.  He  was  called  back  by  a  fire  which  destroyed 
large  stocks  of  his  wine,  and  remained  in  New  York  till  1903, 
when  he  visited  Glasgow.  His  followers  believed  that  he  had 
attained  the  secret  of  immortal  life  on  earth,  and  after  his  death 
on  the  23rd  of  March  1906  declared  that  he  was  only  sleeping. 
It  was  three  months  before  it  was  acknowledged  publicly  that 
he  was  really  dead.  There  can  be  little  or  no  doubt  as  to  the 
real  character  of  Harris.  His  teaching  was  esoteric  in  form,  but 
is  a  thinly  veiled  attempt  to  alter  the  ordering  of  sexual  relations. 

The  authoritative  biography  from  the  side  of  his  disciples  is  the 
Life  byA.  A.  Cuthbert,  published  in  Glasgow  in  1908.  It  is  full  of  the 
jargon  of  Harris's  sect,  but  contains  some  biographical  facts  as  well 
as  many  quotations.  Mrs  Oliphant's  Life  of  Laurence  Oliphant 
(1891)  has  not  been  shaken  in  any  important  particular,  and  Oli- 
phant's own  portrait  of  Harris  in  Masollam  is  apparently  unexag- 
gerated.  But  Harris  had  much  personal  magnetism,  unbounded 
self-confidence,  along  with  endless  fluency,  and  to  the  last  was 
believed  in  by  some  disciples  of  character  and  influence.  (W.  R.  Ni.) 

HARRIS,  SIR  WILLIAM  SNOW  (1701-1867),  English 
electrician,  was  descended  from  an  old  family  of  solicitors  at 
Plymouth,  where  he  was  born  on  the  ist  of  April  1791.  He 
received  his  early  education  at  the  Plymouth  grammar-school, 


HARRIS,  W.  T.— HARRISBURG 


21 


and  completed  a  course  of  medical  studies  at  the  university  of 
Edinburgh,  after  which  he  established  himself  as  a  general 
medical  practitioner  in  Plymouth.  On  his  marriage  in  1824  he 
resolved  to  abandon  his  profession  on  account  of  its  duties 
interfering  too  much  with  his  favourite  study  of  electricity.  As 
early  as  1820  he  had  invented  a  new  method  of  arranging  the 
lightning  conductors  of  ships,  the  peculiarity  of  which  was  that 
the  metal  was  permanently  fixed  in  the  masts  and  extended 
throughout  the  hull;  but  it  was  only  with  great  difficulty,  and 
not  till  nearly  thirty  years  afterwards,  that  his  invention  was 
adopted  by  the  government  for  the  royal  navy.  In  1826  he 
read  a  paper  before  the  Royal  Society  "  On  the  Relative  Powers  of 
various  Metallic  Substances  as  Conductors  of  Electricity,"  which 
led  to  his  being  elected  a  fellow  of  the  society  in  1831.  Subse- 
quently, in  1834, 1836  and  1839,  he  read  before  the  society  several 
valuable  papers  on  the  elementary  laws  of  electricity,  and  he 
also  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh  various 
interesting  accounts  of  his  experiments  and  discoveries  in  the 
same  field  of  inquiry.  In  1835  he  received  the  Copley  gold 
medal  from  the  Royal  Society  for  his  papers  on  the  laws  of 
electricity  of  high  tension,  and  in  1839  he  was  chosen  to  deliver 
the  Bakerian  lecture.  Meanwhile,  although  a  government 
commission  had  recommended  the  general  adoption  of  his 
conductors  in  the  royal  navy,  and  the  government  had  granted 
him  an  annuity  of  £300  "in  consideration  of  services  in  the 
cultivation  of  science,"  the  naval  authorities  continued  to  offer 
various  objections  to  his  invention;  to  aid  in  removing  these 
he  in  1843  published  his  work  on  Thunderstorms,  and  also  about 
the  same  time  contributed  a  number  of  papers  to  the  Nautical 
Magazine  illustrative  of  damage  by  lightning.  His  system  was 
actually  adopted  in  the  Russian  navy  before  he  succeeded  in 
removing  the  prejudices  against  it  in  England,  and  in  1845  the 
emperor  of  Russia,  in  acknowledgment  of  his  services,  presented 
him  with  a  valuable  ring  and  vase.  At  length,  the  efficiency  of 
his  system  being  acknowledged,  he  received  in  1847  the  honour 
of  knighthood,  and  subsequently  a  grant  of  £5000.  After  suc- 
ceeding in  introducing  his  invention  into  general  use  Harris 
resumed  his  labours  in  the  field  of  original  research,  but  as  he 
failed  to  realize  the  advances  that  had  been  made  by  the  new 
school  of  science  his  application  resulted  in  no  discoveries  of 
much  value.  His  manuals  of  Electricity,  Galvanism  and 
Magnetism,  published  between  1848  and  1856,  were,  however, 
written  with  great  clearness,  and  passed  through  several  editions. 
He  died  at  Plymouth  on  the  22nd  of  January  1867,  while  having 
in  preparation  a  Treatise  on  Frictional  Electricity,  which  was 
published  posthumously  in  the  same  year,  with  a  memoir  of  the 
author  by  Charles  Tomlinson. 

HARRIS,  WILLIAM  TORREY  (1835-1909),  American  edu- 
cationist, was  born  in  North  Killingly,  Connecticut,  on  the 
xoth  of  September  1835.  He  studied  at  Phillips  Andover 
Academy,  Andover,  Massachusetts,  and  entered  Yale,  but  left 
in  his  junior  year  (1857)  to  accept  a  position  as  a  teacher  of 
shorthand  in  the  St  Louis,  Missouri,  public  schools.  Advancing 
through  the  grades  of  principal  and  assistant  superintendent, 
he  was  city  superintendent  of  schools  from  1867  until  1880.  In 
1858,  under  the  stimulus  of  Henry  C.  Brockmeyer,  Harris 
became  interested  in  modern  German  philosophy  in  general, 
and  in  particular  in  Hegel,  whose  works  a  small  group,  gather- 
ing about  Harris  and  Brockmeyer,  began  to  study  in  1859. 
From  1867  to  1893  Harris  edited  The  Journal  of  Speculative 
Philosophy  (22  vols.),  which  was  the  quarterly  organ  of  the 
Philosophical  Society  founded  in  1866.  The  Philosophical 
Society  died  out  before  1874,  when  Harris  founded  in  St  Louis 
a  Kant  Club,  which  lived  for  fifteen  years.  In  1873,  with  Miss 
Susan  E.  Blow,  he  established  in  St  Louis  the  first  permanent 
public-school  kindergarten  in  America.  He  represented  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education  at  the  International  Con- 
gress of  Educators  at  Brussels  in  1880.  In  1889  he  represented 
the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  at  the  Paris  Exposition, 
and  from  1889  to  1906  was  United  States  commissioner  of 
education.  In  1899  the  university  of  Jena  gave  him  the  honorary 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  for  his  work  on  Hegel.  In  1906 


the  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching 
conferred  upon  him  "as  the  first  man  to  whom  such  recognition 
for  meritorious  service  is  given,  the  highest  retiring  allowance 
which  our  rules  will  allow,  an  annual  income  of  $3000."  Besides 
being  a  contributor  to  the  magazines  and  encyclopedias  on 
educational  and  philosophical  subjects,  he  wrote  An  Intro- 
duction to  the  Study  of  Philosophy  (1889);  The  Spiritual  Sense 
of  Dante's  Divina  Commedia  (1889);  Hegel's  Logic  (1890); 
and  Psychologic  Foundations  of  Education  (1898);  and  edited 
Appleton's  International  Education  Series  and  Webster's  Inter- 
national Dictionary.  He  died  on  the  sth  of  November  1909. 

See  Henry  R.  Evans,  "A  List  of  the  Writings  of  William  Torrey 
Harris '  in  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1007 
vol.  i.  (Washington,  1908). 

HARRISBURG,  the  capital  of  Pennsylvania,  U.S.A.,  and  the 
county-seat  of  Dauphin  county,  on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Susque- 
hanna  river,  about  105  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Philadelphia.  Pop. 
(189°),  39,38s;  (i9°°),  50,167,  of  whom  2493  were  foreign-born 
and  4107  were  negroes;  (1910  census)  64,186.  It  is  served  by 
the  Pennsylvania,  the  Philadelphia  &  Reading,  the  Northern 
Central  and  the  Cumberland  Valley  railways;  and  the  Pennsyl- 
vania canal  gives  it  water  communication  with  the  ocean.  The 
river  here  is  a  mile  wide,  and  is  ordinarily  very  shallow  and 
dotted  with  islets,  but  rises  from  4  to  6  ft.  after  a  moderate  rain; 
it  is  spanned  by  several  bridges. 

The  city  lies  for  the  most  part  on  the  E.  slope  of  a  hill  extend- 
ing from  the  river  bank,  several  feet  in  height,  across  the  Penn- 
sylvania canal  to  Paxton  Creek.  Front  Street,  along  the  river, 
is  part  of  a  parkway  connecting  the  park  system  with  which  the 
city  is  encircled.  Overlooking  it  are  the  finest  residences,  among 
them  the  governor's  mansion.  State  Street,  120  ft.  in  width, 
runs  at  right  angles  with  Front  Street  through  the  business 
centre  of  the  city,  being  interrupted  by  the  Capitol  Park  (about 
16  acres).  The  Capitol,1  dedicated  in  1906,  was  erected  to  re- 
place one  burned  in  1897;  it  is  a  fine  building,  with  a  dome 
modelled  after  St  Peter's  at  Rome.  At  the  main  entrance  are 
bronze  doors,  decorated  in  relief  with  scenes  from  the  state's 
history;  the  floor  of  the  rotunda  is  of  tiles  made  at  Doylestown, 
in  the  style  of  the  pottery  made  by  early  Moravian  settlers,  and 
illustrating  the  state's  resources;  the  Senate  Chamber  and  the 
House  Chamber  have  stained-glass  windows  by  W.  B.  van  Ingen 
and  mural  paintings  by  Edwin  A.  Abbey,  who  painted  a  series, 
"  The  Development  of  the  Law,"  for  the  Supreme  Court  room 
in  the  eastern  wing  and  decorated  the  rotunda.  The  mural 
decorations  of  the  south  corridor,  by  W.  B.  van  Ingen,  portray 
the  state's  religious  sects;  those  in  the  north  corridor,  by  John 
W.  Alexander,  represent  the  changes  in  the  physical  and  material 
character  of  the  state;  and  there  is  a  frieze  by  Miss  Violet 
Oakley,  "  The  Founding  of  the  State  of  Liberty  Spiritual," 
in  the  governor's  reception  room.  Two  heroic  groups  of 
statuary  for  the  building  were  designed  by  George  Grey  Barnard. 
The  state  library  in  the  Capitol  contains  about  150,000  volumes. 
In  the  same  park  is  also  a  monument  105  ft.  high  erected  in 

1  For  this  building  the  legislature  in  1901  appropriated  $4,000,000, 
stipulating  that  it  should  be  completed  before  the  1st  of  January 
1907,  It  was  completed  by  that-time,  the  net  expenditure  of  the 
building  commission  being  about  $3,970,000.  Although  the  legis- 
lature had  made  no  provision  for  furniture  and  decoration,  the  state 
Board  of  Public  Grounds  and  Buildings  (governor,  auditor-general 
and  treasurer)  undertook  to  complete  the  furnishing  and  decoration 
of  the  building  within  the  stipulated  time,  and  paid  out  for  that 
purpose  more  than  $8,600,000.  In  May  1906  a  new  treasurer  entered 
office,  who  discovered  that  many  items  for  furniture  and  decoration 
were  charged  twice,  once  at  a  normal  and  again  at  a  remarkably  high 
figure.  In  1907  the  legislature  appointed  a  committee  to  investigate 
the  charge  of  fraud.  The  committee's  decision  was  that  the  Board 
of  Grounds  and  Buildings  was  not  authorized  to  let  the  decorating 
and  furnishing  of  the  state  house;  that  it  had  illegally  authorized 
certain  expenditures;  and  that  architect  and  contractors  had  made 
fraudulent  invoices  and  certificates.  Various  indictments  were 
found :  in  the  first  trial  for  conspiracy  in  the  making  and  delivering 
of  furniture  the  contractor  and  the  former  auditor-general,  state 
treasurer  and  superintendent  of  public  grounds  and  buildings  were 
convicted  and  in  December  1908  were  sentenced  to  two  years' 
imprisonment  and  fined  $500  each;  in  1910  a  suit  was  brought  for 
the  recovery  of  about  $5,000,000  from  those  responsible. 


22 


HARRISMITH— HARRISON,  BENJAMIN 


1868  to  the  memory  of  the  soldiers  who  fell  in  the  Mexican  War; 
it  has  a  column  of  Maryland  marble  76  ft.  high,  which  is  sur- 
mounted by  an  Italian  marble  statue  of  Victory,  executed  in 
Rome.  At  the  base  of  the  monument  are  muskets  used  by 
United  States  soldiers  in  that  war  and  guns  captured  at  Cerro 
Gordo.  In  State  Street  is  the  Dauphin  County  Soldiers'  monu- 
ment, a  shaft  10  ft.  sq.  at  the  base  and  no  ft.  high,  with  a  pyra- 
midal top. 

For  several  years  prior  to  1902  Harrisburg  suffered  much  from 
impure  water,  a  bad  sewerage  system,  and  poorly  paved  and 
dirty  streets.  In  that  year,  however,  a  League  for  Municipal 
Improvements  was  formed;  in  February  1902  a  loan  of 
$1,000,000  for  municipal  improvements  was  voted,  landscape 
gardeners  and  sewage  engineers  were  consulted,  and  a  non- 
partisan  mayor  was  elected,  under  whom  great  advances  were 
made  in  street  cleaning  and  street  paving,  a  new  nitration  plant 
was  completed,  the  river  front  was  beautified  and  protected 
from  flood,  sewage  was  diverted  from  Paxton  Creek,  and  the 
development  of  an  extensive  park  system  was  undertaken. 

Harrisburg's  charitable  institutions  include  a  city  hospital, 
a  home  for  the  friendless,  a  children's  industrial  home,  and 
a  state  lunatic  hospital  (1845).  The  city  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman 
Catholic  bishopric.  Both  coal  and  iron  ore  abound  in  the 
vicinity,  and  the  city  has  numerous  manufacturing  establish- 
ments. The  value  of  its  factory  products  in  1905  .was 
$17,146,338  (14-3%  more  than  in  1900),  the  more  import- 
ant being  those  of  steel  works  and  rolling  mills  ($4,528,907), 
blast  furnaces,  steam  railway  repair  shops,  cigar  and  cigarette 
factories  ($1,258,498),  foundries  and  machine  shops  ($953,617), 
boot  and  shoe  factories  ($922,568),  flouring  and  grist  mills, 
slaughtering  and  meat-packing  establishments  and  silk  mills. 

Harrisburg  was  named  in  honour  of  John  Harris,  who,  upon 
coming  into  this  region  to  trade  early  in  the  i8th  century,  was 
attracted  to  the  site  as  an  easy  place  at  which  to  ford  the  Susque- 
hanna,  and  about  1726  settled  here.  He  was  buried  in  what  is 
now  Harris  Park,  where  he  erected  the  first  building,  a  small  hut, 
within  the  present  limits  of  Harrisburg.  In  1753  his  son  estab- 
lished a  ferry  over  the  river,  and  the  place  was  called  Harris's 
Ferry  until  1785,  when  the  younger  Harris  laid  out  the  town  and 
named  it  Harrisburg.  In  the  same  year  it  was  made  the  county- 
seat  of  the  newly  constituted  county  of  Dauphin,  and  its  name  was 
changed  to  Louisburg;  but  when,  in  1791,  it  was  incorporated 
as  a  borough,  the  present  name  was  again  adopted.  In  1812, 
after  an  effort  begun  twenty-five  years  before,  it  was  made  the 
capital  of  the  state;  and  in  1860  it  was  chartered  as  a  city.  In 
the  summer  of  1827,  through  the  persistent  efforts  of  persons 
most  interested  in  the  woollen  manufactures  of  Massachusetts 
and  other  New  England  states  to  secure  legislative  aid  for  that 
industry,  a  convention  of  about  100  delegates — manufacturers, 
newspaper  men  and  politicians — was  held  in  Harrisburg,  and 
the  programme  adopted  by  the  convention  did  much  to  bring 
about  the  passage  of  the  famous  high  tariff  act  of  1828. 

HARRISMITH,  a  town  in  the  Orange  Free  State,  60  m.  N.W. 
by  rail  of  Ladysmith,  Natal,  and  240  m.  N.E.  of  Bloemfontein 
via  Bethlehem.  Pop.  (1904)  8300  (including  troops  1921).  It  is 
built  on  the  banks  of  the  Wilge,  5250  ft.  above  the  sea  and  some 
20  m.  W.  of  the  Drakensberg.  Three  miles  N.  is  the  Platberg, 
a  table-shaped  mountain  rising  2000  ft.  above  the  town,  whence 
an  excellent  supply  of  water  is  derived.  The  town  is  well  laid 
out  and  several  of  the  streets  are  lined  with  trees.  Most  of  the 
houses  are  built  of  white  stone  quarried  in  the  neighbourhood. 
The  Kaffirs,  who  numbered  in  1904  3483,  live  in  a  separate 
location.  Harrismith  has  a  dry,  bracing  climate  and  enjoys  a 
high  reputation  in  South  Africa  as  a  health  resort.  It  serves 
one  of  the  best-watered  and  most  fertile  agricultural  and  pastoral 
districts  of  the  province,  of  which  it  is  the  chief  eastern  trading 
centre.  Wool  and  hides  are  the  principal  exports. 

Harrismith  was  founded  in  1849,  the  site  first  chosen  being  on 
the  Elands  river,  where  the  small  town  of  Aberfeldig  now  is; 
but  the  advantages  of  the  present  site  soon  became  apparent 
and  the  settlement  was  removed.  The  founders  were  Sir  Harry 
Smith  (after  whom  the  town  is  named),  then  governor  of  Cape 


Colony,  and  Major  Henry  D.  Warden,  at  that  time  British 
resident  at  Bloemfontein,  whose  name  is  perpetuated  in  that 
of  the  principal  street.  In  a  cave  about  2  m.  from  the  town  are 
well-preserved  Bushman  paintings. 

HARRISON,  BENJAMIN  (1833-1901),  the  twenty-third 
president  of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  North  Bend,  near 
Cincinnati,  Ohio,  on  the  2oth  of  August  1833.  His  great- 
grandfather, Benjamin  Harrison  of  Virginia  (c.  1740-1791),  was 
a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  His  grandfather, 
William  Henry  Harrison  (1773-1841),  was  ninth  president  of 
the  United  States.  His  father,  John  Scott  Harrison  (1804-1878), 
represented  his  district  in  the  national  House  of  Representatives 
in  1853-1857.  Benjamin's  youth  was  passed  upon  the  ancestral 
farm,  and  as  opportunity  afforded  he  attended  school  in  the  log 
school-house  near  his  home.  He  was  prepared  for  college  by  a 
private  tutor,  studied  for  two  years  at  the  Farmers'  College, 
near  Cincinnati,  and  in  1852  graduated  from  Miami  University, 
at  that  time  the  leading  educational  institution  in  the  State  of 
Ohio.  From  his  youth  he  was  diligent  in  his  studies  and  a 
great  reader,  and  during  his  college  life  showed  a  marked  talent 
for  extemporaneous  speaking.  He  pursued  the  study  of  law, 
partly  in  the  office  of  Bellamy  Storer  (1798-1875),  a  leading 
lawyer  and  judge  of  Cincinnati,  and  in  1853  he  was  admitted 
to  the  bar.  At  the  age  of  twenty-one  he  removed  to  Indianapolis. 
He  had  but  one  acquaintance  in  the  place,  the  clerk  of  the  federal 
court,  who  permitted  him  to  occupy  a  desk  in  his  office  and 
place  at  the  door  his  sign  as  a  lawyer.  Waiting  for  professional 
business,  he  was  content  to  act  as  court  crier  for  two  dollars 
and  a  half  a  day;  but  he  soon  gave  indications  of  his  talent,  and 
his  studious  habits  and  attention  to  his  cases  rapidly  brought 
him  clients.  Within  a  few  years  he  took  rank  among  the  leading 
members  of  the  profession  at  a  bar  which  included  some  of  the 
ablest  lawyers  of  the  country.  His  legal  career  was  early  inter- 
rupted by  the  Civil  War.  His  whole  heart  was  enlisted  in  the 
anti-slavery  cause,  and  during  the  second  year  of  the  war  he 
accepted  a  commission  from  the  governor  of  the  state  as  second- 
lieutenant  and  speedily  raised  a  regiment.  He  became  its 
colonel,  and  as  such  continued  in  the  Union  Army  until  the  close 
of  the  war,  and  on  the  23rd  of  January  1865  was  breveted  a 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  for  "  ability  and  manifest  energy 
and  gallantry  in  command  of  brigade."  He  participated  with 
his  regiment  in  various  engagements  during  General  Don  Carlos 
Buell's  campaigns  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  in  1862  and  1863; 
took  part  in  General  W.  T.  Sherman's  march  on  Atlanta  in  1864 
and  in  the  Nashville  campaign  of  the  same  year;  and  was 
transferred  early  in  1865  to  Sherman's  army  in  its  march  through 
the  Carolinas.  As  the  commander  of  a  brigade  he  served  with 
particular  distinction  in  the  battles  of  Kenesaw  Mountain 
(June  29~July  3,  1864),  Peach  Tree  Creek  (2oth  of  July  1864) 
and  Nashville  (i5th-i6th  of  December  1864). 

Allowing  for  this  interval  of  military  service,  he  applied 
himself  exclusively  for  twenty-four  years  to  his  legal  work. 
The  only  office  he  held  was  that  of  reporter  of  the  supreme  court 
of  Indiana  for  two  terms  (1860-1862  and  1864-1868),  and  this 
was  strictly  in  the  line  of  his  profession.  He  was  a  devoted 
member  of  the  Republican  party,  but  not  a  politician  in  the 
strict  sense.  Once  he  became  a  candidate  for  governor,  in  1876, 
but  his  candidature  was  a  forlorn  hope,  undertaken  from  a  sense 
of  duty  after  the  regular  nominee  had  withdrawn.  He  took 
a  deep  interest  in  the  campaign  which  resulted  in  the  election 
of  James  A.  Garfield  as  president,  and  was  offered  by  him  a 
place  in  his  cabinet;  but  this  he  declined,  having  been  elected 
a  member  of  the  United  States  Senate,  in  which  he  took  his  seat 
on  the  4th  of  March  1881.  He  was  chairman  of  the  committee 
on  territories,  and  took  an  active  part  in  urging  the  admission 
as  states  of  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Washington,  Idaho 
and  Montana,  which  finally  came  into  the  Union  during  his 
presidency.  He  served  also  on  the  committee  of  military  and 
Indian  affairs,  the  committee  on  foreign  relations  and  others, 
was  prominent  in  the  discussion  of  matters  brought  before  the 
Senate  from  these  committees,  advocated  the  enlargement  of 
the  navy  and  the  reform  of  the  civil  service,  and  opposed  the 


HARRISON,  F.— HARRISON,  J. 


pension  veto  messages  of  President  Cleveland.  Having  failed  to 
secure  a  re-election  to  the  Senate  in  1887,  Harrison  was  nominated 
by  the  Republican  party  for  the  presidency  in  1888,  and  defeated 
Grover  Cleveland,  the  candidate  of  the  Democratic  party, 
receiving  233  electoral  votes  to  Cleveland's  168.  Among  the 
measures  and  events  distinguishing  his  term  as  president  were 
the  following:  The  meeting  of  the  Pan-American  Congress  at 
Washington;  the  passage  of  the  McKinley  Tariff  Bill  and  of  the 
Sherman  Silver  Bill  of  1890;  the  suppressing  of  the  Louisiana 
Lottery;  the  enlargement  of  the  navy;  further  advance  in 
civil  service  reform;  the  convocation  by  the  United  States  of  an 
international  monetary  conference;  the  establishment  of 
commercial  reciprocity  with  many  countries  of  America  and 
Europe;  the  peaceful  settlement  of  a  controversy  with  Chile; 
the  negotiation  of  a  Hawaiian  Annexation  Treaty,  which, 
however,  before  its  ratification,  his  successor  withdrew  from  the 
Senate;  the  settlement  of  difficulties  with  Germany  concerning 
the  Samoan  Islands,  and  the  adjustment  by  arbitration  with 
Great  Britain  of  the  Bering  Sea  fur-seal  question.  His  adminis- 
tration was  marked  by  a  revival  of  American  industries  and  a 
reduction  of  the  public  debt,  and  at  its  conclusion  the  country 
'  was  left  in  a  condition  of  prosperity  and  on  friendly  terms  with 
foreign  nations.  He  was  nominated  by  his  party  in  1892  for 
re-election,  but  was  defeated  by  Cleveland,  this  result  being  due, 
at  least  in  part,  to  the  labour  strikes  which  occurred  during  the 
presidential  campaign  and  arrayed  the  labour  unions  against  the 
tariff  party. 

After  leaving  public  life  he  resumed  the  practice  of  the  law, 
and  in  1898  was  retained  by  the  government  of  Venezuela  as  its 
leading  counsel  in  the  arbitration  of  its  boundary  dispute  with 
Great  Britain.  In  this  capacity  he  appeared  before  the  inter- 
national tribunal  of  arbitration  at  Paris  in  1899,  worthily  main- 
taining the  reputation  of  the  American  bar.  After  the  Spanish- 
American  War  he  strongly  disapproved  of  the  colonial  policy 
of  his  party,  which,  however,  he  continued  to  support.  He 
occupied  a  portion  of  his  leisure  in  writing  a  book,  entitled 
This  Country  of  Ours  (1897),  treating  of  the  organization  and 
administration  of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  and  a 
collection  of  essays  by  him  was  published  posthumously,  in 
1901,  under  the  title  Views  of  an  Ex-President.  He  died  at 
Indianapolis  on  the  i3th  of  March  1901.  Harrison's  distinguish- 
ing trait  of  character,  to  which  his  success  is  to  be  most  largely 
attributed,  was  his  thoroughness.  He  was  somewhat  reserved 
in  manner,  and  this  led  to  the  charge  in  political  circles  that  he 
was  cold  and  unsympathetic;  but  no  one  gathered  around  him 
more  devoted  and  loyal  friends,  and  his  dignified  bearing  in  and 
out  of  office  commanded  the  hearty  respect  of  his  countrymen. 

President  Harrison  was  twice  married;  in  1853  to  Miss 
Caroline  Lavinia  Scott,  by  whom  he  had  a  son  and  a  daughter, 
and  in  1896  to  Mrs  Mary  Scott  Lord  Dimmock,  by  whom  he  had 
a  daughter. 

A  "  campaign  "  biography  was  published  by  Lew  Wallace  (Phila- 
delphia, 1888),  and  a  sketch  of  his  life  may  be  found  in  Presidents 
of  the  United  States  (New  York,  1894),  edited  by  James  Grant 
Wilson.  (J.  W.  Fo.) 

HARRISON,  FREDERIC  (1831-  ),  English  jurist  and 
historian,  was  born  in  London  on  the  i8th  of  October  1831. 
Members  of  his  family  (originally  Leicestershire  yeomen)  had 
been  lessees  of  Sutton  Place,  Guildford,  of  which  he  wrote  an 
interesting  account  (Annals  of  an  Old  Manor  House,  1893).  He 
was  educated  at  King's  College  school  and  at  Wadham  College, 
Oxford,  where,  after  taking  a  first-class  in  Literae  Humaniores  in 
1853,  he  became  fellow  and  tutor.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1858,  and,  in  addition  to  his  practice  in  equity  cases,  soon  began 
to  distinguish  himself  as  an  effective  contributor  to  the  higher- 
class  reviews.  Two  articles  in  the  Westminster  Review,  one  on 
the  Italian  question,  which  procured  him  the  special  thanks  of 
Cavour,  the  other  on  Essays  and  Reviews,  which  had  the  probably 
undesigned  effectof  stimulating  the  attack  on  the  book,  attracted 
especial  notice.  A  few  years  later  Mr  Harrison  worked  at  the 
codification  of  the  law  with  Lord  Westbury,  of  whom  he  con- 
tributed an  interesting  notice  to  Nash's  biography  of  the  chan- 


cellor. His  special  interest  in  legislation  for  the  working  classes 
led  him  to  be  placed  upon  the  Trades  Union  Commission  of  1867- 
1869;  he  was  secretary  to  the  commission  for  the  digest  of  the 
law,  1869-1870;  and  was  from  1877  to  1889  professor  of  juris- 
prudence and  international  law  under  the  council  of  legal  educa- 
tion. A  follower  of  the  positive  philosophy,  but  in  conflict  with 
Richard  Congreve  (q.i>.)  as  to  details,  he  led  the  Positivists  who 
split  off  and  founded  Newton  Hall  in  1881,  and  he  was  president 
of  the  English  Positivist  Committee  from  1880  to  1905;  he  was 
also  edifor  and  part  author  of  the  Positivist  New  Calendar  of 
Great  Men  (1892),  and  wrote  much  on  Comte  and  Positivism.  Of 
his  separate  publications,  the  most  important  are  his  lives  of 
Cromwell  (1888),  William  the  Silent,  (1897),  Ruskin  (1902),  and 
Chatham  (1905);  his  Meaning  of  History  (1862;  enlarged  1894) 
and  Byzantine  History  in  the  Early  Middle  Ages  (1900);  and 
his  essays  on  Early  Victorian  Literature  (1896)  and  The  Choice 
of  Books  (1886)  are  remarkable  alike  for  generous  admiration 
and  good  sense.  In  1904  he  published  a  "  romantic  mono- 
graph "  of  the  roth  century,  Theophano,  and  in  1906  a  verse 
tragedy,  Nicephorus.  An  advanced  and  vehement  Radical  in 
politics  and  Progressive  in  municipal  affairs,  Mr  Harrison  in  1886 
stood  unsuccessfully  for  parliament  against  Sir  John  Lubbock 
for  London  University.  In  1889  he  was  elected  an  alderman 
of  the  London  County  Council,  but  resigned  in  1893.  In  1870 
he  married  Ethel  Berta,  daughter  of  Mr  William  Harrison,  by 
whom  he  had  four  sons.  George  Gissing,  the  novelist,  was  at 
one  time  their  tutor;  and  in  1905  Mr  Harrison  wrote  a  preface 
to  Gissing's  Veranilda  (see  also  Mr  Austin  Harrison's  article  on 
Gissing  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  September  1906).  As  a  relig- 
ious teacher,  literary  critic,  historian  and  jurist,  Mr  Harrison 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  life  of  his  time,  and  his  writings, 
though  often  violently  controversial  on  political  and  social 
subjects,  and  in  their  judgment  and  historical  perspective 
characterized  by  a  modern  Radical  point  of  view,  are  those  of  an 
accomplished  scholar,  and  of  one  whose  wide  knowledge  of 
literature  was  combined  with  independence  of  thought  and 
admirable  vigour  of  style.  In  1907  he  published  The  Creed  of  a 
Layman,' Apologia  pro  fide  mea,  in  explanation  of  his  religious 
position. 

HARRISON,  JOHN  (1693-1776),  English  horologist,  was  the 
son  of  a  carpenter,  and  was  born  at  Faulby,  near  Pontefract 
in  Yorkshire,  in  the  year  1693.  Thence  his  father  and  family 
removed  in  1700  to  Barrow  in  Lincolnshire.  Young  Harrison 
at  first  learned  his  father's  trade,  and  worked  at  it  for  several 
years,  at  the  same  time  occasionally  making  a  little  money  by 
land-measuring  and  surveying.  The  bent  of  his  mind,  however, 
was  towards  mechanical  pursuits.  In  1 7 1 5  he  made  a  clock  with 
wooden  wheels,  which  is  in  the  patent  museum  at  South 
Kensington,  and  in  1726  he  devised  his  ingenious  "  gridiron 
pendulum,"  which  maintains  its  length  unaltered  in  spite  of 
variations  of  temperature  (see  CLOCK).  Another  invention  of 
his  was  a  recoil  clock  escapement  in  which  friction  was  reduced 
to  a  minimum,  and  he  was  the  first  to  employ  the  commonly 
used  and  effective  form  of  "  going  ratchet,"  which  is  a  spring 
arrangement  for  keeping  the  timepiece  going  at  its  usual  rate 
during  the  interval  of  being  wound  up. 

In  Harrison's  time  the  British  government  had  become  fully 
alive  to  the  necessity  of  determining  more  accurately  the  longi- 
tude at  sea.  For  this  purpose  they  passed  an  act  in  1713  offering 
rewards  of  £10,000,  £15,000  and  £20,000  to  any  who  should 
construct  chronometers  that  would  determine  the  longitude 
within  60,  40  and  30  m.  respectively.  Harrison  applied  himself 
vigorously  to  the  task,  and  in  1735  went  to  the  Board  of  Longi- 
tude with  a  watch  which  he  also  showed  to  Edmund  Halley, 
George  Graham  and  others.  Through  their  influence  he  was 
allowed  to  proceed  in  a  king's  ship  to  Lisbon  to  test  it;  and  the 
result  was  so  satisfactory  that  he  was  paid  £500  to  carry  out 
further  improvements.  Harrison  worked  at  the  subject  with  the 
utmost  perseverance,  and,  after  making  several  watches,  went  up 
to  London  in  1761  with  one  which  he  considered  almost  perfect. 
His  son  William  was  sent  on  a  voyage  to  Jamaica  to  test  it ;  and, 
on  his  return  to  Portsmouth  in  1762,  it  was  found  to  have  lost 


HARRISON,  T.— HARRISON,  T.  A. 


only  i  minute  54!  seconds.  This  was  surprisingly  accurate,  as  it 
determined  the  longitude  within  18  m.,  and  Harrison  claimed  the 
full  reward  of  £20,000;  but  though  from  time  to  time  he  received 
sums  on  account,  it  was  not  till  1773  that  he  was  paid  in  full. 
In  these  watches  compensation  for  changes  of  temperature  was 
applied  for  the  first  time  by  means  of  a  "  compensation-curb," 
designed  to  alter  the  effective  length  of  the  balance-spring  in 
proportion  to  the  expansion  or  contraction  caused  by  variations 
of  temperature.  Harrison  died  in  London  on  the  24th  of  March 
1776.  His  want  of  early  education  was  felt  by  him  greatly 
throughout  life.  He  was  unfortunately  never  able  to  express  his 
ideas  clearly  in  writing,  although  in  conversation  he  could  give 
a  very  precise  and  exact  account  of  his  many  intricate  mechanical 
contrivances. 

Among  his  writings  were  a  Description  concerning  such  Mechanism 
as  will  afford  a  Nice  or  True  Mensuration  of  Time  (1775),  and  The 
Principles  of  Mr  Harrison's  Timekeeper,  published  by  order  of  the 
Commissioners  of  Longitude  (1767). 

HARRISON,  THOMAS  (1606-1660),  English  parliamentarian, 
a  native  of  Newcastle-under-Lyme  in  Staffordshire,  the  son  of  a 
butcher  and  mayor  of  that  town,  was  baptized  in  1606.  He  was 
placed  with  an  attorney  of  Clifford's  Inn,  but  at  the  beginning  of 
the  war  in  1642  he  enlisted  in  Essex's  lifeguards,  became  major 
in  Fleetwood's  regiment  of  horse  under  the  earl  of  Manchester, 
was  present  at  Marston  Moor,  at  Naseby,  Langport  and  at  the 
taking  of  Winchester  and  Basing,  as  well  as  at  the  siege  of  Oxford. 
At  Basing  Harrison  was  accused  of  having  killed  a  prisoner  in  cold 
blood.  In  1646  he  was  returned  to  parliament  for  Wendover, 
and  served  in  Ireland  in  1647  under  Lord  Lisle,  returning  to 
England  in  May,  when  he  took  the  side  of  the  army  in  the  dispute 
with  the  parliament  and  obtained  from  Fairfax  a  regiment  of 
horse.  In  November  he  opposed  the  negotiations  with  the  king, 
whom  he  styled  "  a  man  of  blood  "  to  be  called  to  account, 
and  he  declaimed  against  the  House  of  Lords.  At  the  surprise  of 
Lambert's  quarters  at  Appleby  on  the  i8th  of  July  1648,  in  the 
second  civil  war,  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  extraordinary 
daring  and  was  severely  wounded.  He  showed  a  special  zeal  in 
bringing  about  the  trial  of  the  king.  Charles  was  entrusted  to 
his  care  on  being  brought  up  from  Hurst  Castle  to  London,  and 
believed  that  Harrison  intended  his  assassination,  but  was  at 
once  favourably  impressed  by  his  bearing  and  reassured  by  his 
disclaiming  any  such  design.  Harrison  was  assiduous  in  his 
attendance  at  the  trial,  and  signed  the  death-warrant  with  the 
fullest  conviction  that  it  was  his  duty.  He  took  part  in  sup- 
pressing the  royalist  rising  in  the  midlands  in  May  1649,  and  in 
July  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command  in  South  Wales,  where 
he  is  said  to  have  exercised  his  powers  with  exceptional  severity. 
On  the  2oth  of  February  1651  he  became  a  member  of  the  council 
of  state,  and  during  Cromwell's  absence  in  Scotland  held  the 
supreme  military  command  in  England.  He  failed  in  stopping 
the  march  of  the  royalists  into  England  at  Knutsford  on  the 
1 6th  of  August  1651,  but  after  the  battle  of  Worcester  he  ren- 
dered great  service  in  pursuing  and  capturing  the  fugitives. 
Later  he  pressed  on  Cromwell  the  necessity  of  dismissing  the 
Long  Parliament,  and  it  was  he  who  at  Cromwell's  bidding,  on 
the  2oth  of  April  1653,  laid  hands  on  Speaker  Lenthall  and  com- 
pelled him  to  vacate  the  chair.  He  was  president  of  the  council 
of  thirteen  which  now  exercised  authority,  and  his  idea  of  govern- 
ment appears  to  have  been  an  assembly  nominated  by  the  congre- 
gations, on  a  strictly  religious  basis,  such  as  Barebone's  Parlia- 
ment which  now  assembled,  of  which  he  was  a  member  and  a 
ruling  spirit.  Harrison  belonged  to  the  faction  of  Fifth  Monarchy 
men,  whose  political  ideals  were  entirely  destroyed  by  Cromwell's 
assumption,  of  the  protectorate.  He  went  immediately  into 
violent  opposition,  was  deprived  of  his  commission  on  the  22nd  of 
December  1653,  and  on  the  3rd  of  February  1654  was  ordered  to 
confine  himself  to  liis  father's  house  in  Staffordshire.  Suspected 
of  complicity  in  the  plots  of  the  anabaptists,  he  was  imprisoned 
for  a  short  time  in  September,  and  on  that  occasion  was  sent 
for  by  Cromwell,  who  endeavoured  in  a  friendly  manner  to  per- 
suade him  to  desist.  He,  however,  incurred  the  suspicions  of  the 
administration  afresh,  and  on  the  isth  of  February  1655  he  was 


imprisoned  in  Carisbrooke  Castle,  being  liberated  in  March  1656, 
when  he  took  up  his  residence  at  Highgate  with  his  family.  In 
April  1657  he  was  arrested  for  supposed  complicity  in  Venner's 
conspiracy,  and  again  once  more  in  February  1658,  when  he  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower.  At  the  Restoration,  Harrison,  who 
was  excepted  from  the  Act  of  Indemnity,  refused  to  take  any 
steps  to  save  his  life,  to  give  any  undertaking  not  to  conspire 
against  the  government  or  to  flee.  "  Being  so  clear  in  the  thing," 
he  declared,  "  I  durst  not  turn  my  back  nor  step  a  foot  out  of 
the  way  by  reason  I  had  been  engaged  in  the  service  of  so  glorious 
and  great  a  God."  He  was  arrested  in  Staffordshire  in  May  1660 
and  brought  to  trial  on  the  nth  of  October.  He  made  a  manly 
and  straightforward  defence,  pleading  the  authority  of  parlia- 
ment and  adding,  "  May  be  I  might  be  a  little  mistaken,  but  I 
did  it  all  according  to  the  best  of  my  understanding,  desiring  to 
make  the  revealed  will  of  God  in  His  holy  scriptures  a  guide  to 
me."  At  his  execution,  which  took  place  at  Charing  Cross  on  the 
I3th  of  October  1660,  he  behaved  with  great  fortitude. 

Richard  Baxter,  who  was  acquainted  with  him,  describes 
Harrison  as  "  a  man  of  excellent  natural  parts  for  affection 
and  oratory,  but  not  well  seen  in  the  principles  of  his  religion; 
of  a  sanguine  complexion,  naturally  of  such  a  vivacity,  hilarity 
and  alacrity  as  another  man  hath  when  he  hath  drunken  a  cup 
too  much,  but  naturally  also  so  far  from  humble  thoughts  of 
himself  that  it  was  his  ruin."  Cromwell  also  complained  of  his 
excessive  eagerness.  "  Harrison  is  an  honest  man  and  aims  at 
good  things,  yet  from  the  impatience  of  his  spirit  will  not  wait 
the  Lord's  leisure  but  hurries  me  on  to  that  which  he  and  all 
honest  men  will  have  cause  to  repent."  Harrison  was  an 
eloquent  and  fluent  expounder  of  the  scriptures,  and  his  "  rap- 
tures "  on  the  field  of  victory  are  recorded  by  Baxter.  He  was 
of  the  chief  of  those  "  fiery  spirits  "  whose  ardent  and  emotional 
religion  inspired  their  political  action,  and  who  did  wonders 
during  the  period  of  struggle  and  combat,  but  who  later,  in  the 
more  sober  and  difficult  sphere  of  constructive  statesmanship, 
showed  themselves  perfectly  incapable. 

Harrison  married  about  1648  Katherine,  daughter  and  heiress 
of  Ralph  Harrison  of  Highgate  in  Middlesex,  by  whom  he  had 
several  children,  all  of  whom,  however,  appear  to  have  died  in 
infancy. 

See  the  article  on  Harrison  by  C.  H.  Firth  in  the  Diet,  of  Nat. 
Biog.;  Life  of  Harrison  by  C.  H.  Simpkinson  (1905);  Notes  and 
Queries,  9  series,  xi.  211. 

HARRISON,  THOMAS  ALEXANDER  (1853-  ),  American 
artist,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  on  the  i7th  of  January  1853. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  and 
of  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts,  Paris,  whither  he  went  in  1878, . 
having  previously  been  with  a  United  States  government  survey 
expedition  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Chafing  under  the  restraints  of 
the  schools,  he  went  into  Brittany,  and  at  Pont  Aven  and  Con- 
carneau  turned  his  attention  to  marine  painting  and  landscape. 
In  1882  he  sent  a  figure-piece  to  the  Salon,  a  fisher  boy  on  the 
beach,  which  he  called  "  Chateaux  en  Espagne."  This  attracted 
attention,  and  in  1885  he  received  an  honourable  mention,  the 
first  of  many  awards  conferred  upon  him,  including  the  Temple 
gold  medal  (Pennsylvania  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  Philadelphia, 
1887),  first  medal,  Paris  Exhibition  (1889),  and  medals  in  Munich, 
Brussels,  Ghent,  Vienna  and  elsewhere.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  Legion  of  Honour  and  officier  of  Public  Instruction, 
Paris;  a  member  of  the  Societe  Nationale  des  Beaux- Arts, 
Paris;  of  the  Royal  Institute  of  Painters  in  Oil  Colours,  London; 
of  the  Secession  societies  of  Munich,  Vienna  and  Berlin;  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Design,  the  Society  of  American  Artists, 
New  York,  and  other  art  bodies.  In  the  Salon  of  1885  he  had 
a  large  canvas  of  several  nude  women,  called  "  In  Arcady,"  a 
remarkable  study  of  flesh  tones  in  light  and  shade  which  had  a 
strong  influence  on  the  younger  men  of  the  day.  But  his  reputa- 
tion rests  rather  on  his  marine  pictures,  long  waves  rolling  in  on 
the  beach,  and  great  stretches  of  open  sea  under  poetic  con- 
ditions of  light  and  colour. 

His  brother,  BIRGE  HARRISON  (1834-  ),  also  a  painter, 
particularly  successful  in  snow  scenes,  was  a  pupil  of  the  Ecole 


HARRISON,  W.— HARRISON,  W.  H. 


des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris,  under  Cabanel  and  Carolus  Duran;  his 
"  November  "  (honourable  mention,  1882)  was  purchased  by 
the  French  government.  Another  brother,  BUTLER  HARRISON 
(d.  1886),  was  a  figure  painter. 

HARRISON,  WILLIAM  (1534-1593),  English  topographer  and 
antiquary,  was  born  in  London  on  the  iSth  of  April  1534-  He 
was  educated,  according  to  his  own  account,  at  St  Paul's  school 
and  at  Westminster  under  Alexander  Nowell.  In  1551  he  was 
at  Cambridge,  but  he  took  his  B.A.  degree  from  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  in  1560.  He  was  inducted  early  in  1559  to  the  rectory 
of  Radwinter,  Essex,  on  the  presentation  of  Sir  William  Brooke, 
Lord  Cobham,  to  whom  he  had  formerly  acted  as  chaplain;  and 
from  1571  to  1581  he  held  from  another  patron,  Francis  de  la 
Wood,  the  living  of  Wimbish  in  the  same  county.  He  became 
canon  of  Windsor  in  1586,  and  his  death  and  burial  are  noted  in 
the  chapter  book  of  St  George's  chapel  on  the  24th  of  April  1593. 

His  famous  and  amusing  Description  of  England  was  under- 
taken for  the  queen's  printer,  Reginald  Wolfe,  who  designed  the 
publication  of  "  an  universall  cosmographie  of  the  whole  world 

.  .  with  particular  histories  of  every  knowne  nation."  After 
Wolfe's  death  in  1576  this  comprehensive  plan  was  reduced  to 
descriptions  and  histories  of  England,  Scotland  and  Ireland. 
The  historical  section  was  to  be  supplied  by  Raphael  Holinshed, 
the  topographical  by  Harrison.  The  work  was  eventually  pub- 
lished as  The  Chronicles  of  England,  Scotland  and  Ireland  .  .  . 
by  Raphael  Holinshed  and  others,  and  was  printed  in  two  black- 
letter  folio  volumes  in  1577.  Harrison's  Description  of  England, 
humbly  described  as  his  "  foule  frizeled  treatise,"  and  dedicated 
to  his  patron  Cobham,  is  an  invaluable  survey  of  the  condition  of 
England  under  Elizabeth,  in  all  its  political,  religious  and  social 
aspects.  Harrison  is  a  minute  and  careful  observer  of  men  and 
things,  and  his  descriptions  are  enlivened  with  many  examples 
of  a  lively  and  caustic  humour  which  makes  the  book  excellent 
reading.  In  spite  of  his  Puritan  prejudices,  which  lead  him  to 
regret  that  the  churches  had  not  been  cleared  of  their  "  pictures 
in  glass  "  ("  by  reason  of  the  extreme  cost  thereof  "),  and  to 
exhaust  his  wit  on  the  effeminate  Italian  fashions  of  the  younger 
generation,  he  had  an  eye  for  beauty  and  is  loud  in  his  praise  of 
such  architectural  gems  as  Henry  VII. 's  chapel  at  Westminster. 
He  is  properly  contemptuous  of  the  snobbery  that  was  even  then 
characteristic  of  English  society;  but  his  account  of  "  how 
gentlemen  are  made  in  England  "  must  be  read  in  full  to  be 
appreciated.  He  is  especially  instructive  on  the  condition  and 
services  of  the  Church  immediately  after  the  Reformation; 
notably  in  the  fact  that,  though  an  ardent  Protestant,  he  is  quite 
unconscious  of  any  breach  of  continuity  in  the  life  and  organiza- 
tion of  the  Church  of  England. 

Harrison  also  contributed  the  translation  from  Scots  into 
English  of  Bellenden's  version  of  Hector  Boece's  Latin  Descrip- 
tion of  Scotland.  His  other  works  include  a  "  Chronologic," 
giving  an  account  of  events  from  the  creation  to  the  year  1593, 
which  is  of  some  value  for  the  period  covered  by  the  writer's 
lifetime.  This,  with  an  elaborate  treatise  on  weights  and 
measures,  remains  in  MS.  in  the  diocesan  library  of  Londonderry. 

For  the  later  editions  of  the  Chronicles  of  England  .  .  .  see 
HOLINSHED.  The  second  and  third  books  of  Harrison's  Description 
were  edited  by  Dr  F.  J.  Furnivall  for  the  New  Shakspcre  Society, 
with  extracts  from  his  "  Chronologie  "  and  from  other  contemporary 
writers,  as  Shakspere's  England  (2  vols.,  1877-1878). 

HARRISON,  WILLIAM  HENRY  (1773-1841),  ninth  president 
of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Berkeley,  Charles  City  county, 
Virginia,  on  the  9th  of  February  1773,  the  third  son  of  Benjamin 
Harrison  (c.  1740-1791).  His  father  was  long  prominent  in 
Virginia  politics,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Virginia  House 
of  Burgesses  in  1764,  opposing  Patrick  Henry's  Stamp  Act 
resolutions  in  the  following  year;  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress  in  1774-1777,  signing  the  Declaration  ol 
Independence  and  serving  for  a  time  as  president  of  the  Boarc 
of  War;  speaker  of  the  Virginia  House  of  Delegates  in  1777- 
1782;  governor  of  Virginia  in  1781-1784;  and  in  1788  as  a 
member  of  the  Virginia  Convention  he  actively  opposed  the 
ratification  of  the  Federal  Constitution  by  his  state.  William 


rlenry  Harrison  received  a  classical  education  at  Hampden- 
Sidney  College,  where  he  was  a  student  in  1787-1790,  and  began 
a  medical  course  in  Philadelphia,  but  the  death  of  his  father 
caused  him  to  discontinue  his  studies,  and  in  November  1791  he 
entered  the  army  as  ensign  in  the  Tenth  Regiment  at  Fort 
Washington,  Cincinnati.  In  the  following  year  he  became  a 
ieutenant,  and  subsequently  acted  as  aide-de-camp  to  General 
Anthony  Wayne  in  the  campaign  which  ended  in  the  battle  of 
Fallen  Timbers  on  the  loth  of  August  1 794.  He  was  promoted  to 
a  captaincy  in  1797  and  for  a  brief  period  served  as  commander  of 
Fort  Washington,  but  resigned  from  the  army  in  June  1798. 
Soon  afterwards  he  succeeded  Winthrop  Sargent  as  secretary  of 
the  North-west  Territory.  In  1799  he  was  chosen  by  the  Jeffer- 
sonian  party  of  this  territory  as  the  delegate  of  the  territory  in 
Congress.  While  serving  in  this  capacity  he  devised  a  plan  for 
disposing  of  the  public  lands  upon  favourable  terms  to  actual 
settlers,  and  also  assisted  in  the  division  of  the  North-west 
Territory.  It  was  his  ambition  to  become  governor  of  the  more 
populous  eastern  portion,  which  retained  the  original  name,  but 
nstead,  in  January  1800,  President  John  Adams  appointed  him 
governor  of  the  newly  created  Indiana  Territory,  which  com- 
prised until  1809  a  much  larger  area  than  the  present  state  of 
the  same  name.  (See  INDIANA:  History.)  He  was  not  sworn 
into  office  until  the  loth  of  January  1801,  and  was  governor 
until  September  1812.  Among  the  legislative  measures  of  his 
administration  may  be  mentioned  the  attempted  modification 
of  the  slavery  clause  of  the  ordinance  of  1787  by  means  of  an 
indenture  law — a  policy  which  Harrison  favoured;  more 
effective  land  laws;  and  legislation  for  the  more  equitable 
treatment  of  the  Indians  and  for  preventing  the  sale  of  liquor  to 
them.  In  1803  Harrison  also  became  a  special  commissioner  to 
treat  with  the  Indians  "  on  the  subject  of  boundary  or  lands," 
and  as  such  negotiated  various  treaties — at  Fort  Wayne  (1803 
and  1809),  Vincennes  (1804  and  1809)  and  Grouseland  (1805) — 
by  which  the  southern  part  of  the  present  state  of  Indiana  and 
portions  of  the  present  states  of  Illinois,  Wisconsin  and  Missouri 
were  opened  to  settlement.  For  a  few  months  after  the  division 
in  1804  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  into  the  Orleans  Territory 
and  the  Louisiana  Territory  he  also  acted  as  governor  of  the 
Louisiana  Territory — all  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  N.  of  the 
thirty-third  parallel,  his  jurisdiction  then  being  the  greatest 
in  extent  ever  exercised  by  a  territorial  official  in  the  United 
States. 

The  Indian  cessions  of  1809,  along  the  Wabash  river,  aroused 
the  hostility  of  Tecumseh  (q.v.)  and  his  brother,  familiarly  known 
as  "  The  Prophet,"  who  were  attempting  to  combine  the  tribes 
between  the  Ohio  and  the  Great  Lakes  in  opposition  to  the 
encroachment  of  the  whites.  Several  fruitless  conferences 
between  the  governor  and  the  Indian  chiefs,  who  were  believed 
to  be  encouraged  by  the  British,  resulted  in  Harrison's  advance 
with  a  force  of  militia  and  regulars  to  the  Tippecanoe  river, 
where  (near  the  present  Lafayette,  Ind.)  on  the  7th  of  November 
1811  he  won  over  the  Indians  a  victory  which  established  his 
military  reputation  and  was  largely  responsible  for  his  sub- 
sequent nomination  and  election  to  the  presidency  of  the  United 
States.  From  one  point  of  view  the  battle  of  Tippecanoe  may 
be  regarded  as  the  opening  skirmish  of  the  war  of  1812.  When 
in  the  summer  of  181 2  open  hostilities  with  Great  Britain  began, 
Harrison  was  appointed  by  Governor  Charles  Scott  of  Kentucky 
major-general  in  the  militia  of  that  state.  A  few  weeks  later 
(22nd  August  1812)  he  was  made  brigadier-general  in  the  regular 
U.S.  army,  and  soon  afterwards  was  put  in  command  of  all  the 
troops  in  the  north-west,  and  on  the  2nd  of  March  1813  he  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  major-general.  General  James  Win- 
chester, whom  Harrison  had  ordered  to  prepare  to  cross  Lake 
Erie  on  the  ice  and  surprise  Fort  Maiden,  turned  back  to  rescue 
the  threatened  American  settlement  at  Frenchtown  (now 
Monroe),  on  the  Raisin  river,  and  there  on  the  22nd  of  January 
1813  was  .forced  to  surrender  to  Colonel  Henry  A.  Proctor. 
Harrison's  offensive  operations  being  thus  checked,  he  accom- 
plished nothing  that  summer  except  to  hold  in  check  Proctor,  who 
(May  1-5)  besieged  him  at  Fort  Meigs,  the  American  advanced 


HARRISON 


post  after  the  disaster  of  the  river  Raisin.  After  Lieutenant 
O.  H.  Perry's  naval  victory  on  the  roth  of  September  1813, 
Harrison  no  longer  had  to  remain  on  the  defensive;  he  advanced 
to  Detroit,  re-occupied  the  territory  surrendered  by  General 
William  Hull,  and  on  the  sth  of  October  administered  a  crushing 
defeat  to  Proctor  at  the  battle  of  the  Thames. 

In  1814  Harrison  received  no  active  assignments  to  service, 
and  on  this  account  and  because  the  secretary  of  war  (John 
Armstrong)  issued  an  order  to  one  of  Harrison's  subordinates 
without  consulting  him,  he  resigned  his  commission.  Armstrong 
accepted  the  resignation  without  consulting  President  Madison, 
but  the  president  later  utilized  Harrison  in  negotiating  with  the 
north-western  Indians,  the  greater  part  of  whom  agreed  (22nd 
July  1814)  to  a  second  treaty  of  Greenville,  by  which  they  were 
to  become  active  allies  of  the  United  States,  should  hostilities 
with  Great  Britain  continue.  This  treaty  publicly  marked  an 
American  policy  of  alliance  with  these  Indians  and  caused  the 
British  peace  negotiators  at  Ghent  to  abandon  them.  In  the 
following  year  Harrison  held  another  conference  at  Detroit  with 
these  tribes  in  order  to  settle  their  future  territorial  relations 
with  the  United  States. 

From  1816  to  1819  Harrison  was  a  representative  in  Congress, 
and  as  such  worked  in  behalf  of  more  liberal  pension  laws  and  a 
better  militia  organization,  including  a  system  of  general  military 
education,  of  improvements  in  the  navigation  of  the  Ohio,  and  of 
relief  for  purchasers  of  public  lands,  and  for  the  strict  construc- 
tion of  the  power  of  Congress  over  the  Territories,  particularly 
in  regard  to  slavery.  In  accordance  with  this  view  in  1819  he 
voted  against  Tallmadge's  amendment  (restricting  the  extension 
of  slavery)  to  the  enabling  act  for  the  admission  of  Missouri. 
He  also  delivered  forcible  speeches  upon  the  death  of  Kosciusko 
and  upon  General  Andrew  Jackson's  course  in  the  Floridas, 
favouring  a  partial  censure  of  the  latter. 

Harrison  was  a  member  of  the  Ohio  senate  in  1810-1821,  and 
was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  National  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives in  1822,  when  his  Missouri  vote  helped  to  cause  his 
defeat;  he  was  a  presidential  elector  in  1824,  supporting  Henry 
Clay,  and  from  1825  to  1828  was  a  member  of  the  United  States 
Senate.  In  1828  after  unsuccessful  efforts  to  secure  for  him  the 
command  of  the  army,  upon  the  death  of  Major-General  Jacob 
Brown,  and  the  nomination  for  the  vice-president,  on  the  ticket 
with  John  Quincy  Adams,  his  friends  succeeded  in  getting 
Harrison  appointed  as  the  first  minister  of  the  United  States  to 
Colombia.  He  became,  however,  an  early  sacrifice  to  Jackson's 
spoils  system,  being  recalled  within  less  than  a  year,  but  not 
until  he  had  involved  himself  in  some  awkward  diplomatic  com- 
plications with  Bolivar's  autocratic  government. 

For  some  years  after  his  return  from  Colombia  he  lived  in 
retirement  at  North  Bend,  Ohio.  He  was  occasionally  "  men- 
tioned "  for  governor,  senator  or  representative,  by  the  anti- 
Jackson  forces,  and  delivered  a  few  addresses  on  agricultural  or 
political  topics.  Later  he  became  clerk  of  the  court  of  common 
pleas  of  Hamilton  county — a  lucrative  position  that  was  then 
most  acceptable  to  him.  Early  in  1835  Harrison  began  to  be 
mentioned  as  a  suitable  presidential  candidate,  and  later  in  the 
year  he  was  nominated  for  the  presidency  at  large  public  meet- 
ings in  Pennsylvania,  New  York  and  Maryland.  In  the  election 
of  the  following  year  he  attracted  a  large  part  of  the  Whig  and 
Anti-Masonic  vote  of  the  Middle  and  Western  states  and  led 
among  the  candidates  opposing  Van  Buren,  but  received  only 
73  electoral  votes  while  Van  Buren  received  1 70.  His  unexpected 
strength,  due  largely  to  his  clear,  if  non-committal,  political 
record,  rendered  him  the  most  "  available  "  candidate  for  the 
Whig  party  for  the  campaign  of  1840,  and  he  was  nominated  by 
the  Whig  convention  at  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  in  December  1839,  his 
most  formidable  opponent  being  Henry  Clay,  who,  though 
generally  regarded  as  the  real  leader  of  his  party,  was  less 
"  available  "  because  as  a  mason  he  would  alienate  former 
members  of  the  old  Anti-Masonic  party,  and  as  an  advocate  of  a 
protective  tariff  would  repel  many  Southern  voters.  The  conven- 
tion adjourned  without  adopting  any  "  platform  "  of  principles, 
the  party  shrewdly  deciding  to  make  its  campaign  merely  on  the 


issue  of  whether  the  Van  Buren  administration  should  be  con- 
tinued in  power  and  thus  to  take  full  advantage  of  the  popular 
discontent  with  the  administration,  to  which  was  attributed  the 
responsibility  for  the  panic  of  1837  and  the  subsequent  business 
depression.  Largely  to  attract  the  votes  of  Democratic  mal- 
contents the  Whig  convention  nominated  for  the  vice-presidency 
John  Tyler,  who  had  previously  been  identified  with  the  Demo- 
cratic party.  The  campaign  was  marked  by  the  extraordinary 
enthusiasm  exhibited  by  the  Whigs,  and  by  their  skill  in  attacking 
Van  Buren  without  binding  themselves  to  any  definite  policy. 
Because  of  his  fame  as  a  frontier  hero,  of  the  circumstance  that 
a  part  of  his  home  at  North  Bend,  Ohio,  had  formerly  been  a  log 
cabin,  and  of  the  story  that  cider,  not  wine,  was  served  on  his 
table,  Harrison  was  derisively  called  by  his  opponents  the  "  log 
cabin  and  hard  cider  "  candidate;  the  term  was  eagerly  accepted 
by  the  Whigs,  in  whose  processions  miniature  log  cabins  were 
carried  and  at  whose  meetings  hard  cider  was  served,  and 
the  campaign  itself  has  become  known  in  history  as  the  "log 
cabin  and  hard  cider  campaign."  Harrison's  canvass  was  con- 
spicuous for  the  immense  Whig  processions  and  mass  meetings, 
the  numerous  "  stump  "  speeches  (Harrison  himself  addressing 
meetings  at  Dayton,  Chillicothe,  Columbus  and  other  places), 
and  the  use  of  campaign  songs,  of  party  insignia,  and  of  campaign 
cries  (such  as  "  Tippecanoe  and  Tyler  too  ");  and  in  the  election 
he  won  by  an  overwhelming  majority  of  234  electoral  votes  to 
60  cast  for  Van  Buren. 

President  Harrison  was  inaugurated  on  the  4th  of  March  1841. 
He  chose  for  his  cabinet  Daniel  Webster  as  secretary  of  state, 
Thomas  Ewing  as  secretary  of  the  treasury,  John  Bell  as  secretary 
of  war,  George  E.  Badger  as  secretary  of  the  navy,  Francis 
Granger  as  postmaster-general,  and  John  J.  Crittenden  as 
attorney-general.  He  survived  his  inauguration  only  one  month, 
dying  on  the  4th  of  April  1841,  and  being  succeeded  by  the  vice- 
president,  John  Tyler.  The  immediate  cause  of  his  death  was 
an  attack  of  pneumonia,  but  the  disease  was  aggravated  by  the 
excitement  attending  his  sudden  change  in  circumstances  and 
the  incessant  demands  of  office  seekers.  After  temporary 
interment  at  Washington,  his  body  was  removed  to  the  tomb  at 
North  Bend,  Ohio,  where  it  now  lies.  A  few  of  Harrison's  public 
addresses  survive,  the  most  notable  being  A  Discourse  on  the 
Aborigines  of  the  Ohio.  It  has  been  said  of  him:  "  He  was  not  a 
great  man,  but  he  had  lived  in  a  great  time,  and  he  had  been  a 
leader  in  great  things."  He  was  the  first  territorial  delegate  in 
the  Congress  of  the  United  States  and  was  the  author  of  the  first 
step  in  the  development  of  the  country's  later  homestead  policy; 
the  first  presidential  candidate  to  be  selected  upon  the  ground 
of  "  expediency  "  alone;  and  the  first  president  to  die  in  office. 
In  1795  he  married  Anna  Symmes  (1775-1864),  daughter  of  John 
Cleves  Symmes.  Their  grandson,  Benjamin  Harrison,  was  the 
twenty-third  president  of  the  United  States. 

AUTHORITIES. — In  1824  Moses  Dawson  published  at  Cincinnati  the 
Historical  Narrative  of  the  Civil  and  Military  Services  of  Major- 
General  William  H.  Harrison.  This  is  a  combined  defence  and 
political  pamphlet,  but  it  is  the  source  of  all  the  subsequent  "  lives  " 
that  have  appeared.  There  are  several  "  campaign  "  biographies, 
including  one  by  Richard  Hildreth  (1839)  and  one  by  Caleb  Gushing 
(1840);  and  there  is  a  good  sketch  in  Presidents  of  the  United  States 
(New  York,  1894),  edited  by  J.  G.  Wilson.  An  excellent  study  of 
Harrison's  career  in  Indiana  appears  in  vol.  4  of  the  Indiana  Historical 
Society  Publications.  Selections  from  his  scanty  correspondence 
appear  in  vols.  ii.  and  iii.  of  the  Quarterly  Publications  of  the  Historical 
and  Philosophical  Society  of  Ohio. 

HARRISON,  a  town  of  Hudson  county.  New  Jersey,  U.S.A., 
on  the  Passaic  river,  opposite  Newark  (with  which  it  is  connected 
by  bridges  and  electric  railways),  and  7  m.  W.  of  Jersey  City. 
Pop.  (1890)  8338;  (1900)  10,596,  of  whom  3633  were  foreign- 
born;  (1910  census)  14,498.  It  is  served  by  the  Pennsylvania, 
the  Erie,  and  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  &  Western  railways. 
Harrison  was  chosen  as  the  eastern  terminal  of  the  Pennsylvania 
railroad  for  steam  locomotive  service,  transportation  thence 
to  New  York  being  by  electric  power  through  the  railway's 
Hudson  river  tunnels.  The  town  has  an  extensive  river-front, 
along  which  are  many  of  its  manufactories;  among  their 
products  are  steam-pumps,  steel,  iron,  machinery,  roller  bearings, 


HARRODSBURG— HARROW 


27 


brass  tubing,  iron  and  brass  castings,  marine  engines,  hoisting 
engines,  metal  novelties,  dry  batteries,  electric  lamps,  concrete 
blocks,  cotton  thread,  wire  cloth,  leather,  trunks,  beer,  barrels, 
lumber,  inks  and  cutlery.  The  factory  product  in  1905  was 
valued  at  $8,408,924.  The  town  is  governed  by  a  mayor  and  a 
common  council.  Harrison  was  settled  toward  the  close  of  the 
1 7th  century,  and  for  many  years  constituted  the  S.  portion  of 
the  township  of  Lodi.  In  1840,  however,  it  was  set  off  from 
Lodi  and  named  in  honour  of  President  William  Henry  Harrison, 
and  in  1873  it  was  incorporated.  Harrison  originally  included 
what  is  now  the  town  of  Kearny  (q.v.). 

HARRODSBURG,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Mercer 
county,  Kentucky,  U.S.A.,  32  m.  S.  of  Frankfort,  on  the  Southern 
railway.  Pop.  (1890)  3230;  (1900)  2876,  of  whom  1150  were 
negroes;  (1910  U.S.  census)  3147.  On  account  of  its  sulphur 
springs  Harrodsburg  became  early  in  the  igth  century  a  fashion- 
able resort,  and  continues  to  attract  a  considerable  number  of 
visitors.  The  city  is  the  seat  of  Harrodsburg  Academy,  Beau- 
mont College  for  women  (1894;  founded  as  Daughters'  College 
in  1856);  and  Wayman  College  (African  M.E.)  for  negroes. 
Among  its  manufactures  are  flour,  whisky,  dressed  lumber  and 
ice.  About  7  m.  E.  of  Harrodsburg  is  Pleasant  Hill,  or  Union 
Village,  a  summer  resort  and  the  home,  since  early  in  the  igth 
century,  of  a  Shaker  community.  Harrodsburg  was  founded  on 
the  1 6th  of  June  1774  by  James  Harrod  (1746-1793)  and  a 
few  followers,  and  is  the  oldest  permanent  settlement  in  the 
state.  It  was  incorporated  in  1875.  Harrodsburg  was  formerly 
the  seat  of  Bacon  College  (see  LEXINGTON,  Kentucky). 

HARROGATE,  a  municipal  borough  and  watering-place  in 
the  Ripon  parliamentary  division  of  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire, England,  203  m.  N.  by  W.  from  London,  on  the  North- 
Eastern  railway.  Pop.  (1891)  16,316;  (1901)  28,423.  It  is 
indebted  for  its  rise  and  importance  to  its  medicinal  springs, 
and  is  the  principal  inland  watering-place  in  the  north  of  England. 
It  consists  of  two  scattered  townships,  Low  Harrogate  and  High 
Harrogate,  which  have  gradually  been  connected  by  a  continuous 
range  of  handsome  houses  and  villas.  A  common  called  the 
Stray,  of  200  acres,  secured  by  act  of  parliament  from  ever  being 
built  upon,  stretches  in  front  of  the  main  line  of  houses,  and  on 
this  account  Harrogate,  notwithstanding  its  rapid  increase,  has 
retained  much  of  its  rural  charm.  As  regards  climate  a  choice 
is  offered  between  the  more  bracing  atmosphere  of  High  Harro- 
gate and  the  sheltered  and  warm  climate  of  the  low  town.  The 
waters  are  chalybeate,  sulphureous  and  saline,  and  some  of  the 
springs  possess  all  these  qualities  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 
The  principal  chalybeate  springs  are  the  Tewitt  well,  called  by 
Dr  Bright,  who  wrote  the  first  account  of  it,  the  "  English  Spa," 
discovered  by  Captain  William  Slingsby  of  Bilton  Hall  near  the 
close  of  the  i6th  century;  the  Royal  Chalybeate  Spa,  more 
commonly  known  as  John's  Well,  discovered  in  1631  by  Dr 
Stanhope  of  York;  Muspratt's  chalybeate  or  chloride  of  iron 
spring  discovered  in  1819,  but  first  properly  analysed  by  Dr 
Sheridan  Muspratt  in  1865;  and  the  Starbeck  springs  midway 
between  High  Harrogate  and  Knaresborough.  The  principal 
sulphur  springs  are  the  old  sulphur  well  in  the  centre  of  Low 
Harrogate,  discovered  about  the  year  1656;  the  Montpellier 
springs,  the  principal  well  of  which  was  discovered  in  1822, 
situated  in  the  grounds  of  the  Crown  Hotel  and  surmounted  by 
a  handsome  building  in  the  Chinese  style,  containing  pump-room, 
baths  and  reading-room;  and  the  Harlow  Car  springs,  situated 
in  a  wooded  glen  about  a  mile  west  from  Low  Harrogate.  Near 
Harlow  Car  is  Harlow  observatory,  a  square  tower  100  ft.  in 
height,  standing  on  elevated  ground  and  commanding  a  very 
extensive  view.  A  saline  spring  situated  in  Low  Harrogate  was 
discovered  in  1783.  Some  eighty  springs  in  all  have  been  dis- 
covered. The  principal  bath  establishments  are  the  Victoria 
Baths  (1871)  and  the  Royal  Baths  (1897).  There  are  also  a 
handsome  kursaal  (1903),  a  grand  opera  house,  numerous  modern 
churches,  and  several  hospitals  and  benevolent  institutions, 
including  the  Royal  Bath  hospital.  The  corporation  owns  the 
Stray,  and  also  the  Spa  concert  rooms  and  grounds,  Harlow 
Moor,  Crescent  Gardens,  Royal  Bath  gardens  and  other  large 


open  spaces,  as  well  as  Royal  Baths,  Victoria  Baths  and  Starbeck 
Baths.  The  mineral  springs  are  vested  in  the  corporation.  The 
high-lying  moorland  of  the  surrounding  district  is  diversified 
by  picturesque  dales;  and  Harrogate  is  not  far  from  mony 
towns  and  sites  of  great  interest,  such  as  Ripon,  Knaresborough 
and  Fountains  Abbey.  The  town  was  incorporated  in  1884, 
and  the  corporation  consists  of  a  mayor,  8  aldermen  and  24 
councillors.  Area,  3276  acres. 

HARROW,1  an  agricultural  implement  used  for  (i)  levelling 
ridges  left  by  the  plough  and  preparing  a  smooth  surface  for 
the  reception  of  seeds;  (2)  covering  in  seeds  after  sowing;  (3) 
tearing  up  and  gathering  weeds;  (4)  disintegrating  and  levelling 
the  soil  of  meadows  and  pastures;  (5)  forming  a  surface  tilth 
by  pulverizing  the  top  soil  and  so  conserving  moisture. 

The  harrow  rivals  the  plough  in  antiquity.  In  its  simplest 
form  it  consists  of  the  boughs  of  trees  interlaced  into  a  wooden 
frame,  and  this  form  survives  in  the  "  bush-harrow."  Another 
old  type,  found  in  the  middle  ages  and  still  in  use,  consists  of  a 
wooden  framework  in  which  iron  pegs  or  "  tines  "  are  set.  This 
is  now  generally  superseded  by  the  "  zig-zag  "  harrow  patented 
by  Armstrong  in  1839,  built  of  iron  bars  in  which  the  tines  are  so 
arranged  that  each  follows  its  own  track  and"  has  a  separate  line 
of  action.  This  harrow  is  usually  made  in  two  or  three  sections 


FIG.  i. — Jointed  Zig-zag  Harrow.  (Ransomes,  Sims  &  Jefferies,  Ltd.) 

which  fold  over  one  another  and  are  thus  easily  portable,  the 
arrangement  at  the  same  time  giving  a  flexibility  on  uneven 
ground.  Additional  flexibility  may  be  imparted  to  the  imple- 
ment by  jointing  the  stays  of  the  frame  which  are  in  the  line  of 
draught.  The  liability  that  the  tines  may  snap  off  is  the  chief 
weakness  of  this  type,  and  improvements  have  consisted  chiefly 
in  alterations  in  their  shape  and  the  method  of  fixing  them  to  the 
frame. 

The  other  type  of  harrow  most  used  is  the  chain  harrow',  con- 
sisting of  a  number  of  square-link  chains  connected  by  cross  links 
and  attached  to  a  draught-bar,  the  whole  being  kept  expanded 
by  stretchers  and  trailing  weights.  It  is  used  for  levelling  and 
spreading  manure  over  grass-land,  from  which  it  at  the  same 
time  tears  up  moss  and  coarse  herbage.  Mention  may  also  be 
made  of  the  drag-harrow,  a  heavy  implement  with  long  tines, 
approximating  closely  to  the  cultivator,  and  of  the  Norwegian 
harrow  with  its  revolving  rows  of  spikes. 

A  few  variations  and  developments  of  the  ordinary  harrow  require 
notice.  In  the  adjustable  harrow  (fig.  2)  the  teeth  are  secured  to 
bars  pivoted  at  their  ends  in  the  side  bars  of  the  frame,  and  provided 
with  crank  arms  connected  to  a  common  link  bar,  which  may  be 
moved  horizontally  by  means  of  a  lever  for  the  purpose  of  adjusting 


1  In  Mid.  Eng.  harwe;  the  O.  Eng.  appears  to  have  been  hearge;  the 
word  is  cognate  with  the  Dutch  hark,  Swed.  harke,  Ger.  Harke,  rake, 
and  with  Danish  ham,  and  Swed.  harf,  harrow,  but  the  ultimate 
origin  is  unknown;  the  Fr.  herse  is  a  different  word,  cf.  HEARSE. 


28 


HARROWBY— HARROWING  OF  HELL 


the  angle  which  the  teeth  make  with  the  ground,  and  thus  convert 
the  machine  from  a  pulverizer  to  a  smooching  harrow.  The  small 
figure  illustrates  a  spring  connexion  between  the  adjusting  lever  and 
its  locking  bar,  which  allows  the  teeth  to  yield  upon  striking  an 
obstruction.  As  the  briskness  of  the  operation  adds  to  its  effective- 


Siiowing  tooth  mechanism  of  harrow. 


FIG.  2. — Adjustable  Harrow. 

ness,  the  harrow  is  often  made  with  a  seat  from  which  the  operator 
can  hasten  the  team  without  fatiguing  himself. 

Fig.  3  illustrates  a  spring-tooth  harrow.  In  this  harrow  the  in- 
dependent frames  are  carried  upon  wheels,  and  a  seat  for  the  operator 
is  mounted  upon  standards  supported  by  the  two  frames.  The  teeth 
consist  of  flat  steel  springs  of  scroll  form,  which  yield  to  rigid  obstruc- 
tions and  are  mounted  on  rock  shafts  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the 
walking  harrow  before  described.  The  levers  enable  the  operator  t o 
raise  the  teeth  more  or  less,  and  thus  free  them  from  rubbish  and 
also  regulate  the  depth  of  action. 

Another  variation  of  the  harrow  with  great  pulverizing  and 
loosening  capabilities  consists  of  a  main  frame,  having  a  pole  and 
whipple-trees  attached ;  to  this  frame  are  pivoted  two  supplemental 
frames,  each  of  which  has  mounted  on  it  a  shaft  carrying  a  series  of 
concavo-convex  disks.  The  supplemental  frames  may  be  swung  by 


FIG.  3. — Spring-tooth  Harrow. 

the  adjusting  levers  to  any  angle  with  relation  to  the  line  of  draught, 
and  the  disks  then  act  like  that  of  the  disk  plough  (see  PLOUGH), 
throwing  the  soil  outward  with  more  or  less  force,  according  to  the 
angle  at  which  they  are  set,  and  thus  thoroughly  breaking  up  and 
pulverizing  the  clods.  Above  the  disks  is  a  bar  to  which  are  pivoted 
a  series  of  scrapers,  one  for  each  disk,  which  are  held  to  their  work 
with  a  yielding  action,  being  thrown  out  of  operation  when  desired 
by  the  levers  shown  in  connexion  with  the  operating  bar.  Pans  on 
the  main  frame  are  used  to  carry  weights  to  hold  the  disks  down  to 
their  work.  The  cut  away  disk  narrow  differs  from  the  ordinary  disk 
harrow  in  that  its  disks  are  notched  and  so  have  greater  penetrating 
power.  The  curved  knife-tooth  harrow  consists  of  a  frame  to  which 
a  row  of  curved  blades  is  attached.  Other  forms  of  the  implement 
are  illustrated  and  discussed  in  Farm  Machinery  and  Farm  Motors 
by  J.  B.  Davidson  and  L.  W.  Chase  (New  York,  1908). 

HARROWBY,  DUDLEY  RYDER,  IST  EARL  OF  (1762-1847), 
the  eldest  son  of  Nathaniel  Ryder,  ist  Baron  Harrowby  (1735- 
1803),  was  born  in  London  on  the  22nd  of  December  1762.  His 
grandfather  Sir  Dudley  Ryder  (1691-1756)  became  a  member 
of  parliament  and  solicitor-general  owing  to  the  favour  of  Sir 
Robert  Walpole  in  1733;  in  1737  he  was  appointed  attorney- 
general  and  three  years  later  he  was  knighted;  in  1754  he  was 
made  lord  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench  and  a  privy  councillor, 
the  patent  creating  him  a  peer  having  been  just  signed  by  the 
king,  but  not  passed,  when  he  died  on  the  25th  of  May  1756.  His 
only  son  Nathaniel,  who  was  member  of  parliament  for  Tiverton 
for  twenty  years,  was  created  Baron  Harrowby  in  1776.  Edu- 
cated at  St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  Dudley  Ryder  became 


member  of  parliament  for  Tiverton  in  1784  and  under-secretary 
for  foreign  affairs  in  1789.  In  1791  he  was  appointed  paymaster 
of  the  forces  and  vice-president  of  the  board  of  trade,  but  he 
resigned  the  positions  and  also  that  of  treasurer  of  the  navy 

when  he  succeeded  to 
his  father's  barony  in 
June  1803.  In  1804  he 
was  secretary  of  state 
for  foreign  affairs  and 
in  1805  chancellor  of 
the  duchy  of  Lancaster 
under  his  intimate 
friend  William  Pitt;  in 
the  latter  year  he  was 
sent  on  a  special  and 
important  mission  to 
the  emperors  of  Austria 
and  Russia  and  the 
king  of  Prussia,  and 

for  the  long  period  between  1812  and  1827  he  was  lord 
president  of  the  council.  After  Canning's  death  in  1827  he 
refused  to  serve  George  IV.  as  prime  minister  and  he 
never  held  office  again,  although  he  continued  to  take  part 
in  politics,  being  especially  prominent  during  the  deadlock 
which  preceded  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill  in  1832. 
Harrowby's  long  association  with  the  Tories  did  not  prevent 
him  from  assisting  to  remove  the  disabilities  of  Roman  Catholics 
and  Protestant  dissenters,  or  from  supporting  the  movement 
for  electoral  reform;  he  was  also  in  favour  of  the  emancipation 
of  the  slaves.  The  earl  died  at  his  Staffordshire  residence, 
Sandon  Hall,  on  the  26th  of  December  1847,  being,  as  Charles 
Greville  says,  "  the  last  of  his  generation  and  of  the  colleagues 
of  Mr  Pitt,  the  sole  survivor  of  those  stirring  times  and  mighty 
contests." 

Harrowby's  eldest  son,  Dudley  Ryder,  2nd  earl  (1798-1882),  was 
born  in  London  on  the  igih  of  May  1798,  his  mother  being  Susan 
(d.  1838),  daughter  of.Granville  Leveson-Gower,  marquess  of 
Stafford,  a  lady  of  exceptional  attainments.  As  Viscount  Sandon 
he  became  member  of  parliament  for  Tiverton  in  1819,  in  1827 
he  was  appointed  a  lord  of  the  admiralty,  and  in  1830  secretary 
to  the  India  board.  From  1831  to  1847  Sandon  represented 
Liverpool  in  the  House  of  Commons.  For  a  long  time  he  was 
out  of  office,  but  in  1855,  eight  years  after  he  had  become  earl 
of  Harrowby,  he  was  appointed  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of 
Lancaster  by  Lord  Palmerston;  in  a  few  months  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  office  of  lord  privy  seal,  a  position  which  he  resigned 
in  1857.  He  was  chairman  of  the  Maynooth  commission  and  a 
member  of  other  important  royal  commissions,  and  was  among 
the  most  stalwart  and  prominent  defenders  of  the  established 
church.  He  died  at  Sandon  on  the  loth  of  November  1882.  His 
successor  was  his  eldest  son,  Dudley  Francis  Stuart  Ryder  (1831- 
1900),  vice-president  of  the  council  from  1874  to  1878,  president  of 
the  board  olf  trade  from  1878  to  1880,  and  lord  privy  seal  in  1885 
and  1886.  He  died  without  sons  on  the  26th  of  March  1900,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Henry  Dudley  Ryder  (1836-1900), 
whose  son,  John  Herbert  Dudley  Ryder  (b.  1864),  became  sth 
earl  of  Harrowby. 

HARROWING  OF  HELL,  an  English  poem  in  dialogue,  dating 
from  the  end  of  the  I3th  century.  It  is  written  in  the  East 
Midland  dialect,  and  is  generally  cited  as  the  earliest  dramatic 
work  of  any  kind  preserved  in  the  language,  though  it  was  in 
reality  probably  intended  for  recitation  rather  than  performance. 
It  is  closely  allied  to  the  kind  of  poem  known  as  a  debat,  and  the 
opening  words — "  Alle  herkneth  to  me  nou  A  strif  wille  I  tellen 
ou  Of  Jesu  and  of  Satan  " — seem  to  indicate  that  the  piece  was 
delivered  by  a  single  performer.  The  subject — the  descent  of 
Christ  into  Hades  to  succour  the  souls  of  the  just,  as  related  in 
the  apocryphal  gospel  of  Nicodemus — is  introduced  in  a  kind  of 
prologue;  then  follows  the  dispute  between  "  Dominus  "  and 
"  Satan  "  at  the  gate  of  Hell;  the  gatekeeper  runs  away,  and 
the  just  are  set  free,  while  Adam,  Eve,  Habraham,  David, 
Johannes  and  Moyses  do  homage  to  the  deliverer.  The  poem 


HARROW-ON-THE-HILL— HARSDORFFER 


29 


ends  with  a  short  prayer:  "  God,  for  his  moder  loue  Let  ous 
never  thider  come."  Metrically,  the  poem  is  characterized  by 
frequent  alliteration  imposed  upon  the  rhymed  octosyllabic 
couplet: — 

Welcome,  louerd,  god  of  londe 

Codes  sone  and  godes  sonde  (ii.  149-150). 

The  piece  is  obviously  connected  with  the  Easter  cycle  of  litur- 
gical drama,  and  the  subject  is  treated  in  the  York  and  Townley 
plays. 

MSS.  are:  Brit.  Mus.,  Harl.  MS.  2253;  Edinburgh,  Auchinteck 
MS  W  41 ;  Oxford,  Bodleian,  Digby  86.  It  was  privately  printed 
by  J  P  Collier  and  by  J.  O.  Halliwell,  but  is  available  in  Appendix 
III  of  A.  W.  Pollard's  English  Miracle  Plays  .  .  .  (4th  ed.,  1904) 
K  Boddcker,  Altengl.  Dichtungen  des  MS.  Harl.  2253  (Berlin,  1878) ; 
and  E.  Mall,  The  Harrowing  of  Hell  (Breslau,  1871).  See  also  E.  K. 
Chambers,  The  Medieval  Stage  (2  vols.,  1903). 

HARROW-ON-THE-HILL,  an  urban  district  in  the  Harrow 
parliamentary  division  of  Middlesex,  England,  12  m.  W.N.W. 
of  St  Paul's  cathedral,  London,  served  by  the  London  and  North 
Western,  Metropolitan  and  District  railways.  Pop.  (1901),  10,220. 
It  takes  its  name  from  its  position  on  an  isolated  hill  rising  to 
a  height  of  345  ft.  On  the  summit,  and  forming  a  conspicuous 
landmark,  is  the  church  of  St  Mary,  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Lanfranc,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in  the  reign  of  William  I., 
and  Norman  work  appears  at  the  base  of  the  tower.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  church  is  of  various  later  dates,  and  there  are 
several  ancient  monuments  and  brasses. 

Harrow  is  celebrated  for  its  public  school,  founded  in  1571  by 
John  Lyon,  whose  brass  is  in  the  church,  a  yeoman  of  the 
neighbouring  village  of  Preston  who  had  yearly  during  his  life 
set  aside  20  marks  for  the  education  of  poor  children  of  Harrow; 
though  a  school  existed  before  his  time.     Though  the  charter 
was  granted  by  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1571,  and  the  statutes  drawn 
up  by  the  founder  in  1590,  two  years  before  his  death,  it  was  not 
till  1611  that  the  first  building  was  opened  for  scholars.     Lyon 
originally  settled  about  two-thirds  of  his  property  on  the  school, 
leaving  the  remainder  for  the  maintenance  of  the  highway 
between  London  and  Harrow,  but  in  the  course  of  time  the 
values  of  the  respective  endowments  have  changed  so  far  that 
the  benefit  accruing  to  the  school  is  a  small  proportion  of  the 
whole.     About  1660  the  headmaster,  taking  advantage  of  a  con- 
cession in  Lyon's  statutes,  began  to  receive  "  foreigners,"  i.e. 
boys  from  other  parishes,  who  were  to  pay  for  their  education. 
From  this  time  the  prosperity  of  the  school  may  be  dated.     In 
1809  the  parishioners  of  Harrow  appealed  to  the  court  of  chan- 
cery against  the  manner  in  which  the  school  was  conducted,  but 
the  decision,  while  it  recognized  their  privileges,  confirmed  the 
right  of  admission  to  foreigners.     The  government  of  the  school 
was  originally  vested  in  six  persons  of  standing  in  the  parish  who 
had  the  power  of  filling  vacancies  in  their  number  by  election 
among  themselves;  but  under  the  Public  Schools  Act  of  1868 
the  governing  body  now  consists  of  the  surviving  members  of 
the  old  board,  besides  six  new  members  who  are  elected  re- 
spectively by  the  lord  chancellor,  the  universities  of  Oxford, 
Cambridge  and  London,  the  Royal  Society,  and  the  assistant 
masters  of  the  school.     There  are  several  scholarships  in  con- 
nexion with  the  school  to  Oxford  and  Cambridge  Universities. 
Harrow   was   originally   an    exclusively   classical   school,    but 
mathematics  became   a  compulsory   study  in    1837;   modern 
languages,  made  compulsory  in  the  upper  forms  in  1851,  were 
extended  to  the  whole  school  in  1855;  while  English  history  and 
literature  began  to   be  especially  studied  about    1869.     The 
number  of  boys  is  about  600.     The  principal  buildings  are 
modern,  including  the  chapel  (1857),  the  library  (1863),  named 
after  the  eminent  headmaster  Dr  Charles  John  Vaughan,  and  the 
speech-room  (1877),  the  scene  of  the  brilliant  ceremony  on 
"  Speech  Day  "  each  summer  term.     The  fourth  form  room 
however,  dates  from  161 1,  and  on  its  panels  are  cut  the  names  ol 
many  eminent  alumni,  such  as  Byron,   Robert   Peel,  R.   B 
Sheridan   and   Temple    (Lord    Palmerston).     Several    of    the 
buildings  were  erected  out  of  the  Lyon  Tercentenary  Fund,  sub- 
scribed after  the  tercentenary  celebration  in  1871. 


A  considerable  extension  of  Harrow  as  an  outer  residential 
3uburb  of  London  has  taken  place  north  of  the  hill,  where  is  the 
urban  district  of  Wealdstone  (pop.  5901),  and  there  are  also 
mportant  printing  and  photographic  works. 

HARRY  THE  MINSTREL,  or  BLIND  HARRY  (fl.  1470-1492), 
author  of  the  Scots  historical  poem  The  Actis  and  Deidis  of  the 
Ulustere  and  Vailzeand  Campioun  Schir  William  Wallace,  Knicht 
?/  Ellerslie,  flourished  in  the  latter  half  of  the  i  $th  century.  The 
details  of  his  personal  history  are  of  the  scantiest.  He  appears 
to  have  been  a  blind  Lothian  man,  in  humble  circumstances,  who 
lad  some  reputation  as  a  story-teller,  and  who  received,  on  five 
occasions,  in  1490  and  1491,  gifts  from  James  IV.  The  entries  of 
these,  in  the  Accounts  of  the  Lord  High  Treasurer,  occur  among 
others  to  harpers  and  singers.  He  is  alluded  to  by  Dunbar  (q.v.) 
in  the  fragmentary  Interlude  of  the  Droichis  Part  of  the  Play,  where 
a  "  droich,"  or  dwarf,  personates 

"  the  nakit  blynd  Harry 
That  lang  has  bene  in  the  fary 
Farleis  to  find;" 

and  again  in  Dunbar's  Lament  for  the  Makaris.  John  Major 
(q.v.)  in  his  Latin  History  speaks  of  "  one  Henry,  blind  from  his 
birth,  who,  in  the  time  of  my  childhood,  fashioned  a  whole  book 
about  William  Wallace,  and  therein  wrote  down  in  our  popular 
verse — and  this  was  a  kind  of  composition  in  which  he  had  much 
skill — all  that  passed  current  among  the  people  in  his  day.  I, 
however,  can  give  but  partial  credence  to  these  writings.  This 
Henry  used  to  recite  his  tales  before  nobles,  and  thus  received 
food  and  clothing  as  his  reward  "  (Bk.  iv.  ch.  xv.). 

The  poem  (preserved  in  a  unique  MS.,  dated  1488,  in  the 
Advocates'  library,  Edinburgh)  is  divided  into  eleven  books  and 
runs  to  11,853  l'nes.  Its  poetic  merits  are  few,  and  its  historical 
accuracy  is  easily  impugned.  It  has  the  formal  interest  of  being 
one  of  the  earliest,  certainly  one  of  the  most  extensive  verse- 
documents  in  Scots  written  in  five-accent,  or  heroic,  couplets. 
It  is  also  the  earliest  outstanding  work  which  discloses  that 
habit  of  Scotticism  which  took  such  strong  hold  of  the  popular 
Northern  literature  during  the  coming  years  of  conflict  with 
England.  In  this  respect  it  is  in  marked  contrast  with  all  the 
patriotic  verse  of  preceding  and  contemporary  literature.  This 
attitude  of  the  Wallace  may  perhaps  be  accepted  as  corroborative 
evidence  of  the  humble  milieu  and  popular  sentiment  of  its 
author.  The  poem  owed  its  subsequent  widespread  reputation 
to  its  appeal  to  this  sentiment  rather  than  to  its  literary  quality. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  are  elements  in  the  poem  which  show 
that  it  is  not  entirely  the  work  of  a  poor  crowder;  and  these 
(notably  references  to  historical  and  literary  authorities,  and 
occasional  reminiscences  of  the  literary  tricks  of  the  Scots 
Chaucerian  school)  have  inclined  some  to  the  view  that  the  text, 
as  we  have  it,  is  an  edited  version  of  the  minstrel's  rough  song- 
story.  It  has  been  argued,  though  by  no  means  conclusively,  that 
the  "  editor  "  was  John  Ramsay,  the  scribe  of  the  Edinburgh  MS. 
and  of  the  companion  Edinburgh  MS.  of  the  Brus  by  John 
Barbour  (q.v.). 

The  poem  appears,  on  the  authority  of  Laing,  to  have  been  printed 
at  the  press  of  Chepman  &  Myllar  about  1508,  but  the  fragments 
which  Laing  saw  are  not  extantr.  The  first  complete  edition,  now 
available,  was  printed  by  Lekprevik  for  Henry  Charteris  in  1570 
(Brit.  Museum).  It  was  reprinted  by  Charteris  in  1594  and  IOOI, 
and  by  Andro  Hart  in  1611  and  1620.  At  least  six  other  editions 
appealed  in  the  I7th  century.  There  are  many  later  reprints, 
including  some  of  William  Hamilton  of  Gilbertfield's  modern  Scots 
version  of  1722.  The  first  critical  edition  was  prepared  by  Dr 
Jamieson  and  published  in  1820.  In  1889  the  Scottish  Text  Society 
completed  their  edition  of  the  text,  with  prolegomena  and  notes  by 
James  Moir. 

See,  in  addition  to  Jamieson  s  and  Moir  s  volumes  (u.s.),  J.  1.  1. 
Brown's  The  Wallace  and  the  Bruce  Resludied  (Bonner,  Beitrdge  zur 
AnMstik.  vi.,  1900),  a  pica  for  Ramsay's  authorship  of  the  known 
text-  also  W.  A.  Craigie's  article  in  The  Scottish  Review  (July  1903), 
a  comparative  estimate  of  the  Brus  and  Wallace,  in  favour  of  the 
latter. 

HARSDORFFER,  GEORG  PHILIPP  (1607-1658),  German 
poet,  was  born  at  Nuremberg  on  the  ist  of  November  1607.  He 
studied  law  at  Altdorf  and  Strassburg,  and  subsequently  travelled 


HARSHA— HART,  SIR  R. 


through  Holland,  England,  France  and  Italy.  His  knowledge 
of  languages  gained  for  him  the  appellation  "  the  learned," 
though  he  was  as  little  a  learned  man  as  he  was  a  poet.  As  a 
member  of  the  Fruchtbringende  Gesellschaft  he  was  called  der 
Spielende  (the  player).  Jointly  with  Johann  Klaj  (q.v.)  he 
founded  in  1644  at  Nuremberg  the  order  of  the  Pegnitzschafer, 
a  literary  society,  and  among  the  members  thereof  he  was  known 
by  the  name  of  Strephon.  He  died  at  Nuremberg  on  the  22nd  of 
September  1658.  His  writings  in  German  and  Latin  fill  fifty 
volumes,  and  a  selection  of  his  poems,  interesting  mostly  for 
their  form,  is  to  be  found  in  Miiller's  Bibliothek  deutscher  Dichter 
des  i~tlen  Jahrhunderts,  vol.  ix.  (Leipzig,  1826). 

His  life  was  written  by  Widmann  (Altdorf,  1707).  See  also 
Tittmann,  Die  Nurnberger  Dichterschule  (Gottingen,  1847);  Hoder- 
mann,  Rine  vornehme  Gesellschaft,  nach  Hirsdorffers  "  Gesprdch- 
spielen  "  (Paderborn,  1890) ;  T.  Bischoff,  "  Georg  Philipp  Hars- 
dorffer  "  in  the  Festschrift  zur  2$ojahrigen  Jubelfeier  des  Peg- 
nesischen  Blumenordens  (Nuremberg,  1894);  and  Krapp,  Die 
asthetischen  Tendenzen  Harsdorffers  (Berlin,  1904). 

HARSHA,  or  HARSHA VARDHANA  (fl.  A.D.  606-648),  an  Indian 
king  who  ruled  northern  India  as  paramount  monarch  for  over 
forty  years.  The  events  of  his  reign  are  related  by  Hsu'an  Tsang, 
the  Chinese  pilgrim,  and  by  Bana,  a  Brahman  author.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  raja  of  Thanesar,  who  gained  prominence  by  success- 
ful wars  against  the  Huns,  and  came  to  the  throne  in  A.D.  606, 
though  he  was  only  crowned  in  612.  He  devoted  himself  to  a 
scheme  of  conquering  the  whole  of  India,  and  carried  on  wars  for 
thirty  years  with  success,  until  (A.D.  620)  he  came  in  contact 
with  Pulakesin  II.,  the  greatest  of  the  Chalukya  dynasty,  who 
made  himself  lord  of  the  south,  as  Harsha  was  lord  of  the  north. 
The  Nerbudda  river  foimed  the  boundary  between  the  two 
empires.  In  the  latter  years  of  his  reign  Harsha's  sway  over  the 
whole  basin  of  the  Ganges  from  the  Himalayas  to  the  Nerbudda 
was  undisputed.  After  thirty-seven  years  of  war  he  set  himself 
to  emulate  Asoka  and  became  a  patron  of  art  and  literature. 
He  was  the  last  native  monarch  who  held  paramount  power  in 
the  north  prior  to  the  Mahommedan  conquest;  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  an  era  of  petty  states. 

See  Bana,  Sri-harsha-charita,  trans.  Cowell  and  Thomas  (1897); 
Ettinghausen,  Harsha  Vardhana  (Louvain,  1906). 

HARSNETT,  SAMUEL  (1561-1631),  English  divine,  arch- 
bishop of  York,  was  born  at  Colchester  in  June  1561,  and  was 
educated  at  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  where  he  was  success- 
ively scholar,  fellow  and  master  (1605-1616).  He  was  also  vice- 
chancellor  of  the  university  in  1606  and  1614.  His  ecclesiastical 
career  began  somewhat  unpromisingly,  for  he  was  censured  by 
Archbishop  Whitgift  for  Romanist  tendencies  in  a  sermon  which 
he  preached  against  predestination  in  1584.  After  holding  the 
living  of  Chigwell  (1597-1605)  he  became  chaplain  to  Bancroft 
(then  bishop  of  London),  and  afterwards  archdeacon  of  Essex 
(1603-1609),  rector  of  Stisted  and  bishop  of  Chichester  (1609- 
1619)  and  archbishop  of  York  (1629).  He  died  on  the  25th  of 
May  1631.  Harsnett  was  no  favourite  with  the  Puritan  com- 
munity, and  Charles  I.  ordered  his  Considerations  for  the  better 
Settling  of  Church  Government  (1629)  to  be  circulated  among  the 
bishops.  His  Declaration  of  Egregious  Popish  Impostures  (1603) 
furnished  Shakespeare  with  the  names  of  the  spirits  mentioned 
by  Edgar  in  King  Lear. 

HART,  ALBERT  BUSHNELL  (1854-  ),  American  his- 
torian, was  born  at  Clarksville,  Mercer  county,  Pennsylvania, 
on  the  ist  of  July  1854.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in 
1880,  studied  at  Paris,  Berlin  and  Freiburg,  and  received 
the  degree  of  Ph.D.  at  Freiburg  in  1883.  He  was  instructor  in 
history  at  Harvard  in  1883-1887,  assistant  professor  in  1887- 
1897,  and  became  professor  in  1897.  Among  his  writings  are: 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Federal  Government  (1890),  Forma- 
tion of  the  Union  (1892,  in  the  Epochs  of  American  History 
series),  Practical  Essays  on  American  Government  (1893),  Studies 
in  American  Education  (1895),  Guide  to  the  Study  of  American 
History  (with  Edward  Channing,  1897),  Salmon  Portland  Chase 
(1899,  in  the  American  Statesman  series),  Foundations  of 
American  Foreign  Policy  (1901),  Actual  Government  (1903), 
Slavery  and  Abolition  (1906,  the  volume  in  the  American 


Nation  series  dealing  with  the  period  1831-1841),  National 
Ideals  Historically  Traced  (1907),  the  z6th  volume  of  the 
American  Nation  series,  and  many  historical  pamphlets  and 
articles.  In  addition  he  edited  American  History  told  by  Con- 
temporaries (4  vols.,  1898-1901),  and  Source  Readers  in  American 
History  (4  vols.,  1901-1903),  and  two  co-operative  histories  of  the 
United  States,  the  Epochs  of  American  History  series  (3  small 
text-books),  and,  on  a  much  larger  scale,  the  American  Nation 
series  (27  vols.,  1903-1907);  he  also  edited  the  American 
Citizen  series. 

HART,  CHARLES  (d.  1683),  English  actor,  grandson  of 
Shakespeare's  sister  Joan,  is  first  heard  of  as  playing  women's 
parts  at  the  Blackfriars'  theatre  as  an  apprentice  of  Richard 
Robinson.  In  the  Civil  War  he  was  a  lieutenant  of  horse  in 
Prince  Rupert's  regiment,  and  after  the  king's  defeat  he  played 
surreptitiously  at  the  Cockpit  and  at  Holland  House  and  other 
noblemen's  residences.  After  the  Restoration  he  is  known  to 
have  been  in  1660  the  original  Dorante  in  The  Mistaken  Beauty, 
adapted  from  Corneille's  Le  Menleur.  In  1663  he  went  to  the 
Theatre  Royal  in  Killigrew's  company,  with  which  he  remained 
until  1682,  taking  leading  parts  in  Dryden's,  Jonson's  and 
Beaumont  and  Fletcher's  plays.  He  is  highly  spoken  of  by 
contemporaries  in  such  Shakespearian  parts  as  Othello  and 
Brutus.  He  is  often  mentioned  by  Pepys.  Betterton  praised 
him,  and  would  not  himself  play  the  part  of  Hotspur  until  after 
Hart's  retirement.  He  died  in  1683  and  was  buried  on  the  2oth 
of  August.  Hart  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  lover  of  Nell  Gwyn, 
and  to  have  trained  her  for  the  stage. 

HART,  ERNEST  ABRAHAM  (1835-1898),  English  medical 
journalist,  was  born  in  London  on  the  26th  of  June  1835,  the  son 
of  a  Jewish  dentist.  He  was  educated  at  the  City  of  London 
school,  and  became  a  student  at  St  George's  hospital.  In  1856 
he  became  a  member  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  making 
a  specialty  of  diseases  of  the  eye.  He  was  appointed  ophthalmic 
surgeon  at  St  Mary's  hospital  at  the  age  of  28,  and  occupied 
various  other  posts,  introducing  into  ophthalmic  practice  some 
modifications  since  widely  adopted.  His  name,  too,  is  associated 
with  a  method  of  treating  popliteal  aneurism,  which  he  was  the 
first  to  use  in  Great  Britain.  His  real  life-work,  however,  was 
as  a  medical  journalist,  beginning  with  the  Lancet  in  1857. 
He  was  appointed  editor  of  the  British  Medical  Journal  in  1866. 
He  took  a  leading  part  in  the  exposures  which  led  to  the  inquiry 
into  the  state  of  London  workhouse  infirmaries,  and  to  the  reform 
of  the  treatment  of  sick  poor  throughout  England,  and  the 
Infant  Life  Protection  Act  of  1872,  aimed  at  the  evils  of  baby- 
farming,  was  largely  due  to  his  efforts.  The  record  of  his  public 
work  covers  nearly  the  whole  field  of  sanitary  legislation  during 
the  last  thrity  years  of  his  life.  He  had  a  hand  in  the  amend- 
ments of  the  Public  Health  and  of  the  Medical  Acts;  in  the 
measures  relating  to  notification  of  infectious  disease,  to  vaccina- 
tion, to  the  registration  of  plumbers;  in  the  improvement  of 
factory  legislation;  in  the  remedy  of  legitimate  grievances  of 
Army  and  Navy  medical  officers;  in  the  removal  of  abuses  and 
deficiencies  in  crowded  barrack  schools;  in  denouncing  the 
sanitary  shortcomings  of  the  Indian  government,  particularly  in 
regard  to  the  prevention  of  cholera.  His  work  on  behalf  of  the 
British  Medical  Association  is  shown  by  the  increase  from 
2000  to  19,000  in  the  number  of  members,  end  the  growth  of  the 
British  Medical  Journal  from  20  to  64  pages,  during  his  editor- 
ship. From  1872  to  1897  he  was  chairman  of  the  Association's 
Parliamentary  Bill  Committee.  He  died  on  the  7th  of  January 
1898.  For  his  second  wife  he  married  Alice  Marion  Rowland, 
who  had  herself  studied  medicine  in  London  and  Paris,  and  was 
no  less  interested  than  her  husband  in  philanthropic  reform. 
She  was  most  active  in  her  encouragement  of  Irish  cottage 
industries,  and  was  the  founder  of  the  Donegal  Industrial 
Fund. 

HART,  SIR  ROBERT,  Bart.  (1835-  ),  Anglo-Chinese 
statesman,  was  born  at  Milltown,  Co.  Armagh,  on  the  2oth  of 
February  1835.  He  was  educated  at  Taunton,  Dublin  and 
Belfast,  and  graduated  at  Queen's  College,  Belfast,  in  1853. 
In  the  following  year  he  received  an  appointemnt  as  student- 


HART,  W.— HARTE,  BRET 


interpreter  in  the  China  consular  service,  and  after  serving  for 
a  short  time  at  the  Ningpo  vice-consulate,  he  was  transferred  to 
Canton,  where  after  acting  as  secretary  to  the  allied  commis- 
sioners governing  the  city,  he  was  appointed  the  local  inspector 
of.customs.  There  he  first  gained  an  insight  into  custom-house 
work.  One  effect  of  the  Taiping  rebellion  was  to  close  the  native 
custom-house  at  Shanghai;  and  as  the  corrupt  alternatives 
proposed  by  the  Chinese  were  worse  than  useless,  it  was  arranged 
by  Sir  Rutherford  Alcock,  the  British  consul,  with  his  French 
and  American  colleagues,  that  they  should  undertake  to  collect 
the  duties  on  goods  owned  by  foreigners  entering  and  leaving 
the  port.  Sir  T.  Wade  was  appointed  to  the  post  of  collector 
in  the  first  instance,  and  after  a  short  tenure  of  office  was  succeeded 
by  Mr  H.  N.  Lay,  who  held  the  post  until  1863,  when  he  resigned 
owing  to  a  disagreement  with  the  Chinese  government  in  con- 
nexion with  the  Lay-Osborn  fleet.  During  his  tenancy  of  office 
the  system  adopted  at  Shanghai  was  applied  to  the  other  treaty 
ports,  so  that  when  on  Mr  Lay's  resignation  Mr  Hart  was 
appointed  inspector-general  of  foreign  customs,  he  found  himself 
at  the  head  of  an  organization  which  collected  a  revenue  of  up- 
wards of  eight  million  taels  per  annum  at  fourteen  treaty  ports. 
From  the  date  when  Mr  Hart  took  up  his  duties  at  Peking,  in 
1863,  he  unceasingly  devoted  the  whole  of  his  energies  to  the 
work  of  the  department,  with  the  result  that  the  revenue  grew 
from  upwards  of  eight  million  taels  to  nearly  twenty-seven 
million,  collected  at  the  thirty-two  treaty  ports,  and  the  customs 
staff,  which  in  1864  numbered  200,  reached  in  1901  a  total  of 
5704.  From  the  first  Mr  .Hart  gained  the  entire  confidence  of 
the  members  of  the  Chinese  government,  who  were  wise  enough 
to  recognize  his  loyal  and  able  assistance.  Of  all  their  numerous 
sources  of  revenue,  the  money  furnished  by  Mr  Hart  was  the  only 
certain  asset  which  could  be  offered  as  security  for  Chinese  loans. 
For  many  years,  moreover,  it  was  customary  for  the  British 
minister,  as  well  as  the  ministers  of  other  powers,  to  consult  him 
in  every  difficulty;  and  such  complete  confidence  had  Lord 
Granville  in  his  ability  and  loyalty,  that  on  the  retirement  of 
Sir  T.  Wade  he  appointed  him  minister  plenipotentiary  at  Peking 
(1885).  Sir  Robert  Hart,  however — who  was  made  a  K.C.M.G. 
in  1882 — recognized  the  anomalous  position  in  which  he  would 
have  been  placed  had  he  accepted  the  proposal,  and  declined  the 
proffered  honour.  On  all  disputed  points,  whether  commercial, 
religious  or  political,  his  advice  was  invariably  sought  by  the 
foreign  ministers  and  the  Chinese  alike.  Thrice  only  did  he  visit 
Europe  between  1863  and  1902,  the  result  of  this  long  comparative 
isolation,  and  of  his  constant  intercourse  with  the  Peking 
officials,  being  that  he  learnt  to  look  at  events  through  Chinese 
spectacles;  and  his  work,  These  froth  the  Land  of  Sinim,  shows 
how  far  this  affected  his  outlook.  The  faith  which  he  put  in  the 
Chinese  made  him  turn  a  deaf  ear  to  the  warnings  which  he  re- 
ceived of  the  threatening  Boxer  movement  in  1900.  To  the  last 
he  believed  that  the  attacking  force  would  at  least  have  spared 
his  house,  which  contained  official  records  of  priceless  value, 
but  he  was  doomed  to  see  his  faith  falsified.  The  building  was 
burnt  to  the  ground  with  all  that  it  contained,  including  his 
private  diary  for  forty  years.  When  the  stress  came,  and  he 
retreated  to  the  British  legation,  he  took  an  active  part  in  the 
defence,  and  spared  neither  risk  nor  toil  in  his  exertions.  In 
addition  to  the  administration  of  the  foreign  customs  service, 
the  establishment  of  a  postal  service  in  the  provinces  devolved 
upon  him,  and  after  the  signing  of  the  protocol  of  1901  he  was 
called  upon  to  organize  a  native  customs  service  at  the  treaty 
ports. 

The  appointment  of  Sir  Robert  Hart  as  inspector-general 
of  the  imperial  maritime  customs  secured  the  interests  of 
European  investors  in  Chinese  securities,  and  helped  to  place 
Chinese  finance  generally  on  a  solid  footing.  When,  therefore, 
in  May  1906  the  Chinese  government  appointed  a  Chinese 
administrator  and  assistant  administrator  of  the  entire  customs 
of  China,  who  would  control  Sir  Robert  Hart  and  his  staff,  great 
anxiety  was  aroused.  The  Chinese  government  had  bound 
itself  in  1896  and  1898  that  the  imperial  maritime  customs 
services  should  remain  as  then  constituted  during  the  currency 


of  the  loan.  The  British  government  obtained  no  satisfactory 
answer  to  its  remonstrances,  and  Sir  Robert  Hart,  finding 
himself  placed  in  a  subordinate  position  after  his  long  service, 
retired  in  July  1907.  He  received  formal  leave  of  absence  in 
January  1908,  when  he  received  the  title  of  president  of  the 
board  of  customs.  Both  the  Chinese  and  the  British  govern- 
ments from  time  to  time  conferred  honours  upon  Sir  Robert 
Hart.  By  giving  him  a  Red  Button,  or  button  of  the  highest 
rank,  a  Peacock's  Feather,  the  order  of  the  Double  Dragon,  a 
patent  of  nobility  to  his  ancestors  for  three  generations,  and  the 
title  of  Junior  Guardian  of  the  heir  apparent,  the  Chinese  showed 
their  appreciation  of  his  manifold  and  great  services;  while 
under  the  seal  of  the  British  government  there  were  bestowed 
upon  him  theordersofC.M.G.  (1880),  K.C.M.G.  (i882),G.C.M.G. 
(1889),  and  a  baronetcy  (1893).  He  has  also  been  the  recipient 
of  many  foreign  orders.  Sir  Robert  Hart  married  in  1886 
Hester,  the  daughter  of  Alexander  Bredon,  Esq.,  M.D.,  of 
Portadown. 

See  his  life  by  Julia  Bredon  (Sir  Robert  Hart,  1909). 

HART,  WILLIAM  (1823-1894),  American  landscape  and 
cattle  painter,  was  born  in  Paisley,  Scotland,  on  the  3ist  of 
March  1823,  and  was  taken  to  America  in  early  youth.  He  was 
apprenticed  to  a  carriage  painter  at  Albany,  New  York,  and  his 
first  efforts  in  art  were  in  making  landscape  decorations  for  the 
panels  of  coaches.  Subsequently  he  returned  to  Scotland, 
where  he  studied  for  three  years.  He  opened  a  studio  in  New 
York  in  1853,  and  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Design  in  1857  and  an  academician  in  the  following 
year.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the  American  Water  Colour 
Society,  and  was  its  president  from  1870  to  1873.  As  one  of  the 
group  of  the  Hudson  River  School  he  enjoyed  considerable 
popularity,  his  pictures  being  in  many  well-known  American 
collections.  He  died  at  Mount  Vernon,  New  York,  on  the  i7th 
of  June  1894. 

His  brother,  JAMES  McDouGAL  HART  (1828-1901),  born  in 
Kilmarnock,  Scotland,  was  also  a  landscape  and  cattle  painter. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Schirmer  in  Dusseldorf,  and  became  an 
associate  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design  in  1857  and  a  full 
member  in  1859.  He  was  survived  by  two  daughters,  both 
figure  painters,  Letitia  B.  Hart  (b.  1867)  and  Mary  Theresa 
Hart  (b.i872). 

HARTE,  FRANCIS  BRET  (1839-1902),  American  author,  was 
born  at  Albany,  New  York,  on  the  25th  of  August  1839.  His 
father,  a  professor  of  Greek  at  the  Albany  College,  died  during 
his  boyhood.  After  a  common-school  education  he  went  with 
his  mother  to  California  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  afterwards 
working  in  that  state  as  a  teacher,  miner,  printer,  express- 
messenger,  secretary  of  the  San  Francisco  mint,  and  editor.  His 
first  literary  venture  was  a  series  of  Condensed  Novels  (travesties 
of  well-known  works  of  fiction,  somewhat  in  the  style  of 
Thackeray),  published  weekly  in  The  Californian,  of  which  he 
was  editor,  and  reissued  in  book  form  in  1867.  The  Overland 
Monthly,  the  earliest  considerable  literary  magazine  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  was  established  in  1868,  with  Harte  as  editor. 
His  sketches  and  poems,  which  appeared  in  its  pages  during  the 
next  few  years,  attracted  wide  attention  in  the  eastern  states 
and  in  Europe. 

Bret  Harte  was  an  early  master  of  the  short  story,  and  his 
Californian  tales  were  regarded  as  introducing  a  new  genre  into 
fiction.  "  The  Luck  of  Roaring  Camp  "  (1868),  "  The  Outcasts 
of  Poker  Flat  "  (1869),  the  later  sketch  "  How  Santa  Claus  came 
to  Simpson's  Bar,"  and  the  verses  entitled  "  Plain  Language 
from  Truthful  James,"  combined  humour,  pathos  and  power 
of  character  portrayal  in  a  manner  that  indicated  that  the  new 
land  of  mining-gulches,  gamblers,  unassimilated  Asiatics,  and 
picturesque  and  varied  landscape  had  found  its  best  delineator;  so 
that  Harte  became,  in  his  pioneer  pictures,  a  sort  of  later  Fenimore 
Cooper.  Forty-four  volumes  were  published  by  him  between 
1867  and  1898.  After  a  year  as  professor  in  the  university  of 
California,  Harte  lived  in  New  York,  1871-1878;  was  United 
States  consul  at  Crefeld,  Germany,  1878-1880;  consul  at 
Glasgow,  1880-1885;  ar"d  after  1885  resided  in  London,  engaged 


HARTEBEEST— HARTFORD 


in  literary  work.     He  died  at  Camberley,  England,  on  the  5th 
of  May  1902. 

A  library  edition  of  his  Writings  (16  vols.)  was  issued  in  1900,  and 
increased  to  19  vols.  in  1904.  See  also  H.  W.  Boynton,  Bret  Harte 
(I9°5)  in  the  Contemporary  Men  of  Letters  series;  T.  E.  Pemberton, 
Life  of  Bret  Harte  (1903),  which  contains  a  list  of  his  poems,  tales,  &c. 

HARTEBEEST,  the  Boer  name  for  a  large  South  African 
antelope  (also  known  as  caama)  characterized  by  its  red  colour, 
long  face  with  naked  muzzle  and  sharply  angulated  lyrate 
horns,  which  are  present  in  both  sexes.  This  antelope  is  the 


Cape  Hartebeest  (Bubalis  cama). 

Bubalis  cama  or  Alcelaphus  cama  of  naturalists;  but  the  name 
hartebeest  has  been  extended  to  include  all  the  numerous 
members  of  the  same  genus,  some  of  which  are  to  be  found  in 
every  part  of  Africa,  while  one  or  two  extend  into  Syria.  Some 
of  the  species  of  the  allied  genus  Damaliscus,  such  as  Hunter's 
antelope  (D.  hunter  f),  are  also  often  cailed  hartebeests.  (See 
ANTELOPE.) 

HARTFORD,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Connecticut,  U.S.A., 
the  county-seat  of  Hartford  county,  and  a  port  of  entry,  coter- 
minous with  the  township  of  Hartford,  in  the  west  central  part 
of  the  state,  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Connecticut  river,  and  about 
35  m.  from  Long  Island  Sound.  Pop.  (1890),  53,230;  (1900), 
79,850,  of  whom  23,758  were  foreign-born  (including  8076  Irish, 
2700  Germans,  2260  Russians,  1952  Italians,  1714  Swedes, 
1634  English  and  1309  English  Canadians);  (1910  census) 
98,915.  Of  the  total  population  in  1900,  43,872  were  of  foreign 
parentage  (both  parents  foreign-born),  and  of  these  18,410  were 
of  Irish  parentage.  Hartford  is  served  by  two  divisions  of  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  railway,  by  the  Central 
New  England  railway,  by  the  several  electric  lines  of  the  Con- 
necticut Company  which  radiate  to  the  surrounding  towns,  and 
by  the  steamboats  of  the  Hartford  &  New  York  Transporta- 
tion Co.,  all  of  which  are  controlled  by  the  N.Y.,  N.H.  &  H. 
The  river,  which  is  navigable  to  this  point,  is  usually  closed  from 
the  middle  of  December  to  the  middle  of  March. 

The  city  covers  an  area  of  17-7  sq.  m.;  it  is  well  laid  out  and 
compactly  built,  and  streets,  parks,  &c.,  are  under  a  city-plan 
commission  authorized  in  1907.  It  is  intersected  by  the  sluggish 
Park  river,  which  is  spanned  by  ten  bridges.  A  stone  arch 
bridge,  with  nine  arches,  built  of  granite  at  a  cost  of  $1,700,000 
and  dedicated  in  1908,  spans  the  Connecticut  (replacing  the  old 
Connecticut  river  bridge  built  in  1818  and  burned  in  1895),  and 
connects  Hartford  with  the  village  of  East  Hartford  in  the  town- 
ship of  East  Hartford  (pop.  1900,  6406),  which  has  important 
paper-manufacturing  and  tobacco-growing  interests.  The  park 
system  of  Hartford  is  the  largest  in  any  city  of  the  United  States 
in  proportion  to  the  city's  population.  In  1908  there  were  21 
public  parks,  aggregating  more  than  1335  acres.  In  the  extreme 


S.  of  the  city  is  Goodwin  Park  (about  200  acres) ;  in  the  S.E.  is 
Colt  Park  (106  acres),  the  gift  of  Mrs  Elizabeth  Colt,  the  widow 
of  Samuel  Colt,  inventor  of  the  Colt  revolver;  in  the  S.W.  is 
Pope  Park  (about  90  acres);  in  the  W.  is  Elizabeth  (100  acres); 
in  the  E.,  along  the  Connecticut  river  front,  is  Riverside  (about 
80  acres);  and  in  the  extreme  N.  is  Keney  Park  (680  acres),  the 
gift  of  Henry  Keney,  and,  next  to  the  Metropolitan  Reservations 
near  Boston,  the  largest  park  in  the  New  England  states.  Near 
the  centre  of  the  city  are  the  Capitol  Grounds  (27  acres;  until 
1872  the  campus  of  Trinity  College)  and  Bushnell  Park  (41  acres), 
adjoining  Capitol  Park.  Bushnell  Park,  named  in  honour  of 
Horace  Bushnell,  contains  the  Corning  Memorial  Fountain, 
erected  in  1899  and  designed  by  J.  Massey  Rhind,  and  three 
bronze  statues,  one,  by  J.Q.  A.  Ward,  of  General  Israel  Putnam; 
one,  by  Truman  H.  Bartlett,  of  Dr  Horace  Wells  (1815-1848),  the 
discoverer  of  anaesthesia;  and  one,  by  E.  S.  Woods,  of  Colonel 
Thomas  Knowlton  (1749-1776),  a  patriot  soldier  of  the  War  of 
Independence,  killed  at  the  battle  of  Harlem  Heights.  On  the 
Capitol  Grounds  is  the  state  capitol  (Richard  M.  Upjohn,  archi- 
tect), a  magnificent  white  marble  building,  which  was  completed  in 
1880  at  a  cost  of  $2,534,000.  Its  exterior  is  adorned  with  statues 
and  busts  of  Connecticut  statesmen  and  carvings  of  scenes  in 
the  history  of  the  state.  Within  the  building  are  regimental 
flags  of  the  Civil  War,  a  bronze  statue  by  Olin  L.  Warner  of 
Governor  William  A.  Buckingham,  a  bronze  statue  by  Karl 
Gerhardt  of  Nathan  Hale,  a  bronze  tablet  (also  by  Karl  Ger- 
hardt)  in  memory  of  John  Fitch  (1743-1798),  the  inventor;  a 
portrait  of  Washington,  purchased  by  the  state  in  1800  from  the 
artist,  Gilbert  Stuart;  and  a  series  of  oil  portraits  of  the  colonial 
and  state  governors.  The  elaborately  carved  chair  of  the 
lieutenant-governor  in  the  senate  chamber,  made  of  wood  from 
the  historic  Charter  Oak,  and  the  original  charter  of  1662  (or 
its  duplicate  of  the  same  date)  are  preserved  in  a  special  vault 
in  the  Connecticut  state  library.  A  new  state  library  and 
supreme  court  building  and  a  new  state  armoury  and  arsenal, 
both  of  granite,  have  been  (1910)  erected  upon  lands  recently 
added  to  the  Capitol  Grounds,  thus  forming  a  group  of  state 
buildings  with  the  Capitol  as  the  centre.  Near  the  Capitol,  at 
the  approach  of  the  memorial  bridge  across  the  Park  river,  is 
the  Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  memorial  arch,  designed  by  George 
Keller  and  erected  by  the  city  in  1885  in  memory  of  the  Hartford 
soldiers  and  sailors  who  served  in  the  American  Civil  War. 

Near  the  centre  of  the  city  is  the  old  town  square  (now  known 
as  the  City  Hall  Square),  laid  off  in  1637.  Here,  facing  Main 
Street,  stands  the  city  hall,  a  beautiful  example  of  Colonial 
architecture,  which  was  designed  by  Charles  Bulfinch,  completed 
in  1796,  and  until  1879  used  as  a  state  capitol;  it  has  subse- 
quently been  restored.  In  Main  Street  is  the  present  edifice 
of  the  First  Church  of  Christ,  known  as  the  Centre  Congregational 
Church,  which  was  organized  in  Cambridge,  Massachusetts, 
in  163  2,  and  removed  to  Hartford,  under  the  leadership  of  Thomas 
Hooker  and  Samuel  Stone,  in  1636.  In  the  adjoining  cemetery 
are  the  graves  of  Thomas  Hooker,  Governor  William  Leete 
(1603-1683),  and  Governor  John  Haynes,  and  a  monument 
in  memory  of  100  early  residents  of  Hartford.  In  the  same 
thoroughfare  is  the  Wadsworth  Atheneum  (built  in  1842; 
enlarged  in  1892-1893  and  1907)  and  its  companion  buildings, 
the  Colt  memorial  (built  in  1908  to  accommodate  the  Elizabeth 
Colt  art  collection)  and  the  Morgan  art  gallery  (built  in  1908  by 
J.  Pierpont  Morgan  in  memory  of  his  father,  Junius  Morgan, 
a  native  of  Hartford).  In  this  group  of  buildings  are  the  Hartford 
public  library  (containing  90,000 volumes  in  1908),  the  Watkinson 
library  of  reference  (70,000  volumes  in  1908),  the  library  of  the 
Connecticut  historical  society  (25,000  volumes  in  1908)  and  a 
public  art  gallery.  Other  institutions  of  importance  in  Hartford 
are  the  American  school  for  the  deaf  (formerly  the  American 
asylum  for  the  deaf  and  dumb),  founded  in  1816  by  Thomas 
H.  Gallaudet;  the  retreat  for  the  insane  (opened  for  patients 
in  1824);  the  Hartford  hospital;  St  Francis  hospital;  St 
Thomas's  seminary  (Roman  Catholic);  La  Salette  Missionary 
college  (R.C.;  1898) ;  Trinity  college  (founded  by  members  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  church,  and  now  non-sectarian),  which  was 


HARTFORD 


33 


chartered  as  Washington  College  in  1823,  opened  in  1824, 
renamed  Trinity  College  in  1845,  and  in  1907-1908  had  27  in- 
structors and  208  students;  the  Hartford  Theological  seminary, 
a  Congregational  institution,  which  was  founded  at  East  Windsor 
Hill  in  1834  as  the  Theological  Institute  of  Connecticut,  was 
removed  to  Hartford  in  1865,  and  adopted  its  present  name 
in  1885;  and,  affiliated  with  the  last  mentioned  institution, 
the  Hartford  School  of  Religious  Pedagogy.  The  Hartford 
grammar  school,  founded  in  1638,  long  managed  by  the  town 
and  in  1847  merged  with  the  classical  department  of  the  Hartford 
public  high  school,  is  the  oldest  educational  institution  in  the 
state.  In  Farmington  Avenue  is  St  Joseph's  cathedral  (Roman 
Catholic),  the  city  being  the  seat  of  the  diocese  of  Hartford. 

During  the  i8th  century  Hartford  enjoyed  a  large  and  lucrative 
commerce,  but  the  railway  development  of  the  igth  century 
centralized  commerce  in  New  York  and  Boston,  and  consequently 
the  principal  source  of  the  city's  wealth  has  come  to  be  manu- 
facturing and  insurance.  In  1905  the  total  value  of  the  "factory" 
product  was  $25,975,651.  The  principal  industries  are  the 
manufacture  of  small  arms  (by  the  Colt's  Patent  Fire-Arms 
Manufacturing  Co.,  makers  of  the  Colt  revolver  and  the  Catling 
gun) ,  typewriters  (Royal  and  Underwood) ,  automobiles,  bicycles, 
cyclometers,  carriages  and  wagons,  belting,  cigars,  harness, 
machinists'  tools  and  instruments  of  precision,  coil-piping, 
church  organs,  horse-shoe  nails,  electric  equipment,  machine 
screws,  drop  forgings,  hydrants  and  valves,  and  engines  and 
boilers.  In  1788  the  first  woollen  mill  in  New  England  was 
opened  in  Hartford;  and  here,  too,  about  1846,  the  Rogers 
process  of  electro-silver  plating  was  invented.  The  city  is  one 
of  the  most  important  insurance  centres  in  the  United  States. 
As  early  as  1794  policies  were  issued  by  the  Hartford  Fire 
Insurance  Company  (chartered  in  1810).  In  1909  Hartford 
was  the  home  city  of  six  fire  insurance  and  six  life  insurance 
companies,  the  principal  ones  being  the  Aetna  (fire),  Aetna 
Life,  Phoenix  Mutual  Life,  Phoenix  Fire,  Travelers  (Life  and 
Accident),  Hartford  Fire,  Hartford  Life,  National  Fire,  Connecti- 
cut Fire,  Connecticut  General  Life  and  Connecticut  Mutual 
Life.  In  1906  the  six  fire  insurance  companies  had  an  aggregate 
capital  of  more  than  $10,000,000;  on  the  ist  January  1906 
they  reported  assets  of  about  $59,000,000  and  an  aggregate 
surplus  of  $30,000,000.  In  the  San  Francisco  disaster  of  that 
year  they  paid  more  than  $15,000,000  of  losses.  Since  the  fire 
insurance  business  began  in  Hartford,  the  companies  of  that 
city  now  doing  business  there  have  paid  about  $340,000,000  in 
losses.  Several  large  and  successful  foreign  companies  have 
made  Hartford  their  American  headquarters.  The  life  insurance 
companies  have  assets  to  the  value  of  about  $225,000,000. 
The  Aetna  (fire),  Aetna  Life,  Connecticut  Fire,  Connecticut 
Mutual  Life,  Connecticut  General  Life,  Hartford  Fire,  Hartford 
Life,  Hartford  Steam  Boiler  Inspection  and  Insurance  Co., 
National  Fire,  Orient  Fire,  Phoenix  Mutual  Life  and  Travelers 
companies  have  their  own  homes,  some  of  these  being  among 
the  finest  buildings  in  Hartford.  The  city  has  also  large  banking 
interests. 

The  first  settlement  on  the  site  of  Hartford  was  made  by  the 
Dutch  from  New  Amsterdam,  who  in  1633  established  on  the 
bank  of  the  Connecticut  river,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Park  river, 
a  fort  which  they  held  until  1654.  The  township  of  Hartford 
was  one  of  the  first  three  original  townships  of  Connecticut. 
The  first  English  settlement  was  made  in  1635  by  sixty  immi- 
grants, mostly  from  New  Town  (now  Cambridge),  Massachusetts; 
but  the  main  immigration  was  in  1636,  when  practically  all  the 
New  Town  congregation  led  by  Thomas  Hooker  and  Samuel 
Stone  joined  those  who  had  preceded  them.  Their  settlement 
was  called  Newtown  until  1637,  when  the  present  name  was 
adopted  from  Hertford,  England,  the  birthplace  of  Stone.  In 
1636  Hartford  was  the  meeting-place  of  the  first  general  court 
of  the  Connecticut  colony;  the  Fundamental  Orders,  the  first 
written  constitution,  were  adopted  at  Hartford  in  1639;  and 
after  the  union  of  the  colonies  of  New  Haven  and  Connecticut, 
iccomplished  by  the  charter  of  1662,  Hartford  became  the  sole 
capital;  but  from  1701  until  1873  that  honour  was  shared  with 

XIII.  2 


New  Haven.  At  Hartford  occurred  in  1687  the  meeting  of 
Edmund  Andros  and  the  Connecticut  officials  (see  CONNECTICUT). 
Hartford  was  first  chartered  in  1784,  was  rechartered  in  1856 
(the  charter  of  that  date  has  been  subsequently  revised) ,  and  in 
1881  was  made  coterminous  with  the  township  of  Hartford. 
The  city  was  the  literary  centre  of  Federalist  ideas  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  iSth  century,  being  the  home  of  Lemuel  Hopkins, 
John  Trumbull,  Joel  Barlow  and  David  Humphreys,  the  leading 
members  of  a  group  of  authors  known  as  the  "  Hartford  Wits  "; 
and  in  1814-1815  the  city  was  the  meeting-place  of  the  famous 
Hartford  Convention,  an  event  of  great  importance  in  the  history 
of  the  Federalist  party.  The  War  of  1812,  with  the  Embargo 
Acts  (1807-1813),  which  were  so  destructive  of  New  England's 
commerce,  thoroughly  aroused  the  Federalist  leaders  in  this 
part  of  the  country  against  the  National  government  as  ad- 
ministered by  the  Democrats,  and  in  1814,  when  the  British 
were  not  only  threatening  a  general  invasion  of  their  territory 
but  had  actually  occupied  a  part  of  the  Maine  coast,  and  the 
National  government  promised  no  protection,  the  legislature 
of  Massachusetts  invited  the  other  New  England  states  to  join 
with  her  in  sending  delegates  to  a  convention  which  should 
meet  at  Hartford  to  consider  their  grievances,  means  of  preserv- 
ing their  resources,  measures  of  protection  against  the  British, 
and  the  advisability  of  taking  measures  to  bring  about  a  con- 
vention of  delegates  from  all  the  United  States  for  the  purpose 
of  revising  the  Federal  constitution.  The  legislatures  of  Connecti- 
cut and  Rhode  Island,  and  town  meetings  in  Cheshire  and  Grafton 
counties  (New  Hampshire)  and  in  Windham  county  (Vermont) 
accepted  the  invitation,  and  the  convention,  composed  of  12 
delegates  from  Massachusetts,  7  from  Connecticut,  4  from  Rhode 
Island,  2  from  New  Hampshire  and  i  from  Vermont,  all 
Federalists,  met  on  the  i5th  of  December  1814,  chose  George 
Cabot  of  Massachusetts  president  and  Theodore  Dwight  of 
Connecticut  secretary,  and  remained  in  secret  session  until  the 
5th  of  January  1815,  when  it  adjourned  sine  die.  At  the  con- 
clusion of  its  work  it  recommended  greater  military  control  for 
each  of  the  several  states  and  that  the  Federal  constitution 
be  so  amended  that  representatives  and  direct  taxes  should  be 
apportioned  among  the  several  states  "  according  to  their 
respective  numbers  of  free  persons,"  that  no  new  state  should 
be  admitted  to  the  Union  without  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds 
of  both  Houses  of  Congress,  that  Congress  should  not  have  the 
power  to  lay  an  embargo  for  more  than  sixty  days,  that  the 
concurrence  of  two-thirds  of  the  members  of  both  Houses  of 
Congress  should  be  necessary  to  pass  an  act  "  to  interdict  the 
commercial  intercourse  between  the  United  States  and  any 
foreign  nation  or  the  dependencies  thereof  "  or  to  declare  war 
against  any  foreign  nation  except  in  case  of  actual  invasion,  that 
"  no  person  who  shall  hereafter  be  naturalized  shall  be  eligible 
as  a  member  of  the  Senate  or  House  of  Representatives  of  the 
United  States,  nor  capable  of  holding  any  civil  office  under  the 
authority  of  the  United  States,"  and  that  "  the  same  person 
shall  not  be  elected  president  of  the  United  States  a  second  time; 
nor  shall  the  president  be  elected  from  the  same  state  two  terms 
in  succession."  After  making  these  recommendations  concerning 
amendments  the  Convention  resolved:  "  That  if  the  application 
of  these  states  to  the  government  of  the  United  States,  recom- 
mended in  a  foregoing  resolution,  should  be  unsuccessful,  and 
peace  should  not  be  concluded,  and  the  defence  of  these  states 
should  be  neglected,  as  it  has  been  since  the  commencement 
of  the  war,  it  will,  in  the  opinion  of  this  convention,  be  expedient 
for  the  legislatures  of  the  several  states  to  appoint  delegates 
to  another  convention,  to  meet  at  Boston  in  the  state  of 
Massachusetts  on  the  third  Thursday  of  June  next,  with  such 
powers  and  instructions  as  the  exigency  of  a  crisis  so  momentous 
may  require."  The  legislatures  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut 
approved  of  these  proposed  amendments  and  sent  commissioners 
to  Washington  to  urge  their  adoption,  but  before  their  arrival 
the  war  had  closed,  and  not  only  did  the  amendments  fail  to 
receive  the  approval  of  any  other  state,  but  the  legislatures  of 
nine  states  expressed  their  disapproval  of  the  Hartford  Convention 
itself,  some  charging  it  with  sowing  "seeds  of  dissension  and 


HARTFORD  CITY— HARTLEPOOL 


disunion."  The  cessation  of  the  war  brought  increased  popularity 
to  the  Democratic  administration,  and  the  Hartford  Convention 
was  vigorously  attacked  throughout  the  country. 

Hartford  was  the  birthplace  of  Noah  Webster,  who  here 
published  his  Grammatical  Institute  of  the  English  Language 
(1783-1785),  and  of  Henry  Barnard,  John  Fiske  and  Frederick 
Law  Olmsted,  and  has  been  the  home  of  Samuel  P.  Goodrich 
(Peter  Parley),  George  D.  Prentice,  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe, 
Charles  Dudley  Warner,  Samuel  L.  Clemens  (Mark  Twain) 
and  Horace  Bushnell.  More  than  100  periodicals  have  been 
established  in  Hartford,  of  which  the  oldest  is  the  Hartford 
Courant(i?64),  the  oldest  newspaper  in  the  United  States.  This 
paper  was  very  influential  in  shaping  public  opinion  in  the 
years  preceding  the  War  of  Independence;  after  the  war  it 
was  successively  Federalist,  Whig  and  Republican.  The  Times 
(semi- weekly  1817;  daily  1841)  was  one  of  the  most  powerful 
Democratic  organs  in  the  period  before  the  middle  of  the  ipth 
century,  and  had  Gideon  Wells  for  editor  1826-1836.  The 
Congregationalist  (afterwards  published  in  Boston)  and  the 
Churchman  (afterwards  published  in  New  York)  were  also 
founded  at  Hartford. 

See  Scaeva,  Hartford  in  the  Olden  Times:  Its  First  Thirty  Years 
(Hartford,  1853),  edited  by  W.  M.  B.  Hartley;  and  J.  H.  Trumbull, 
Memorial  History  of  Hartford  County  (Boston,  1886).  For  the 
Hartford  Convention  see  History  of  the  Hartford  Convention  (Boston, 
1833),  published  by  its  secretary,  Theodore  Dwight;  H.  C.  Lodge, 
Life  and  Letters  of  George  Cabot  (Boston,  1877);  and  Henry  Adams, 
Documents  Relating  to  New  England  Federalism  (Boston,  1877). 

HARTFORD  CITY,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Blackford 
county,  Indiana,  U.S.A.,  62  m.  N.E.  of  Indianapolis.  Pop. 
(1890)  2287;  (1900)  5912  (572  foreign-born);  (1910)  6187.  The 
city  is  served  by  the  Fort  Wayne,  Cincinnati  &  Louisville,  and 
the  Pittsburg,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  &  St  Louis  railways,  and  the 
Indiana  Union  Traction  line  (electric) .  There  are  oil  and  natural 
gas  wells  in  the  vicinity,  and  the  city  has  pulp  and  paper  mills, 
glass  and  tile  works,  and  manufactories  of  woodenware,  and 
nitro-glycerine  and  powder.  The  municipality  owns  and  operates 
its  water-works  system.  The  first  settlement  in  the  vicinity  was 
made  in  1832.  Hartford  City  became  the  county-seat  of  Black- 
ford  county  when  that  county  was  erected  in  1837;  it  was  laid 
out  in  1839  and  was  first  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1867. 

HARTIG,  GEORG  LUDWIG  (1764-1837),  German  agricul- 
turist and  writer  on  forestry,  was  born  at  Gladenbach,  near 
Marburg,  on  the  2nd  of  September  1764.  After  obtaining  a 
practical  knowledge  of  forestry  at  Harzburg,  he  studied  from 
1781  to  1783  at  the  university  of  Giessen.  In  1786  he  became 
manager  of  forests  to  the  prince  of  Solms-Braunfels  at  Hungen  in 
the  Wetterau,  where  he  founded  a  school  for  the  teaching  of 
forestry.  After  obtaining  in  1 797  the  appointment  of  inspector 
of  forests  to  the  prince  of  Orange-Nassau,  he  continued  his  school 
of  forestry  at  Dillenburg,  where  the  attendance  thereat  increased 
considerably.  On  the  dissolution  of  the  principality  by  Napoleon 
I.  in  1 805  he  lost  his  position,  but  in  1 806  he  went  as  chief  inspector 
of  forests  to  Stuttgart,  whence  in  1811  he  was  called  to  Berlin  in 
a  like  capacity.  There  he  continued  his  school  of  forestry,  and 
succeeded  in  connecting  it  with  the  university  of  Berlin,  where  in 
1830  he  was  appointed  an  honorary  professor.  He  died  at  Berlin 
on  the  2nd  of  February  1837.  His  son  Theodor  (1805-1880),  and 
grandson  Robert  (1839-1901),  were  also  distinguished  for  their 
contributions  to  the  study  of  forestry. 

G.  L.  Hartig  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  valuable  works: 
Lehrbuch  fur  Jdger  (Stuttgart,  1810);  Lehrbuch  fiir  Forster  (3  vols., 
Stuttgart,  1808);  Kubiktabellen  fiir  geschnittene,  beschlagene,  und 
runde  Holzer  (1815,  loth  ed.  Berlin,  1871);  and  Lexikon  fur  Jager 
und  Jagdfreunde  (1836,  2nd  ed.  Berlin,  1859-1861).  Theodor 
Hartig  and  his  son  Robert  also  published  numerous  works  dealing 
with  forestry,  one  of  the  latter's  books  being  translated  into  English 
by  W.  Somerville  and  H.  Marshall  Ward  as  Diseases  of  Trees  (1894). 

HARTLEPOOL,  a  parliamentary  borough  of  Durham,  England, 
embracing  the  municipal  borough  of  Hartlepool  or  East  Hartle- 
pool  and  the  municipal  and  county  borough  of  West  Hartlepool. 
Pop.  (1901)  of  Hartlepool,  22,723;  of  West  Hartlepool,  62,627. 
The  towns  are  on  the  coast  of  the  North  Sea  separated  by  Hartle- 
pool Bay,  with  a  harbour,  and  both  have  stations  on  branches  of 


the  North  Eastern  railway,  247  m.  N.  by  W.  from  London.  The 
surrounding  country  is  bleak,  and  the  coast  is  low.  Caves  occur 
in  the  slight  cliffs,  and  protection  against  the  attacks  of  the  waves 
has  been  found  necessary.  The  ancient  market  town  of  Hartle- 
pool lies  on  a  peninsula  which  forms  the  termination  of  a  south- 
eastward sweep  of  the  coast  and  embraces  the  bay.  Its  naturally 
strong  position  was  formerly  fortified,  and  part  of  the  walls, 
serving  as  a  promenade,  remain.  The  parish  church  of  St  Hilda, 
standing  on  an  eminence  above  the  sea,  is  late  Norman  and  Early 
English,  with  a  massive  tower,  heavily  buttressed.  There  is  a 
handsome  borough  hall  in  Italian  style.  West  Hartlepool,  a 
wholly  modern  town,  has  several  handsome  modern  churches, 
municipal  buildings,  exchange,  market  hall,  Athenaeum  and 
public  library.  The  municipal  area  embraces  the  three  town- 
ships of  Seaton  Carew,  a  seaside  resort  with  good  bathing, 
and  golf  links;  Stranton,  with  its  church  of  All  Saints,  of  the 
I4th  century,  on  a  very  early  site;  and  Throston. 

The  two  Hartlepools  are  officially  considered  as  one  port.  The 
harbour,  which  embraces  two  tidal  basins  and  six  docks  aggregat- 
ing 83!  acres,  in  addition  to  timber  docks  of  57  acres,  covers 
altogether  350  acres.  There  are  five  graving  docks,  admitting 
vessels  of  550  ft.  length  and  10  to  21  ft.  draught.  The  depth  of 
water  on  the  dock  sills  varies  from  17  j  ft.  at  neap  tides  to  25  ft.  at 
spring  tides.  A  breakwater  three-quarters  of  a  mile  long  protects 
the  entrance  to  the  harbour.  An  important  trade  is  carried  on 
in  the  export  of  coal,  ships,  machinery,  iron  and  other  metallic 
ores,  woollens  and  cottons,  and  in  the  import  of  timber,  sugar,  iron 
and  copper  ores,  and  eggs.  Timber  makes  up  59  %  of  the 
imports,  and  coal  and  ships  each  about  30%  of  the  exports.  The 
principal  industries  are  shipbuilding  (iron),  boiler  and  engineer- 
ing works,  iron  and  brass  foundries,  steam  saw  and  planing  mills, 
flour-mills,  paper  and  paint  factories,  and  soapworks. 

The  parliamentary  borough  (falling  within  the  south-east 
county  division)  returns  one  member.  The  municipal  borough 
of  Hartlepool  is  under  a  mayor,  6  aldermen  and  18  councillors, 
and  has  an  area  of  972  acres.  The  municipal  borough  of  West 
Hartlepool  is  under  a  mayor,  8  aldermen  and  24  councillors,  and 
has  an  area  of  2684  acres. 

Built  on  the  horns  of  a  sheltered  bay,  Hartlepool  (Hertepull, 
Hertipol),  grew  up  round  the  monastery  founded  there  in  640, 
but  was  destroyed  by  the  Danes  in  800  and  rebuilt  by  Ecgred, 
bishop  of  Lindisfarne.  In  1173  Bishop  Hugh  de  Puiset  allowed 
French  and  Flemish  troops  to  land  at  Hartlepool  to  aid  the  Scots. 
It  is  not  mentioned  in  Boldon  Book  as,  being  part  of  the  royal 
manor  of  Sadberg  held  at  this  time  by  the  family  of  Bruce,  it  did 
not  become  the  property  of  the  see  of  Durham  until  the  purchase 
of  that  manor  in  1189.  The  bishops  did  not  obtain  possession 
until  the  reign  of  John,  who  during  the  interval  in  1201  gave 
Hartlepool  a  charter  granting  the  burgesses  the  same  privileges 
that  the  burgesses  of  Newcastle  enjoyed;  in  1230  Bishop 
Richard  Poor  granted  further  liberties,  including  a  gild  merchant. 
Edward  II.  seized  the  borough  as  a  possession  of  Robert  Bruce, 
but  he  could  control  it  very  slightly  owing  to  the  bishop's  powers. 
In  1328  Edward  III.  granted  the  borough  100  marks  towards  the 
town-wall  and  Richard  II.  granted  murage  for  seven  years,  the 
term  being  extended  in  1400.  In  1383  Bishop  Fordham  gave 
the  burgesses  licence  to  receive  tolls  within  the  borough  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  walls,  while  Bishop  Neville  granted  a  com- 
mission for  the  construction  of  a  pier  or  mole.  In  the  i6th 
century  Hartlepool  was  less  prosperous;  in  1523  the  haven  was 
said  to  be  ruined,  the  fortifications  decayed.  An  act  of  1535 
declared  Hartlepool  to  be  in  Yorkshire,  but  in  1554  it  was  re- 
instated in  the  county  of  Durham.  It  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
northern  earls  in  1563,  and  a  garrison  was  maintained  there  after 
the  rebellion  was  crushed.  In  1593  Elizabeth  incorporated  it, 
and  gave  the  burgesses  a  town  hall  and  court  of  pie  powder. 
During  the  civil  wars  Hartlepool,  which  a  few  years  before  was 
said  to  be  the  only  port  town  in  the  country,  was  taken  by  the 
Scots,  who  maintained  a  garrison  there  until  1647.  As  a  borough 
of  the  Palatinate  Hartlepool  was  not  represented  in  parliament 
until  the  igth  century,  though  strong  arguments  in  its  favour 
were  advanced  in  the  Commons  in  1614.  The  markets  of 


HARTLEY,  SIR  C.— HARTLIB 


35 


Hartlepool  were  important  throughout  the  middle  ages.  In  1 2 1 6 
John  confirmed  toRobertBruce  the  marketon  Wednesday  granted 
to  his  father  and  the  fair  on  the  feast  of  St  Lawrence;  this  fair  was 
extended  to  fifteen  days  by  the  grant  of  1230,  while  the  charter 
of  1 595  also  granted  a  fair  and  market.  During  the  i4th  century 
trade  was  carried  on  with  Germany,  Spain  and  Holland,  and  in 
1346  Hartlepool  provided  five  ships  for  the  French  war,  being 
considered  one  of  the  chief  seaports  in  the  kingdom.  The 
markets  were  still  considerable  in  Camden's  day,  but  declined 
during  the  i8th  century,  when  Hartlepool  became  fashionable  as 
a  watering-place. 

HARTLEY,  SIR  CHARLES  AUGUSTUS  (1825-  ),  English 
engineer,  was  born  in  1825  at  Heworth,  Durham.  Like  most 
engineers  of  his  generation  he  was  engaged  in  railway  work  in 
the  early  part  of  his  career,  but  subsequently  he  devoted  himself 
to  hydraulic  engineering  and  the  improvement  of  estuaries  and 
harbours  for  the  purposes  of  navigation.  He  was  employed  in 
connexion  with  some  of  the  largest  and  most  important  water- 
ways of  the  world.  After  serving  in  the  Crimea  as  a  captain  of 
engineers  in  the  Anglo-Turkish  contingent,  he  was  in  1856 
appointed  engineer-in-chief  for  the  works  carried  out  by  the 
European  Commission  of  the  Danube  for  improving  the  naviga- 
tion at  the  mouths  of  that  river,  and  that  position  he  retained 
till  1872,  when  he  became  consulting  engineer  to  the  Commission 
(see  DANUBE).  In  1875  he  was  one  of  the  committee  appointed 
by  the  authority  of  the  U.S.A.  Congress  to  report  on  the  works 
necessary  to  form  and  maintain  a  deep  channel  through  the  south 
pass  of  the  Mississippi  delta;  and  in  1884  the  British  government 
nominated  him  a  member  of  the  international  technical  commission 
for  widening  the  Suez  Canal.  In  addition  he  was  consulted  by 
the  British  and  other  governments  in  connexion  with  many  other 
river  and  harbour  works,  including  the  improvement  of  the 
navigation  of  the  Scheldt,  Hugli,  Don  and  Dnieper,  and  of  the 
ports  of  Odessa,  Trieste,  Kustendjie,  Burgas,  Varna  and  Durban. 
He  was  knighted  in  1862,  and  became  K.C.M.G.  in  1884. 

HARTLEY,  DAVID  (1705-1757),  English  philosopher,  and 
founder  of  the  Associationist  school  of  psychologists,  was  born 
on  the  30th  of  August  1705*  He  was  educated  at  Bradford 
grammar  school  and  Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  society 
he  became  a  fellow  in  1727.  Originally  intended  for  the  Church, 
he  was  deterred  from  taking  orders  by  certain  scruples  as  to 
signing  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  and  took  up  the  study  of 
medicine.  Nevertheless,  he  remained  in  the  communion  of  the 
English  Church,  living  on  intimate  terms  with  the  most  dis- 
tinguished churchmen  of  his  day.  Indeed  he  asserted  it  to  be  a 
duty  to  obey  ecclesiastical  as  well  as  civil  authorities.  The 
doctrine  to  which  he  most  strongly  objected  was  that  of  eternal 
punishment.  Hartley  practised  as  a  physician  at  Newark, 
Bury  St  Edmunds,  London,  and  lastly  at  Bath,  where  he  died  on 
the  28th  of  August  1757.  His  Observations  on  Man  was  pub- 
lished in  1749,  three  years  after  Condillac's  Essai  sur  I'origine  des 
connaissances  humaines,  in  which  theories  essentially  similar 
to  his  were  expounded.  It  is  in  two  parts — the  first  dealing 
with  the  frame  of  the  human  body  and  mind,  and  their  mutual 
connexions  and  influences,  the  second  with  the  duty  and  expecta- 
tions of  mankind.  His  two  main  theories  are  the  doctrine  of 
vibrations  and  the  doctrine  of  associations.  His  physical 
theory,  he  tells  us,  was  drawn  from  certain  speculations  as  to 
nervous  action  which  Newton  had  published  in  his  Principia. 
His  psychological  theory  was  suggested  by  the  Dissertation  con- 
cerning the  Fundamental  Principles  of  Virtue  or  Morality,  which 
was  written  by  a  clergyman  named  John  Gay  (1699-1745),  and 
prefixed  by  Bishop  Law  to  his  translation  1  of  Archbishop  King's 
Latin  work  on  the  Origin  of  Evil,  its  chief  object  being  to  show 
that  sympathy  and  conscience  are  developments  by  means  of 
association  from  the  selfish  feelings. 

The  outlines  of  Hartley's  theory  are  as  follows.  With  Locke  he 
asserted  that,  prior  to  sensation,  the  human  mind  is  a  blank.  By 
a  growth  from  simple  sensations  those  states  of  consciousness  which 
appear  most  remote  from  sensation  come  into  being.  And  the  one 

1  Anonymously  in  the  1731  ed.,  with  acknowledgment  in  the 
1758  ed. 


law  of  growth  of  which  Hartley  took  account  was -the  law  of  con- 
tiguity, synchronous  and  successive.  By  this  law  he  sought  to 
explain,  not  only  the  phenomena  of  memory,  which  others  had 
similarly  explained  before  him,  but  also  the  phenomena  of  emotion, 
of  reasoning,  and  of  voluntary  and  involuntary  action  (see  ASSOCIA- 
TION OF  IDEAS). 

By  his  physical  theory  Hartley  gave  the  first  strong  impulse  to 
the  modern  study  of  the  intimate  connexion  of  physiological  and 
psychical  facts  which  has  proved  so  fruitful,  though  his  physical 
theory  in  itself  is  inadequate,  and  has  not  been  largely  adopted. 
He  held  that  sensation  is  the  result  of  a  vibration  of  the  minute 
particles  of  the  medullary  substance  of  the  nerves,  to  account  for 
which  he  postulated,  with  Newton,  a  subtle  elastic  ether,  rare  in 
the  interstices  of  solid  bodies  and  in  their  close  neighbourhood,  and 
denser  as  it  recedes  from  them.  Pleasure  is  the  resujt  of  moderate 
vibrations,  pain  of  vibrations  so  violent  as  to  break  the  continuity 
of  the  nerves.  These  vibrations  leave  behind  them  in  the  brain 
a  tendency  to  fainter  vibrations  or  "  vibratiuncles  "  of  a  similar 
kind,  which  correspond  to  "  ideas  of  sensation."  Thus  memory  is 
accounted  for.  The  course  of  reminiscence  and  of  the  thoughts 
generally,  when  not  immediately  dependent  upon  external  sensation, 
is  accounted  for  on  the  ground  that  there  are  always  vibrations  in 
the  brain  on  account  of  its  heat  and  the  pulsation  of  its  arteries. 
What  these  vibrations  shall  be  is  determined  by  the  nature  of  each 
man's  past  experience,  and  by  the  influence  of  the  circumstances  of 
the  moment,  which  causes  now  one  now  another  tendency  to  prevail 
over  the  rest.  Sensations  which  are  often  associated  together 
become  each  associated  with  the  ideas  corresponding  to  the  others; 
and  the  ideas  corresponding  to  the  associated  sensations  become 
associated  together,  sometimes  so  intimately  that  they  form  what 
appears  to  be  a  new  simple  idea,  not  without  careful  analysis  resolv- 
able into  its  component  parts. 

Starting,  like  the  modern  Associationists,  from  a  detailed  account 
of  the  phenomena  of  the  senses,  Hartley  tries  to  show  how,  by  the 
above  laws,  all  the  emotions,  which  he  analyses  with  considerable 
skill,  may  be  explained.  Locke's  phrase  "  association  of  ideas  "  is 
employed  throughout,  "  idea  "  being  taken  as  including  every 
mental  state  but  sensation.  He  emphatically  asserts  the  existence 
of  pure  disinterested  sentiment,  while  declaring  it  to  be  a  growth 
from  the  self-regarding  feelings.  Voluntary  action  is  explained  as 
the  result  of  a  firm  connexion  between  a  motion  and  a  sensation  or 
"idea,"  and,  on  the  physical  side,  between  an  "ideal"  and  a 
motory  vibration.  Therefore  in  the  Freewill  controversy  Hartley 
took  his  place  as  a  determinist.  It  is  singular  that,  as  he  tells  us, 
it  was  only  with  reluctance,  and  when  his  speculations  were  nearly 
complete,  that  he  came  to  a  conclusion  on  this  subject  in  accordance 
with  his  theory. 

See  life  of  Hartley  by  his  son  in  the  1801  edition  of  the  Observations, 
which  also  contains  notes  and  additions  translated  from  the  German 
of  H.  A.  Pistorius;  Sir  Leslie  Stephen,  History  of  English  Thought 
in  the  Eighteenth  Century  (y&  ed.,  1902),  and  article  fn  the  Dictionary 
of  National  Biography;  G.  S.  Bower,  Hartley  and  James  Mill  (1881); 
B.  Schonlank,  Hartley  und  Priestley  die  Begrilnder  des  Assoziatio- 
nismus  in  England  (1882).  See  also  the  histories  of  philosophy  and 
bibliography  in  J.  M.  Baldwin's  Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and 
Psychology  (1905),  vol.  iii. 

HARTLEY,  JONATHAN  SCOTT  (1845-  ),  American 
sculptor,  was  born  at  Albany,  New  York,  on  the  23rd  of 
September  1845.  He  was  a  pupil  of  E.  D.  Palmer,  New  York, 
and  of  the  schools  of  the  Royal  Academy,  London;  he  later 
studied  for  a  year  in  Berlin  and  for  a  year  in  Paris.  His  first 
important  work  (1882)  was  a  statue  of  Miles  Morgan,  the  Puritan, 
for  Springfield,  Mass.  Among  his  other  works  are  the  Daguerre 
monument  in  Washington;  "  Thomas  K.  Beecher,"  Elmira, 
New  York,  and  "Alfred  the  Great,"  Appellate  Court  House, 
New  York.  He  devoted  himself  particularly  to  the  making  of 
portrait  busts,  in  which  he  attained  high  rank.  In  1891  he 
became  a  member  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design. 

HARTLIB,  SAMUEL  (c.  1599-6.  1670),  English  writer  on 
education  and  agriculturist,  was  born  towards  the  close  of  the 
1 6th  century  at  Elbing  in  Prussia,  his  father  being  a  refugee 
merchant  from  Poland.  His  mother  was  the  daughter  of  a  rich 
English  merchant  at  Danzig.  About  1628  Hartlib  went  to 
England,  where  he  carried  on  a  mercantile  agency,  and  at  the 
same  time  found  leisure  to  enter  with  interest  into  the  public 
questions  of  the  day.  An  enthusiastic  admirer  of  Comenius,  he 
published  in  1637  his  Conatuum  Comenianorum  praeludia,  and 
in  1639  Comenii  pansophiae  prodromus  el  didaclica  dissertatio. 
In  1641  appeared  his  Relation  of  that  which  hath  been  lately 
attempted  to  procure  Ecclesiastical  Peace  among  Protestants,  and 
A  Description  of  Macaria,  containing  his  ideas  of  what  a  model 
state  should  be.  During  the  civil  war  Hartlib  occupied  himself 


HARTMANN,  K.  R.  E.  VON  — HARTMANN,  M. 


with  the  peaceful  study  of  agriculture,  publishing  various  works 
by  himself,  and  printing  at  his  own  expense  several  treatises 
by  others  on  the  subject.  In  1652  he  issued  a  second  edition  of 
the  Discourse  of  Flanders  Husbandry  by  Sir  Richard  Weston 
(1645);  and  in  1651  Samuel  Hartlib,  his  Legacy,  or  an  Enlarge- 
ment of  the  Discourse  of  Husbandry  used  in  Brabant  and  Flanders, 
by  Robert  Child.  For  his  various  labours  Hartlib  received  from 
Cromwell  a  pension  of  £100,  afterwards  increased  to  £300,  as  he 
had  spent  all  his  fortune  on  his  experiments.  He  planned  a  school 
for  the  sons  of  gentlemen,  to  be  conducted  on  new  principles, 
and  this  probably  was  the  occasion  of  his  friend  Milton's  Tractate 
on  Education,  addressed  to  him  in  1644,  and  of  Sir  William  Petty 's 
Two  Letters  on  the  same  subject,  in  1647  and  1648.  At  the 
Restoration  Hartlib  lost  his  pension,  which  had  already  fallen 
into  arrears;  he  petitioned  parliament  for  a  new  grant  of  it, 
but  what  success  he  met  with  is  unknown,  as  his  latter  years  and 
death  are  wrapped  in  obscurity.  A  letter  from  him  is  known  to 
have  been  written  in  February  1661-1662,  and  apparently  he 
is  referred  to  by  Andrew  Marvell  as  alive  in  1670  and  fleeing  to 
Holland  from  his  creditors. 

A  Biographical  Memoir  of  Samuel  Hartlib,  by  H.  Dircks,  appeared 
in  1865. 

HARTMANN,  KARL  ROBERT  EDUARD  VON  (1842-1906), 
German  philosopher,  was  born  in  Berlin  on  the  23rd  of  February 
1842.  He  was  educated  for  the  army,  and  entered  the  artillery 
of  the  Guards  as  an  officer  in  1860,  but  a  malady  of  the  knee, 
which  crippled  him,  forced  him  to  quit  the  service  in  1865. 
After  some  hesitation  between  music  and  philosophy,  he  decided 
to  make  the  latter  the  serious  work  of  his  life,  and  in  1867  the 
university  of  Rostock  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
philosophy.  He  subsequently  returned  to  Berlin,  and  died  at 
Grosslichterfelde  on  the  5th  of  June  1906.  His  reputation 
as  a  philosopher  was  established  by  his  first  book,  The  Philosophy 
of  the  Unconscious  (1869;  loth  ed.  1890).  This  success  was 
largely  due  to  the  originality  of  its  title,  the  diversity  of  its 
contents  (von  Hartmann  professing  to  obtain  his  speculative 
results  by  the  methods  of  inductive  science,  and  making  plentiful 
use  of  concrete  illustrations),  the  fashionableness  of  its  pessimism 
and  the  vigour  and  lucidity  of  its  style.  The  conception  of  the 
Unconscious,  by  which  von  Hartmann  describes  his  ultimate 
metaphysical  principle,  is  not  at  bottom  as  paradoxical  as  it 
sounds,  being  merely  a  new  and  mysterious  designation  for  the 
Absolute  of  German  metaphysicians.  The  Unconscious  appears 
as  a  combination  of  the  metaphysic  of  Hegel  with  that  of  Schopen- 
hauer. The  Unconscious  is  both  Will  and  Reason  and  the 
absolute  all-embracing  ground  of  all  existence.  Von  Hartmann 
thus  combines  "  pantheism  "  with  "  panlogism  "  in  a  manner 
adumbrated  by  Schelling  in  his  "  positive  philosophy."  Never- 
theless Will  and  not  Reason  is  the  primary  aspect  of  the  Un- 
conscious, whose  melancholy  career  is  determined  by  the  primacy 
of  the  Will  and  the  subservience  of  the  Reason.  Precosmically 
the  Will  is  potential  and  the  Reason  latent,  and  the  Will  is  void 
of  reason  when  it  passes  from  potentiality  to  actual  willing. 
This  latter  is  absolute  misery,  and  to  cure  it  the  Unconscious 
evokes  its  Reason  and  with  its  aid  creates  the  best  of  all  possible 
worlds,  which  contains  the  promise  of  its  redemption  from 
actual  existence  by  the  emancipation  of  the  Reason  from  its 
subjugation  to  the  Will  in  the  conscious  reason  of  the  enlightened 
pessimist.  When  the  greater  part  of  the  Will  in  existence  is  so 
far  enlightened  by  reason  as  to  perceive  the  inevitable  misery 
of  existence,  a  collective  effort  to  will  non-existence  will  be  made, 
and  the  world  will  relapse  into  nothingness,  the  Unconscious  into 
quiescence.  Although  von  Hartmann  is  a  pessimist,  his  pessim- 
ism is  by  no  means  unmitigated.  The  individual's  happiness 
is  indeed  unattainable  either  here  and  now  or  hereafter  and  in 
the  future,  but  he  does  not  despair  of  ultimately  releasing  the 
Unconscious  from  its  sufferings.  He  differs  from  Schopenhauer 
in  making  salvation  by  the  "  negation  of  the  Will-to-live  " 
depend  on  a  collective  social  effort  and  not  on  individualistic 
asceticism.  The  conception  of  a  redemption  of  the  Unconscious 
also  supplies  the  ultimate  basis  of  von  Hartmann's  ethics.  We 
must  provisionally  affirm  life  and  devote  ourselves  to  social 


evolution,  instead  of  striving  after  a  happiness  which  is 
impossible;  in  so  doing  we  shall  find  that  morality  renders  life 
less  unhappy  than  it  would  otherwise  be.  Suicide,  and  all  other 
forms  of  selfishness,  are  highly  reprehensible.  Epistemologically 
von  Hartmann  is  a  transcendental  realist,  who  ably  defends  his 
views  and  acutely  criticizes  those  of  his  opponents.  His  realism 
enables  him  to  maintain  the  reality  of  Time,  and  so  of  the  process 
of  the  world's  redemption. 

Von  Hartmann's  numerous  works  extend  to  more  than  12,000 
pages.  They  may  be  classified  into — A.  Systematical,  including 
Grundprobleme  der  Erkenntnistheorie ;  Kategorienlehre;  Das  sittliche 
Bewusstsein;  Die  Philosophic  des  Schonen;  Die  Religion  des  Geistes; 
Die  Philosophic  des  Unbewusslen  (3  vols.,  which  now  include  his, 
originally  anonymous,  self-criticism,  Das  Unbewusste  vom  Stand- 
punkte  der  Physiologic  und  Descendenztheorie,  and  its  refutation,  Eng. 
trs.  by  W.  C.  Coupland,  1884) ;  System  der  Philosophic  im  Crundriss, 
i.;  Grundriss  der  Erkennlnislehre.  B.  Historical  and  critical — Das 
religiose  Bewusstsein  der  Menschheil;  Geschichte  der  Metaphysik 
(2  vols.);  Kant's  Erkenntnistheorie;  Kritische  Grundlegung  des 
transcendentalen  Realismus;  Vber  die  dialektische  Methode;  studies  of 
Schelling,  Lotze,  von  Kirchmann;  Zur  Geschichte  des  Pessimismus; 
Neukantianismus,  Schopenhauerismus,  Hegelianismus ;  Geschichte 
der  deutschen  Aslhetik  seit  Kant;  Die  Krisis  des  Christentums  in 
der  modernen  Theologie;  Philosophische  Fragen  der  Gegenwart; 
Ethische  Studien;  Moderne  Psychologic;  Das  Christentum  des 
neuen  Testaments;  Die  Weltanschauung  der  modernen  Physik. 
C.  Popular — Soziale  Kernfragen;  Moderne  Probleme;  Tagesfragen; 
Zwei  Jahrzehnte  deutscher  Politik;  Das  Judentum  in  Gegenwart  und 
Zukunft;  Die  Selbslzersetzung  des  Christentums;  Gesammelte 
Sludien;  Der  Spiritismus  and  Die  Geisterhypothese  des  Spiritismus; 
Zur  Zeitgeschichle.  His  select  works  have  been  published  in  10 
volumes  (2nd  ed.,  1885-1896).  On  his  philosophy  see  R.  Kober, 
Das  philosophische  System  Eduard  von  Hartmanns  (1884);  O. 
Plumacher,  Der  Kampf  urns  Unbewusste  (2nd  ed.,  1890),  with  a 
chronological  table  of  the  Hartmann  literature  from  1868  to  1890; 
A.  Drews,  E.  von  Hartmanns  Philosophic  und  der  Materialismus  in 
der  modernen  Kultur  (1890)  and  E.  von  Hartmanns  philosophisches 
System  im  Grundriss  (1902),  with  biographical  introduction;  and 
for  further  authorities,  J.  M.  Baldwin,  Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and 
Psychology  (1901-1905). 

HARTMANN,  MORITZ  (1821-1872),  German  poet  and 
author,  was  born  of  Jewish  parentage  at  Duschnik  in  Bohemia 
on  the  isth  of  October  1821.  Having  studied  philosophy  at 
Prague  and  Vienna,  he  travelled  in  south  Germany,  Switzerland 
and  Italy,  and  became  tutor  in  a  family  at  Vienna.  In  1845  he 
proceeded  to  Leipzig  and  there  published  a  volume  of  patriotic 
poems,  Kelch  und  Schwert  (1845).  Fearing  in  consequence 
prosecution  at  the  hands  of  the  authorities,  he  abided  events  in 
France  and  Belgium,  and  after  issuing  in  Leipzig  Neuere  Gedichte 
(1846)  returned  home,  suffered  a  short  term  of  imprisonment, 
and  in  1848  was  elected  member  for  Leitmeritz  in  the  short-lived 
German  parliament  at  Frankfort-on-Main,  in  which  he  sided 
with  the  extreme  Radical  party.  He  took  part  with  Robert 
Blum  (1807-1848)  in  the  revolution  of  that  year  in  Vienna,  but 
contrived  to  escape  to  London  and  Paris.  In  1849  he  published 
Reimclironik  des  Pfaffen  Mauritius,  a  satirical  political  poem  in 
the  style  of  Heine.  During  the  Crimean  War  (1854-56)  Hart- 
mann was  correspondent  of  the  Kolnische  Zeitung,  settled  in 
1860  in  Geneva  as  a  teacher  of  German  literature  and  history, 
became  in  1865  editor  of  the  Frcya  in  Stuttgart  and  in  1868  a 
member  of  the  staff  of  the  Neue  Freie  Presse  in  Vienna.  He 
died  at  Oberdobling  near  Vienna  on  the  i3th  of  May  1872. 

Among  Hartmann's  numerous  works  may  be  especially 
mentioned  Der  Krieg  urn  den  Wald  (1850),  a  novel,  the  scene  of 
which  is  laid  in  Bohemia;  Tagebuch  aus  Languedoc  und  Provence 
(1852);  Erzahlungen  eines  Unstelen  (1858);  and  Die  lelzlen  Tage 
eines  Kdnigs  (1867).  His  idyll,  Adam  und  Eva  (1851),  and  his 
collection  of  poetical  tales,  Schatten  (1851),  show  that  the  author 
possessed  but  little  talent  for  epic  narrative.  Hartmann's 
poems  are  often  lacking  in  genuine  poetical  feeling,  but  the  love 
of  liberty  which  inspired  them,  and  the  fervour,  ease  and  clear- 
ness of  their  style  compensated  for  these  shortcomings  and 
gained  for  him  a  wide  circle  of  admirers. 

His  Gesammelte  Werke  were  published  in  10  vols.  in  1873-1874, 
and  a  selection  of  his  Gedichte  in  the  latter  year.  The  first  two 
volumes  of  a  new  edition  of  his  works  contain  a  biography  of  Hart- 
mann by  O.  Wittner.  See  also  E.  Ziel,  "  Moritz  Hartmann  "  (in 
Unsere  Zeit,  1872);  A.  Marchand,  Les  Poetes  lyriques  de  I'Autriche 
(1892) ;  Brandes,  Dasjunge  Deutschland  (Charlottenburg,  1899). 


HARTMANN  VON  AUE— HARUSPICES 


37 


HARTMANN  VON  AUE  (c.  ii^o-c.  1210),  one  of  the  chief 
Middle  High  German  poets.  He  belonged  to  the  lower  nobility 
of  Swabia,  where  he  was  born  about  1170.  After  receiving  a 
monastic  education,  he  became  retainer  (dienstman)  of  a  noble- 
man whose  domain,  Aue,  has  been  identified  with  Obernau 
on  the  Neckar.  He  also  took  part  in  the  Crusade  of  1196-97. 
The  date  of  his  death  is  as  uncertain  as  that  of  his  birth;  he 
is  mentioned  by  Gottfried  von  Strassburg  (c.  1210)  as  still  alive, 
and  in  the  Krone  of  Heinrich  von  dem  Tiirlin,  written  about  1220, 
he  is  mourned  for  as  dead.  Hartmann  was  the  author  of  four 
narrative  poems  which  are  of  importance  for  the  evolution  of 
the  Middle  High  German  court  epic.  The  oldest  of  these,  Erec, 
which  may  have  been  written  as  early  as  1191  or  1192,  and  the 
latest  and  ripest,  Iwein,  belong  to  the  Arthurian  cycle  and  are 
based  on  epics  by  Chretien  de  Troyes  (q.v.)  ;  between  them  lie 
the  romance,  Gregorius,  also  an  adaptation  of  a  French  epic,  and 
Der  arme  Heinrich,  one  of  the  most  charming  specimens  of 
medieval  German  poetry.  The  theme  of  the  latter  —  the  cure 
of  the  leper,  Heinrich,  by  a  young  girl  who  is  willing  to  sacrifice 
her  life  for  him  —  Hartmann  had  evidently  found  in  the  annals  of 
the  family  in  whose  service  he  stood.  Hartmann's  most  con- 
spicuous merit  as  a  poet  lies  in  his  style;  his  language  is  care- 
fully chosen,  his  narrative  lucid,  flowing  and  characterized  by  a 
sense  of  balance  and  proportion  which  is  rarely  to  be  found  in 
German  medieval  poetry.  Gregorius,  Der  arme  Heinrick  and  his 
lyrics,  which  are  all  fervidly  religious  in  tone,  imply  a  tendency 
towards  asceticism,  but,  on  the  whole,  Hartmann's  striving 
seems  rather  to  have  been  to  reconcile  the  extremes  of  life;  to 
establish  a  middle  way  of  human  conduct  between  the  worldly 
pursuits  of  knighthood  and  the  ascetic  ideals  of  medieval  religion. 

Erec  has  been  edited  by  M.  Haupt  (2nd  ed.,  Leipzig,  1871); 
Gregorius,  by  H.  Paul  (2nd  ed.,  Halle,  1900);  Der  arme  Heinrich, 
by  W.  Wackernagel  and  W.  Toischer  (Basel,  1885)  and  by  H. 
Paul  (2nd  ed.,  Halle,  1893);  by  J.  G.  Robertson  (London,  1895), 
with  English  notes;  Iwein,  by  G.  F.  Benecke  and  K.  Lach- 
mann  (4th  ed.,  Berlin,  1877)  and  E.  Henrici  (Halle,  1891-1893). 
A  convenient  edition  of  all  Hartmann's  poems  by  F.  Bech, 
3  vols.  (3rd  ed.,  Leipzig,  1891-1893,  vol.  3  in  4th  ed.,  1902). 

The  literature  on  Hartmann  is  extensive.  See  especially  L. 
Schmid.  Des  Minnesingers  Hartmann  von  Aue  Stand,  Heimat  und 
Ceschlecht  (Tubingen,  1874);  H.  Rotteken,  Die  epische  Kunst 
Heinrichs  von  Veldeke  und  Hartmanns  von  Aue  (Halle,  1887);  F. 
Saran,  Hartmann  von  Aue  als  Lyriker  (Halle,  1889)  ;  A.  E.  Schonbach, 
(Jber  Hartmann  von  Aue  (Graz,  1894);  F.  Piquet,  Ittude  sur  Hart- 
mann d'Aue  (Paris,  1898).  Translations  have  been  made  into 
modern  German  of  all  Hartmann's  poems,  while  Der  arme  Heinrich 
has  repeatedly  attracted  the  attention  of  modern  poets,  both  English 
(Longfellow,  Rossetti)  and  German  (notably,  Gerhart  Hauptmann). 
See  H.  Tardel,  Der  arme  Heinrich  in  der  neueren  Dichtung  (Berlin, 


HARTSHORN,  SPIRITS  OF,  a  name  signifying  originally  the 
ammoniacal  liquor  obtained  by  the  distillation  of  horn  shavings, 
afterwards  applied  to  the  partially  purified  similar  products  of  the 
action  of  heat  on  nitrogenous  animal  matter  generally,  and  now 
popularly  used  to  designate  the  aqueous  solution  of  ammonia  (q.ti). 

HARTZENBUSCH,  JUAN  EUGENIO  (1806-1880),  Spanish 
dramatist,  was  born  at  Madrid  on  the  6th  of  September  1806. 
The  son  of  a  German  carpenter,  he  was  educated  for  the  priest- 
hood, but  he  had  no  religious  vocation  and,  on  leaving  school, 
followed  his  father's  trade  till  1830,  when  he  learned  shorthand 
and  joined  the  staff  of  the  Gaceta.  His  earliest  dramatic  essays 
were  translations  from  Moliere,  Voltaire  and  the  elder  Dumas; 
he  next  recast  old  Spanish  plays,  and  in  1837  produced  his  first 
original  play,  Los  Amantes  de  T  cruel,  the  subject  of  which  had 
been  used  by  Rey  de  Artieda,  Tirso  de  Molina  and  Perez  de 
Montalban.  Los  Amantes  de  Teruel  at  once  made  the  author's 
reputation,  which  was  scarcely  maintained  by  Dona  Mencia 
(1839)  and  Alfonso  el  Casto  (1841);  it  was  not  till  1845  that  he 
approached  his  former  success  with  La  Jura  en  Santa  Gadea. 
Hartzenbusch  was  chief  of  the  National  Library  from  1862  to 
1875,  and  was  an  indefatigable  —  though  not  very  judicious  — 
editor  of  many  national  classics.  Inferior  in  inspiration  to  other 
contemporary  Spanish  dramatists,  Hartzenbusch  excels  his 
rivals  in  versatility  and  in  conscientious  workmanship. 


HARUN  AL-RASHID  (763  or  766-809),  i.e.  "Harun  the 
Orthodox,"  the  fifth  of  the  'Abbasid  caliphs  of  Bagdad,  and  the 
second  son  of  the  third  caliph  Mahdi.  His  full  name  was  Harun 
ibn  Muhammad  ibn  'Abdallah  ibn  Muhammad  ibn  'Ali  ibn 
'Abdallah  ibn  'Abbas.  He  was  born  at  Rai  (Rhagae)  on  the  2oth 
of  March  A.D.  763,  according  to  some  accounts,  and  according 
to  others  on  the  isth  of  February  A.D.  766.  Harun  al-Rashld 
was  twenty-two  years  old  when  he  ascended  the  throne.  His 
father  Mahdi  just  before  his  death  conceived  the  idea  of 
superseding  his  elder  son  Musa  (afterwards  known  as  Hadi, 
the  fourth  caliph)  by  Harun.  But  on  Mahdi's  death  Harun 
gave  way  to  his  brother.  For  the  campaigns  in  which  he 
took  part  prior  to  his  accession  see  CALIPHATE,  section  C, 
The  Abbasids,  §§  3  and  4. 

Rashid  owed  his  succession  to  the  throne  to  the  prudence  and 
sagacity  of  Yahya  b.  Khalid  the  Barmecide,  his  secretary, 
whom  on  his  accession  he  appointed  his  lieutenant  and  grand 
vizier  (se.e  BARMECIDES).  Under  his  guidance  the  empire 
flourished  on  the  whole,  in  spite  of  several  revolts  in  the  provinces 
by  members  of  the  old  Alid  family.  Successful  wars  were  waged 
with  the  rulers  of  Byzantium  and  the  Khazars.  In  803,  however, 
Harun  became  suspicious  of  the  Barmecides,  whom  with  only 
a  single  exception  he  caused  to  be  executed.  Henceforward 
the  chief  power  was  exercised  by  Fadl  b.  Rabi',  who  had 
been  chamberlain  not  only  under  Harun  himself  but  under  his 
predecessors,  Mansur,  Madhi  and  Hadi.  In  the  later  years  of 
Harun's  reign  troubles  arose  in  the  eastern  parts  of  the  empire. 
These  troubles  assumed  proportions  so  serious  that  Harun 
himself  decided  to  go  to  Khorasan.  He  died,  however,  at  Tus 
in  March  809. 

The  reign  of  Harun  (see  CALIPHATE,  section  C,  §  5)  was  one  of 
the  most  brilliant  in  the  annals  of  the  caliphate,  in  spite  of 
losses  in  north-west  Africa  and  Transoxiana.  His  fame  spread 
to  the  West,  and  Charlemagne  and  he  exchanged  gifts  and  com- 
pliments as  masters  respectively  of  the  West  and  the  East.  No 
caliph  ever  gathered  round  him  so  great  a  number  of  learned  men, 
poets,  jurists,  grammarians,  cadis  and  scribes,  to  say  nothing  of 
the  wits  and  musicians  who  enjoyed  his  patronage.  Harun 
himself  was  a  scholar  and  poet,  and  was  well  versed  in  history, 
tradition  and  poetry.  He  possessed  taste  and  discernment, 
and  his  dignified  demeanour  is  extolled  by  the  historians.  In 
religion  he  was  extremely  strict;  he  prostrated  himself  a  hundred 
times  daily,  and  nine  or  ten  times  made  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca. 
At  the  same  time  he  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  great  administrator. 
He  seems  to  have  left  everything  to  his  viziers  Yahya  and  Fadl, 
to  the  former  of  whom  especially  was  due  the  prosperous  con- 
dition of  the  empire.  Harun  is  best  known  to  Western  readers 
as  the  hero  of  many  of  the  stories  in  the  Arabian  Nights;  and  in 
Arabic  literature  he  is  the  central  figure  of  numberless  anecdotes 
and  humorous  stories.  Of  his  incognito  walks  through  Bagdad, 
however,  the  authentic  histories  say  nothing.  His  Arabic 
biographers  are  unanimous  in  describing  him  as  noble  and 
generous,  but  there  is  little  doubt  that  he  was  in  fact  a  man  of 
little  force  of  character,  suspicious,  untrustworthy  and  on 
occasions  cruel. 

See  the  Arabic  histories  of  Ibn  al-Athir  and  Ibn  Khaldun.  Among 
modern  works  see  Sir  W.  Muir,  The  Caliphate  (London,  1891); 
R.  D.  Osborn,  Islam  under  the  Khalifs  of  Bagdad  (London,  1878); 
Gustav  Weil,  Geschichte  der  Chalifen  (Mannheim  and  Stuttgart, 
1846-1862);  G.  le  Strange,  Baghdad  during  the  Abbasid  Caliphate 
(Oxford,  1900);  A.  Miiller,  Der  Islam,  vol.  i.  (Berlin,  1885);  E.  H. 
Palmer,  The  Caliph  Haroun  Alraschid  (London,  1880);  J.  B.  Bury's 
edition  of  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  (London,  1898),  vol.  vi.  pp. 
34  foil. 

HARUSPICES,  or  ARUSPICES  (perhaps  "  entrail  observers," 
cf.  Skt.  hira,  Gr.  xopSy),  a  class  of  soothsayers  in  Rome.  Their 
art  (disciplina)  consisted  especially  in  deducing  the  will  of  the 
gods  from  the  appearance  presented  by  the  entrails  of  the  slain 
victim .  They  also  interpreted  all  portents  or  unusual  phenomena 
of  nature,  especially  thunder  and  lightning,  and  prescribed  the 
expiatory  ceremonies  after  such  events.  To  please  the  god,  the 
victim  must  be  without  spot  or  blemish,  and  the  practice  of  ob- 
serving whether  the  entrails  presented  any  abnormal  appearance, 


HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


and  thence  deducing  the  will  of  heaven,  was  also  very  im- 
portant in  Greek  religion.  This  art,  however,  appears  not  to 
have  been,  as  some  other  modes  of  ascertaining  the  will  of  the 
gods  undoubtedly  were,  of  genuine  Aryan  growth.  It  is  foreign 
to  the  Homeric  poems,  and  must  have  been  introduced  into 
Greece  after  their  composition.  In  like  manner,  as  the  Romans 
themselves  believed,  the  art  was  not  indigenous  in  Rome,  but 
derived  from  Etruria.1  The  Etruscans  were  said  to  have  learned 
it  from  a  being  named  Tages,  grandson  of  Jupiter,  who  had 
suddenly  sprung  from  the  ground  near  Tarquinii.  Instructions 
were  contained  in  certain  books  called  libr i  haruspicini,  fulgurates, 
rituales.  The  art  was  practised  in  Rome  chiefly  by  Etruscans, 
occasionally  by  native-born  Romans  who  had  studied  in  the 
priestly  schools  of  Etruria.  From  the  regal  period  to  the  end 
of  the  republic,  haruspices  were  summoned  from  Etruria  to  deal 
with  prodigies  not  mentioned  in  the  pontifical  and  Sibylline 
books,  and  the  Roman  priests  carried  out  their  instructions  as  to 
the  offering  necessary  to  appease  the  anger  of  the  deity  con- 
cerned. Though  the  art  was  of  great  importance  under  the  early 
republic,  it  never  became  a  part  of  the  state  religion.  In  this 
respect  the  haruspices  ranked  lower  than  the  augurs,  as  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  they  received  a  salary;  the  augurs  were  a  more 
ancient  and  purely  Roman  institution,  and  were  a  most  important 
element  in  the  political  organization  of  the  city.  In  later  times 
the  art  fell  into  disrepute,  and  the  saying  of  Cato  the  Censor  is  well 
known,  that  he  wondered  how  one  haruspex  could  look  another 
in  the  face  without  laughing  (Cic.  De  div.  ii.  24).  Under  the 
empire,  however,  we  hear  of  a  regular  collegium  of  sixty  haru- 
spices; and  Claudius  is  said  to  have  tried  to  restore  the  art  and 
put  it  under  the  control  of  the  pontifices.  This  collegium  con- 
tinued to  exist  till  the  time  of  Alaric. 

See  A.  Bouche'-Leclercq,  Hisloire  de  la  divination  dans_  I'antiquite 
(1879-1881);  Marquardt,  Romische  Staatsverwaltung,  iii.  (1885), 
pp.  410-415;  G.  Schmeisser,  Die  etruskische  Disciplin  vom  Bundes- 
genossenkriege  bis  zum  Untergang  des  Heidentums  (1881),  and 
Quaestionum  de  Etrusca  disciplina  particula  (1872);  P.  Clairin,  De 
haruspicibus  apud  Romanes  (1880).  Also  OMEN. 

HARVARD  UNIVERSITY,  the  oldest  of  American  educational 
institutions,  established  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts.  In  1636 
the  General  Court  of  the  colony  voted  £400  towards  "  a  schoale 
or  colledge,"  which  in  the  next  year  was  ordered  to  be  at  "  New 
Towne."  In  memory  of  the  English  university  where  many 
(probably  some  seventy)  of  the  leading  men  of  the  colony  had 
been  educated,  the  township  was  named  Cambridge  in  1638. 
In  the  same  year  John  Harvard  (1607-1638),  a  Puritan  minister 
lately  come  to  America,  a  bachelor  and  master  of  Emmanuel 
college,  Cambridge,  dying  in  Charlestown  (Mass.),  bequeathed 
to  the  wilderness  seminary  half  his  estate  (£780)  and  some  three 
hundred  books;  and  the  college,  until  then  unorganized,  was 
named  Harvard  College  (1639)  in  his  honour.  Its  history  is 
unbroken  from  1640,  and  its  first  commencement  was  held  in 
1642.  The  spirit  of  the  founders  is  beautifully  expressed  in  the 
words  of  a  contemporary  letter  which  are  carved  on  the  college 
gates:  "  After  God  had  carried  us  safe  to  New-England,  and  wee 
had  builded  our  houses,  provided  necessaries  for  our  liveli-hood, 
rear'd  convenient  places  for  Gods  worship,  and  setled  the  Civill 
Government;  One  of  the  next  things  we  longed  for,  and  looked 
after  was  to  advance  Learning,  and  perpetuate  it  to  Posterity; 
dreading  to  leave  an  illiterate  Ministry  to  the  Churches,  when  our 
present  Ministers  shall  lie  in  the  Dust."  The  college  charter  of 
1650  dedicated  it  to  "  the  advancement  of  all  good  literature, 
arts,  and  sciences,"  and  "  the  education  of  the  English  and  Indian 
youth  ...  in  knowledge  and  godly nes."  The  second  building 
(1654)  on  the  college  grounds  was  called  "  the  Indian  College." 
In  it  was  set  up  the  College  press,  which  since  1638  had  been  in  the 
president's  house,  and  here,  it  is  believed,  was  printed  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  (1661-1663)  by  John  Eliot  into  the  language 
of  the  natives,  with  primer,  catechisms,  grammars,  tracts,  &c. 
A  fair  number  of  Indians  were  students,  but  only  one,  Caleb 
Cheeshahteaumuck,  took  a  bachelor's  degree(i665).  By  generous 

1  The  statement  of  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  (ii.  22)  that  the 
haruspices  were  instituted  by  Romulus  is  due  to  his  confusing  them 
with  the  augurs. 


aid  received  from  abroad  for  this  special  object,  the  college  was 
greatly  helped  in  its  infancy. 

The  charter  of  1650  has  been  in  the  main,  and  uninterruptedly 
since  1707,  the  fundamental  source  of  authority  in  the  administra- 
tion of  the  university.  It  created  a  co-optating  corporation 
consisting  of  the  president,  treasurer  and  five  fellows,  who 
formally  initiate  administrative  measures,  control  the  college 
funds,  and  appoint  officers  of  instruction  and  government; 
subject,  however,  to  confirmation  by  the  Board  of  Overseers 
(established  in  1642),  which  has  a  revisory  power  over  all  acts 
of  the  corporation.  Circumstances  gradually  necessitated 
ordinary  government  by  the  resident  teachers;  and  to-day  the 
various  faculties,  elaborately  organized,  exercise  immediate 
government  and  discipline  over  all  the  students,  and  individually 
or  in  the  general  university  council  consider  questions  of  policy. 
The  Board  of  Overseers  was  at  first  jointly  representative  of 
state  and  church.  The  former,  as  founder  and  patron,  long 
regarded  Harvard  as  a  state  institution,  controlling  or  aiding 
it  through  the  legislature  and  the  overseers;  but  the  contro- 
versies and  embarrassments  incident  to  legislative  action  proved 
prejudicial  to  the  best  interests  of  the  college,  and  its  organic 
connexion  with  the  state  was  wholly  severed  in  1866.  Financial 
aid  and  practical  dependence  had  ceased  some  time  earlier; 
indeed,  from  the  very  beginning,  and  with  steadily  increasing 
preponderance,  Harvard  has  been  sustained  and  fostered  by 
private  munificence  rather  than  by  public  money.  The  last 
direct  subsidy  from  the  state  determined  in  1824,  although 
state  aid  was  afterwards  given  to  the  Agassiz  museum,  later 
united  with  the  university.  The  church  was  naturally  sponsor 
for  the  early  college.  The  changing  composition  of  its  Board 
of  Overseers  marked  its  liberation  first  from  clerical  and  later 
from  political  control;  since  1865  the  board  has  been  chosen 
by  the  alumni  (non-residents  of  Massachusetts  being  eligible 
since  1880),  who  therefore  really  control  the  university.  When 
the  state  ceased  to  repress  effectually  the  rife  speculation 
characteristic  of  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  in 
religion  as  in  politics,  and  in  America  as  in  England,  the  unity 
of  Puritanism  gave  way  to  a  variety  of  intense  sectarianisms, 
and  this,  as  also  the  incoming  of  Anglican  churchmen,  made 
the  old  faith  of  the  college  insecure.  President  Henry  Dunster 
(c.  1612-1659),  the  first  president,  was  censured  by  the 
magistrates  and  removed  from  office  for  questioning  infant 
baptism.  The  conservatives,  who  clung  to  pristine  and  undiluted 
Calvinism,  sought  to  intrench  themselves  in  Harvard,  especially 
in  the  Board  of  Overseers.  The  history  of  the  college  from  about 
1673  to  1725  was  exceedingly  troubled.  Increase  and  Cotton 
Mather,  forceful  but  bigoted,  were  the  bulwarks  of  reaction 
and  fomenters  of  discord.  One  episode  in  the  struggle  was  the 
foundation  and  encouragement  of  Yale  College  by  the  reaction- 
aries of  New  England  as  a  truer  "  school  of  the  prophets  " 
(Cotton  Mather  being  particularly  zealous  in  its  interests),  after 
they  had  failed  to  secure  control  of  the  government  of  Harvard. 
It  represented  conservative  secession.  In  1792  the  first  layman 
was  chosen  to  the  corporation;  in  1805  a  Unitarian  became 
professor  of  theology;  in  1843  the  board  of  overseers  was 
opened  to  clergymen  of  all  denominations;  in  1886  attendance 
on  prayers  by  the  students  ceased  to  be  compulsory.  Thus 
Harvard,  in  response  to  changing  ideas  and  conditions,  grew 
away  from  the  ideas  of  its  founders. 

Harvard,  her  alumni,  and  her  faculty  have-  been  very  closely 
connected  with  American  letters,  not  only  in  the  colonial  period, 
when  the  Mathers,  Samuel  Sewall  and  Thomas  Prince  were 
important  names,  or  in  the  revolutionary  and  early  national 
epoch  with  the  Adamses,  Fisher  Ames,  Joseph  Dennie  and 
Robert  Treat  Paine,  but  especially  in  the  second  third  of  the 
ipth  century,  when  the  great  New  England  movements  of 
Unitarianism  and  Transcendentalism  were  led  by  Harvard 
graduates.  In  1805  Henry  Ware  (1764-1845)  was  elected  the 
first  anti-Trinitarian  to  be  Hollis  professor  of  divinity,  and  this 
marked  Harvard's  close  connexion  with  Unitarianism,  in  the 
later  history  of  which  Ware,  his  son  Henry  (1794-1843),  and 
Andrews  Norton  (1786-1852)^1!  Harvard  alumni  and  professors, 


HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


39 


and  Joseph  Buckminster  (1751-1812)  and  William  Ellery 
Channing  were  leaders  of  the  conservative  Unitarians,  and 
Joseph  Stevens  Buckminster  (1784-1812),  James  Freeman 
Clarke,  and  Theodore  Parker  were  liberal  leaders.-  Of  the 
"  Transcendentalists,"  Emerson,  Francis  Henry  Hedge  (1805- 
1890),  Clarke,  Convers  Francis  (1795-1863),  Parker,  Thoreau 
and  Christopher  Pearse  Cranch  (1813-1892)  were  Harvard 
graduates.  Longfellow's  professorship  at  Harvard  identified 
him  with  it  rather  than  with  Bowdoin;  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes 
was  professor  of  anatomy  and  physiology  at  Harvard  in  1847- 
1882;  and  Lowell,  a  Harvard  alumnus,  was  Longfellow's 
successor  in  1855-1886  as  Smith  Professor  of  the  French  and 
Spanish  languages  and  literatures.  Ticknor  and  Charles  Eliot 
Norton  are  other  important  names  in  American  literary  criticism. 
The  historians  Sparks,  Bancroft,  Hildreth,  Palfrey,  Prescott, 
Motley  and  Parkman  were  graduates  of  Harvard,  as  were 
Edward  Everett,  Charles  Sumner  and  Wendell  Phillips. 

In  organization  and  scope  of  effort  Harvard  has  grown, 
especially  after  1869,  under  the  direction  of  President  Charles 
W.  Eliot,  to  be  in  the  highest  sense  a  university;  but  the 
"  college  "  proper,  whose  end  is  the  liberal  culture  of  under- 
graduates, continues  to  be  in  many  ways  the  centre  of  university 
life,  as  it  is  the  embodiment  of  university  traditions.  The 
medical  school  (in  Boston)  dates  from  1782,  the  law  school  from 
1817,  the  divinity  school 1  (though  instruction  in  theology  was  of 
course  given  from  the  foundation  of  the  college)  from  1819,  and 
the  dental  school  (in  Boston )  from  1867.  The  Bussey  Institution 
at  Jamaica  Plain  was  established  in  1871  as  an  undergraduate 
school  of  agriculture,  and  reorganized  in  1908  for  advanced 
instruction  and  research  in  subjects  relating  to  agriculture  and 
horticulture.  The  Graduate  School  of  Arts  and  Sciences  dates 
from  1872,  the  Graduate  School  of  Applied  Science  (growing 
out  of  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School)  from  1906,  and  the 
Graduate  School  of  Business  Administration  (which  applies  to 
commerce  the  professional  methods  used  in  post-graduate 
schools  of  medicine,  law,  &c.)  from  1908.  The  Lawrence 
Scientific  School,  established  in  1847,  was  practically  abolished 
in  1907-1908,  when  its  courses  were  divided  between  the  College 
(which  thereafter  granted  a  degree  of  S.B.)  and  the  Graduate 
School  of  Applied  Science,  which  was  established  in  1906  and 
gives  professional  degrees  in  civil,  mechanical  and  electrical 
engineering,  mining,  metallurgy,  architecture,  landscape  archi- 
tecture, forestry,  applied  physics,  applied  chemistry,  applied 
zoology  and  applied  geology.  A  school  of  veterinary  medicine, 
established  in  1882,  was  discontinued  in  1901.  The  university 
institutions  comprise  the  botanic  garden  (1807)  and  the  (Asa) 
Gray  herbarium  (1864);  the  Arnold  arboretum  (1872),  at 
Jamaica  Plain,  for  the  study  of  arboriculture,  forestry  and 
dendrology;  the  university  museum  of  natural  history,  founded 
in  1859  by  Louis  Agassiz  as  a  museum  of  comparative  zoology, 
enormously  developed  by  his  son,  Alexander  Agassiz,  and 
transferred  to  the  university  in  1876,  though  under  an  inde- 
pendent faculty;  the  Peabody  museum  of  American  archaeology 
and  ethnology,  founded  in  1866  by  George  Peabody;  the 
William  Hayes  Fogg  art  museum  (1895);  the  Semitic  museum 
(1889);  the  Germanic  Museum  (1902),  containing  rich  gifts 
from  Kaiser  Wilhelm  II.,  the  Swiss  government,  and  individuals 
and  societies  of  Germanic  lands;  the  social  museum  (1906); 
and  the  astronomical  observatory  (1843;  location  42°  22'  48"  N. 
lat.,  71°  8'  W.  long.),  which  since  1891  has  maintained  a  station 
near  Arequipa,  Peru.  A  permanent  summer  engineering  camp  is 
maintained  at  Squam  Lake,  New  Hampshire.  In  Petersham, 
Massachusetts,  is  the  Harvard  Forest,  about  2000  acres  of  hilly 
wooded  country  with  a  stand  in  1908  of  10,000,000  ft.  B.M.  of 
merchantable  timber  (mostly  white  pine) ;  this  forest  was  given 
to  the  university  in  1907,  and  is  an  important  part  of  the  equip- 
ment of  the  division  of  forestry.  The  university  library  is  the 
largest  college  library  in  the  country,  and  from  its  slow  and 
competent  selection  is  of  exceptional  value.  In  1 908  it  numbered, 

1  Affiliated  with  the  university,  but  autonomous  and  independent, 
is  the  Andovcr  Theological  Seminary,  which  in  1908  removed  from 
Andover  to  Cambridge. 


including  the  various  special  libraries,  803,800  bound  volumes, 
about  496,600  pamphlets,  and  27,450  maps.  Some  of  its  collec- 
tions are  of  great  value  from  associations  or  special  richness, 
such  as  Thomas  Carlyle's  collection  on  Cromwell  and  Frederick 
the  Great;  the  collection  on  folk-lore  and  medieval  romances, 
supposed  to  be  the  largest  in  existence  and  including  the  material 
used  by  Bishop  Percy  in  preparing  his  Reliques;  and  that  on  the 
Ottoman  empire.  The  law  library  has  been  described  by 
Professor  A.  V.  Dicey  of  Oxford  as  "  the  most  perfect  collection 
of  the  legal  records  of  the  English  people  to  be  found  in  any 
part  of  the  English-speaking  world."  There  are  department 
libraries  at  the  Arnold  arboretum,  the  Gray  herbarium,  the 
Bussey  Institution,  the  astronomical  observatory,  the  dental 
school,  the  medical  school,  the  law  school,  the  divinity  school, 
the  Peabody  museum,  and  the  museum  of  comparative  zoology. 
In  1878  the  library  published  the  first  of  a  valuable  series  of 
Bibliographical  Contributions.  Other  publications  of  the  univer- 
sity (apart  from  annual  reports  of  various  departments)  are: 
the  Harvard  Oriental  Series  (started  1891),  Harvard  Studies  in 
Classical  Philology  (1890),  Harvard  Theological  Review  (1907), 
the  Harvard  Law  Review  (1889),  Harvard  Historical  Studies 
(1897),  Harvard  Economic  Studies  (1906),  Harvard  Psychological 
Studies  (1903),  the  Harvard  Engineering  Journal  (1902),  the 
Bulletin  (1874)  of  the  Bussey  Institution,  the  Archaeological 
and  Ethnological  Papers  (1888)  of  the  Peabody  museum,  and  the 
Bulletin  (-1863),  Contributions  and  M emoirs  (1865)  of  the  museum 
of  comparative  zoology.  The  students'  publications  include  the 
Crimson  (1873),  a  daily  newspaper;  the  Advocate  (1831),  a 
literary  bi-weekly;  the  Lampoon  (1876),  a  comic  bi-weekly; 
and  the  Harvard  Monthly  (1885),  a  literary  monthly.  The 
Harvard  Bulletin,  a  weekly,  and  the  Harvard  Graduates'  Magazine 
(1892),  a  quarterly,  are  published  chiefly  for  the  alumni. 

In  1908-1909  there  were  743  officers  of  instruction  and  ad- 
ministration (including  those  for  Radcliffe)  and  5250  students 
(1059  in  1869),  the  latter  including  2238  in  the  college,  1641  in 
the  graduate  and  professional  schools,  and  1332  in  the  summer 
school.  Radcliffe  College,  for  women,  had  449  additional 
students.  The  whole  number  of  degrees  conferred  up  to  1905 
was  31,805  (doctors  of  science  and  of  philosophy  by  examination, 
408;  masters  of  arts  and  of  science  by  examination,  1759).  The 
conditions  of  the  time  when  Harvard  was  a  theological  seminary 
for  boys,  governed  like  a  higher  boarding  school,  have  left  traces 
still  discernible  in  the  organization  and  discipline,  though  no 
longer  in  the  aims  of  the  college.  The  average  age  of  students 
at  entrance,  only  14  years  so  late  as  1820,  had  risen  by  1890  to 
19  years,  making  possible  the  transition  to  the  present  regime 
of  almost  entire  liberty  of  life  and  studies  without  detriment, 
but  with  positive  improvement,  to  the  morals  of  the  student 
body.  A  strong  development  toward  the  university  ideal 
marked  the  opening  of  the  igth  century,  especially  in  the  widen- 
ing of  courses,  the  betterment  of  instruction,  and  the  suggestions 
of  quickening  ideas  of  university  freedom,  whose  realization, 
along  with  others,  has  come  since  1870.  The  elimination  of  the 
last  vestiges  of  sectarianism  and  churchly  discipline,  a  lessening 
of  parietal  oversight,  a  lopping  off  of  various  outgrown  colonial 
customs,  a  complete  reconstruction  of  professional  standards 
and  methods,  the  development  of  a  great  graduate  school  in 
arts  and  sciences  based  on  and  organically  connected  with  the 
undergraduate  college,  a  great  improvement  in  the  college 
standard  of  scholarship,  the  allowance  of  almost  absolute 
freedom  to  students  in  the  shaping  of  their  college  course  (the 
"  elective  "  system),  and  very  remarkable  material  prosperity 
marked  the  administration  (1869-1909)  of  President  Eliot.  In 
the  readjustment  in  the  curricula  of  American  colleges  of  the 
elements  of  professional  training  and  liberal  culture  Harvard 
has  been  bold  in  experiment  and  innovation.  With  Johns 
Hopkins  University  she  has  led  the  movement  that  has  trans- 
formed university  education,  and  her  influence  upon  secondary 
education  in  America  has  been  incomparably  greater  than  that 
of  any  other  university.  Her  entrance  requirements  to  the 
college  and  to  the  schools  of  medicine,  law,  dentistry  and  divinity 
have  been  higher  than  those  of  any  other  American  university. 


HARVEST 


A  bachelor's  degree  is  requisite  for  entrance  to  the  professional 
schools  (except  that  of  dentistry),  and  the  master's  degree  (since 
•1872)  is  given  to  students  only  for  graduate  work  in  residence, 
and  rarely  to  other  persons  as  an  honorary  degree.  In  scholarship 
and  in  growth  of  academic  freedom  Germany  has  given  the 
quickening  impulse.  This  influence  began  with  George  Ticknor 
and  Edward  Everett,  who  were  trained  in  Germany,  and  was 
continued  by  a  number  of  eminent  German  scholars,  some  driven 
into  exile  for  their  liberalism,  who  became  professors  in  the 
second  half  of  the  ipth  century,  and  above  all  by  the  many 
members  of  the  faculty  still  later  trained  in  German  universities. 
The  ideas  of  recognizing  special  students  and  introducing  the 
elective  system  were  suggested  in  1824,  attaining  establishment 
even  for  freshmen  by  1885,  the  movement  characterizing  particu- 
larly the  years  1865-1885.  The  basis  of  the  elective  system  (as 
in  force  in  1910)  is  freedom  in  choice  of  studies  within  liberal 
limits;  and,  as  regards  admission  to  college1  (completely 
established  1891),  the  idea  that  the  admission  is  of  minds  for  the 
quality  of  their  training  and  not  for  their  knowledge  of  particular 
subjects,  and  that  any  subject  may  be  acceptable  for  such 
training  if  followed  with  requisite  devotion  and  under  proper 
methods.  Except  for  one  course  in  English  in  the  Freshman 
year,  and  one  course  in  French  or  German  for  those  who  do  not 
on  entrance  present  both  of  these  languages,  no  study  is  pre- 
scribed, but  the  student  is  compelled  to  select  a  certain  number 
of  courses  in  some  one  department  or  field  of  learning,  and  to 
distribute  the  remainder  among  other  departments,  the  object 
being  to  secure  a  systematic  education,  based  on  the  principle  of 
knowing  a  little  of  everything  and  something  well. 

The  material  equipment  of  Harvard  is  very  rich.  In  1909  it 
included  invested  funds  of  $22,716,760  ($2,257,990  in  1869) 
and  lands  and  buildings  valued  at  $i  2,000,000  at  least.  In  1908- 
1909  an  income  of  more  than  $130,000  was  distributed  in 
scholarships,  fellowships,  prizes  and  other  aids  to  students.  The 
yearly  income  available  for  immediate  use  from  all  sources  in 
1899-1904  averaged  $1,074,229,  of  which  $452,760  yearly 
represented  gifts.  The  total  gifts,  for  funds  and  for  current  use, 
in  the  same  years  aggregated  $6,152,988.  The  income  in  1907- 
1908  was  $1,846,976;  $241,924  was  given  for  immediate  use, 
and  $449,822  was  given  for  capital.  The  medical  school  is  well 
endowed  and  is  housed  in  buildings  (1906)  on  Longwood  Avenue, 
Boston;  the  gifts  for  its  buildings  and  endowments  made  in 
1901-1902  aggregate  $5,000,000.  Among  the  university  buildings 
are  two  dining-halls  accommodating  some  2500  students,  a 
theatre  for  public  ceremonies,  a  chapel,  a  home  for  religious 
societies,  a  club-home  (the  Harvard  Union)  for  graduates  and 
undergraduates,  an  infirmary,  gymnasium,  boat  houses  and  large 
playgrounds,  with  a  concrete  stadium  capable  of  seating  27,000 
spectators.  Massachusetts  Hall  (1720)  is  the  oldest  building. 
University  Hall  (1815),  the  administration  building,  dignified, 
of  excellent  proportions  and  simple  lines,  is  a  good  example 
of  the  work  of  Charles  Bulfinch.  Memorial  Hall  (1874),  an 
ambitious  building  of  cathedral  suggestion,  commemorates  the 
Harvard  men  who  fell  in  the  Civil  War,  and  near  it  is  an  ideal 
statue  (1884)  of  John  Harvard  by  Daniel  C.  French.  The 
medical  and  dental  schools  are  in  Boston,  and  the  Bussey 
Institution  and  Arnold  Arboretum  are  at  Jamaica  Plain. 

RADCLIFFE  COLLEGE,  essentially  a  part  of  Harvard,  dates 
from  the  beginning  of  systematic  instruction  of  women  by 
members  of  the  Harvard  faculty  in  1879,  the  Society  for  the 
Collegiate  Instruction  of  Women  being  formally  organized  in 
1882.  The  present  name  was  adopted  in  1894  in  honour  of  Ann 

1  The  requirements  for  admission  as  changed  in  1908  are  based 
on  the  "  unit  system  ";  satisfactory  marks  must  be  got  in  subjects 
aggregating  26  units,  the  unit  being  a  measure  of  preparatory  study. 
Of  these  26  units,  English  (4  units),  algebra  (2),  plane  geometry  (2), 
some  science  or  sciences  (2),  history  (2;  either  Greek  and  Roman, 
or  American  and  English),  a  modern  language  (2;  French  and 
German)  are  prescribed ;  prospective  candidates  for  the  degree  of 
A.B.  are  required  to  take  examinations  for  4  additional  units  in 
Greek  or  Latin,  and  for  the  other  8  points  have  large  range  of  choice; 
and  candidates  for  the  degree  of  S.B.  must  take  additional  examina- 
tions in  French  or  German  (2  units)  and  have  a  similar  freedom  of 
choice  in  making  up  the  remaining  10  units. 


Radcliffe,  Lady  Mowlson  (ob.  c.  1661),  widow  of  Sir  Thomas 
Mowlson,  alderman  and  (1634)  lord  mayor  of  London,  who  in 
1643  founded  the  first  scholarship  in  Harvard  College.  From 
1894  alsa  dates  the  present  official  connexion  of  Radcliffe  with 
Harvard.  The  requirements  for  admission  and  for  degrees  are  the 
same  as  in  Harvard  (whose  president  countersigns  all  diplomas), 
and  the  president  and  fellows  of  Harvard  control  absolutely  the 
administration  of  the  college,  although  it  has  for  immediate  ad- 
ministration a  separate  government.  Instruction  is  given  by 
members  of  the  university  teaching  force,  who  repeat  in  Rad- 
cliffe many  of  the  Harvard  courses.  Many  advanced  courses  in 
Harvard,  and  to  a  certain  extent  laboratory  facilities,  are  directly 
accessible  to  Radcliffe  students,  and  they  have  unrestricted 
access  to  the  library. 

The  presidents  of  Harvard  have  been:  Henry  Dunster  (1640- 
1654);  Charles  Chauncy  (1654-1672);  Leonard  Hoar  (1672- 
1675);  Urian  Oakes  (1675-1681);  John  Rogers  (1682-1684); 
Increase  Mather  (1685-1701);  Charles  Morton  (vice-president) 
(1697-1698);  Samuel  Willard  (1700-1707);  John  Leverett  (1708- 
1724);  Benjamin  Wadsworth  (1725-1737);  Edward  Holyoke 
(1737-1769);  Samuel  Locke  (1770-1773);  Samuel  Langdon 
(1774-1780);  Joseph  Willard  (1781-1804);  Samuel  Webber 
(1806-1810);  John  Thornton  Kirkland  (1810-1828);  Josiah 
Quincy  (1829-1845);  Edward  Everett  (1846-1849);  Jared 
Sparks  (1849-1853);  James  Walker  (1853-1860);  Cornelius 
Conway  Felton  (1860-1862);  Thomas  Hill  (1862-1868);  Charles 
William  Eliot  (1869-1909);  Abbott  Lawrence  Lowell  (appointed 
1909). 

AUTHORITIES. — Benjamin  Peirce,  A  History  of  Harvard  University 
1636-1775  (Boston,  1883);  Josiah  Quincy,  A  History  of  Harvard 
University  (2  vols.,  Boston,  1840) ;  Samuel  A.  Eliot,  Harvard  College 
and  its  Benefactors  (Boston,  1848);  H.  C.  Shelley,  John  Harvard 
and  his  Times  (Boston,  1907) ;  The  Harvard  Book  (2  vols.,  Cambridge, 
1874) ;  G.  Birkbeck  Hill,  Harvard  College,  by  an  Oxonian  (New  York, 
1894);  William  R.  Thayer,  "History  and  Customs  of  Harvard 
University,"  in  Universities  and  their  Sons,  vol.  i.  (Boston,  1898) ; 
Official  Guide  to  Harvard,  and  the  various  other  publications  of  the 
university;  also  the  Harvard  Graduates'  Magazine  (1892  sqq.). 

HARVEST  (A.S.  harfest  "autumn,"  O.K.  Ger.  herbist, 
possibly  through  an  old  Teutonic  root  representing  Lat.  carpere, 
' '  to  pluck  ") ,  the  season  of  the  ingathering  of  crops.  Harvest  has 
been  a  season  of  rejoicing  from  the  remotest  ages.  The  ancient 
Jews  celebrated  the  Feast  of  Pentecost  as  their  harvest  festival, 
the  wheat  ripening  earlier  in  Palestine.  The  Romans  had  their 
Cerealia  or  feasts  in  honour  of  Ceres.  The  Druids  celebrated 
their  harvest  on  the  ist  of  November.  In  pre-reformation 
England  Lammas  Day  (Aug.  ist,  O.S.)  was  observed  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  harvest  festival,  every  member  of  the  church 
presenting  a  loaf  made  of  new  wheat.  Throughout  the  world 
harvest  has  always  been  the  occasion  for  many  queer  customs 
which  all  have  their  origin  in  the  animistic  belief  in  the  Corn- 
Spirit  or  Corn-Mother.  This  personification  of  the  crops  has  left 
its  impress  upon  the  harvest  customs  of  modern  Europe.  In 
west  Russia,  for  example,  the  figure  made  out  of  the  last  sheaf  of 
corn  is  called  the  Bastard,  and  a  boy  is  wrapped  up  in  it.  The 
woman  who  binds  this  sheaf  represents  the  "  Cornmother,"  and 
an  elaborate  simulation  of  childbirth  takes  place,  the  boy  in  the 
sheaf  squalling  like  a  new-born  child,  and  being,  on  his  liberation, 
wrapped  in  swaddling  bands.  Even  in  England  vestiges  of 
sympathetic  magic  can  be  detected.  In  Northumberland,  where 
the  harvest  rejoicing  takes  place  at  the  close  of  the  reaping  and 
not  at  the  ingathering,  as  soon  as  the  last  sheaf  is  set  on  end 
the  reapers  shout  that  they  have  "  got  the  kern."  An  image 
formed  of  a  wheatsheaf,  and  dressed  in  a  white  frock  and 
coloured  ribbons,  is  hoisted  on  a  pole.  This  is  the  "  kern-baby  " 
or  harvest-queen,  and  it  is  carried  back  in  triumph  with  music 
and  shouting  and  set  up  in  a  prominent  place  during  the  harvest 
supper.  In  Scotland  the  last  sheaf  if  cut  before  Hallowmas  is 
called  the  "  maiden,"  and  the  youngest  girl  in  the  harvest-field 
is  given  the  privilege  of  cutting  it.  If  the  reaping  finishes  after 
Hallowmas  the  last  corn  cut  is  called  the  Cailleach  (old  woman). 
In  some  parts  of  Scotland  this  last  sheaf  is  kept  till  Christmas 
morning  and  then  divided  among  the  cattle  "  to  make  them 


HARVEST-BUG—HARVEY 


thrive  all  the  year  round,"  or  is  kept  till  the  first  mare  foals  and 
is  then  given  to  her  as  her  first  food.  Throughout  the  world,  as 
J.  G.  Frazer  shows,  the  semi-worship  of  the  last  sheaf  is  or  has 
been  the  great  feature  of  the  harvest-home.  Among  harvest 
customs  none  is  more  interesting  than  harvest  cries.  The  cry 
of  the  Egyptian  reapers  announcing  the  death  of  the  corn-spirit, 
the  rustic  prototype  of  Osiris,  has  found  its  echo  on  the  world's 
harvest-fields,  and  to  this  day,  to  take  an  English  example,  the 
Devonshire  reapers  utter  cries  of  the  same  sort  and  go  through 
a  ceremony  which  in  its  main  features  is  an  exact  counterpart  of 
pagan  worship.  "  After  the  wheat  is  cut  they  '  cry  the  neck.' 
.  .  .  An  old  man  goes  round  to  the  shocks  and  picks  out  a  bundle 
of  the  best  ears  he  can  find.  .  .  this  bundle  is  called  '  the  neck  '; 
the  harvest  hands  then  stand  round  in  a  ring,  the  old  man  holding 
'  the  neck  '  in  the  centre.  At  a  signal  from  him  they  take  off 
their  hats,  stooping  and  holding  them  with  both  hands  towards 
the  ground.  Then  all  together  they  utter  in  a  prolonged  cry  '  the 
neck! '  three  times,  raising  themselves  upright  with  their  hats 
held  above  their  heads.  Then  they  change  their  cry  to  '  Wee 
yen!  way  yen! '  or,  as  some  report, '  we  haven!'  "  On  a  fine  still 
autumn  evening  "  crying  the  neck  "  has  a  wonderful  effect  at 
a  distance.  In  East  Anglia  there  still  survives  the  custom  known 
as  "  Hallering  Largess."  The  harvesters  beg  largess  from 
passers,  and  when  they  have  received  money  they  shout  thrice 
"  Halloo,  largess,"  having  first  formed  a  circle,  bowed  their  heads 
low  crying  "  Hoo-Hoo-Hoo,"  and  then  jerked  their  heads  back- 
wards and  uttered  a  shrill  shriek  of  "  Ah  !  Ah  !  " 

For  a  very  full  discussion  of  harvest  customs  see  J.  G.  Frazer, 
The  Golden  Bough,  and  Brand's  Antiquities  of  Great  Britain  (Hazlitt's 
edit.,  1905). 

HARVEST-BUG,  the  familiar  name  for  mites  of  the  family 
Trombidiidae,  belonging  to  the  order  Acari  of  the  class  Arachnida. 
Although  at  one  time  regarded  as  constituting  a  distinct  species, 
described  as  Leptus  aulumnalis,  harvest-bugs  are  now  known  to 
be  the  six-legged  larval  forms  of  several  British  species  of  mites 
of  the  genus  Trombidium,  They  are  minute,  rusty-brown 
organisms,  barely  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  which  swarm  in  grass 
and  low  herbage  in  the  summer  and  early  autumn,  and  cause 
considerable,  sometimes  intense,  irritation  by  piercing  and 
adhering  to  the  skin  of  the  leg,  usually  lodging  themselves  in 
some  part  where  the  clothing  is  tight,  such  as  the  knee  when 
covered  with  gartered  stockings.  They  may  be  readily  destroyed, 
and  the  irritation  allayed,  by  rubbing  the  affected  area  with  some 
insecticide  like  turpentine  or  benzine.  They  are  not  permanently 
parasitic,  and  if  left  alone  will  leave  their  temporary  host  to 
resume  the  active  life  characteristic  of  the  adult  mite,  which  is 
predatory  in  habits,  preying  upon  minute  living  animal 
organisms. 

HARVESTER,  HARVEST-SPIDER,  or  HARVEST-MAN,  names 
given  to  Arachnids  of  the  order  Opiliones,  referable  to  various 
species  of  the  family  Phalangiidae.  Harvest-spiders  or  harvest- 
men,  so-called  on  account  of  their  abundance  in  the  late  summer 
and  early  autumn,  may  be  at  once  distinguished  from  all  true 
spiders  by  the  extreme  length  and  thinness  of  their  legs,  and  by 
the  small  size  and  spherical  or  oval  shape  of  the  body,  which  is  not 
divided  by  a  waist  or  constriclion  into  an  anterior  and  a  posterior 
region.  They  may  be  met  with  in  houses,  back  yards,  fields, 
woods  and  heaths;  either  climbing  on  walls,  running  over  the 
grass,  or  lurking  under  stones  and  fallen  tree  trunks.  They  are 
predaceous,  feeding  upon  small  insects,  mites  and  spiders.  The 
males  are  smaller  than  the  females,  and  often  differ  from  them  in 
certain  well-marked  secondary  sexual  characters,  such  as  the 
mandibular  protuberance  from  which  one  of  the  common  English 
spiders,  Phalangium  cormitum,  takes  its  scientific  name.  The 
male  is  also  furnished  with  a  long  and  protrusible  penis,  and  the 
female  with  an  equally  long  and  protrusible  ovipositor.  The 
sexes  pair  in  the  autumn,  and  the  female,  by  means  of  her 
ovipositor,  lays  her  eggs  in  some  cleft  or  hole  in  the  soil  and 
leaves  them  to  their  fate.  After  breeding,  the  parents  die  with 
the  autumn  cold;  but  the  eggs  retain  their  vitality  through  the 
winter  and  hatch  with  the  warmth  of  spring  and  early  summer, 
the  young  gradually  attaining  maturity  as  the  latter  season 


progresses.  Hence  the  prevalence  of  adult  individuals  in  the  late 
summer  and  autumn,  and  at  no  other  time  of  the  year.  They 
are  provided  with  a  pair  of  glands,  situated  one  on  each  side  of 
the  carapace,  which  secrete  an  evil-smelling  fluid  believed  to  be 
protective  in  nature.  Harvest-men  are  very  widely  distributed 
and  are  especially  abundant  in  temperate  countries  of  the 


FIG.  i. — Harvest-man  (Phalangium  cprnutum,  Linn.);  profile  of 
male,  with  legs  and  palpi  truncated. 

a,  Ocular  tubercle.  d,  Sheath  of  penis  protruded. 

b,  Mandible  e.  Penis. 

c,  Labrum  (upper  lip).          /,  The  glans. 

northern  hemisphere.  They  are  also,  however,  common  in  India, 
where  they  are  well  known  for  their  habit  of  adhering  together 
in  great  masses,  comparable  to  a  swarm  of  bees,  and  of  swaying 
gently  backwards  and  forwards.  The  long  legs  of  harvest-men 
serve  them  not  only  as  organs  of  rapid  locomotion,  but  also  as 
props  to  raise  the  body  well  off  the  ground,  thus  enabling  the 
animals  to  stalk  unmolested  from  the  midst  of  an  army  of  raiding 
ants.  (R.  I.  P.) 

HARVEY,  GABRIEL  (c.  1545-1630),  English  writer,  eldest  son 
of  a  ropemaker  of  Saffron- Walden,  Essex,  was  born  about  1545. 
He  matriculated  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  in  1566,  and  in 
1570  was  elected  fellow  of  Pembroke  Hall.  Here  he  formed  a 
lasting  friendship  with  Edmund  Spenser,  and  it  has  been  sug- 
gested (A then.  Cantab,  ii.  258)  that  he  may  have  been  the  poet's 
tutor.  Harvey  was  a  scholar  of  considerable  weight,  who  has 
perhaps  been  judged  too  exclusively  from  the  brilliant  invectives 
directed  against  him  by  Thomas  Nashe.  Henry  Morley,  writing 
in  the  Fortnightly  Review  (March  1869),  brought  evidence  from 
Harvey's  Latin  writings  which  shows  that  he  was  distinguished 
by  quite  other  qualities  than  the  pedantry  and  conceit  usually 
associated  with  his  name.  He  desired  to  be  "  epitaphed  as  the 
Inventour  of  the  English  Hexameter,"  and  was  the  prime  mover 
in  the  literary  clique  that  desired  to  impose  on  English  verse  the 
Latin  rules  of  quantity.  In  a  "  gallant,  familiar  letter  "  to  M. 
Immerito  (Edmund  Spenser)  he  says  that  Sir  Edward  Dyer  and 
Sir  Philip  Sidney  were  helping  forward  "  our  new  famous  enter- 
prise for  the  exchanging  of  Barbarous  and  Balductum  Rymes 
with  Artificial  Verses."  The  document  includes  a  tepid  apprecia- 
tion of  the  Faerie  Queene  which  had  been  sent  to  him  for  his 
opinion,  and  he  gives  examples  of  English  hexameters  illustrative 
of  the  principles  enunciated  in  the  correspondence.  The  opening 
lines — 
"  What  might  I  call  this  Tree  ?  A  Laurell  ?  O  bonny  Laurell 

Needes  to  thy  bowes  will  I  bow  this  knee,  and  vayle  my  bonetto  " — 

afford  a  fair  sample  of  the  success  of  Harvey's  metrical  experi- 
ments, which  presented  a  fair  mark  for  the  wit  of  Thomas  Nashe. 
"  He  (Harvey)  goes  twitching  and  hopping  in  our  language  like 
a  man  running  upon  quagmires,  up  the  hill  in  one  syllable,  and 
down  the  dale  in  another,"  says  Nashe  in  Strange  Newes,  and  he 
mimics  him  in  the  mocking  couplet: 

"  But  eh  !  what  news  do  you  hear  of  that  good  Gabriel  Huffe-Snuffe, 
Known  to  the  world  for  a  foole,  and  clapt  in  the  Fleete  for  a 

Runner  ?  " 

Harvey  exercised  great  influence  over  Spenser  for  a  short  time, 
and  the  friendship  lasted  even  though  Spenser's  genius  refused 


HARVEY,  SIR  G.— HARVEY,  WILLIAM 


42 

to  be  bound  by  the  laws  of  the  new  prosody.  Harvey  is  the 
Hobbinoll  of  his  friend's  Shepheards  Calender,  and  into  his  mouth 
is  put  the  beautiful  song  in  the  fourth  eclogue  in  praise  of  Eliza. 
If  he  was  really  the  author  of  the  verses  "  To  the  Learned 
Shepheard  "  signed  "  Hobynoll  "  and  prefixed  to  the  Faerie 
Queene,  he  was  a  good  poet  spoiled.  But  Harvey's  genuine 
friendship  for  Spenser  shows  the  best  side  of  a  disposition  un- 
compromising and  quarrelsome  towards  the  world  in  general. 
In  1573  ill-will  against  him  in  his  college  was  so  strong  that  there 
was  a  delay  of  three  months  before  the  fellows  would  agree  to 
grant  him  the  necessary  grace  for  his  M.A.  degree.  He  be- 
came reader  in  rhetoric  aboat  1576,  and  in  1378,  on  the  occasion 
of  Queen  Elizabeth's  visit  to  Sir  Thomas  Smith  at  Audley  End, 
he  was  appointed  to  dispute  publicly  before  her.  In  the  next 
year  he  wrote  to  Spenser  complaining  of  the  unauthorized  publi- 
cation of  satirical  verses  of  his  which  were  supposed  to  reflect  on 
high  personages,  and  threatened  seriously  to  injure  Harvey;s 
career.  In  1583  he  became  junior  proctor  of  the  university,  and 
in  1 585  he  was  elected  master  of  Trinity  Hall,  of  which  he  had 
been  a  fellow  from  1578,  but  the  appointment  appears  to  have 
been  quashed  at  court.  He  was  a  protege  of  the  Earl  of  Leicester, 
to  whom  he  introduced  Spenser,  and  this  connexion  may  account 
for  his  friendship  with  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  But  in  spite  of  patron- 
age, a  second  application  for  the  mastership  of  Trinity  Hall 
failed  in  1598.  In  1585  he  received  the  degree  of  D.C.L.  from 
the  university  of  Oxford,  and  is  found  practising  at  the  bar  in 
London.  Gabriel's  brother,  Richard,  had  taken  part  in  the 
Marprelate  controversy,  and  had  given  offence  to  Robert  Greene 
by  contemptuous  references  to  him  and  his  fellow  wits.  Greene 
retorted  in  his  Quip  for  an  Upstart  Courtier  with  some  scathing 
remarks  on  the  Harveys,  the  worst  of  which  were  expunged  in 
later  editions,  drawing  attention  among  other  things  to  Harvey's 
modest  parentage.  In  1599  Archbishop  Whitgift  made  a  raid  on 
contemporary  satire  in  general,  and  among  other  books  the  tracts 
of  Harvey  and  Nashe  were  destroyed,  and  it  was  forbidden  to 
reprint  them.  Harvey  spent  the  last  years  of  his  life  in  retire- 
ment at  his  native  place,  dying  in  1630. 

His  extant  Latin  works  are:  Ciceronianus  (1577);  G.  Harveii 
rhetor,  sive  2  dierum  oratio  de  natura,  arte  et  exercitatione  rhetorica 
('577);  Smithus,  vel  Musarum  lachrymae  (1578),  in  honour  of  Sir 
Thomas  Smith;  and  G,  Harveii  gratulationum  Valdensium  libri 
quatuour  (sic),  written  on  the  occasion  of  the  queen's  visit  to  Audley 
End  (1578).  The  Letter-Book  of  Gabriel  Harvey,  A,D.  1573-80  (1884, 
ed.  E.  J.  L.  Scott,  Camden  Society),  contains  rough  drafts  of  the 
correspondence  between  Spenser  and  Harvey,  letters  relative  to  the 
disputes  at  Pembroke  Hall,  and  an  extraordinary  correspondence 
dealing  with  the  pursuit  of  his  sister  Mercy  by  a  young  nobleman. 
A  copy  of  Quintilian  (1542),  in  the  British  Museum,  is  extensively 
annotated  by  Gabriel  Harvey.  After  Greene's  death  Harvey  pub- 
lished Foure  Letters  and  certaine  Sonnets  (1592),  in  which  in  a  spirit 
of  righteous  superiority  he  laid  bare  with  spiteful  fulness  the  miser- 
able details  of  Greene's  later  years.  Thomas  Nashe,  who  in  power  of 
invective  and  merciless  wit  was  far  superior  to  Harvey,  took  upon 
himself  to  avenge  Greene's  memory,  and  at  the  same  time  settle  his 
personal  account  with  the  Harveys, in  Strange  Nnues  (1593).  Harvey 
refuted  the  personal  charges  made  by  Nashe /in  Pierce' s  Superero- 
gation, or  a  New  Prayse  of  the  Old  Asse  .  .  .  (1593).  InChristesTeares 
over  Jerusalem  (1593)  Nashe  made  a  full  apology  to  Harvey,  who 
refused  to  be  appeased,  and  resumed  what  had  become  a  very  scur- 
rilous controversy  in  a  New  Letter  of  Notable  Contents  (1593).  Nashe 
thereupon  withdrew  his  apology  in  a  new  edition  (1594)  of  Christes 
Teares,  and  hearing  that  Harvey  had  boasted  of  victory  he  produced 
the  most  biting  satire  of  the  series  in  Have  with  you  to  Saffron  Walden 
(1596).  Harvey  retorted  in  The  Trimming  of  Thomas  Nashe  Gentle- 
man, by  the  high-tituled  patron  Don  Richardo  de  Medico  campo 

•  •  •  (1597). 

His  complete  works  were  edited  by  Dr  A.  B.  Grosart  with  a 
"  Memorial  Introduction  "  for  the  Huth  Library  (1884-1885).  See 
also  Isaac  Disraeli,  on  "  Literary  Ridicule,"  in  Calamities  of  Authors 
(ed.  1840) ;  T.  Warton's  History  of  English  Poetry  (ed.  W.  C.  Hazlitt, 
1871);  J.  P.  Collier's  Bibliographical  and  Critical  Account  of  the 
Rarest  Books  in  the  English  Language  (1865),  and  the  Works  of  Thomas 
Nashe. 

HARVEY,  SIR  GEORGE  (1806-1876),  Scottish  painter,  the 
son  of  a  watchmaker,  was  born  at  St  Ninians,  near  Stirling,  in 
February  1806.  Soon  after  his  birth  his  parents  removed  to 
Stirling,  where  George  was  apprenticed  to  a  bookseller.  His 
love  for  art  having,  however,  become  very  decided,  in  his 


eighteenth  year  he  entered  the  Trustees'  Academy  at  Edinburgh. 
Here  he  so  distinguished  himself  that  in  1826  he  was  invited 
by  the  Scottish  artists,  who  had  resolved  to  found  a  Scottish 
academy,  to  join  it  as  an  associate.  Harvey's  first  picture, 
"A  Village  School,"  was  exhibited  in  1826  at  the  Edinburgh 
Institution;  and  from  the  time  of  the  opening  of  the  Academy 
in  the  following  year  he  continued  annually  to  exhibit.  His 
best-known  pictures  are  those  depicting  historical  episodes 
in  religious  history  from  a  puritan  or  evangelical  point  of  view, 
such  as  "  Covenanters  Preaching,"  "  Covenanters'  Communion," 
"  John  Bunyan  and  his  Blind  Daughter,"  "  Sabbath  Evening," 
and  the  "  Quitting  of  the  Manse."  He  was,  however,  equally 
popular  in  Scotland  for  subjects  not  directly  religious;  and 
"  The  Bowlers,"  "  A  Highland  Funeral,"  "  The  Curlers,"  "A 
Schule  Skailin',"  and  "  Children  Blowing  Bubbles  in  the  Church- 
yard of  Greyfriars',  Edinburgh,"  manifest  the  same  close  observa- 
tion of  character,  artistic  conception  and  conscientious  elabora- 
tion of  details.  In  "  The  Night  Mail"  and  "  Dawn  Revealing 
the  New  World  to  Columbus  "  the  aspects  of  nature  arc  made 
use  of  in  different  ways,  but  with  equal  happiness,  to  lend 
impressiveness  and  solemnity  to  human  concerns.  He  also 
painted  landscapes  and  portraits.  In  1829  he  was  elected  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy;  in  1864  he  succeeded 
Sir  J.  W.  Gordon  as  president;  and  he  was  knighted  in  1867. 
He  died  at  Edinburgh  on  the  22nd  of  January  1876. 

Sir  George  Harvey  was  the  author  of  a  paper  on  the  "  Colour  of 
the  Atmosphere,"  read  before  the  Edinburgh  Royal  Society,  and 
afterwards  published  with  illustrations  in  Good  Words;  and  in 
1870  he  published  a  small  volume  entitled  Notes  of  the  Early  History 
of  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy.  Selections  from  the  Works  of  Sir 
George  Harvey,  P.R.S.A.,  described  by  the  Rev.  A.  L.  Simpson, 
F.S.A.  Scot.,  and  photographed  by  Thomas  Annan,  appeared  at 
Edinburgh  in  1869. 

HARVEY,  WILLIAM  (1578-1657),  English  physician,  the 
discoverer  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  was  the  eldest  son  of 
Thomas  Harvey,  a  prosperous  Kentish  yeoman,  and  was  born 
at  Folkestone  on  the  ist  of  April  1578.  After  passing  through 
the  grammar  school  of  Canterbury,  on  the  3ist  of  May  1593, 
having  just  entered  his  sixteenth  year,  he  became  a  pensioner 
of  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  at  nineteen  he  took  his  B.A.  degree, 
and  soon  after,  having  chosen  the  profession  of  medicine,  he 
went  to  study  at  Padua  under  H.  Fabricius  and  Julius  Casserius. 
At  the  age  of  twenty-four  Harvey  became  doctor  of  medicine,  in 
April  1602.  Returning  to  England  in  the  first  year  of  James  I., 
he  settled  in  London;  and  two  years  later  he  married  the 
daughter  of  Dr  Lancelot  Browne,  who  had  been  physician  to 
Queen  Elizabeth.  In  the  same  year  he  became  a  candidate 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians,  and  was  duly  admitted  a 
fellow  (June  1607).  In  1609  he  obtained  the  reversion  of  the 
post  of  physician  to  St  Bartholomew's  hospital.  His  application 
was  supported  by  the  king  himself  and  by  Dr  Henry  Atkins 
(1558-1635),  the  president  of  the  college,  and  on  the  death  of 
Dr  Wilkinson  in  the  course  of  the  same  year  he  succeeded  to  the 
post.  He  was  thrice  censor  of  the  college,  and  in  1615  was 
appointed  Lumleian  lecturer. 

In  1616  he  began  his  course  of  lectures,  and  first  brought 
forward  his  views  upon  the  movements  of  the  heart  and  blood. 
Meantime  his  practice  increased,  and  he  had  the  lord  chancellor, 
Francis  Bacon,  and  the  earl  of  Arundel  among  his  patients. 
In  1618  he  was  appointed  physician  extraordinary  to  James  I., 
and  on  the  next  vacancy  physician  in  ordinary  to  his  successor. 
In  1628,  the  year  of  the  publication  of  the  Exercilatio  anatomica 
de  motu  cordis  et  sanguinis,  he  was  elected  treasurer  of  the 
College  of  Physicians,  but  at  the  end  of  the  following  year  he 
resigned  the  office,  in  order,  by  command  of  Charles  I.,  to  accom- 
pany the  young  duke  of  Lennox  (James  Stuart,  afterwards  duke 
of  Richmond)  on  his  travels.  He  appears  to  have  visited 
Italy,  and  returned  in  1632.  Four  years  later  he  accompanied 
the  earl  of  Arundel  on  his  embassy  to  the  emperor  Ferdinand  II. 
He  was  eager  in  collecting  objects  of  natural  history,  sometimes 
causing  the  earl  anxiety  for  his  safety  by  his  excursions  in  a 
country  infested  by  robbers  in  consequence  of  the  Thirty  Years' 
War.  In  a  letter  written  on  this  journey,  he  says:  "  By  the 


HARVEY,  WILLIAM 


43 


way  we  could  scarce  see  a  dogg,  crow,  kite,  raven,  or  any  bird, 
or  anything  to  anatomise;  only  sum  few  miserable  people,  the 
reliques  of  the  war  and  the  plague,  whom  famine  had  made 
anatomies  before  I  came."  Having  returned  to  his  practice 
in  London  at  the  close  of  the  year  1636,  he  accompanied  Charles  I. 
in  one  of  his  journeys  to  Scotland  (1639  or  1641).  While  at 
Edinburgh  he  visited  the  Bass  Rock;  he  minutely  describes 
its  abundant  population  of  sea-fowl  in  his  treatise  De  generatione, 
and  incidentally  speaks  of  the  account  then  credited  of  the  solan 
goose  growing  on  trees  as  a  fable.  He  was  in  attendance  on  the 
king  at  the  battle  of  Edgehill  (October  1642),  where  he  withdrew 
under  a  hedge  with  the  prince  of  Wales  and  the  duke  of  York 
(then  boys  of  twelve  and  ten  years  old),  "  and  took  out  of  his 
pocket  a  book  and  read.  But  he  had  not  read  very  long  before 
a  bullet  of  a  great  gun  grazed  on  the  ground  near  him,  which 
made  him  remove  his  station,"  as  he  afterwards  told  John 
Aubrey.  After  the  indecisive  battle,  Harvey  followed  Charles  I. 
to  Oxford,  "  where,"  writes  the  same  gossiping  narrator,  "  I 
first  saw  him,  but  was  then  too  young  to  be  acquainted  with  so 
great  a  doctor.  I  remember  he  came  several  times  to  our  college 
(Trinity)  to  George  Bathurst,  B.D.  who  had  a  hen  to  hatch  eggs 
in  his  chamber,  which  they  opened  daily  to  see  the  progress  and 
way  of  generation.  "  In  Oxford  he  remained  three  years,  and 
there  was  some  chance  of  his  being  superseded  in  his  office  at 
St  Bartholomew's  hospital,  "  because  he  hath  withdrawn  himself 
from  his  charge,  and  is  retired  to  the  party  in  arms  against  the 
Parliament."  It  was  no  doubt  at  this  time  that  his  lodgings 
at  Whitehall  were  searched,  and  not  only  the  furniture  seized 
but  also  invaluable  manuscripts  and  anatomical  preparations.1 

While  with  the  king  at  Oxford  he  was  made  warden  of  Merton 
College,  but  a  year  later,  in  1646,  that  city  surrendered  to  Fairfax, 
and  Harvey  returned  to  London.  He  was  now  sixty-eight  years 
old,  and,  having  resigned  his  appointments  and  relinquished 
the  cares  of  practice,  lived  in  learned  retirement  with  one  or 
other  of  his  brothers.  It  was  in  his  brother  Daniel's  house  at 
Combe  that  Dr  (afterwards  Sir  George)  Ent,  a  faithful  friend  and 
disciple  (1604-1689),  visited  him  in  1650.  "  I  found  him,"  he 
says.  "  with  a  cheeerful  and  sprightly  countenance  investigating, 
like  Democritus,  the  nature  of  things.  Asking  if  all  were  well 
with  him — 'How  can  that  be,'  he  replied,  'when  the  state  is  so 
agitated  with  storms  and  I  myself  am  yet  in  the  open  sea?  And 
indeed,  were  not  my  mind  solaced  by  my  studies  and  the  recollec- 
tion of  the  observations  I  have  formerly  made,  there  is  nothing 
which  should  make  me  desirous  of  a  longer  continuance.  But 
thus  employed,  this  obscure  life  and  vacation  from  public  cares 
which  would  disgust  other  minds  is  the  medicine  of  mine.'  ' 
The  work  on  which  he  had  been  chiefly  engaged  at  Oxford,  and 
indeed  since  the  publication  of  his  treatise  on  the  circulation 
in  1628,  was  an  investigation  into  the  recondite  but  deeply 
interesting  subject  of  generation.  Charles  I.  had  been  an 
enlightened  patron  of  Harvey's  studies,  had  put  the  royal  deer 
parks  at  Windsor  and  Hampton  Court  at  his  disposal,  and  had 
watched  his  demonstration  of  the  growth  of  the  chick  with  no 
less  interest  than  the  movements  of  the  living  heart.  Harvey 
had  now  collected  a  large  number  of  observations,  though  he 
would  probably  have  delayed  their  publication.  But  Ent 
succeeded  in  obtaining  the  manuscripts,  with  authority  to  print 
them  or  not  as  he  should  find  them.  "  I  went  from  him,"  he  says, 
"  like  another  Jason  in  possession  of  the  golden  fleece,  and  when 

Ignoscant  mihi  niveae  animae,  si,  summarum  injuriarum  memor, 
levem  gemitum  effudero.  Doloris  mihi  haec  causa  est :  cum,  inter 
nuperos_  nostros  tumultus  et  bella  plusquam  civilia,  serenissimum 
regem  (idque  non  solum  senatus  permissione  sed  et  jussu)  sequor, 
rapaces  quaedam  manus  non  modo  aedium  mearum  supellectilem 
omnem  expilarunt,  sed  etiam,  quae  mihi  causa  gravior  querimoniae, 
adversaria  mea,  multorum  annorum  laboribus  parta,  e  museo  meo 
summoverunt.  Quo  factum  est  ut  observations  plurimae,  prae- 
sertim  de  generatione  insectorum,  cum  republicae  Hterariae  (ausim 
dicere)  detrimento,  perierint." — De  gen.,  Ex.  Ixviii.  To  this  loss 
Cowley  refers — 

"  O  cursed  war!  who  can  forgive  thee  this? 
Houses  and  towns  may  rise  again, 

And  ten  times  easier  'tis 
To  rebuild  Paul's  than  any  work  of  his." 


I  came  home  and  perused  the  pieces  singly,  I  was  amazed  that 
so  vast  a  treasure  should  have  been  so  long  hidden."  The  result 
was  the  publication  of  the  Exercilaliones  de  generatione  (1651). 

This  was  the  last  of  Harvey's  labours.  He  had  now  reached 
his  seventy-third  year.  His  theory  of  the  circulation  had  been 
opposed  and  defended,  and  was  now  generally  accepted  by  the 
most  eminent  anatomists  both  in  his  own  country  and  abroad. 
He  was  known  and  honoured  throughout  Europe,  and  his  own 
college  (Caius)  voted  a  statue  in  his  honour  (1652)  viro  monti- 
mentis  suis  immorlali.  In  1654  he  was  elected  to  the  highest  post 
in  his  profession,  that  of  president  of  the  college;  but  the  follow- 
ing day  he  met  the  assembled  fellows,  and,  declining  the  honour 
for  himself  on  account  of  the  infirmities  of  age,  recommended 
the  re-election  of  the  late  president  Dr  Francis  Prujean  (1593- 
1666).  He  accepted,  however,  the  office  of  consiliarius,  which 
he  again  held  in  the  two  following  years.  He  hati  already 
enriched  the  college  with  other  gifts  besides  the  honour  of  his 
name.  He  had  raised  for  them  "  a  noble  building  of  Roman 
architecture  (rustic  work  with  Corinthian  pilasters) ,  comprising 
a  great  parlour  or  conversation  room  below  and  a  library  above"; 
he  had  furnished  the  library  with  books,  and  filled  the  museum 
with  "  simples  and  rarities,"  as  well  as  with  specimens  of  instru- 
ments used  in  the  surgical  and  obstetric  branches  of  medicine. 
At  last  he  determined  to  give  to  his  beloved  college  his  paternal 
estate  at  Burmarsh  in  Kent.  His  wife  had  died  some  years  before, 
his  brothers  were  wealthy  men,  and  he  was  childless,  so  that  he 
was  defrauding  no  heir  when,  in  July  1656,  he  made  the  transfer 
of  this  property,  then  valued  at  £56  per  annum,  with  provision 
for  a  salary  to  the  college  librarian  and  for  the  endowment  of  an 
annual  oration,  which  is  still  given  on  the  anniversary  of  the  day. 
The  orator,  so  Harvey  orders  in  his  deed  of  gift,  is  to  exhort 
the  fellows  of  the  college  "  to  search  out  and  study  the  secrets 
of  nature  by  way  of  experiment,  and  also  for  the  honour  of 
the  profession  to  continue  mutual  love  and  affection  among 
themselves." 

Harvey,  like  his  contemporary  and  great  successor  Thomas 
Sydenham,  was  long  afflicted  with  gout,  but  he  preserved  his 
activity  of  mind  to  an  advanced  age.  In  his  eightieth  year,  on 
the  3rd  of  June  1657,  he  was  attacked  by  paralysis,  and  though 
deprived  of  speech  was  able  to  send  for  his  nephews  and  distribute 
his  watch,  ring,  and  other  personal  trinkets  among  them.  He 
died  the  same  evening,  "  the  palsy  giving  him  an  easy  passport," 
and  was  buried  with  great  honour  in  his  brother  Eliab's  vault  at 
Hempstead  in  Essex,  annorum  etfamae  satur.  In  1883  the  lead 
coffin  containing  his  remains  was  enclosed  in  a  marble  sarcophagus 
and  moved  to  the  Harvey  chapel  within  the  church. 

John  Aubrey,  to  whom  we  owe  most  of  the  minor  particulars 
about  Harvey  which  have  been  preserved,  says:  "  In  person  he 
was  not  tall,  but  of  the  lowest  stature;  round  faced,  olivaster 
complexion,  little  eyes,  round,  very  black,  full  of  spirits;  his 
hair  black  as  a  raven,  but  quite  white  twenty  years  before  he 
died."  The  best  portrait  of  him  extant  is  by  Cornelius  Jansen 
in  the  library  of  the  College  of  Physicians,  one  of  those  rescued 
from  the  great  fire,  which  destroyed  their  original  hall  in  1666. 
It  has  been  often  engraved,  and  is  prefixed  to  the  fine  edition  of 
his  works  published  in  1766. 

Han'ey's  Work  on  the  Circulation. — In  estimating  the  character 
and  value  of  the  discovery  announced  in  the  Exercilatio  de  molu 
cordis  et  sanguinis,  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  the  previous 
state  of  knowledge  on  the  subject.  Aristotle  taught  that  in  man 
and  the  higher  animals  the  blood  was  elaborated  from  the  food 
in  the  liver,  thence  carried  to  the  heart,  and  sent  by  it  through 
the  veins  over  the  body.  His  successors  of  the  Alexandrian 
school  of  medicine,  Erasistratus  and  Herophilus,  further  elabor- 
ated his  system,  and  taught  that,  while  the  veins  carried  blood 
from  the  heart  to  the  members,  the  arteries  carried  a  subtle  kind 
of  air  or  spirit.  For  the  practical  physician  only  two  changes  had 
been  made  in  this  theory  of  the  circulation  between  the  Christian 
era  and  the  i6th  century.  Galen  had  discovered  that  the 
arteries  were  not,  as  their  name  implies,  merely  air-pipes,  but 
that  they  contained  blood  as  well  as  vital  air  or  spirit.  And  it 
had  been  gradually  ascertained  that  the  nerves  (vtvpa)  which 


44- 


HARVEY,  WILLIAM 


arose  from  the  brain  and  conveyed  "  animal  spirits  "  to  the 
body  were  different  from  the  tendons  or  sinews  (vevpa)  which 
attach  muscles  to  bones.  First,  then,  the  physicians  of  the 
time  of  Thomas  Linacre  knew  that  the  blood  is  not  stagnant  in 
the  body.  So  did  Shakespeare  and  Homer,  and  every  augur  who 
inspected  the  entrails  of  a  victim,  and  every  village  barber  who 
breathed  a  vein.  Plato  even  uses  the  expression  rt>  alfia  Kara 
wavra  TO.  fjx\rj  acfroSpSis  7repi<£«pe<r0ai.  But  no  one  had  a  con- 
ception of  a  continuous  stream  returning  to  its  source  (a  circula- 
tion in  the  true  sense  of  the  word)  either  in  the  system  or  in  the 
lungs.  If  they  used  the  word  circulatio,  as  did  Caesalpinus,1  it 
was  as  vaguely  as  the  French  policeman  cries  "  Circulez."  The 
movements  of  the  blood  were  in  fact  thought  to  be  slow  and 
irregular  in  direction  as  well  as  in  speed,  like  the  "  circulation  " 
of  air  in  a  house,  or  the  circulation  of  a  crowd  in  the  streets  of  a 
city.  Secondly,  they  supposed  that  one  kind  of  blood  flowed 
from  the  liver  to  the  right  ventricle  of  the  heart,  and  thence  to 
the  lungs  and  the  general  system  by  the  veins,  and  that  another 
kind  flowed  from  the  left  ventricle  to  the  lungs  and  general 
system  by  the  arteries.  Thirdly,  they  supposed  that  the  septum 
of  the  heart  was  pervious  and  allowed  blood  to  pass  directly 
from  the  right  to  the  left  side.  Fourthly,  they  had  no  conception 
of  the  functions  of  the  heart  as  the  motor  power  of  the  movement 
of  the  blood.  They  doubted  whether  its  substance  was  muscular : 
they  supposed  its  pulsation  to  be  due  to  expansion  of  the  spirits 
it  contained;  they  believed  the  only  dynamic  effect  which  it 
had  on  the  blood  to  be  sucking  it  in  during  its  active  diastole, 
and  they  supposed  the  chief  use  of  its  constant  movements  to  be 
the  due  mixture  of  blood  and  spirits. 

Of  the  great  anatomists  of  the  i6th  century,  Sylvius  (In  Hipp, 
et  Gal.  phys.  partem  analom.  isagoge)  described  the  valves  of 
the  veins;  Vesalius  (De  humani  corporis  fabrica,  1542)  ascer- 
tained that  the  septum  between  the  right  and  left  ventricles  is 
complete,  though  he  could  not  bring  himself  to  deny  the  invisible 
pores  which  Galen's  system  demanded.  Servetus,  in  his  Chris- 
tianismi  restitutio  (1553),  goes  somewhat  farther  than  his  fellow- 
student  Vesalius,  and  says:  "  Paries  ille  medius  non  est  aptus  ad 
communicationem  et  elaborationem  illam;  licet  aliquid  resudare 
possit";  and,  from  this  anatomical  fact  and  the  large  size  of  the 
pulmonary  arteries  he  concludes  that  there  is  a  communication 
in  the  lungs  by  which  blood  passes  from  the  pulmonary  artery  to 
the  pulmonary  vein:  "  Eodem  artificio  quo  in  hepate  fit  trans- 
f  usio  a  vena  porta  ad  venam  cavam  propter  sanguinem,  fit  etiam  in 
pulmone  transfusio  a  vena  arteriosa  ad  arteriam  venosam  propter 
spiritum."  The  natural  spirit  of  the  left  side  and  the  vital  spirit 
of  the  right  side  of  the  heart  were  therefore,  he  concluded, 
practically  the  same,  and  hence  two  instead  of  three  distinct 
spiritus  should  bs  admitted.  It  seems  doubtful  whether  even 
Servetus  rightly  conceived  of  the  entire  mass  of  the  blood  passing 
through  the  pulmonary  artery  and  the  lungs.  The  transference 
of  the  spiritus  naluralis  to  the  lungs,  and  its  return  to  the  left 
ventricle  as  spiritus  vitalis,  was  the  function  which  he  regarded 
as  important.  Indeed  a  true  conception  of  the  lesser  circulation 
as  a  transference  of  the  whole  blood  of  the  right  side  to  the  left 
was  impossible  until  the  corresponding  transference  in  the 
greater  or  systematic  circulation  was  discovered.  Servetus, 
however,  was  the  true  predecessor  of  Harvey  in  physiology,  and 
his  claims  to  that  honour  are  perfectly  authentic  and  universally 
admitted.2 

1  Indeed  the  same  word,  ireplodos  aljiaTos,  occurs  in  the  Hippo- 
cratic  writings,  and  was  held  by  Van  der  Linden  to  prove  that  to 
the  father  of  medicine  himself,  and  not  to  Columbus  or  Caesalpinus, 
belonged  the  laurels  of  Harvey. 

1  Realdo  Columbus  (De  re  anatomica,  1559)  formally  denies  the 
muscularity  of  the  heart,  yet  correctly  teaches  that  blood  and  spirits 
pass  from  the  right  to  the  left  ventricle,  not  through  the  septum 
but  through  the  lungs,  "  quod  nemo  hactenus  aut  animadvertit  aut 
scriptum  reliquit."  The  fact  that  Harvey  quotes  Columbus  and  not 
Servetus  is  explained  by  the  almost  entire  destruction  of  the  writings 
of  the  latter,  which  are  now  among  the  rarest  curiosities.  The  great 
anatomist  Fabricius,  Harvey's  teacher  at  Padua,  described  the  valves 
of  the  veins  more  perfectly  than  had  Sylvius.  Carlo  Ruini,  in  his 
treatise  on  the  Anatomy  and  Diseases  of  the  Horse  (1590),  taught  that 
the  left  ventricle  sends  blood  and  vital  spirits  to  all  parts  of  the  body 
except  the  lungs — the  ordinary  Galenical  doctrine.  Yet  on  the 


The  way  then  to  Harvey's  great  work  had  been  paved  by  the 
discovery  of  the  valves  in  the  veins,  and  by  that  of  the  lesser 
circulation — the  former  due  to  Sylvius  and  Fabricius,  the  latter 
to  Servetus — but  the  significance  of  the  valves  was  unsuspected, 
and  the  face  of  even  the  pulmonary  circulation  was  not  generally 
admitted  in  its  full  meaning. 

In  his  treatise  Harveyproves  (i)  that  it  is  the  contraction,  not 
the  dilatation,  of  the  heart  which  coincides  with  the  pulse,  and 
that  the  ventricles  as  true  muscular  sacs  squeeze  the  blood  which 
they  contain  into  the  aorta  and  pulmonary  artery;  (2)  that  the 
pulse  is  not  produced  by  the  arteries  enlarging  and  so  filling,  but 
by  the  arteries  being  filled  with  blood  and  so  enlarging;  (3)  that 
there  are  no  pores  in  the  septum  of  the  heart,  so  that  the  whole 
blood  in  the  right  ventricle  is  sent  to  the  lungs  and  round  by  the 
pulmonary  veins  to  the  left  ventricle,  and  also  that  the  whole 
blood  in  the  left  ventricle  is  again  sent  into  the  arteries,  round  by 
the  smaller  veins  into  the  venae  cavae,  and  by  them  to  the  right 
ventricle  again — thus  making  a  complete  "  circulation  "  ;  (4) 
that  the  blood  in  the  arteries  and  that  in  the  veins  is  the  same 
blood;  (5)  that  the  action  of  the  right  and  left  sides  of  the  heart, 
auricles,  ventricles  and  valves,  is  the  same,  the  mechanism  in 
both  being  for  reception  and  propulsion  of  liquid  and  not  of  air, 
since  the  blood  on  the  right  side,  though  mixed  with  air,  is  still 
blood;  (6)  that  the  blood  sent  through  the  arteries  to  the  tissues 
is  not  all  used,  but  that  most  of  it  runs  through  into  the  veins; 
(7)  that  there  is  no  to  and  fro  undulation  in  the  veins,  but  a  con- 
stant stream  from  the  distant  parts  towards  the  heart;  (8)  that 
the  dynamical  starting-point  of  the  blood  is  the  heart  and  not 
the  liver. 

The  method  by  which  Harvey  arrived  at  his  complete  and 
almost  faultless  solution  of  the  most  fundamental  and  difficult 
problem  in  physiology  has  been  often  discussed,  and  is  well 
worthy  of  attention.  He  begins  his  treatise  by  pointing  out  the 
many  inconsistencies  and  defects  in  the  Galenical  theory,  quoting 
the  writings  of  Galen  himself,  of  Fabricius,  Columbus  and  others, 
with  great  respect,  but  with  unflinching  criticism.  For,  in  his 
own  noble  language,  wise  men  must  learn  anatomy,  not  from  the 
decrees  of  philosophers,  but  from  the  fabric  of  nature  herself, 
"  nee  ita  in  verba  jurare  antiquitatis  magistrae,  ut  veritatem 
amicam  in  apertis  relinquant,  et  in  conspectu  omnium  deserant." 
He  had,  as  we  know,  not  only  furnished  himself  with  all  the 
knowledge  that  books  and  the  instructions  of  the  best  anatomists 
of  Italy  could  give,  but,  by  a  long  series  of  dissections,  had 
gained  a  far  more  complete  knowledge  of  the  comparative 
anatomy  of  the  heart  and  vessels  than  any  contemporary — we 
may  almost  say  than  any  successor— until  the  times  of  John 
Hunter  and  J.  F.  Meckel.  Thus  equipped,  he  tells  us  that  he 
began  his  investigations  into  the  movements  of  the  heart  and 
blood  by  looking  at  them — i.?.  by  seeing  their  action  in  living 
animals.  After  a  modest  preface,  he  heads  his  first  chapter 

strength  of  this  phrase  Professor  J.  B.  Ercolani  actually  put  up  a 
tablet  in  the  veterinary  school  at  Bologna  to  Ruini  as  the  discoverer 
of  the  circulation  of  the  blood!  The  claims  of  Caesalpinus,  a  more 
plausible  claimant  to  Harvey's  laurels,  are  scarcely  better  founded. 
In  his  Quaestiones  peripateticae  (1571)  he  followed  Servetus  and 
Columbus  in  describing  what  we  now  know  as  the  pulmonary 
"  circulation  "  under  that  name,  and  this  is  the  only  foundation 
for  the  assertion  (first  made  in  Bayle's  dictionary)  that  Caesalpinus 
knew  "  the  circulation  of  the  blood."  He  is  even  behind  Servetus, 
for  he  only  allows  part  of  the  blood  of  the  right  ventricle  to  go  round 
by  this  "circuit":  some,  he  conceives,  passes  through  the  hypo- 
thetical pores  in  the  septum,  and  the  rest  by  the  superior  cava  to 
the  head  and  arms,  by  the  inferior  to  the  rest  of  the  body:  "  Hanc 
esse  venarum  utilitatem  ut  omnes  partes  corporis  sanguinem  pro 
nutrimento  deferant.  Ex  dextro  ventr0  cordis  vena  cava  sanguinem 
crassiorem,  in  quo  calor  intensus  est  magis,  ex  altero  autem  ventr0, 
sanguinem  temperatissimum  ac  sincerissimum  habente,  egreditur 
aorta."  Caesalpinus  seems  to  have  had  no  original  views  on  the 
subject;  all  that  he  writes  is  copied  from  Galen  or  from  Servetus 
except  some  erroneous  observations  of  his  own.  His  greatest  merit 
was  as  a  botanist ;  and  no  claim  to  the  "  discovery  of  the  circulation  " 
was  made  by  him  or  by  his  contemporaries.  When  it  was  made, 
Haller  decided  conclusively  against  it.  The  fact  that  an  inscription 
has  been  placed  on  the  bust  of  Caesalpinus  at  Rome,  which  states 
that  he  preceded  others  in  recognizing  and  demonstrating  "  the 
general  circulation  of  the  blood,"  is  only  a  proof  of  the  blindness  of 
misplaced  national  vanity. 


HARVEY,  WILLIAM 


45 


"  Ex  vivorum  dissectione,  qualis  sit  cordis  motus."  He  minutely 
describes  what  he  saw  and  handled  in  dogs,  pigs,  serpents,  frogs 
and  fishes,  and  even  in  slugs,  oysters,  lobsters  and  insects,  in  the 
transparent  minima  squilla,  "  quae  Anglice  dicitur  a  shrimp," 
and  lastly  in  the  chick  while  still  in  the  shell.  In  these  investiga- 
tions he  used  a  perspidllum  or  simple  lens.  He  particularly 
describes  his  observations  and  experiments  on  the  ventricles, 
the  auricles,  the  arteries  and  the  veins.  He  shows  how  the 
arrangement  of  the  vessels  in  the  foetus  supports  his  theory. 
He  adduces  facts  observed  in  disease  as  well  as  in  health  to  prove 
the  rapidity  of  the  circulation.  He  explains  how  the  mechanism 
of  the  valves  in  the  veins  is  adapted,  not,  as  Fabricius  believed, 
to  moderate  the  flow  of  blood  from  the  heart,  but  to  favour  its 
flow  to  the  heart.  He  estimates  the  capacity  of  each  ventricle, 
and  reckons  the  rate  at  which  the  whole  mass  of  blood  passes 
through  it.  He  elaborately  and  clearly  demonstrates  the  effect 
of  obstruction  of  the  blood-stream  in  arteries  or  in  veins,  by  the 
forceps  in  the  case  of  a  snake,  by  a  ligature  on  the  arm  of  a  man, 
and  illustrates  his  argument  by  figures.  He  then  sums  up  his 
conclusion  thus:  "  Circulari  quodam  motu,  in  circuitu,  agitari 
in  animalibus  sanguinem,  et  esse  in  perpetuo  motu;  et  hanc  esse 
actionem  sive  functionem  cordis  quam  pulsu  peragit;  et  omnino 
motus  et  pulsus  cordis  causam  unam  esse."  Lastly,  in  the  isth, 
i6th  and  i7th  chapters,  he  adds  certain  confirmatory  evidence, 
as  the  effect  of  position  on  the  circulation,  the  absorption  of 
animal  poisons  and  of  medicines  applied  externally,  the  muscular 
structure  of  the  heart  and  the  necessary  working  of  its  valves. 
The  whole  treatise,  which  occupies  only  67  pages  of  large  print 
in  the  quarto  edition  of  1766,  is  a  model  of  accurate  observation, 
patient  accumulation  of  facts,  ingenious  experimentation,  bold 
yet  cautious  hypothesis  and  logical  deduction. 

In  one  point  only  was  the  demonstration  of  the  circulation 
incomplete.  Harvey  could  not  discover  the  capillary  channels 
by  which  the  blood  passes  from  the  arteries  to  the  veins.  This 
gap  in  the  circulation  was  supplied  several  years  later  by  the  great 
anatomist  Marcello  Malpighi,  who  in  1661  saw  in  the  lungs  of 
a  frog,  by  the  newly  invented  microscope,  how  the  blood  passes 
from  the  one  set  of  vessels  to  the  other.  Harvey  saw  all  that 
could  be  seen  by  the  unaided  eye  in  his  observations  on  living 
animals;  Malpighi,  four  years  after  Harvey's  death,  by  another 
observation  on  a  living  animal,  completed  the  splendid  chain  of 
evidence.  If  this  detracts  from  Harvey's  merit  it  leaves  Servetus 
no  merit  at  all.  But  in  fact  the  existence  of  the  channels  first 
seen  by  Malpighi  was  as  clearly  pointed  to  by  Harvey's  reasoning 
as  the  existence  of  Neptune  by  the  calculations  of  Leverrier  and 
of  Adams.  . 

Harvey  himself  and  all  his  contemporaries  were  well  aware  of  the 
novelty  and  importance  of  his  theory.  He  says  in  the  admirable 
letter  to  Dr  Argent,  president  of  the  College  of  Physicians,  which 
follows  the  dedication  of  his  treatise  to  Charles  I.,  that  he  should 
not  have  ventured  to  publish  "  a  book  which  alone  asserts  that 
the  blood  pursues  its  course  and  flows  back  again  by  a  new  path, 
contrary  to  the  received  doctrine  taught  so  many  ages  by  innumerable 
learned  and  illustrious  men,"  if  he  had  not  set  forth  his  theory  for 
more  than  nine  years  in  his  college  lectures,  gradually  brought  it  to 
perfection,  and  convinced  his  colleagues  by  actual  demonstrations 
of  the  truth  of  what  he  advanced.  He  anticipates  opposition,  and 
even  obloquy  or  loss,  from  the  novelty  of  his  views.  These  antici- 
pations, however,  the  event  proved  to  have  been  groundless.  If  we 
are  to  credit  Aubrey  indeed,  he  found  that  after  the  publication 
of  the  Dz  motu  "  he  fell  mightily  in  his  practice;  'twas  believed  by 
the  vulgar  that  he  was  crackbrained,  and  all  the  physicians  were 
against  him."  But  the  last  assertion  is  demonstrably  untrue; 
and  if  apothecaries  and  patients  ever  forsook  him,  they  must  soon 
have  returned,  for  Harvey  left  a  handsome  fortune.  By  his  own 
profession  the  book  was  received  as  it  deserved.  So  novel  a  doctrine 
was  not  to  be  accepted  without  due  inquiry,  but  his  colleagues  had 
heard  his  lectures  and  seen  his  demonstrations  for  years;  they  were 
already  convinced  of  the  truth  of  his  theory,  urged  its  publication, 
continued  him  in  his  lectureship,  and  paid  him  every  honour  in 
their  power.  In  other  countries  the  book  was  widely  read  and 
much  canvassed.  Few  accepted  the  new  theory;  but  no  one 
dreamt  of  claiming  the  honour  of  it  for  himself,  nor  for  several  years 
did  any  one  pretend  that  it  could  be  found  in  the  works  of  previous 
authors.  The  first  attack  on  it  was  a  feeble  tract  by  one  James 
Primerose,  a  pupil  of  Jean  Riolan  (Exerc.  et  animadv.  in  libr. 
Hand  de  motu  cord,  et  sang.,  1630).  Five  years  later  Parisanus, 
an  Italian  physician,  published  his  Lapis  Lydius  de  motu  cord. 


et  sang.  (Venice,  1635),  a  still  more  bulky  and  futile  performance. 
Primerose's  attacks  were  "  imbellia  pleraque  "  and  "  sine  ictu  "; 
that  of  Parisanus  "  in  quamplurimis  turpius,"  according  to  the  con- 
temporary judgment  of  Johann  Vessling.  Their  dulness  has  pro- 
tected them  from  further  censure.  Caspar  Hoffmann,  professor  at 
Nuremberg,  while  admitting  the  truth  of  the  lesser  circulation  in 
the  full  Harveian  sense,  denied  the  rest  of  the  new  doctrine.  To 
him  the  English  anatomist  replied  in  a  short  letter,  still  extant, 
with  great  consideration  yet  with  modest  dignity,  beseeching  him 
to  convince  himself  by  actual  inspection  of  the  truth  of  the  facts  in 
question.  He  concludes:  . "  I  accept  your  censure  in  the  candid 
and  friendly  spirit  in  which  you  say  you  wrote  it;  do  you  also  the 
same  to  me,  now  that  I  have  answered  you  in  the  same  spirit." 
This  letter  is  dated  May  1636,  and  in  that  year  Harvey  passed 
through  Nuremberg  with  the  earl  of  Arundel,  and  visited  Hoffmann. 
But  he  failed  to  convince  him;  "nee  tamen  valuit  Harveius  vel 
coram,"  writes  P.  M.  Schlegel,  who,  however,  afterwards  succeeded 
in  persuading  the  obstinate  old  Galenist  to  soften  his  opposition  to 
the  new  doctrine,  and  thinks  that  his  complete  conversion  might  have 
been  effected  if  he  had  but  lived  a  little  longer — •"  nee  dubito  quin 
concessisset  tandem  in  nostra  castra."  While  in  Italy  the  following 
year  Harvey  visited  his  old  university  of  Padua,  and  demonstrated 
his  views  to  Professor  Vessling.  A  few  months  later  this  excellent 
anatomist  wrote  him  a  courteous  and  sensible  letter,  with  certain 
objections  to  the  new  theory.  The  answer  to  this  has  not  been 
preserved,  but  it  convinced  his  candid  opponent,  who  admitted 
the  truth  of  the  circulation  in  a  second  letter  (both  were  published 
in  1640),  and  afterwards  told  a  friend,  "  Harveium  nostrum  si  audis, 
agnosces  coelestem  sanguinis  et  spiritus  ingressum  ex  arteriis  per 
venas  in  dextrum  cordis  sinum."  Meanwhile  a  greater  convert, 
R.  Descartes,  in  his  Discours  sur  la  mcthode  (1637)  had  announced 
his  adhesion  to  the  new  doctrine,  and  refers  to  "  the  English  physician 
to  whom  belongs  the  honour  of  having  first  shown  that  the  course 
of  the  blood  in  the  body  is  nothing  less  than  a  kind  of  perpetual 
movement  in  a  circle."  J.  Walaeus  of  Leyden,  H.  Regius  of  Utrecht 
and  Schlegel  of  Hamburg  successively  adopted  the  new  physiology. 
Of  these  professors,  Regius  was  mauled  by  the  pertinacious  Prime- 
rose  and  mauled  him  in  return  (Spongia  qua  eluuntur  sordes  quae  Jac. 
Primirosius,  &c.,  and  Antidotum  adv.  Spongiam  venenatam  Henr. 
Regii).  Descartes  afterwards  repeated  Harvey's  vivisections,  and, 
more  convinced  than  ever,  demolished  Professor  V.  F.  Plempius  of 
Louvain,  who  had  written  on  the  other  side.  George  Ent  also 
published  an  Apologia  pro  circulations  sanguinis  in  answer  to 
Parisanus. 

At  last  Jean  Riolan  ventured  to  publish  his  Enchiridium  ana- 
tomicum  (1648),  in  which  he  attacks  Harvey's  theory,  and  proposes 
one  of  his  own.  Riolan  had  accompanied  the  queen  dowager  of 
France  (Maria  de'  Medici)  on  a  visit  to  her  daughter  at  Whitehall, 
and  had  there  met  Harvey  and  discussed  his  theory.  He  was,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  judicious  Haller,  "  vir  asper  et  in  nuperos  suosque 
coaevos  immitis  ac  nemini  parcens,  nimis  avidus  suarum  laudum 
praeco,  et  se  ipsp  fatente  anatomicorum  princeps."  Harvey  replied 
to  the  Enchiridium  with  perfectly  courteous  language  and  perfectly 
conclusive  arguments,  in  two  letters  De  circulatione  sanguinis, 
which  were  published  at  Cambridge  in  164^,  and  are  still  well  worth 
reading.  He  speaks  here  of  the  "  circuitus  sanguinis  a  me  in- 
ventus."  Riolan  was  unconvinced,  but  lived  to  see  another  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  appointed  in  his  own  university  who  taught 
Harvey's  doctrines.  Even  in  Italy,  Trullius,  professor  of  anatomy 
at  Rome,  expounded  the  new  doctrine  in  1651.  But  the  most 
illustrious  converts  were  Jean  Pecquet  of  Dieppe,  the  discoverer  of 
the  thoracic  duct,  and  of  the  true  course  of  the  lacteal  vessels,  and 
Thomas  Barthplinus  of  Copenhagen,  in  his  Anatome  ex  omnium 
veterum  recentiorumque  obseniationibus,  imprimis  inslitutionibus 
beali  mei  parentis  Caspari  Bartholini,  ad  circulalionem  Harveianam 
et  vasa  lymphatica  renovata  (Leiden,  1651).  At  last  Plempius  also 
retracted  all  his  objections;  for,  as  he  candidly  stated,  "  having 
opened  the  bodies  of  a  few  living  dogs,  I  find  that  all  Harvey's  state- 
ments are  perfectly  true."  Hpbbes  of  Malmesbury  could  thus  say  in 
the  preface  to  his  Elementa  philosophiae  that  his  friend  Harvey, 
"  solus  quod  sciam,  doctrinam  novam  superata  invidia  vivens 
stabilivit." 

It  has  been  made  a  reproach  to  Harvey  that  he  failed  to  appreciate 
the  importance  of  the  discoveries  of  the  lacteal  and  lymphatic  vessels 
by  G.  Aselli,  J.  Pecquet  and  C.  Bartholinus.  In  three  letters  on  the 
subject,  one  to  Dr  R.  Morison  of  Paris  (1652)  and  two  to  Dr  Horst  of 
Darmstadt  (1655),  a  correspondent  of  Bartholin's,  he  discusses 
these  observations,  and  shows  himself  unconvinced  of  their  accuracy. 
He  writes,  however,  with  great  moderation  and  reasonableness,  and 
excuses  himself  from  investigating  the  subject  further  on  the  score 
of  the  infirmities  of  age;  he  was  then  above  seventy-four.  The 
following  quotation  shows  the  spirit  of  these  letters:  "  Laudo 
equidem  summopere  Pecqueti  aliorumque  in  indaganda  veritate 
industriam  singularem,  nee  dubito  quin  multa  adhuc  in  Democriti 
putco  abscondita  sint,  a  venturi  saeculi  indefatigabili  diligentia 
:xpromenda."  Bartholin,  though  reasonably  disappointed  in  not 
bavir.g  Harvey's  concurrence,  speaks  of  him  with  the  utmost  respect, 
and  generously  says  that  the  glory  of  discovering  the  movements  of 
the  heart  and  of  the  blood  was  enough  for  one  man. 


HARVEY,  WILLIAM 


Hartley's  Work  on  Generation. — We  have  seen  how  Dr.  Ent  per- 
suaded his  friend  to  publish  this  book  in  1651.  It  is  between 
five  and  six  times  as  long  as  the  Exerc.  de  molu  cord,  el  sang., 
and  is  followed  by  excursus  De  partu,  De  uteri  membranis,  De 
conceptione;  but,  though  the  fruit  of  as  patient  and  extensive 
observations,  its  value  is  far  inferior.  The  subject  was  far  more 
abstruse,  and  in  fact  inaccessible  to  proper  investigation  without 
the  aid  of  the  microscope.  And  the  field  was  almost  untrodden 
since  the  days  of  Aristotle.  Fabricius,  Harvey's  master,  in  his 
work  De  formatione  ovi  et  pulli  (1621),  had  alone  preceded  him 
in  modern  times.  Moreover,  the  seventy-two  chapters  which 
form  the  book  lack  the  co-ordination  so  conspicuous  in  the  earlier 
treatise,  and  some  of  them  seem  almost  like  detached  chapters  of 
a  system  which  was  never  completed  or  finally  revised. 

Aristotle  had  believed  that  the  male  parent  furnished  the  body  of 
the  future  embryo,  while  the  female  only  nourished  and  formed  the 
seed;  this  is  in  fact  the  theory  on  which,  in  the  Eumenides  of 
Aeschylus,  Apollo  obtains  the  acquittal  of  Orestes.  Galen  taught 
almost  as  erroneously  that  each  parent  contributes  seeds,  the  union 
of  which  produced  the  young  animal.  Harvey,  after  speaking  with 
due  honour  of  Aristotle  and  Fabricius,  begins  rightly  "  ab  ovo  "; 
for,  as  he  remarks,  "  eggs  cost  little  and  are  always  and  everywhere 
to  be  had,"  and  moreover  "  almost  all  animals,  even  those  which 
bring  forth  their  young  alive,  and  man  himself,  are  produced  from 
eggs  "  ("  omnia  omnino  animalia,  etiam  yivipara,  atque  hominem 
adeo  ipsum,  ex  ovo  progigni  ").  This  dictum,  usually  quoted  as 
"  omne  vivum  ex  ovo,"  would  alone  stamp  this  work  as  worthy  of 
the  discoverer  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  but  it  was  a  prevision 
of  genius,  and  was  not  proved  to  be  a  fact  until  K.  E.  von  Baer 
discovered  the  mammalian  ovum  in  1827.  Harvey  proceeds  with 
a  careful  anatomical  description  of  the  ovary  and  oviduct  of  the  hen, 
describes  the  new-laid  egg,  and  then  gives  an  account  of  the  appear- 
ance seen  on  the  successive  days  of  incubation,  from  the  1st  to  the 
6th,  the  loth  and  the  I4th,  and  lastly  describes  the  process  of 
hatching.  He  then  comments  upon  and  corrects  the  opinions  of 
Aristotle  and  Fabricius,  declares  against  spontaneous  generation 
(though  in  one  passage  he  seems  to  admit  the  current  doctrine  of 
production  of  worms  by  putrefaction  as  an  exception),  proves  that 
there  is  no  semen  foemineum,  that  the  chalazae  of  the  hen's  eggs  are 
not  the  semen  galli,  and  that  both  parents  contribute  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  egg.  He  describes  accurately  the  first  appearance  of  the 
ovarian  ova  as  mere  specks,  their  assumption  of  yelk  and  after- 
wards of  albumen.  In  chapter  xlv.  he  describes  two  methods  of 
production  of  the  embryo  from  the  ovum :  one  is  metamorphosis,  or 
the  direct  transformation  of  pre-existing  material,  as  a  worm  from 
an  egg,  or  a  butterfly  from  an  aurelia  (chrysalis);  the  other  is 
epigenesis,  or  development  with  addition  of  parts,  the  true  genera- 
tion observed  in  all  higher  animals.  Chapters  xlvi.-l.  are  devoted 
to  the  abstruse  question  of  the  efficient  cause  of  generation,  which, 
after  much  discussion  of  the  opinions  of  Aristotle  and  of  Sennertius, 
Harvey  refers  to  the  action  of  both  parents  as  the  efficient  instru- 
ments of  the  first  great  cause.1  He  then  goes  on  to  describe  the 
order  in  which  the  several  parts  appear  in  the  chick.  He  states  that 
the  punctum  saliens  or  foetal  heart  is  the  first  organ  to  be  seen,  and 
explains  that  the  nutrition  of  the  chick  is  not  only  effected  by  yelk 
conveyed  directly  into  the  midgut,  as  Aristotle  taught,  but  also  by 
absorption  from  yelk  and  white  by  the  umbilical  (omphalomeseraic) 
veins;  on  the  fourth  day  of  incubation  appear  two  masses  (which  he 
oddly  names  vermiculus),  one  of  which  develops  into  three  vesicles, 
to  form  the  cerebrum,  cerebellum  and  eyes,  the  other  into  the 
breastbone  and  thorax;  on  the  sixth  or  seventh  day  come  the 
viscera,  and  lastly,  the  feathers  and  other  external  parts.  Harvey 
points  out  how  nearly  this  order  of  development  in  the  chick  agrees 
with  what  he  had  observed  in  mammalian  and  particularly  in  human 
embryos.  He  notes  the  bifid  apex  of  the  foetal  heart  in  man  and 
the  equal  thickness  of  the  ventricles,  the  soft  cartilages  which 
represent  the  future  bones,  the  large  amount  of  liquor  amnii  and 
absence  of  placenta  which  characterize  the  foetus  in  the  third  month ; 
in  the  fourth  the  position  of  the  testes  in  the  abdomen,  and  the  uterus 
with  its  Fallopian  tubes  resembling  the  uterus  bicornis  of  the  sheep; 
the  large  thymus;  the  caecum,  small  as  in  the  adult,  not  forming  a 


1  So  in  Exerc.  liv. :  "  Superior  itaque  et  divinior  opifex,  quam 
est  homo,  videtur  hominem  fabricare  et  conservare,  et  nobilior 
artifex,  quam  gallus,  pullum  ex  ovo  producere.  Nempe  agnoscimus 
Deum,  creatorem  summum  atque  omnipotentem,  in  cunctorum 
animalium  fabrica  ubique  praesentem  esse,  et  in  operibus  suis  quasi 
digito  monstrari:  cujus  in  procreatione  pulli  instruments  sint  gallus 
et  gallina.  .  .  .  Ncc  cuiquam '  sane  haec  attributa  convenient  nisi 
omnipotent!  rerum  Principio,  quocunque  demum  nomine  idipsum 
appellare  libuerit :  sive  Mentem  divinam  cum  Aristotele,  sive  cum 
Platone  Animam  Mundi,  aut  cum  aliis  Naturam  naturantem,  vel 
cum  ethnicis  Saturnum  aut  lovem;  vel  potius  (ut  nos  decet)  Crea- 
torem ac  Patrem  omnium  quae  in  coelis  et  terris,  a  quo  animalia 
eorumque  origines  dependent,  cujusque  nutu  sive  effatu  fiunt  et 
generantur  omnia. 


second  stomach  as  in  the  pig,  the  horse  and  the  hare ;  the  lobulated 
kidneys,  like  those  of  the  seal  ("  vitulo,"  sc.  marino)  and  porpoise, 
and  the  large  suprarenal  veins,  not  much  smaller  than  those  of  the 
kidneys  (li.-lvi).  He  failed,  however,  to  trace  the  connexion  of 
the  urachus  with  the  bladder.  In  the  following  chapters  (Ixiii.- 
Ixxii.)  he  describes  the  process  of  generation  in  the  fallow  deer  or 
the  roe.  After  again  insisting  that  all  animals  arise  from  ova, 
that  a  "  conception  "  is  an  internal  egg  and  an  egg  an  extruded 
conception,  he  goes  on  to  describe  the  uterus  of  the  doe,  the  process 
of  impregnation,  and  the  subsequent  development  of  the  foetus  and 
its  membranes,  the  punctum  saliens,  the  cotyledons  of  the  placenta, 
and  the  "  uterine  milk,"  to  which  Sir  William  Turner  recalled 
attention  in  later  years.  The  treatise  concludes  with  detached 
notes  on  the  placenta,  parturition  and  allied  subjects. 

Harvey's  other  Writings  and  Medical  Practice. — The  remaining 
writings  of  Harvey  which  are  extant  are  unimportant.  A  com- 
plete list  of  them  will  be  found  below,  together  with  the  titles  of 
those  which  we  know  to  be  lost.  Of  these  the  most  important 
were  probably  that  on  respiration,  and  the  records  of  post- 
mortem examinations.  From  the  following  passage  (De  partu, 
p.  550)  it  seems  that  he  had  a  notion  of  respiration  being  con- 
nected rather  with  the  production  of  animal  heat  than,  as  then 
generally  supposed,  with  the  cooling  of  the  blood.  "  Haec  qui 
diligenter  perpenderit,  naturamque  aeris  diligenter  introspexerit, 
facile  opinor  fatebitur  eundem  nee  refrigerationis  gratia  nee  in 
pabulum  animalibus  concedi.  Haec  autem  obiter  duntaxat  de 
respiratione  diximus,  proprio  loco  de  eadem  forsitan  copiosius 
disceptaturi." 

Of  Harvey  as  a  practising  physician  we  know  very  little. 
Aubrey  tells  us  that  "  he  paid  his  visits  on  horseback  with  a  foot- 
cloth,  his  man  following  on  foot,  as  the  fashion  then  was."  He 
adds — "  Though  all  of  his  profession  would  allow  him  to  be  an 
excellent  anatomist,  I  never  heard  any  that  admired  his  thera- 
peutic way.  I  knew  several  practitioners  that  would  not  have 
given  threepence  for  one  of  his  bills  "  (the  apothecaries  used  to 
collect  physicians'  prescriptions  and  sell  or  publish  them  to  their 
own  profit),  "  and  that  a  man  could  hardly  tell  by  his  bill  what 
he  did  aim  at."  However  this  may  have  been, — and  rational 
therapeutics  was  impossible  when  the  foundation  stone  of  physio- 
logy had  only  just  been  laid, — we  know  that  Harvey  was  an  active 
practitioner,  performing  such  important  surgical  operations  as 
the  removal  of  a  breast,  and  he  turned  his  obstetric  experience 
to  account  in  his  book  on  generation.  Some  good  practical 
precepts  as  to  the  conduct  of  labour  are  quoted  by  Percivall 
Willughby  (1596-1685).  He  also  took  notes  of  the  anatomy  of 
disease;  these  unfortunately  perished  with  his  other  manuscripts. 
Otherwise  we  might  regard  him  as  a  forerunner  of  G.  B.  Mor- 
gagni;  for  Harvey  saw  that  pathology  is  but  a  branch  of  physio- 
logy, and  like  it  must  depend  first  on  accurate  anatomy.  He 
speaks  strongly  to  this  purpose  in  his  first  epistle  to  Riolan: 
"Sicut  enim  sanorum  et  boni  habitus  corporum  dissectio  pluri- 
mum  ad  philosophiam  et  rectam  physiologiam  facit,  ita  corporum 
morbosorum  et  cachecticorum  inspectio  potissimum  ad  patho- 
logiam  philosophicam."  The  only  specimen  we  have  of  his 
observations  in  morbid  anatomy  is  his  account  of  the  post- 
mortem examination  made  by  order  of  the  king  on  the  body  of 
the  famous  Thomas  Parr,  who  died  in  1635,  at  the  reputed  age 
of  152.  Harvey  insists  on  the  value  of  physiological  truths  for 
their  own  sake,  independently  of  their  immediate  utility;  but 
he  himself  gives  us  an  interesting  example  of  the  practical 
application  of  his  theory  of  the  circulation  in  the  cure  of  a  large 
tumour  by  tying  the  arteries  which  supplied  it  with  blood  (De 
general.  Exerc.  xix.). 

The  following  is  believed  to  be  a  complete  list  of  all  the  known 
writings  of  Harvey,  published  and  unpublished : — • 

Exercitatio  anatomica  de  molu  cordis  et  sanguinis,  4to  (Frankfort- 
on-the-Main,  1628);  Exercitationes  duae  anatomicae  de  circulations 
sanguinis,  ad  Johannem  Riolanum,  filium,  Parisiensem  (Cambridge, 
1649) ;  Exercitationes  de  generatione  animalium,  quibus  accedunl 
quaedam  de  partu,  de  membranis  ac  humoribus  uteri,  et  de  concep- 
tione, 4to  (London,  1651);  Anatomia  Thomae  Parr,  first  published 
in  the  treatise  of  Dr  John  Belts,  De  ortu  el  natura  sanguinis,  8vo 
(London,  1669).  Letters:  (l)  to  Caspar  Hoffmann  of  Nuremberg, 
May  1636;  (2)  to  Schlegel  of  Hamburg,  April  1651;  (3)  three  to 
Giovanni  Nardi  of  Florence,  July  1651,  Dec.  1653  and  Nov.  1655; 
(4)  two  to  Dr  Morison  of  Paris,  May  1652;  (5)  two  to  Dr  Horst  of 


HARVEY— HARZBURG 


47 


Darmstadt,  Feb  1654-1655  and  July  1655;  (6)  to  Dr  Vlackveld  of 
Haarlem,  May  1657.  His  letters  to  Hoffmann  and  Schlegel  are  on 
the  circulation;  those  to  Morison,  Horst  and  Vlackveld  refer  to 
the  discovery  of  the  lacteals;  the  two  to  Nardi  are  short  letters  of 
friendship.  All  these  letters  were  published  by  Sir  George  Ent  in 
his  collected  works  (Leiden,  1687).  Of  two  MS.  letters,  one  on 
official  business  to  the  secretary  Dorchester  was  printed  by  Dr 
Aveling,  with  a  facsimile  of  the  crabbed  handwriting  (Memorials  of 
Harvey,  1875),  and  the  other,  about  a  patient,  appears  in  Dr  Robert 
Willis's  Life  of  Harvey  (1878).  Praelectiones  anatomiae  universalis 
per  me  Gul.  Harveium  medicum  Londinensem,  anal,  el  Mr.  professorem, 
an.  dom.  (1616),  aetat.  37, — MS.  notes  of  his  Lumleian  lectures  in 
Latin, — are  in  the  British  Museum  library;  an  autotype  reproduction 
was  issued  by  the  College  of  Physicians  in  1886.  An  account  of  a 
second  MS.  in  the  British  Museum,  entitled  Gulielmus  Harveius  de 
musculis,  motu  locali,  &c.,  was  published  by  Sir  G.  E.  Paget  (Notice 
of  an  unpublished  MS.  of  Harj-y,  London,  1850).  The  following 
treatises,  or  notes  towards  them,  were  lost  either  in  the  pillaging 
of  Harvey's  house,  or  perhaps  in  the  fire  of  London,  which  destroyed 
the  old  College  of  Physicians:  A  Treatise  on  Respiration,  promised 
and  probably  at  least  in  part  completed  (pp.  82,  550,  ed.  1766); 
Observationes  de  usu  Lienis;  Observationes  de  motu  locali,  perhaps 
.  identical  with  the  above-mentioned  manuscript;  Tractatum  physio- 
logicum ;  Anatcmia  medicalis  (apparently  notes  of  morbid  anatomy) ; 
De  generatione  insectorum.  The  fine  410  edition  of  Harvey's  Works, 
published  by  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians  in  1766,  was  super- 
intended by  Dr  Mark  Akenside;  it  contains  the  two  treatises, 
the  account  of  the  post-mortem  examination  of  old  Parr,  and  the 
six  letters  enumerated  above.  A  translation  of  this  volume  by  Dr 
Willis,  with  Harvey's  will,  was  published  by  the  Sydenham  Society, 
8vo  (London,  1849). 

The  following  are  the  principal  biographies  of  Harvey :  in  Aubrey's 
Letters  of  Eminent  Persons,  &c.,  vol.  ii.  (London,  1813),  first  pub- 
lished in  1685,  the  only  contemporary  account;  in  Bayle's  Diclion- 
naire  historique  el  critique  (1698  and  1720;  Eng.  ed.,  1738); 
in  the  Biographia  Britannica,  and  in  Aitken's  Biographical  Memoirs; 
the  Latin  Life  by  Dr  Thomas  Lawrence,  prefixed  to  the  college 
edition  of  Harvey's  Works  in  1766;  memoir  in  Lives  of  British 
Physicians  (London,  1830) :  a  Life  by  Dr  Robert  Willis,  founded  on 
that  by  Lawrence,  and  prefixed  to  his  English  edition  of  Harvey 
in  1847;  the  much  enlarged  Life  by  the  same  author,  published  in 
1878;  the  biography  by  Dr  William  Munk  in  the  Roll  of  the  College 
of  Physicians,  voL  i.  (2nd  ed.,  1879). 

.  The  literature  which  has  arisen  on  the  great  discovery  of  Harvey, 
on  his  methods  and  his  merits,  would  fill  a  library.  The  most  im- 
portant contemporary  writings  have  been  mentioned  above.  The 
following  list  gives  some  of  the  most  remarkable  in  modern  times: 
the  article  in  Bayle's  dictionary  quoted  above;  Anatomical  Lectures, 
by  Wm.  Hunter,  M.D.  (1784) ;  Sprengell,  Geschichte  der  Arzneikunde 
(Halle,  1800),  vol.  iv. ;  Flourens,  Histoire  de  la  circulation  (1854); 
Lewes,  Physiology  of  Common  Life  (1859),  vol.  i.  pp.  291-345; 
Ceradini,  La  Scoperta  della  circolazione  del  sangue  (Milan,  1876); 
Tollin,  Die  Entdeckung  des  Blutkreislaufs  durch  Michael  Servet 
(Jena,  1876);  Kirchner,  Die  Entdeckung  des  Blutkreislaufs  (Berlin, 
1878);  Willis,  in  his  Life  of  Harvey;  Wharton  Jones,  "  Lecture  on 
the  Circulation  of  the  Blood,"  Lancet  for  Oct.  25  and  Nov.  I,  1879; 
and  the  various  Harveian  Orations,  especially  those  by  Sir  E.  Sieve- 
king,  Dr  Guy  and  Professor  George  Rolleston.  (P.  H.  P.-S.) 

HARVEY,  a  city  of  Cook  county,  Illinois,  U.S.A.,  about  18  m. 
S.  of  the  Chicago  Court  House.  Pop.  (1900)  5395  (982  foreign- 
born);(i9io)  7227.  It  is  served  by  the  Chicago  Terminal  Transfer, 
the  Grand  Trunk  and  the  Illinois  Central  railways.  Harvey  is 
a  manufacturing  and  residence  suburb  of  Chicago.  Among  its 
manufactures  are  railway,  foundry  and  machine-shop  supplies, 
mining  and  ditching  machinery,  stone  crushers,  street-making 
and  street-cleaning  machinery,  stoves  and  motor-vehicles.  It 
was  named  in  honour  of  Turlington  W.  Harvey,  a  Chicago 
capitalist,  founded  in  1890,  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1891 
and  chartered  as  a  city  in  1895. 

HARWICH,  a  municipal  borough  and  seaport  in  the  Harwich 
parliamentary  division  of  Essex,  England,  on  the  extremity  of 
a  small  peninsula  projecting  into  the  estuary  of  the  Stour  and 
Orwell,  70  m.  N.E.  by  E.  of  London  by  the  Great  Eastern 
railway.  Pop.  (1901),  10,070.  It  occupies  an  elevated  situation, 
and  a  wide  view  is  obtained  from  Beacon  Hill  at  the  southern 
end  of  the  esplanade.  The  church  of  St  Nicholas  was  built  of 
brick  in  1821;  and  there  are  a  town  hall  and  a  custom-house. 
The  harbour  is  one  of  the  best  on  the  east  coast  of  England,  and 
in  stormy  weather  is  largely  used  for  shelter.  A  breakwater 
and  sea-wall  prevent  the  blocking  of  the  harbour  entrance  and 
encroachments  of  the  sea;  and  there  is  another  breakwater  at 
Landguard  Point  on  the  opposite  (Suffolk)  shore  of  the  estuary. 
The  principal  imports  are  grain  and  agricultural  produce,  timber 


and  coal,  and  the  exports  cement  and  fish.  Harwich  is  one  of 
the  principal  English  ports  for  continental  passenger  traffic, 
steamers  regularly  serving  the  Hook  of  Holland,  Amsterdam, 
Rotterdam,  Antwerp,  Esbjerg,  Copenhagen  and  Hamburg.  The 
continental  trains  of  the  Great  Eastern  railway  run  to  Parkeston 
Quay,  i  m.  from  Harwich  up  the  Stour,  where  the  passenger 
steamers  start.  The  fisheries  are  important,  principally  those 
for  shrimps  and  lobsters.  There  are  cement  and  shipbuilding 
works.  The  port  is  the  headquarters  of  the  Royal  Harwich 
Yacht  Club.  There  are  batteries  at  and  opposite  Harwich,  and 
modern  works  on  Shotley  Point,  at  the  fork  of  the  two  estuaries. 
There  are  also  several  of  the  Martello  towers  of  the  Napoleonic 
era.  At  Landguard  Fort  there  are  important  defence  works  with 
heavy  modern  guns  commanding  the  main  channel.  This  has 
been  a  point  of  coast  defence  since  the  time  of  James  I.  Between 
the  Parkeston  Quay  and  Town  railway  stations  is  that  of  Dover- 
court,  an  adjoining  parish  and  popular  watering-place.  Harwich 
is  under  a  mayor,  4  aldermen  and  12  councillors.  Area,  1341 
acres. 

Harwich  (Herewica,  Herewyck)  cannot  be  shown  to  have  been 
inhabited  very  early,  although  in  the  i8th  century  remains  of  a 
camp,  possibly  Roman,  existed  there.  Harwich  formed  part  of 
the  manor  of  Dovercourt.  It  became  a  borough  in  1319  by  a 
charter  of  Edward  II.,  which  was  confirmed  in  1342  and  1378, 
and  by  each  of  the  Lancastrian  kings.  The  exact  nature  and 
degree  of  its  self-government  is  not  clear.  Harwich  received 
charters  in  1547, 1553  and  1560.  In  1604  James  I.  gave  it  a  charter 
which  amounted  to  a  new  constitution,  and  from  this  charter 
begins  the  regular  parliamentary  representation.  Two  burgesses 
had  attended  parliament  in  1343,  but  none  had  been  summoned 
since.  Until  1867  Harwich  returned  two  members;  it  then  lost 
one,  and  in  1885  it  was  merged  in  the  county.  Included  in  the 
manor  of  Dovercourt,  Harwich  from  1086  was  for  long  held  by 
the  de  Vere  family.  In  1252  Henry  III.  granted  to  Roger  Bigod 
a  market  here  every  Tuesday,  and  a  fair  on  Ascension  day,  and 
eight  days  after.  In  1320  a  grant  occurs  of  a  Tuesday  market, 
but  no  fair  is  mentioned.  James  I.  granted  a  Friday  market, 
and  two  fairs,  at  the  feast  of  St  Philip  and  St  James,  and  on 
St  Luke's  day.  The  fair  has  died  out,  but  markets  are  still 
held  on  Tuesday  and  Friday.  Harwich  has  always  had  a 
considerable  trade;  in  the  I4th  century  merchants  came 
even  from  Spain,  and  there  was  much  trade  in  wheat  and 
wool  with  Flanders.  But  the  passenger  traffic  appears  to  have 
been  as  important  at  Harwich  in  the  i4th  century  as  it  is  now. 
Shipbuilding  was  a  considerable  industry  at  Harwich  in  the 
1 7th  century. 

HARZBURG,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  duchy  of  Brunswick, 
beautifully  situated  in  a  deep  and  well-wooded  vale  at  the  north 
foot  of  the  Harz  Mountains,  at  the  terminus  of  the  Brunswick- 
Harzburg  railway,  5  m.  E.S.E.  from  Goslar  and  18  m.  S. 
from  Wolfenbuttel.  Pop.  (1905),  4396.  The  Radau, a  mountain 
stream,  descending  from  the  Brocken,  waters  the  valley  and  adds 
much  to  its  picturesque  charm.  The  town  is  much  frequented 
as  a  summer  residence.  It  possesses  brine  and  carbonated  springs, 
the  Juliushall  saline  baths  being  about  a  mile  to  the  soufh  of 
the  town,  and  a  hydropathic  establishment.  A  mile  and  a  half 
south  from  the  town  lies  the'Burgberg,  1500  ft.  above  sea-level, 
on  whose  summit,  according  to  tradition,  was  once  an  altar  to 
the  heathen  idol  Krodo,  still  to  be  seen  in  the  Ulrich  chapel  at 
Goslar.  There  are  on  the  summit  of  the  hill  the  remains  of  an 
old  castle,  and  a  monument  erected  in  1875  to  Prince  Bismarck, 
with  an  inscription  taken  from  one  of  his  speeches  against 
the  Ultramontane  claims  of  Rome — "  Nach  Canossa  gehen 
wir  nicht." 

The  castle  on  the  Burgberg  called  the  Harzburg  is  famous  in 
German  history.  It  was  built  between  1065  and  1069,  but  was 
laid  in  ruins  by  the  Saxons  in  1074;  again  it  was  built  and 
again  destroyed  during  the  struggle  between  the  emperor 
Henry  IV.  and  the  Saxons.  By  Frederick  I.  it  was  granted  to 
Henry  the  Lion,  who  caused  it  to  be  rebuilt  about  1180.  It  was 
a  frequent  residence  of  Otto  IV.,  who  died  therein,  and  after 
being  frequently  besieged  and  taken,  it  passed  to  the  house  of 


HARZ  MOUNTAINS— HASA,  EL 


Brunswick.    It  ceased  to  be  of  importance  as  a  fortress  after  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  and  gradually  fell  into  ruins. 

See  Delius,  Untersuchungen  tiber  die  Geschichte  der  Harzburg 
(Halberstadt,  1826) ;  Dommes,  Harzburg  und  seine  Umgebung 
(Goslar,  1862);  Jacobs,  Die  Harzburg  und  Hire  Geschichte  (1885); 
and  Stolle,  Fiihrervon  Bad  Harzburg  (1899). 

HARZ  MOUNTAINS  (also  spelt  HAETZ,  Ger.  Harzgebirge,  anc. 
Silva  Hercynia),  the  most  northerly  mountain-system  of 
Germany,  situated  between  the  rivers  Weser  and  Elbe,  occupy 
an  area  of  784  sq.  m.,  of  which  455  belong  to  Prussia,  286  to 
Brunswick  and  43  to  Anhalt.  Their  greatest  length  extends  in 
a  S.E.  and  N.W.  direction  for  57  m.,  and  their  maximum  breadth 
is  about  20  m.  The  group  is  made  up  of  an  irregular  series  of 
terraced  plateaus,  rising  here  and  there  into  rounded  summits, 
and  intersected  in  various  directions  by  narrow,  deep  valleys. 
The  north-western  and  higher  part  of  the  mass  is  called  the  Ober 
or  Upper  Harz;  the  south-eastern  and  more  extensive  part, 
the  Unter  or  Lower  Harz;  while  the  N.W.  and  S.W.  slopes  of 
the  Upper  Harz  form  the  Vorharz.  The  Brocken  group,  which 
divides  the  Upper  and  Lower  Harz,  is  generally  regarded  as 
belonging  to  the  first.  The  highest  summits  of  the  Upper  Harz 
are  the  Brocken  (3747  ft.),  the  Heinrichshohe  (3425  ft.),  the 
Konigsberg  (3376  ft.)  and  the  Wurmberg  (3176  ft.);  of  the 
Lower  Harz,  the  Josephshohe  in  the  Auerberg  group  and  the 
Viktorhohe  in  the  Ramberg,  each  1887  ft.  Of  these  the  Brocken 
(q.v.)  is  celebrated  for  the  legends  connected  with  it,  immortal- 
ized in  Goethe's  Faust.  Streams  are  numerous,  but  all  small. 
While  rendered  extensively  useful,  by  various  skilful  artifices,  in 
working  the  numerous  mines  of  the  district,  at  other  parts  of 
their  course  they  present  the  most  picturesque  scenery  in  the 
Harz.  Perhaps  the  finest  valley  is  the  rocky  Bodethal,  with  the 
Rosstrappe,  the  Hexentanzplatz,  the  Baumannshohle  and  the 
Bielshohle. 

The  Harz  is  a  mass  of  Palaeozoic  rock  rising  through  the  Mesozoic 
strata  of  north  Germany,  and  bounded  on  all  sides  by  faults.  Slates, 
schists,  quartzites  and  limestones  form  the  greater  part  of  the  hills, 
but  the  Brocken  and  Victorshohe  are  masses  of  intrusive  granite, 
and  diabases  and  diabase  tuffs  are  interstratified  with  the  sedi- 
mentary deposits.  The  Silurian,  Devonian  and  Carboniferous 
systems  are  represented — the  Silurian  and  Devonian  forming  the 
greater  part  of  the  hills  S.E.  of  a  line  drawn  from  Lauterberg  to 
Wernigerode,  while  N.W.  of  this  line  the  Lower  Carboniferous  pre- 
dominates. A  few  patches  of  Upper  Carboniferous  are  found  on  the 
borders  of  the  hijls  near  Ilfeld,  Ballenstedt,  &c.,  lying  unconformably 
upon  the  Devonian.  The  structure  of  the  Harz  is  very  complicated, 
but  the  general  strike  of  the  folds,  especially  in  the  Oberharz  plateau, 
is  N.E.  or  N.N.E.  The  whole  mass  evidently  belongs  to  the  ancient 
Hercynian  chain  of  North  Europe  (which,  indeed,  derives  its  name 
from  the  Harz),  and  is  the  north-easterly  continuation  of  the  rocks 
of  the  Ardennes  and  the  Eifel.  The  folding  of  the  old  rocks  took 
place  towards  the  close  of  the  Palaeozoic  era;  but  the  faulting  to 
which  they  owe  their  present  position  was  probably  Tertiary. 
Metalliferous  veins  are  common,  amongst  the  best-known  being  the 
silver-bearing  lead  veins  of  Klausthal,  which  occur  in  the  Culm  or 
Lower  Carboniferous. 

Owing  to  its  position  as  the  first  range  which  the  northerly 
winds  strike  after  crossing  the  north  German  plain,  the  climate 
on  the  summit  of  the  Harz  is  generally  raw  and  damp,  even  in 
summer.  In  1895  an  observatory  was  opened  on  the  top  of  the 
Brocken,  and  the  results  of  the  first  five  years  (1896-1900)  showed 
a  July  mean  of  50°  Fahr.,  a  February  mean  of  24-7°,  and  a  yearly 
mean  of  36-6°.  During  the  same  five  years  the  rainfall  averaged 
645  ins.  annually.  But  while  the  summer  is  thus  relatively  un- 
genial  on  the  top  of  the  Harz,  the  usual  summer  heat  of  the 
lower-lying  valleys  is  greatly  tempered  and  cooled;  so  that, 
adding  this  to  the  natural  attractions  of  the  scenery,  the  deep 
forests,  and  the  legendary  and  romantic  associations  attaching 
to  every  fantastic  rock  and  ruined  castle,  the  Harz  is  a  favourite 
summer  resort  of  the  German  people.  Among  the  more  popular 
places  of  resort  are  Harzburg,  Thale  and  the  Bodethal;  Blanken- 
burg,  with  the  Teufelsmauer  and  the  Hermannshohle;  Werni- 
gerode, Ilsenburg,  Grund,  Lauterberg,  Hubertusbad,  Alexisbad 
and  Suderode.  Somecf  these,  and  other  places  not  named,  add 
to  their  natural  attractions  the  advantage  of  mineral  springs  and 
baths,  pine-needle  baths,  whey  cures,  &c.  The  Harz  is  pene- 
trated by  several  railways,  among  them  a  rack-railway  up  the 


Brocken,  opened  in  1898.  The  district  is  traversed  by  excellent 
roads  in  all  directions. 

The  northern  summits  are  destitute  of  trees,  but  the  lower 
slopes  of  the  Upper  Harz  are  heavily  wooded  with  pines  and  firs. 
Between  the  forests  of  these  stretch  numerous  peat-mosses, 
which  contain  in  their  spongy  reservoirs  the  sources  of  many 
small  streams.  On  the  Brocken  are  found  one  or  two  arctic  and 
several  alpine,  plants.  In  the  Lower  Harz  the  forests  contain  a 
great  variety  of  timber.  The  oak,  elm  and  birch  are  common, 
while  the  beech  especially  attains  an  unusual  size  and  beauty. 
The  walnut-tree  grows  in  the  eastern  districts. 

The  last  bear  was  killed  in  the  Harz  in  1705,  and  the  last  lynx 
in  1817,  and  since  that  time  the  wolf  too  has  become  extinct; 
but  deer,  foxes,  wild  cats  and  badgers  are  still  found  in  the 
forests. 

The  Harz  is  one  of  the  richest  mineral  storehouses  in  Germany, 
and  the  chief  industry  is  mining,  which  has  been  carried  on  since 
the  middle  of  the  loth  century.  The  most  important  mineral  is 
a  peculiarly  rich  argentiferous  lead,  but  gold  in  small  quantities, 
copper,  iron,  sulphur,  alum  and  arsenic  are  also  found.  Mining 
is  carried  on  principally  at  Klausthal  and  St  Andreasberg  in  the 
Upper  Harz.  Near  the  latter  is  one  of  the  deepest  mining  shafts 
in  Europe,  namely  the  Samson,  which  goes  down  2790  ft.  or  720 
ft.  below  sea-level.  For  the  purpose  of  getting  rid  of  the  water, 
and  obviating  the  flooding  of  such  deep  workings,  it  has  been 
found  necessary  to  construct  drainage  works  of  some  magnitude. 
As  far  back  as  1777-1799  the  Georgsstollen  was  cut  through  the 
mountains  from  the  east  of  Klausthal  westward  to  Grund,  a 
distance  of  4  m.;  but  this  proving  insufficient,  another  sewer, 
the  Ernst-Auguststollen,  no  less  than  14  m.  in  length,  was  made 
from  the  same  neighbourhood  to  Gittelde,  at  the  west  side  of  the 
Harz,  in  1851-1864.  Marble,  granite  and  gypsum  are  worked; 
and  large  quantities  of  vitriol  are  manufactured.  The  vast 
forests  that  cover  the  mountain  slopes  supply  the  materials 
for  a  considerable  trade  in  timber.  Much  wood  is  exported  for 
building  and  other  purposes,  and  in  the  Harz  itself  is  used  as 
fuel.  The  sawdust  of  the  numerous  mills  is  collected  for  use 
in  the  manufacture  of  paper.  Turf-cutting,  coarse  lace-making 
and  the  breeding  of  canaries  and  native  song-birds  also  occupy 
many  of  the  people.  Agriculture  is  carried  on  chiefly  on  the 
plateaus  of  the  Lower  Harz;  but  there  is  excellent  pasturage 
both  in  the  north  and  in  the  south.  In  the  Lower  Harz,  as  in 
Switzerland,  the  cows,  which  carry  bells  harmoniously  tuned, 
are  driven  up  into  the  heights  in  early  summer,  returning  to  the 
sheltered  regions  in  late  autumn. 

The  inhabitants  are  descended  from  various  stocks.  The 
Upper  and  Lower  Saxon,  the  Thuringian  and  the  Prankish 
races  have  all  contributed  to  form  the  present  people,  and  their 
respective  influences  are  still  to  be  traced  in  the  varieties  of 
dialect.  The  boundary  line  between  High  and  Low  German 
passes  through  the  Harz.  The  Harz  was  the  last  stronghold  of 
paganism  in  Germany,  and  to  that  fact  are  due  the  legends,  in 
which  no  district  is  richer,  and  the  fanciful  names  given  by  the 
people  to  peculiar  objects  and  appearances  of  nature. 

See  Zeitschrift  des  Harzvereins  (Wernigerode,  annually  since  1868) ; 
Gunther,  Der  Harz  in  Geschichts-  Kuitur-  und  Landschaftsbildern 
(Hanover,  1885),  and  "  Der  Harz  "  in  Scobel's  Monographien  zur 
Erdkunde  (Bielefeld,  1901);  H.  Hoffmann  and  others,  Der  Harz 
(Leipzig,  1899),  Harzwanderungen  (Leipzig,  1902);  Hampe,  Flora 
Hercynica  (Halle,  1873);  von  Groddeck,  Abriss  der  Geognosie  des 
Harzes  (2nd  ed.,  Klausthal,  1883);  Prohle,  Harzsagen  (2nd  ed., 
Leipzig,  1886);  Hautztnger,  Der  Kupfer-  und  Silbersegen  des  Harzes 
(Berlin,  1877) ;  Hoppe,  Die  Bergwerke  im  Ober-  und  Unterharz 
(Klausthal,  1883);  Schulze,  Lilhia  Hercynica  (Leipzig,  1895); 
Liidecke,  Die  Minerale  des  Harzes  (Berlin,  1896). 

HASA,  EL  (Ahsa,  Al  Hasa),  a  district  in  the  east  of  Arabia 
stretching  along  the  shore  of  the  Persian  Gulf  from  Kuwet  in  29° 
20'  N.  to  the  south  point  of  the  Gulf  of  Bahrein  in  25°  10'  N.,  a 
length  of  about  360  m.  On  the  W.  it  is  bounded  by  Nejd,  and 
on  the  S.E.  by  the  peninsula  of  El  Katr  which  forms  part  of 
Oman.  The  coast  is  low  and  flat  and  has  no  deep-water  port 
along  its  whole  length  with  the  exception  of  Kuwet;  from  that  . 
place  to  El  Katif  the  country  is  barren  and  without  villages 


HASAN  AND  HOSAIN— HASDEU 


49 


or  permanent  settlements,  and  is  only  occupied  by  nomad  tribes, 
of  which  the  principal  are  the  Bani  Hajar,  Ajman  and  Khalid. 
The  interior  consists  of  low  stony  ridges  rising  gradually  to  the 
inner  plateau.  The  oases  of  Hofuf  and  Katif,  however,  form  a 
strong  contrast  to  the  barren  wastes  that  cover  the  greater  part 
of  the  district.  Here  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  underground 
water  (to  which  the  province  owes  its  nameHasa)  issues  in  strong 
springs,  marking,  according  to  Arab  geographers,  the  course  of  a 
great  subterranean  river  draining  the  Nejd  highlands.  Hofuf  the 
capital,  a  town  of  15,000  to  20,000  inhabitants,  with  its  neighbour 
Mubariz  scarcely  less  populous,  forms  the  centre  of  a  thriving 
district  50  m.  long  by  15  m.  in  breadth,  containing  numerous 
villages  each  with  richly  cultivated  fields  and  gardens.  The  town 
walls  enclose  a  space  of  15  by  i  m.,  at  the  north-west  angle 
of  which  is  a  remarkable  citadel  attributed  to  the  Carmathian 
princes.  Mubariz  is  celebrated  for  its  hot  spring,  known  as  Um 
Saba  or  "  mother  of  seven,"  from  the  seven  channels  by  which 
its  water  is  distributed.  Beyond  the  present  limits  of  the  oasis 
much  of  the  country  is  well  supplied  with  water,  and  ruined 
sites  and  half-obliterated  canals  show  that  it  has  only  relapsed 
into  waste  in  recent  times.  Cultivation  reappears  at  Katif,  a 
town  situated  on  a  small  bay  some  35  m.  north-west  of  Bahrein. 
Date  groves  extend  for  several  miles  along  the  coast,  which  is 
low  and  muddy.  The  district  is  fertile  but  the  climate  is  hot  and 
unhealthy;  still,  owing  to  its  convenient  position,  the  town  has 
a  considerable  trade  with  Bahrein  and  the  gulf  ports  on  one  side 
and  the  interior  of  Nejd  on  the  other.  The  fort  is  a  strongly  built 
enclosure  attributed,  like  that  at  Hofuf,  to  the  Carmathian  prince 
Abu  Tahir. 

'Uker  or  "Ujer  is  the  nearest  port  to  Hofuf,  from  which  it  is 
distant  about  40  m.;  large  quantities  of  rice  and  piece  goods 
transhipped  at  Bahrein  are  landed  here  and  sent  on  by  caravan 
to  Hofuf,  the  great  entrepot  for  the  trade  between  southern  Nejd 
and  the  coast.  It  also  shares  in  the  valuable  pearl  fishery  of 
Bahrein  and  the  adjacent  coast. 

Politically  El  Hasa  is  a  dependency  of  Turkey,  and  its  capital 
Hofuf  is  the  headquarters  of  the  sanjak  or  district  of  Nejd. 
Hofuf,  Katif  and  El  Katr  were  occupied  by  Turkish  garrisons  in 
1871,  and  the  occupation  has  been  continued  in  spite  of  British 
protest  as  to  El  Katr,  which  according  to  the  agreement  made  in 
1867,  when  Bahrein  was  taken  under  British  protection,  was 
tributary  to  the  latter.  Turkish  claims  to  Kuwet  have  not  been 
admitted  by  Great  Britain. 

AUTHORITIES. — W.  G.  Palgrave,  Central  and  Eastern  Arabia 
(London,  1865);  L.  Pelly,  Journal  R.C.S.  (1866);  S.  M.  Zwemer, 
Ceog.  Journal  (1902) ;  G.  F.  Sadlier,  Diary  of  a  Journey  across  Arabia 
(Bombay,  1866);  V.  Chirol,  The  Middle  East  (London,  1904). 

(R.  A.  W.) 

HASAN  AND  HOSAIN  (or  HUSEIN),  sons  of  the  fourth 
Mahommedan  caliph  Ali  by  his  wife  Fatima,  daughter  of 
Mahomet.  On  Ali's  death  Hasar>  was  proclaimed  caliph,  but 
the  strength  of  Moawiya  who  had  rebelled  against  Ali  was  such 
that  he  resigned  his  claim  on  condition  that  he  should  have  the 
disposal  of  the  treasure  stored  at  Kufa,  with  the  revenues  of 
Darabjird.  This  secret  negotiation  came  to  the  ears  of  Hasan's 
supporters,  a  mutiny  broke  out  and  Hasan  was  wounded.  He 
retired  to  Medina  where  he  died  about  669.  The  story  that  he 
was  poisoned  at  Moawiya's  instigation  is  generally  discredited 
(see  CALIPHATE,  sect.  B,  §  i).  Subsequently  his  brother  Hosain 
was  invited  by  partisans  in  Kufa  to  revolt  against  Moawiya's 
successor  Yazid.  He  was,  however,  defeated  and  killed  at 
Kerbela  on  the  loth  of  October  (Muharram)  680  (see  CALIPHATE, 
sect.  B,  §  2  ad  init.).  Hosain  is  the  hero  of  the  Passion  Play 
which  is  performed  annually  (e.g.  at  Kerbela)  on  the  anniversary 
of  his  death  by  the  Shi'ites  of  Persia  and  India,  to  whom  from 
the  earliest  times  the  family  of  Ali  are  the  only  true  descendants  of 
Mahomet.  The  play  lasts  for  several  days  and  concludes  with 
the  carrying  out  of  the  coffins  (tabut)  of  the  martyrs  to  an  open 
place  in  the  neighbourhood. 

See  Sir  VVm.  Muir,  The  Caliphate  (1883);  Sir  Lewis  Pelly,  The 
Miracle  Play  of  Hasan  and  Hosein  (1879). 

HASAN  UL-BA§Rl  [Abu  Sa'ud  ul-flasan  ibn  Abi-1-Hasan 
Yassar  ul-Basri],  (642-728  or  737),  Arabian  theologian,  was 


born  at  Medina.  His  father  was  a  freedman  of  Zaid  ibn  Thabit, 
one  of  the  An^ar  (Helpers  of  the  Prophet),  his  mother  a  client  of 
Umm  Salama,  a  wife  of  Mahomet.  Tradition  says  that  Umm 
Salama  often  nursed  Hasan  in  his  infancy.  He  was  thus  one 
of  the  Tdbi'un  (i.e.  of  the  generation  that  succeeded  the  Helpers). 
He  became  a  teacher  of  Basra  and  founded  a  school  there. 
Among  his  pupils  was  Wasil  ibn  'Ata,  the  founder  of  the 
Mo'tazilites.  He  himself  was  a  great  supporter  of  orthodoxy 
and  the  most  important  representative  of  asceticism  in  the  time 
of  its  first  development.  With  him  fear  is  the  basis  of  morality, 
and  sadness  the  characteristic  of  his  religion.  Life  is  only  a 
pilgrimage,  and  comfort  must  be  denied  to  subdue  the  passions. 
Many  writers  testify  to  the  purity  of  his  life  and  to  his  excelling 
in  the  virtues  of  Mahomet's  own  companions.  He  was  "  as  if 
he  were  in  the  other  world."  In  politics,  too,  he  adhered  to  the 
earliest  principles  of  Islam,  being  strictly  opposed  to  the  in- 
herited caliphate  of  the  Omayyads  and  a  believer  in  the  election 
of  the  caliph. 

His  life  is  given  in  Nawawi's  Biographical  Dictionary  (ed.  F. 
Wiistenfeld,  Gottingen,  1842-1847).  Cf.  R.  Dozy,  Essai  sur  I'his- 
toire  de  I'islamisme,  pp.  201  sqq.  (Leiden  and  Paris,  1879);  A.  von 
Kremer,  Culturgeschichtliche  Streifzuge,  p.  5  seq. ;  R.  A.  Nicholson,  A 
Literary  History  of  the  Arabs,  pp.225-227  (London,  1907).  (G.W.T.) 

HASBEYA,  or  HASBEIYA,  a  town  of  the  Druses,  about  36  m. 
W.  of  Damascus,  situated  at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Hermon  in  Syria, 
overlooking  a  deep  amphitheatre  from  which  a  brook  flows  to 
the  Hasbani.  The  population  is  about  5000  (4000  Christians). 
Both  sides  of  the  valley  are  planted  in  terraces  with  olives,  vines 
and  other  fruit  trees.  The  grapes  are  either  dried  or  made 
into  a  kind  of  syrup.  In  1846  an  American  Protestant  mission 
was  established  in  the  town.  This  little  community  suffered 
much  persecution  at  first  from  the  Greek  Church,  and  afterwards 
from  the  Druses,  by  whom  in  1860  nearly  1000  Christians  were 
massacred,  while  others  escaped  to  Tyre  or  Sidon.  The  castle 
in  Hasbeya  was  held  by  the  crusaders  under  Count  Oran;  but 
in  1171  the  Druse  emirs  of  the  great  Shehab  family  (see  DRUSES) 
recaptured  it.  In  1205  this  family  was  confirmed  in  the  lordship 
of  the  town  and  district,  which  they  held  till  the  Turkish 
authorities  took  possession  of  the  castle  in  the  igth  century. 
Near  Hasbeya  are  bitumen  pits  let  by  the  government;  and  to 
the  north,  at  the  source  of  the  Hasbani,  the  ground  is  volcanic. 
Some  travellers  have  attempted  to  identify  Hasbeya  with  the 
biblical  Baal-Gad  or  Baal-Hermon. 

HASDAI  IBN  SHAPRUT,  the  founder  of  the  new  culture  of 
the  Jews  in  Moorish  Spain  in  the  loth  century.  He  was  both 
physician  and  minister  to  Caliph  Abd  ar-Rahman  III.  in  Cordova. 
A  man  of  wide  learning  and  culture,  he  encouraged  the  settlement 
of  Jewish  scholars  in  Andalusia,  and  his  patronage  of  literature, 
science  and  art  promoted  the  Jewish  renaissance  in  Europe. 
Poetry,  philology,  philosophy  all  flourished  under  his  encourage- 
ment, and  his  name  was  handed  down  to  posterity  as  the  first 
of  the  many  Spanish  Jews  who  combined  diplomatic  skill  with 
artistic  culture.  This  type  was  the  creation  of  the  Moors  in 
Andalusia,  and  the  Jews  ably  seconded  the  Mahommedans 
in  the  effort  to  make  life  at  once  broad  and  deep.  (I.  A.) 

HASDEU,  or  HAJDEU,  BOGDAN  PETRICEICU  (1836-1907), 
Rumanian  philologist,  was  born  at  Khotin  in  Bessarabia  in 
1836,  and  studied  at  the  university  of  Kharkov.  In  1858  he 
first  settled  in  Jassy  as  professor  of  the  high  school  and  librarian. 
He  may  be  considered  as  the  pioneer  in  many  branches  of 
Rumanian  philology  and  history.  At  Jassy  he  started  his  A  rchiva 
historica  a  Romaniei  (1865-1867),  in  which  a  large  number  of 
old  documents  in  Slavonic  and  Rumanian  were  published  for 
the  first  time.  In  1870  he  inaugurated  Columna  lui  Traian, 
the  best  philological  review  of  the  time  in  Rumania.  In  his 
Cuvente  den  Batrdni  (2  vols.,  1878-1881)  he  was  the  first  to 
contribute  to  the  history  of  apocryphal  literature  in  Rumania. 
His  Historia  critica  a  Romanilor  (1875),  though  incomplete, 
marks  the  beginning  of  critical  investigation  into  the  history 
of  Rumania.  Hasdeu  edited  the  ancient  Psalter  of  Coresi  of 
!S77  (Psaltirea  lui  Coresi,  1881).  His  Etymologicum  magnum 
Romaniae  (1886,  &c.)  is  the  beginning  of  an  encyclopaedic 
dictionary  of  the  Rumanian  language,  though  never  finished 


HASDRUBAL— HASLINGDEN 


beyond  the  letter  B.  In  1876  he  was  appointed  director  of  the 
state  archives  in  Bucharest  and  in  1878  professor  of  philology 
at  the  university  of  Bucharest.  His  works,  which  include  one 
drama,  Rasvan  $i  Vidra,  bear  the  impress  of  great  originality 
of  thought,  and  the  author  is  often  carried  away  by  his  profound 
erudition  and  vast  imagination.  Hasdeu  was  a  keen  politician. 
After  the  death  of  his  only  child  Julia  in  1888  he  became  a 
mystic  and  a  strong  believer  in  spiritism.  He  died  at  Campina 
on  the  7th  of  September  1907.  (M.  G.) 

HASDRUBAL,  the  name  of  several  Carthaginian  generals, 
among  whom  the  following  are  the  most  important: — 

1.  The  son-in-law  of   Hamilcar   Barca  (<?.».),  who  followed 
the  latter  in  his  campaign  against  the  governing  aristocracy 
at  Carthage  at  the  close  of  the  First  Punic  War,  and  in  his 
subsequent   career   of   conquest   in   Spain.     After   Hamilcar's 
death  (228)  Hasdrubal,  who  succeeded  him  in  the  command, 
extended  the  newly  acquired  empire  by  skilful  diplomacy,  and 
consolidated  it  by  the  foundation  of  New  Carthage  (Cartagena) 
as  the  capital  of  the  new  province,  and  by  a  treaty  with  Rome 
which  fixed  the  Ebro  as  the  boundary  between  the  two  powers. 
In  221  he  was  killed  by  an  assassin. 

Polybius  ii.  I ;  Livy  xxi.  I ;  Appian,  Hispanica,  4-8. 

2.  The  second  son  of  Hamilcar  Barca,  and  younger  brother 
of  Hannibal.     Left  in  command  of  Spain  when  Hannibal  departed 
to   Italy  (218),  he   fought  for  six  years  against  the  brothers 
Gnaeus  and  Publius  Scipio.     He  had  on  the  whole  the  worst 
of  the  conflict,  and  a  defeat  in  216  prevented  him  from  joining 
Hannibal  in  Italy  at  a  critical  moment;    but  in  212  he  com- 
pletely routed  his  opponents,  both  the  Scipios  being  killed.     He 
was  subsequently  outgeneralled  by  Publius  Scipio  the  Younger, 
who  in  209  captured  New  Carthage  and  gained  other  advantages. 
In  the  same  year  he  was  summoned  to  join  his  brother  in  Italy. 
He  eluded  Scipio  by  crossing  the  Pyrenees  at  their  western 
extremity,  and,  making  his  way  thence  through  Gaul  and  the 
Alps  in  safety,  penetrated  far  into  Central  Italy  (207).     He  was 
ultimately  checked  by  two  Roman  armies,  and  being  forced  to 
give  battle  was  decisively  defeated  on  the  banks  of  the  Metaurus. 
Hasdrubal  himself  fell  in  the  fight;    his  head  was  cut  off  and 
thrown  into  Hannibal's  camp  as  a  sign  of  his  utter  defeat. 

Polybius  x.  34-xi.  3;  Livy  xxvii.  1-51;  Appian,  Bellum  Hanni- 
balicum,  ch.  Hi.  sqq. ;  R.  Oehler,  Der  letzte  Feldzug  des  Barkiden 
Hasdrubals  (Berlin,  1897);  C.  Lehmann,  Die  Angriffe  der  drei 
Barkiden  auf  Italien  (Leipzig,  1905).  See  also  PUNIC  WARS. 

BASE,  CARL  BENEDICT  (1780-1864),  French  Hellenist,  of 
German  extraction,  was  born  at  Suiza  near  Naumburg  on  the 
nth  of  May  1780.  Having  studied  at  Jena  and  Helmstedt,  in 
1801  he  made  his  way  on  foot  to  Paris,  where  he  was  commis- 
sioned by  the  comte  de  Choiseul-Gouffier,  late  ambassador  to 
Constantinople,  to  edit  the  works  of  Johannes  Lydus  from  a 
MS.  given  to  Choiseul  by  Prince  Mourousi.  Hase  thereupon 
decided  to  devote  himself  to  Byzantine  history  and  literature, 
•on  which  he  became  the  acknowledged  authority.  In  1805  he 
obtained  an  appointment  in  the  MSS.  department  of  the  royal 
library;  in  1816  became  professor  of  palaeography  and  modern 
Greek  at  the  Ecole  Royale,  and  in  1852  professor  of  compara- 
tive grammar  in  the  university.  In  1812  he  was  selected  to 
superintend  the  studies  of  Louis  Napoleon  (afterwards  Napoleon 
III.)  and  his  brother.  He  died  on  the  2 ist  of  March  1864.  His 
most  important  works  are  the  editions  of  Leo  Diaconus  and 
other  Byzantine  writers  (1819),  and  of  Johannes  Lydus,  De 
ostentis  (1823),  a  masterpiece  of  textual  restoration,  the  diffi- 
culties of  which  were  aggravated  by  the  fact  that  the  MS.  had 
for  a  long  time  been  stowed  away  in  a  wine-barrel  in  a  monastery. 
He  also  edited  part  of  the  Greek  authors  in  the  collection  of  the 
Historians  of  the  Crusades  and  contributed  many  additions 
(from  the  fathers,  medical  and  technical  writers,  scholiasts  and 
other  sources)  to  the  new  edition  of  Stephanus's  Thesaurus. 

See  J.  D.  Guigniaut,  Notice  historique  sur  la  vie  el  les  travaux  de 
Carl  Benedict  Hase  (Paris,  1867);  articles  in  Nouvelle  Biographic 
generate  and  Allgemeine  deutsche  Biographie;  and  a  collection  of 
autobiographical  letters,  Briefe  von  der  Wanderung  und  aus  Paris, 
edited  by  O.  Heine  (1894),  containing  a  vivid  account  of  Hase's 
journey,  his  enthusiastic  impressions  of  Paris  and  the  hardships  of 
his  early  life. 


HASE,  KARL  AUGUST  VON  (1800-1890),  German  Protestant 
theologian  and  Church  historian ,  was  born  at  Steinbach  in  Saxony 
on  the  25th  of  August  1800.  He  studied  at  Leipzig  and  Erlangen, 
and  in  1829  was  called  to  Jena  as  professor  of  theology.  He 
retired  in  1883  and  was  made  a  baron.  He  died  at  Jena  on  the 
3rd  of  January  1890.  Hase's  aim  was  to  reconcile  modern  culture 
with  historical  Christianity  in  a  scientific  way.  But  though  a 
liberal  theologian,  he  was  no  dry  rationalist.  Indeed,  he  vigor- 
ously attacked  rationalism,  as  distinguished  from  the  rational 
principle,  charging  it  with  being  unscientific  inasmuch  as  it 
ignored  the  historical  significance  of  Christianity,  shut  its  eyes 
to  individuality  and  failed  to  give  religious  feeling  its  due.  His 
views  are  presented  scientifically  in  his  Evangelisch-protestan- 
tische  Dogmatik  (1826;  6th  ed.,  1870),  the  value  of  which  "  lies 
partly  in  the  full  and  judiciously  chosen  historical  materials 
prefixed  to  each  dogma,  and  partly  in  the  skill,  caution  and  tact 
with  which  the  permanent  religious  significance  of  various 
dogmas  is  discussed  "  (Otto  Pfleiderer) .  More  popular  in  style  is 
his  Gnosis  oder  prot.-evang.  Glaubenslehre  (3  vols.,  1827-1829;  2nd 
ed.  in  2  vols.,  1869-1870).  But  his  reputation  rests  chiefly  on  his 
treatment  of  Church  history  in  his  Kirchengeschichte,  Lehrbuch 
zunachst  jiir  akademische  Vorlesungen  (1834,  i2th  ed.,  1900). 

His  biographical  studies,  Franz  von  Assist  (1856;  2nd  ed.,  1892), 
Katerina  von  Siena  (1864;  2nd  ed.,  1892),  Neue  Propheten  (Die 
Jungfrau  von  Orleans,  Savonarola,  Thomas  Miinzer)  are  judicious 
and  sympathetic.  Other  works  are:  Hutterus  redivivus  oder  Dog- 
matik der  evang.-luth.  Kirche  (1827;  I2th  ed.,  1883),  in  which  he 
sought  to  present  the  teaching  of  the  Protestant  church  in  such  a 
way  as  Hutter  would  have  reconstructed  it,  had  he  still  been  alive; 
Leben  Jesu  (1829;  5th  ed.,  1865;  Eng.  trans.,  1860);  in  an  enlarged 
form,  Geschichte  Jesu  (2nd  ed.,  1891);  and  Handbuch  der  prot. 
Polemik  gegen  die  rom.-kath.  Kirche  (1862;  7th  ed.,  1900;  Eng. 
trans.,  1906). 

For  his  life  see  his  Ideale  und  Irrtiimer  (1872;  5th  ed.,  1894)  and 
Annalen  meines  Leben:  (1891);  and  cf.  generally  Otto  Pfleiderer, 
Development  of  Theology  (1890);  F.  Lichtenberger,  Hist,  of  German 
Theology  (1889). 

HASHISH,  or  HASHEESH,  the  Arabic  name,  meaning  literally 
"  dried  herb,"  for  the  various  preparations  of  the  Indian  hemp 
plant  (Cannabis  indica),  used  as  a  narcotic  or  intoxicant  in  the 
East,  and  either  smoked,  chewed  ordrunk  (see  HEMP  and  BHANG). 
From  the  Arabic  hashishin,  i.e.  "hemp-eaters,"  comes  the  English 
"  assassin  "  (see  ASSASSIN). 

HASLEMERE,  a  market-town  in  the  Guildford  parliamentary 
division  of  Surrey,  England,  43  m.  S.W.  from  London  by  the 
London  &  South-Western  railway.  It  is  situated  in  an  elevated 
valley  between  the  bold  ridges  of  Hindhead  (895  ft.)  and  Black- 
down  (918  ft.).  Their  summits  are  open  and  covered  with  heath, 
but  their  flanks  and  the  lower  ground  are  magnificently  wooded. 
The  hills  are  deeply  scored  by  steep  and  picturesque  valleys,  of 
which  the  most  remarkable  is  the  Devil's  Punch  Bowl,  a  hollow 
of  regular  form  on  the  west  flank  of  Hindhead.  The  invigorating 
air  has  combined  with  scenic  attraction  to  make  the  district  a 
favourite  place  of  residence.  Professor  Tyndall  built  a  house  on 
the  top  of  Hindhead,  setting  an  example  followed  by  many 
others.  On  Blackdown,  closely  screened  by  plantations,  is 
Aldworth,  built  for  Alfred,  Lord  Tennyson,  who  died  here  in 
1892.  George  Eliot  stayed  for  a  considerable  period  at  Shotter- 
mill,  a  neighbouring  village.  Pop.  of  Haslemere  (1901),  2614; 
of  Hindhead,  666. 

HASLINGDEN,  a  market-town  and  municipal  borough  in  the 
Rossendale  and  Heywood  parliamentary  divisions  of  Lancashire, 
England,  19  m.  N.  by  W.  from  Manchester  by  the  Lancashire  & 
Yorkshire  railway.  Pop.  (1901),  18,543.  It  lies  in  a  hilly  district 
on  the  borders  of  the  forest  of  Rossendale,  and  is  supposed  by 
some  to  derive  its  name  from  the  hazel  trees  which  formerly 
abounded  in  its  neighbourhood.  The  old  town  stood  on  the 
slope  of  a  hill,  but  the  modern  part  ha?  extended  about  its  base. 
The  parish  church  of  St  James  was  rebuilt  in  1780,  with  the 
exception  of  the  tower,  which  dates  from  the  time  of  Henry  VIII. 
The  woollen  manufacture  was  formerly  the  staple.  The 
town,  however,  steadily  increasing  in  importance,  has  cotton, 
woollen  and  engineering  works — coal-mining,  quarrying  and 
brickmaking  are  carried  on  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  borough, 


HASPE— HASSELQUIST 


51 


as  incorporated  in  1891 ,  comprised  several  townships  and  parts  of 
townships,  but  under  the  Local  Government  Act  of  1894  these 
were  united  into  one  civil  parish.  The  corporation  consists  of  a 
mayor,  6  aldermen  and  18  councillors.  Area,  8196  acres. 

HASPE,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Westphalia,  in  the  valley  of  the  Ennepe,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Hasper,  and  on  the  railway  from  Diisseldorf  to  Dortmund,  10  m. 
N.E.  of  Barmen  by  rail.  Pop.  (1905),  19,813.  Its  industries 
include  iron  foundries,  rolling  mills,  puddling  furnaces,  and 
manufactures  of  iron,  steel  and  brass  wares  and  of  machines. 
Haspe  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  town  in  1873. 

HASSAM,  CHILDE  (1859-  ),  American  figure  and  land- 
scape painter,  born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  was  a  pupil  of 
Boulanger  and  Lefebvre  in  Paris.  He  soon  fell  under  the  influence 
of  the  Impressionists,  and  took  to  painting  in  a  style  of  his  own, 
in  brilliant  colour,  with  effective  touches  of  pure  pigment.  He 
won  a  bronze  medal  at  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1889;  medals  at 
the  World's  Fair,  Chicago,  1893;  Boston  Art  Club,  1896; 
Philadelphia  Art  Club,  1892;  Carnegie  Institute,  Pittsburg, 
1898;  Buffalo  Pan-American,  1901;  Temple  gold  medal, 
Pennsylvania  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  Philadelphia,  1899;  and 
silver  medal,  Paris  Exhibition,  1900.  He  became  a  member  of 
the  National  Academy  of  Design,  the  Society  of  American 
Artists,  the  Ten  Americans,  the  American  Water  Colour  Society, 
the  Societe  Nationale  des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris,  and  the  Secession 
Society,  Munich. 

HASSAN,  a  town  and  district  of  Mysore,  India.  The  town 
dates  from  the  nth  century  and  had  in  1901  a  population  of  8241. 
The  district  naturally  divides  into  two  portions,  the  Malnad, 
or  hill  country,  which  includes  some  of  the  highest  ranges  of 
the  Western  Ghats,  and  the  Maidan  or  plain  country,  sloping 
towards  the  south.  The  Hemavati,  which  flows  into  the  Cauvery 
in  the  extreme  south,  is  the  most  important  river  of  the  district. 
The  upper  slopes  of  the  Western  Ghats  are  abundantly  clothed 
with  magnificent  forests,  and  wild  animals  abound.  Among 
the  mineral  products  are  kaolin,  felspar  and  quartz.  The  soil 
of  the  valleys  is  a  rich  red  alluvial  loam.  The  area  is  2547  sq.  m. 
Population  (1901),  568,919,  showing  an  increase  of  11%  in  the 
decade.  The  district  contains  some  of  the  most  remarkable 
archaeological  monuments  in  India,  such  as  the  colossal  Jain 
image  at  Sravana  Belgola  (a  monolith  57  ft.  high  on  the  summit 
of  a  hill)  and  the  great  temple  at  Halebid.  Coffee  cultivation 
has  been  on  the  increase  of  late  years.  The  first  plantation  was 
opened  in  1843,  and  now  there  are  many  coffee  estates  owned 
by  Europeans  and  also  native  holdings.  The  exports  are  large, 
consisting  chiefly  of  food-grains  and  coffee.  The  imports  are 
European  piece-goods,  hardware  of  all  sorts  and  spices.  The 
largest  weekly  fair  is  held  at  Alur.  A  great  annual  religious 
gathering  and  fair,  attended  by  about  10,000  persons,  takes 
place  every  year  at  Melukot.  The  Southern  Mahratta  railway 
traverses  the  north-east  of  the  district. 

The  real  history  of  Hassan  does  not  begin  until  the  epoch  of 
the  Hoysala  dynasty,  which  lasted  from  the  nth  till  the  I4th 
century.  Their  capital  was  at  D  warasamundra  (D  waravati-pura) , 
the  ruins  of  which  are  still  to  be  seen  scattered  round  the  village 
of  Halebid.  The  earlier  kings  professed  the  Jain  faith,  but  the 
finest  temples  were  erected  to  Siva  by  the  later  monarchs  of  the 
line.  While  they  were  at  the  zenith  of  their  power  the  whole 
of  southern  India  acknowledged  their  sway. 

HASSANIA,  an  African  tribe  of  Semitic  stock.  They  inhabit 
the  desert  between  Merawi  and  the  Nile  at  the  6th  Cataract, 
and  the  left  bank  of  the  Blue  Nile  immediately  south  of  Khartum. 

HASSAN  IBN  THiBIT  (died  674),  Arabian  poet,  was  born 
in  Yathrib  (Medina),  a  member  of  the  tribe  Rhazraj.  In  his 
youth  he  travelled  to  Hira  and  Damascus,  then  settled  in  Medina, 
where,  after  the  advent  of  Mahomet,  he  accepted  Islam  and 
wrote  poems  in  defence  of  the  prophet.  His  poetry  is  regarded 
as  commonplace  and  lacking  in  distinction. 

His  diwan  has  been  published  at  Bombay  (1864),  Tunis  (1864)  and 
Lahore  (1878).  See  H.  Hirschfeld's  "Prolegomena  to  an  edition 
of  the  Diwan  of  Hassan  "  in  Transactions  of  Oriental  Congress 
(London,  1892).  (G.  W.  T.) 


HASSE,  JOHANN  ADOLPH  (1699-1783),  German  musical 
composer,  was  born  at  Bergedorf  near  Hamburg,  on  the  25th 
of  March  1699,  and  received  his  first  musical  education  from 
his  father.  Being  possessed  of  a  fine  tenor  voice,  he  chose  the 
theatrical  career,  and  joined  the  operatic  troupe  conducted  by 
Reinhard  Keiser,  in  whose  orchestra  Handel  had  played  the 
second  violin  some  years  before.  Hassc's  success  led  to  an 
engagement  at  the  court  theatre  of  Brunswick,  and  it  was  there 
that,  in  1723,  he  made  his  debut  as  a  composer  with  the  opera 
Antigonus.  The  success  of  this  first  work  induced  the  duke  to 
send  Hasse  to  Italy  for  the  completion  of  his  studies,  and  in 
1724  he  went  to  Naples  and  placed  himself  under  Porpora,  with 
whom,  however,  he  seems  to  have  disagreed  both  as  a  man  and 
as  an  artist.  On  the  other  hand  he  gained  the  friendship  of 
Alessandro  Scarlatti,  to  whom  he  owed  his  first  commission  for 
a  serenade  for  two  voices,  sung  at  a  family  celebration  of  a 
wealthy  merchant  by  two  of  the  greatest  singers  of  Italy,  Farinelli 
and  Signora  Tesi.  This  event  established  Hasse's  fame;  he 
soon  became  very  popular,  and  his  opera  Sesostrato,  written  for 
the  Royal  Opera  at  Naples  in  1726,  made  his  name  known  all 
over  Italy.  At  Venice,  where  he  went  in  1727,  he  became 
acquainted  with  the  celebrated  singer  Faustina  Bordogni  (born 
at  Venice  in  1700),  who  became  the  composer's  wife  in  1730. 
The  two  artists  soon  afterwards  went  to  Dresden,  in  compliance 
with  a  brilliant  offer  made  to  them  by  the  splendour-loving 
elector  of  Saxony,  Augustus  II.  There  Hasse  remained  for  two 
years,  after  which  he  again  journeyed  to  Italy,  and  also  in  1733 
to  London,  in  which  latter  city  he  was  tempted  by  the  aristocratic 
clique  inimical  to  Handel  to  become  the  rival  and  antagonist 
of  that  great  master.  But  this  he  modestly  and  wisely  declined, 
remaining  in  London  only  long  enough  to  superintend  the 
rehearsals  for  his  opera  Artaserse  (first  produced  at  Venice, 
1730).  All  this  while  Faustina  had  remained  at  Dresden,  the 
declared  favourite  of  the  public  and  unfortunately  also  of  the 
elector,  nor  was  her  husband,  who  remained  attached  to  her, 
allowed  to  see  her  except  at  long  intervals.  In  1739,  after  the 
death  of  Augustus  II.,  Hasse  settled  permanently  at  Dresden 
till  1763,  when  he  and  his  wife  retired  from  court  service  with 
considerable  pensions.  But  Hasse  was  still  too  young  to  rest 
on  his  laurels.  He  went  with  his  family  to  Vienna,  and  added 
several  operas  to  the  great  number  of  his  works  already  in 
existence.  His  last  work  for  the  stage  was  the  opera  Ruggiero 
(1771),  written  for  the  wedding  of  Archduke  Ferdinand  at  Milan. 
On  the  same  occasion  a  work  by  Mozart,  then  fourteen  years 
old,  was  performed,  and  Hasse  observed  "  this  youngster  will 
surpass  us  all."  By  desire  of  his  wife  Hasse  settled  at  her 
birthplace  Venice,  and  there  he  died  on  the  2^rd  of  December 
1783.  His  compositions  include  as  many  as  120  operas,  besides 
oratorios,  cantatas,  masses,  and  almost  every  variety  of  instru- 
mental music.  During  the  siege  of  Dresden  by  the  Prussians 
in  1760,  most  of  his  manuscripts,  collected  for  a  complete  edition 
to  be  brought  out  at  the  expense  of  the  elector,  were  burnt. 
Some  of  his  works,  amongst  them  an  opera  Alcide  al  Biiiio  (i  760), 
have  been  published,  and  the  libraries  of  Vienna  and  Dresden 
possess  the  autographs  of  others.  Hasse's  instrumentation  is 
certainly  not  above  the  low  level  attained  by  the  average 
musicians  of  his  time,  and  his  ensembles  do  not  present  any 
features  of  interest.  In  dramatic  fire  also  he  was  wanting,  but 
he  had  a  fund  of  gentle  and  genuine  melody,  and  by  this  fact 
his  enormous  popularity  during  his  life  must  be  accounted  for. 
The  two  airs  which  Farinelli  had  to  repeat  every  day  for  ten 
years  to  the  melancholy  king  of  Spain,  Philip  V.,  were  both  from 
Hasse's  works.  Of  Faustina  Hasse  it  will  be  sufficient  to  add 
that  she  was,  according  to  the  unanimous  verdict  of  the  critics 
(including  Dr  Burney),  one  of  the  greatest  singers  of  a  time  rich 
in  vocal  artists.  The  year  of  her  death  is  not  exactly  known. 
Most  probably  it  shortly  preceded  that  of  her  husband. 

HASSELQUIST,  FREDERIK  (1722-1752),  Swedish  traveller 
and  naturalist,  was  born  at  Tornevalla,  East  Gothland,  on  the 
3rd  of  January  1722.  On  account  of  the  frequently  expressed 
regrets  of  Linnaeus,  under  whom  he  studied  at  Upsala,  at  the 
lack  of  information  regarding  the  natural  history  of  Palestine, 


HASSELT,  A.  H.  C.  VAN— HASSENPFLUG 


Hasselquist  resolved  to  undertake  a  journey  to  that  country, 
and  a  sufficient  subscription  having  been  obtained  to  defray 
expenses,  he  reached  Smyrna  towards  the  end  of  1749.  He 
visited  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  Cyprus  and  Palestine, 
making  large  natural  history  collections,  but  his  constitution, 
naturally  weak,  gave  way  under  the  fatigues  of  travel,  and 
he  died  near  Smyrna  on  the  pth  of  February  1752  on  his  way 
home.  His  collections  reached  home  in  safety,  and  five  years 
after  his  death  his  notes  were  published  by  Linnaeus  under  the 
title  Resa  till  Heliga  Landet  fordttad  fran  ar  1749  till  1752,  which 
was  translated  into  French  and  German  in  1762  and  into  English 
in  1766. 

HASSELT,  ANDRfi  HENRI  CONSTANT  VAN  (1806-1874), 
Belgian  poet,  was  born  at  Maastricht,  in  Limburg,  on  the  5th  of 
January  1806.  He  was  educated  in  his  native  town,  and  at.the 
university  of  Liege.  In  1833  he  left  Maastricht,  then  blockaded 
by  the  Belgian  forces,  and  made  his  way  to  Brussels,  where  he 
became  a  naturalized  Belgian,  and  was  attached  to  the  Biblio- 
theque  de  Bourgogne.  In  1843  he  entered  the  education  depart- 
ment, and  eventually  became  an  inspector  of  normal  schools. 
His  native  language  was  Dutch,  and  as  a  French  poet  Andre  van 
Hasselt  had  to  overcome  the  difficulties  of  writing  in  a  foreign 
language.  He  had  published  a  Chant  hellenique  in  honour  of 
Canaris  in  the  columns  of  La  Sentinelle  des  Pays-Box  as  early  as 
1826,  and  other  poems  followed.  His  first  volume  of  verse, 
Primeveres  (1834),  shows  markedly  the  influence  of  Victor  Hugo, 
which  had  been  strengthened  by  a  visit  to  Paris  in  1830.  His 
relations  with  Hugo  became  intimate  in  1851-1852,  when  the 
poet  was  an  exile  in  Brussels.  In  1839  he  became  editor  of  the 
Renaissance,  a  paper  founded  to  encourage  the  fine  arts.  His 
chief  work,  the  epic  of  the  Quatre  Incarnations  du  Christ,  was 
published  in  1867.  In  the  same  volume  were  printed  his  Etudes 
rylhmiqu.es,  a  series  of  metrical  experiments  designed  to  show 
that  the  French  language  could  be  adapted  to  every  kind  of 
musical  rhythm.  With  the  same  end  in  view  he  executed  trans- 
lations of  many  German  songs,  and  wrote  new  French  libretti 
for  the  best-known  operas  of  Mozart,  Weber  and  others.  Hasselt 
died  at  Saint  Josse  ten  Noode,  a  suburb  of  Brussels,  on  the  ist 
of  December  1874. 

A  selection  from  his  works  (10  vols.,  Brussels,  1876-1877)  was 
edited  by  MM.  Charles  Hen  and  Louis  Alvin.  He  wrote  many 
books  for  children,  chiefly  under  the  pseudonym  of  Alfred  Avelines; 
and  studies  on  historical  and  literary  subjects.  The  books  written 
in  collaboration  with  Charles  Hen  are  signed  Charles  Andre\  A 
bibliography  of  his  writings  is  appended  to  the  notice  by  Louis 
Alvin  in  the  Biographic  nat.  de  Belgique,  vol.  vii.  Van  Hasselt's 
fame  has  continued  to  increase  since  his  death.  A  series  of  tributes 
to  his  memory  are  printed  in  the  Poesies  choisies  (1901),  edited  by 
M.  Georges  Barral  for  the  Collection  des  poetes  franQ ais  de  I'etranger. 
This  book  contains  a  biographical  and  critical  study  by  Jules  Guil- 
laume,  and  some  valuable  notes  on  the  poet's  theories  of  rhythm. 

HASSELT,  the  capital  of  the  Belgian  province  of  Limburg. 
Pop.  (1904),  16,179.  It  derives  its  name  from  Hazel-bosch  (hazel 
wood).  It  stands  at  the  junction  of  several  important  roads 
and  railways  from  Maaseyck,  Maastricht  and  Liege.  It  has  many 
breweries  and  distilleries,  and  the  spirit  known  by  its  name, 
which  is  a  coarse  gin,  has  a  certain  reputation  throughout 
Belgium.  On  the  6th  of  August  1831  the  Dutch  troops  obtained 
here  their  chief  success  over  the  Belgian  nationalists  during  the 
War  of  Independence.  Hasselt  is  best  known  for  its  great  septen- 
nial fete  held  on  the  day  of  Assumption,  August  isth.  The 
curious  part  of  this  fete,  which  is  held  in  honour  of  the  Virgin 
under  the  name  of  Virga  Jesse,  is  the  conversion  of  the  town  for 
the  day  into  the  semblance  of  a  forest.  Fir  trees  and  branches 
from  the  neighbouring  forest  are  collected  and  planted  in  front 
of  the  houses,  so  that  for  a  few  hours  Hasselt  has  the  appearance 
of  being  restored  to  its  primitive  condition  as  a  wood.  The 
figure  of  the  giant  who  is  supposed  to  have  once  held  the  Hazel- 
bosch  under  his  terror  is  paraded  on  this  occasion  as  the  "  lounge 
man."  Originally  this  celebration  was  held  annually,  but  in 
the  1 8th  century  it  was  restricted  to  once  in  seven  years.  There 
was  a  celebration  in  1905. 

HASSENPFLUG,  HANS  DANIEL  LUDWI6  FRIEDRICH 
(1794-1862),  German  statesman,  was  born  at  Hanau  in  Hesse 


on  the  26th  of  February  1794.  He  studied  law  at  Gb'ttingen, 
graduated  in  1816,  and  took  his  seat  as  Assessor  in  the  judicial 
chamber  of  the  board  of  government  (Regierungskollegium)  at 
Cassel,  of  which  his  father  Johann  Hassenpflug  was  also  a  member. 
In  1821  he  was  nominated  by  the  new  elector,  William  II., 
Justisrat  (councillor  of  justice) ;  in  1832  he  became  Minislerialrat 
and  reporter  (Referent)  to  the  ministry  of  Hesse-Cassel,  and  in 
May  of  the  same  year  was  appointed  successively  minister  of 
justice  and  of  the  interior.  It  was  from  this  moment  that  he 
became  conspicuous  in  the  constitutional  struggles  of  Germany. 

The  reactionary  system  introduced  by  the  elector  William  I. 
had  broken  down  before  the  revolutionary  movements  of  1830, 
and  in  1831  Hesse  had  received  a  constitution.  This  develop- 
ment was  welcome  neither  to  the  elector  nor  to  the  other  German 
governments,  and  Hassenpflug  deliberately  set  to  work  to  reverse 
it.  In  doing  so  he  gave  the  lie  to  his  own  early  promise;  for  he 
had  been  a  conspicuous  member  of  the  revolutionary  Burschf.n- 
schaft  at  Gottingen,  and  had  taken  part  as  a  volunteer  in  the  War 
of  Liberation.  Into  the  causes  of  the  change  it  is  unnecessary  to 
inquire;  Hassenpflug  by  training  and  tradition  was  a  strait-laced 
official;  he  was  also  a  first-rate  lawyer;  and  his  naturally 
arbitrary  temper  had  from  the  first  displayed  itself  in  an  attitude 
of  overbearing  independence  towards  his  colleagues  and  even 
towards  the  elector.  To  such  a  man  constitutional  restrictions 
were  intolerable,  and  from  the  moment  he  came  into  power  he 
set  to  work  to  override  them,  by  means  of  press  censorship,  legal 
quibbles,  unjustifiable  use  of  the  electoral  prerogatives,  or  frank 
supersession  of  the  legislative  rights  of  the  Estates  by  electoral 
ordinances.  The  story  of  the  constitutional  deadlock  that 
resulted  belongs  to  the  history  of  Hesse-Cassel  and  Germany; 
so  far  as  Hassenpflug  himself  was  concerned,  it  made  him,  more 
even  than  Metternich,  the  Mephistopheles  of  the  Reaction  to 
the  German  people.  In  Hesse  itself  he  was  known  as  "  Hessen's 
Hass  und  Fluch  "  (Hesse's  hate  and  curse).  In  the  end,  however, 
his  masterful  temper  became  unendurable  to  the  regent  (Frederick 
William) ;  in  the  summer  of  1837  he  was  suddenly  removed  from 
his  post  as  minister  of  the  interior  and  he  thereupon  left  the 
elector's  service. 

In  1838  he  was  appointed  head  of  the  administration  of  the 
little  principality  of  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,  an  office  which 
he  exchanged  in  the  following  year  for  that  of  civil  governor 
of  the  grand-duchy  of  Luxemburg.  Here,  too,  his  independent 
character  suffered  him  to  remain  only  a  year:  he  resented  having 
to  transact  all  business  with  the  grand-duke  (king  of  the  Nether- 
lands) through  a  Dutch  official  at  the  Hague;  he  protested 
against  the  absorption  of  the  Luxemburg  surplus  in  the  Dutch 
treasury;  and,  failing  to  obtain  redress,  he  resigned  (1840). 
From  1841  to  1850  he  was  in  Prussian  service,  first  as  a  member 
of  the  supreme  court  of  justice  (Oberlribunal)  and  then  (1846) 
as  president  of  the  high  court  of  appeal  (Oberappellationsgericht) 
at  Greifswald.  In  1850  he  was  tried  for  peculation  and  convicted ; 
and,  though  this  judgment  was  reversed  on  appeal,  he  left  the 
service  of  Prussia. 

With  somewhat  indecent  haste  (the  appeal  had  not  been 
heard)  he  was  now  summoned  by  the  elector  of  Hesse  once 
more  to  the  head  of  the  government,  and  he  immediately  threw 
himself  again  with  zeal  into  the  struggle  against  the  constitution. 
He  soon  found,  however,  that  the  opinion  of  all  classes,  including 
the  army,  was  solidly  against  him,  and  he  decided  to  risk  all  on 
an  alliance  with  the  reviving  fortunes  of  Austria,  which  was 
steadily  working  for  the  restoration  of  the  status  quo  overthrown 
by  the  revolution  of  1848.  On  his  advice  the  elector  seceded 
from  the  Northern  Union  established  by  Prussia  and,  on  the 
i3th  of  September,  committed  the  folly  of  flying  secretly  from 
Hesse  with  his  minister.  They  went  to  Frankfort,  where  the 
federal  diet  had  been  re-established,  and  on  the  2ist  persuaded 
the  diet  to  decree  an  armed  intervention  in  Hesse.  This  decree, 
carried  out  by  Austrian  troops,  all  but  led  to  war  with  Prussia, 
but  the  unreadiness  of  the  Berlin  government  led  to  the  triumph 
of  Austria  and  of  Hassenpflug,  who  at  the  end  of  the  year  was 
once  more  installed  in  power  at  Cassel  as  minister  of  finance. 
His  position  was,  however,  not  enviable;  he  was  loathed  and 


HASTINAPUR— HASTINGS,  MARQUESS  OF 


53 


despised  by  all,  and  disliked  even  by  his  master.  The  climax 
came  in  November  1853,  when  he  was  publicly  horse-whipped 
by  the  count  of  Isenburg-Wachtersbach,  the  elector's  son-in-law. 
The  count  was  pronounced  insane;  but  Hassenpflug  was  con- 
scious of  the  method  in  his  madness,  and  tendered  his  resignation. 
This  was,  however,  not  accepted;  and  it  was  not  till  the  i6th 
of  October  1855  that  he  was  finally  relieved  of  his  offices.  He 
retired  to  Marburg,  where  he  died  on  the  isth  of  October  1862. 
He  lived  just  long  enough  to  hear  of  the  restoration  of  the  Hesse 
constitution  of  1831  (June  21,  1862),  which  it  had  been  his  life's 
mission  to  destroy.  Of  his  publications  the  most  important  is 
Actenstiicke,  die  landstdndischen  Anklagen  wider  den  Kur/iirst- 
lichen  hessischen  Staatsminister  Hassenpflug.  Ein  Beitrag  zur 
Zeitgeschichte  und  zum  neueren  deutschen  Staatsrcchte,  anonym. 
(Stuttgart  and  Tubingen,  1836).  He  was  twice  married,  his 
first  wife  being  the  sister  of  the  brothers  Grimm.  His  son  Karl 
Hassenpflug  (1824-1890)  was  a  distinguished  sculptor. 

See  the  biography  by  Wippermann  in  Allgemeine  deutsche  Bio- 
graphic, with  authorities. 

HASTINAPUR,  an  ancient  city  of  British  India,  in  the  Meerut 
district  of  the  United  Provinces,  lying  on  the  bank  of  a  former 
bed  of  the  Ganges,  22  m.  N.E.  of  Meerut.  It  formed  the  capital 
of  the  great  Pandava  kingdom,  celebrated  in  the  Mahabhdrata, 
and  probably  one  of  the  earliest  Aryan  settlements  outside  the 
Punjab.  Tradition  points  to  a  group  of  shapeless  mounds  as 
the  residence  of  the  Lunar  princes  of  the  house  of  Bharata  whose 
deeds  are  commemorated  in  the  great  national  epic.  After  the 
conclusion  of  the  famous  war  which  forms  the  central  episode 
of  that  poem,  Hastinapur  remained  for  some  time  the  metropolis 
of  the  descendants  of  Parikshit,  but  the  town  was  finally  swept 
away  by  a  flood  of  the  Ganges,  and  the  capital  was  transferred 
to  Kausambi. 

HASTINGS,  a  famous  English  family.  JOHN,  BARON  HASTINGS 
(c.  1262-0.  1313),  was  a  son  of  Sir  Henry  de  Hastings  (d.  1268), 
who  was  summoned  to  parliament  as  a  baron  by  Simon  de 
Montfort  in  1264.  Having  joined  Montfort's  party  Sir  Henry 
led  the  Londoners  at  the  battle  of  Lewes  and  was  taken  prisoner 
at  Evesham.  After  his  release  he  continued  his  opposition 
to  Henry  III.;  he  was  among  those  who  resisted  the  king  at 
Kenilworth,  and  after  the  issue  of  the  Dictum  de  Kenilworlh 
he  commanded  the  remnants  of  the  baronial  party  when  they 
made  their  last  stand  in  the  isle  of  Ely,  submitting  to  Henry  in 
July  1267.  His  younger  son,  Edmund,  was  specially  noted  for 
his  military  services  in  Scotland  during  the  reign  of  Edward  I. 
John  Hastings  married  Isabella  (d.  1305),  daughter  of  William 
de  Valence,  earl  of  Pembroke,  a  half-brother  of  Henry  III., 
and  fought  in  Scotland  and  in  Wales.  Through  his  mother, 
Joanna  de  Cantilupe,  he  inherited  the  extensive  lordship  of 
Abergavenny,  hence  he  is  sometimes  referred  to  as  lord  of 
Bergavenny,  and  in  1295  he  was  summoned  to  parliament  as 
a  baron.  Before  this  date,  however,  he  had  come  somewhat 
prominently  to  the  front.  His  paternal  grandmother,  Ada, 
was  a  younger  daughter  of  David,  earl  of  Huntingdon,  and  a 
niece  of  the  Scottish  king,  William  the  Lion;  and  in  1290  when 
Margaret,  the  maid  of  Norway,  died,  Hastings  came  forward 
as  a  claimant  for  the  vacant  throne.  Although  unsuccessful 
in  the  matter  he  did  not  swerve  from  his  loyalty  to  Edward  I. 
He  fought  constantly  either  in  France  or  in  Scotland;  he  led 
the  bishop  of  Durham's  men  at  the  celebrated  siege  of  Carlaverock 
castle  in  1300;  and  with  his  brother  Edmund  he  signed  the 
letter  which  in  1301  the  English  barons  sent  to  Pope  Boniface 
VIII.  repudiating  papal  interference  in  the  affairs  of  Scotland; 
on  two  occasions  he  represented  the  king  in  Aquitaine.  Hastings 
died  in  1312  or  1313.  His  second  wife  was  Isabella,  daughter 
of  the  elder  Hugh  le  Despenser.  Hastings,  who  was  one  of  the 
most  wealthy  and  powerful  nobles  of  his  time,  stood  high  in  the 
regard  of  the  king  and  is  lauded  by  the  chroniclers. 

His  eldest  son  JOHN  (d.  1325),  who  succeeded  to  the  barony, 
was  the  father  of  Laurence  Hastings,  who  was  created  earl  of 
Pembroke  in  1339,  the  earls  of  Pembroke  retaining  the  barony 
of  Hastings  until  1389.  A  younger  son  by  a  second  marriage, 
Sir  Hugh  Hastings  (c.  1307-1347),  saw  a  good  deal  of  military 


service  in  France;  his  portrait  and  also  that  of  his  wife  may 
still  be  seen  on  the  east  window  of  Elsing  church,  which  contains 
a  beautiful  brass  to  his  memory. 

On  the  death  of  John,  the  third  and  last  earl  of  Pembroke 
of  the  Hastings  family,  in  1389,  Sir  Hugh's  son  JOHN  had, 
according  to  a  decision  of  the  House  of  Lords  in  1840,  a  title 
to  the  barony  of  Hastings,  but  he  did  not  prosecute  his  claim 
and  he  died  without  sons  in  1393.  However  his  grand-nephew 
and  heir,  Hugh  (d.  1396),  claimed  the  barony,  which  was  also 
claimed  by  Reginald,  Lord  Grey  of  Ruthyn.  Like  the  earls  of 
Pembroke,  Grey  was  descended  through  his  grandmother, 
Elizabeth  Hastings,  from  John,  Lord  Hastings,  by  his  first  wife; 
Hugh,  on  the  other  hand,  was  descended  from  John's  second  wife. 
After  Hugh's  death  his  brother,  Sir  Edward  Hastings  (c.  1382- 
1438),  claimed  the  barony,  and  the  case  as  to  who  should  bear 
the  arms  of  the  Hastings  family  came  before  the  court  of  chivalry . 
In  1410  it  was  decided  in  favour  of  Grey,  who  thereupon  assumed 
the  arms.  Both  disputants  still  claimed  the  barony,  but  the 
view  seems  to  have  prevailed  that  it  had  fallen  into  abeyance 
in  1389.  Sir  Edward  was  imprisoned  for  refusing  to  pay  his 
rival's  costs,  and  he  was  probably  still  in  prison  when  he  died  in 
January  1438.  After  his  death  the  Hastings  family,  which 
became  extinct  during  the  i6th  century,  tacitly  abandoned  the 
claim  to  the  barony.  Then  in  1840  the  title  was  revived  in 
favour  of  Sir  Jacob  Astley,  Bart.  (1797-1859),  who  derived  his 
claim  from  a  daughter  of  Sir  Hugh  Hastings  who  died  in  1540. 
Sir  Jacob's  descendant,  Albert  Edward  (b.  1882),  became  2ist 
Baron  Hastings  in  1904. 

A  distant  relative  of  the  same  family  was  William,  Baron 
Hastings  (c.  1430-1483),  a  son  of  Sir  Leonard  Hastings  (d.  1455). 
He  became  attached  to  Edward  IV.,  whom  he  served  before  his 
accession  to  the  throne,  and  after  this  event  he  became  master  of 
the  mint,  chamberlain  of  the  royal  household  and  one  of  the  king's 
most  trusted  advisers.  Having  been  made  a  baron  in  1461,  he 
married  Catherine,  daughter  of  Richard  Neville,  earl  of  Salisbury, 
and  was  frequently  sent  on  diplomatic  errands  to  Burgundy  and 
elsewhere.  He  was  faithful  to  Edward  IV.  during  the  king's  exile 
in  the  winter  of  1470-1471,  and  after  his  return  he  fought  for 
him  at  Barnet  and  at  Tewkesbury ;  he  has  been  accused  of  taking 
part  in  the  murder  of  Henry  VI. 's  son,  prince  Edward,  after  the 
latter  battle.  Hastings  succeeded  his  sovereign  in  the  favour  of 
JaneShore.  He  was  made  captain  of  Calais  in  1471, and  waswith 
Edward  IV.  when  he  met  Louis  XI.  of  France  at  Picquigny  in  147  5, 
on  which  occasion  he  received  gifts  from  Louis  and  from  Charles 
the  Bold  of  Burgundy.  After  Edward  IV. 's  death  Hastings  be- 
haved in  a  somewhat  undecided  manner.  He  disliked  the  queen, 
Elizabeth  Woodville,  but  he  refused  to  ally  himself  with  Richard, 
duke  of  Gloucester,  afterwards  King  Richard  III.  Suddenly 
Richard  decided  to  get  rid  of  him,  and  during  a  meeting  of  the 
council  on  the  i3th  of  June  1483  he  was  seized  and  at  once  put 
to  death.  This  dramatic  incident  is  related  by  Sir  Thomas  More 
in  his  History  of  Richard  7//.,and  has  been  worked  by  Shakespeare 
into  his  play  Richard  HI.  Hastings  is  highly  praised  by  his 
friend  Philippe  de  Commines,  and  also  by  More.  He  left  a  son, 
Edward  (d.  1 508) ,  the  father  of  George,  Baron  Hastings  (c.  1488- 
1545),  who  was  created  earl  of  Huntingdon  (q.v.)  in  1529. 

When  Francis,  loth  earl  of  Huntingdon,  died  in  October  1789, 
the  barony  of  Hastings  passed  to  his  sister  Elizabeth  (1731-1 808) , 
wife  of  John  Rawdon,  earl  of  Moira,  and  from  her  it  came  to  her 
son  Francis  Rawdon-Hastings  (see  below),  who  was  created 
marquess  of  Hastings  in  1817. 

HASTINGS,  FRANCIS  RAWDON-HASTINGS,  ist  MARQUESS 
OF  (1754-1826),  British  soldier  and  governor-general  of  India, 
born  on  the  9th  of  December  1754,  was  the  son  of  Sir  John 
Rawdon  of  Moira  in  the  county  of  Down,  4th  baronet,  who  was 
created  Baron  Rawdon  of  Moira,  and  afterwards  earl  of  Moira, 
in  the  Irish  peerage.  His  mother  was  the  Lady  Elizabeth 
Hastings,  daughter  of  Theophilus,  9th  earl  of  Huntingdon. 
Lord  Rawdon,  as  he  was  then  called,  was  educated  at  Harrow 
and  Oxford,  and  joined  the  army  in  1771  as  ensign  in  the  isth 
foot.  His  life  henceforth  was  entirely  spent  in  the  service  of  his 
country,  and  may  be  divided  into  four  periods:  from  1775  to 


54 


HASTINGS,  MARQUESS  OF 


1782  he  was  engaged  with  much  distinction  in  the  American  war; 
from  1783  to  1813  he  held  various  high  appointments  at  home, 
and  took  an  active  part  in  the  business  of  the  House. of  Lords; 
from  1813  to  1823  was  the  period  of  his  labours  in  India;  after 
retiring  from  which,  in  the  last  years  of  his  life  (1824-1826),  he 
was  governor  of  Malta. 

In  America  Rawdon  served  at  the  battles  of  Bunker  Hill, 
Brooklyn,  White  Plains,  Monmouth  and  Camden,  at  the  attacks 
on  Forts  Washington  and  Clinton,  and  at  the  siege  of  Charleston. 
In  fact  he  was  engaged  in  many  important  operations  of  the  war. 
Perhaps  his  most  noted  achievements  were  the  raising  of  a 
corps  at  Philadelphia,  called  the  Irish  Volunteers,  who  under  him 
became  famous  for  their  fighting  qualities,  and  the  victory  of 
Hobkirk's  Hill,  which,  in  command  of  only  a  small  force,  he 
gained  by  superior  military  skill  and  determination  against  a 
much  larger  body  of  Americans.  In  1781  he  was  invalided.  The 
vessel  in  which  he  returned  to  England  was  captured  and  carried 
into  Brest.  He  was  speedily  released,  and  on  his  arrival  in 
England  was  much  honoured  by  George  III.,  who  created  him 
an  English  peer  (Baron  Rawdon)  in  March  1783.  In  1789  his 
mother  succeeded  to  the  barony  of  Hastings,  and  Rawdon  added 
the  surname  of  Hastings  to  his  own. 

In  1793  Rawdon  succeeded  his  father  as  earl  of  Moira.  In 
1794  he  was  sent  with  7000  men  to  Ostend  to  reinforce  the  duke 
of  York  and  the  allies  in  Flanders.  The  march  by  which  he 
effected  a  junction  was  considered  extraordinary.  In  1803  he 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  in  Scotland,  and  in  1804  he 
married  Flora  Mure  Campbell,  countess  of  Loudoun  in  her  own 
right.  When  Fox  and  Grenville  came  into  power  in  1806,  Lord 
Moira,  who  had  always  voted  with  them,  received  the  place  of 
master-general  of  the  ordnance.  He  was  now  enabled  to  carry 
a  philanthropic  measure,  of  which  from  his  first  entry  into  the 
House  of  Lords  he  had  been  a  great  promoter,  namely,  the  Debtor 
and  Creditor  Bill  for  relief  of  poor  debtors.  Ireland  was  another 
subject  to  which  he  had  given  particular  attention:  in  1797  there 
was  published  a  Speech  by  Lord  Moira  on  the  Dreadful  and  Alarm- 
ing State  of  Ireland.  Lord  Moira's  sound  judgment  on  public 
affairs,  combined  with  his  military  reputation  and  the  upright- 
ness of  his  character,  won  for  him  a  high  position  among  the 
statesmen  of  the  day,  and  he  gained  an  additional  prestige  from 
his  intimate  relations  with  the  prince  of  Wales.  As  a  mark  of 
the  regent's  regard  Lord  Moira  received  the  order  of  the  Garter 
in  1812,  and  in  the  same  year  was  appointed  governor-general 
of  Bengal  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  in  India.  He 
landed  at  Calcutta,  and  assumed  office  in  succession  to  Lord 
Minto  in  October  1813.  One  of  the  chief  questions  which  awaited 
him  was  that  of  relations  with  the  Gurkha  state  of  Nepal.  The 
Gurkhas,  a  brave  and  warlike  little  nation,  failing  to  extend 
their  conquests  in  the  direction  of  China,  had  begun  to  encroach 
on  territories  held  or  protected  by  the  East  India  Company; 
especially  they  had  seized  the  districts  of  Batwal  and  Seoraj, 
in  the  northern  part  of  Oudh,  and  when  called  upon  to  relinquish 
these,  they  deliberately  elected  (April  1814)  to  go  to  war  rather 
than  do  so.  Lord  Moira,  having  travelled  through  the  northern 
provinces  and  fully  studied  the  question,  declared  war  against 
Nepal  (November  1814).  The  enemy's  frontier  was  600  m.  long, 
and  Lord  Moira,  who  directed  the  plan  of  the  campaign,  resolved 
to  act  offensively  along  the  whole  line.  It  was  an  anxious  under- 
taking, because  the  native  states  of  India  were  all  watching  the 
issue  and  waiting  for  any  serious  reverse  to  the  English  to  join 
against  them.  At  first  all  seemed  to  go  badly,  as  the  British 
officers  despised  the  enemy,  and  the  sepoys  were  unaccustomed 
to  mountain  warfare,  and  thus  alternate  extremes  of  rashness 
and  despondency  were  exhibited.  But  this  rectified  itself  in 
time,  especially  through  the  achievements  of  General  (afterwards 
Sir  David)  Ochterlony,  who  before  the  end  of  1815  had  taken  all 
the  Gurkha  posts  to  the  west,  and  early  in  1816  was  advancing 
victoriously  within  50  m.  of  Khatmandu,  the  capital.  The 
Gurkhas  now  made  peace;  they  abandoned  the  disputed  districts, 
ceded  some  territory  to  the  British,  and  agreed  to  receive  a 
British  resident.  For  his  masterly  conduct  of  these  affairs  Lord 
Moira  was  created  marquess  of  Hastings  in  February  1817. 


He  had  now  to  deal  with  internal  dangers.  A  combination  of 
Mahratta  powers  was  constantly  threatening  the  continuance 
of  British  rule,  under  the  guise  of  plausible  assurances  severally 
given  by  the  peshwa,  Sindhia,  Holkar  and  other  princes.  At 
the  same  time  the  existence  of  the  Pindari  state  was  not  only 
dangerous  to  the  British,  as  being  a  warlike  power  always  ready 
to  turn  against  them,  but  it  was  a  scourge  to  India  itself.  In 
1816,  however,  the  Pindaris  entered  British  territory  in  the 
Northern  Circars,  where  they  destroyed  339  villages.  On  this, 
permission  was  obtained  to  act  for  their  suppression.  Before 
the  end  of  1817  the  preparations  of  Lord  Hastings  were  com- 
pleted, when  the  peshwa  suddenly  broke  into  war,  and  the 
British  were  opposed  at  once  to  the  Mahratta  and  Pindari  powers, 
estimated  at  200,000  men  and  500  guns.  Both  were  utterly 
shattered  in  a  brief  campaign  of  four  months  (1817-18).  The 
peshwa's  dominions  were  annexed,  and  those  of  Sindhia,  Holkar, 
and  the  raja  of  Berar  lay  at  the  mercy  of  the  governor-general, 
and  were  saved  only  by  his  moderation.  Thus,  after  sixty  years 
from  the  battle  of  Plassey,  the  supremacy  of  British  power  in 
India  was  effectively  established.  The  Pindaris  had  ceased  to 
exist,  and  peace  and  security  had  been  substituted  for  misery 
and  terror. 

"  It  is  a  proud  phrase  to  use,"  said  Lord  Hastings,  "  but  it  is  a 
true  one,  that  we  have  bestowed  blessings  upon  millions.  Nothing 
can  be  more  delightful  than  the  reports  I  receive  of  the  sensibility 
manifested  by  the  inhabitants  to  this  change  in  their  circumstances. 
The  smallest  detachment  of  our  troops  cannot  pass  through  that 
district  without  meeting  everywhere  eager  and  exulting  gratula- 
tions,  the  tone  of  which  proves  them  to  come  from  glowing  hearts. 
Multitudes  of  people  have,  even  in  this  short  interval,  come  from 
the  hills  and  fastnesses  in  which  they  had  sought  refuge  for  years, 
and  have  reoccupied  their  ancient  deserted  villages.  The  plough- 
share is  again  in  every  quarter  turning  up  a  soil  which  had  for 
many  seasons  never  been  stirred,  except  by  the  hoofs  of  predatory 
cavalry." 

While  the  natives  of  India  appreciated  the  results  of  Lord 
Hastings's  achievements,  the  court  of  directors  grumbled  at  his 
having  extended  British  territory.  They  also  disliked  and 
opposed  his  measures  for  introducing  education  among  the 
natives  and  his  encouraging  the  freedom  of  the  press.  In  1819 
he  obtained  the  cession  by  purchase  of  the  island  of  Singapore. 
In  finance  his  administration  was  very  successful,  as  notwith- 
standing the  expenses  of  his  wars  he  showed  an  annual  surplus 
of  two  millions  sterling.  Brilliant  and  beneficent  as  his  career 
had  been,  Lord  Hastings  did  not  escape  unjust  detraction.  His 
last  years  of  office  were  embittered  by  the  discussions  on  a  matter 
notorious  at  the  time,  namely,  the  affairs  of  the  banking-house 
of  W.  Palmer  and  Company.  The  whole  affair  was  mixed 
up  with  insinuations  against  Lord  Hastings,  especially  charging 
him  with  having  been  actuated  by  favouritism  towards  one  of 
the  partners  in  the  firm.  From  imputations  which  were  incon- 
sistent with  his  whole  character  he  has  subsequently  been 
exonerated.  But  while  smarting  under  them  he  tendered  his 
resignation  in  1821,  though  he  did  not  leave  India  till  the  first 
day  of  1823.  He  was  much  exhausted  by  the  arduous  labours 
which  for  more  than  nine  years  he  had  sustained.  Among  his 
characteristics  it  is  mentioned  that  "  his  ample  fortune 
absolutely  sank  under  the  benevolence  of  his  nature  ";  and, 
far  from  having  enriched  himself  in  the  appointment  of  governor- 
general,  he  returned  to  England  in  circumstances  which  obliged 
him  still  to  seek  public  employment.  In  1824  he  received  the 
comparatively  small  post  of  governor  of  Malta,  in  which  island 
he  introduced  many  reforms  and  endeared  himself  to  the  in- 
habitants. He  died  on  the  28th  of  November  1826,  leaving  a 
request  that  his  right  hand  should  be  cut  off  and  preserved  till 
the  death  of  the  marchioness  of  Hastings,  and  then  be  interred 
in  her  coffin. 

Hastings  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Francis  George  Augustus 
(1808-1844),  who  in  1840  succeeded  through  his  mother  to  the 
earldom  of  Loudoun.  When 'his  second  son,  Henry  Weysford, 
the  4th  marquess,  died  childless  on  the  icth  of  November  1868 
the  marquessate  became  extinct;  the  earldom  of  Loudoun 
devolved  upon  his  sister,  Edith  Mary  (d.  1874),  wife  of  Charles 
Frederick  Abney-Hastings,  afterwards  Baron  Donington;  the 


HASTINGS,  F.  A.— HASTINGS,  WARREN 


barony  of  Hastings,  which  fell  into  abeyance,  was  also  revived 
in  1871  in  her  favour. 

See  Ross-of-Bladensburg,  The  Marquess  of  Hastings  ("  Rulers  of 
India  "  series)  (1893) ;  and  Private  Journal  cf  the  Marquess  of 
Hastings,  edited  by  his  daughter,  the  marchioness  of  Bute  (1858). 

HASTINGS,  FRANK  ABNEY  (1794-1828),  British  naval 
officer  and  Philhellene,  was  the  son  of  Lieut. -general  Sir  Charles 
Hastings,  a  natural  son  of  Francis  Hastings,  tenth  earl  of 
Huntingdon.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1805,  and  was  in  the 
"  Neptune  "  (100)  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar;  but  in  iSzoa  quarrel 
with  his  flag  captain  led  to  his  leaving  the  service.  The  revolu- 
tionary troubles  of  the  time  offered  chances  of  foreign  employ- 
ment. Hastings  spent  a  year  on  the  continent  to  learn  French, 
and  sailed  for  Greece  on  the  i2th  of  March  1822  from  Marseilles. 
On  the  3rd  of  April  he  reached  Hydra.  For  two  years  he  took 
part  in  the  naval  operations  of  the  Greeks  in  the  Gulf  of  Smyrna 
and  elsewhere.  He  saw  that  the  light  squadrons  of  the  Greeks 
must  in  the  end  be  overpowered  by  the  heavier  Turkish  navy, 
clumsy  as  it  was;  and  in  1823  he  drew  up  and  presented  to 
Lord  Byron  a  very  able  memorandum  which  he  laid  before  the 
Greek  government  in  1824.  This  paper  is  of  peculiar  interest 
apart  from  its  importance  in  the  Greek  insurrection,  for  it 
contains  the  germs  of  the  great  revolution  which  has  since 
been  effected  in  naval  gunnery  and  tactics.  In  substance  the 
memorandum  advocated  the  use  of  steamers  in  preference  to 
sailing  ships,  and  of  direct  fire  with  shells  and  hot  shot,  as  a  more 
trustworthy  means  of  destroying  the  Turkish  fleet  than  fire-ships. 
It  will  be  found  in  Finlay's  History  of  the  Greek  Revolution, 
vol.  ii.  appendix  i.  The  application  of  Hastings's  ideas  led 
necessarily  to  the  disuse  of  sailing  ships,  and  the  introduction 
of  armour.  The  incompetence  of  the  Greek  government  and 
the  corrupt  waste  of  its  resources  prevented  the  full  application 
of  Hastings's  bold  and  far-seeing  plans.  But  largely  by  the  use 
of  his  own  money,  of  which  he  is  said  to  have  spent  £7000,  he 
was  able  to  some  extent  to  carry  them  out.  In  1824  he  came 
to  England  to  obtain  a  steamer,  and  in  1825  he  had  fitted  out  a 
small  steamer  named  the  "  Karteria  "  (Perseverance),  manned 
by  Englishmen,  Swedes  and  Greeks,  and  provided  with  apparatus 
for  the  discharge  of  shell  and  hot  shot.  He  did  enough  to  show 
that  if  his  advice  had  been  vigorously  followed  the  Turks  would 
have  been  driven  off  the  sea  long  before  the  date  of  the  battle 
of  Navarino.  The  great  effect  produced  by  his  shells  in  an 
attack  on  the  sea-line  of  communication  of  the  Turkish  army, 
then  besieging  Athens  at  Oropus  and  Volo  in  March  and  April 
1827,  was  a  clear  proof  that  much  more  could  have  been  done. 
Military  mismanagement  caused  the  defeat  of  the  Greeks  round 
Athens.  But  Hastings,  in  co-operation  with  General  Sir  R. 
Church  (q.v.),  shifted  the  scene  of  the  attack  to  western  Greece. 
Here  his  destruction  of  a  small  Turkish  squadron  at  Salona  Bay 
in  the  Gulf  of  Corinth  (29th  of  September  1827)  provoked 
Ibrahim  Pasha  into  the  aggressive  movements  which  led  to  the 
destruction  of  his  fleet  by  the  allies  at  Navarino  (q.v.)  on  the 
2oth  of  October  1827.  On  the  25th  of  May  1828  he  was  wounded 
in  an  attack  on  Anatolikon,  and  he  died  in  the  harbour  of  Zante 
on  the  ist  of  June.  General  Gordon,  who  served  in  the  war 
and  wrote  its  history,  says  of  him:  "  If  ever  there  was  a 
disinterested  and  really  useful  Philhellene  it  was  Hastings. 
He  received  no  pay,  and  had  expended  most  of  his  slender 
fortune  in  keeping  the  '  Karteria  '  afloat  for  the  last  six  months. 
His  ship,  too,  was  the  only  one  in  the  Greek  navy  where  regular 
discipline  was  maintained." 

See  Thomas  Gordon,  History  of  the  Greek  Revolution  (London, 
1832);  George  Finlay,  History  of  the  Greek  Revolution  (Edinburgh, 
1861). 

HASTINGS,  WARREN  (1732-1818),  the  first  governor-general 
of  British  India,  was  born  on  the  6th  of  December  1732  in  the 
little  hamlet  of  Churchill  in  Oxfordshire.  He  came  of  a  family 
which  had  been  settled  for  many  generations  in  the  adjoining 
village  of  Daylesford;  but  his  great-grandfather  had  sold  the 
ancestral  manor-house,  and  his  grandfather  had  been  unable 
to  maintain  himself  in  possession  of  the  family  living.  His 
mother  died  a  few  days  after  giving  him  birth;  his  father, 


55 

Pynaston  Hastings,  drifted  away  to  perish  obscurely  in  the  West 
Indies.  Thus  unfortunate  in  his  birth,  young  Hastings  received 
the  elements  of  education  at  a  charity  school  in  his  native  village. 
At  the  age  of  eight  he  was  taken  in  charge  by  an  elder  brother 
of  his  father,  Howard  Hastings,  who  held  a  post  in  the  customs. 
After  spending  two  years  at  a  private  school  at  Newington  Butts, 
he  was  moved  to  Westminster,  where  among  his  contemporaries 
occur  the  names  of  Lord  Thurlow  and  Lord  Shelburne,  Sir 
Elijah  Impey,  and  the  poets  Cowper  and  Churchill.  In  1749, 
when  his  headmaster  Dr  Nichols  was  already  anticipating  for  him 
a  successful  career  at  the  university,  his  uncle  died,  leaving  him 
to  the  care  of  a  distant  kinsman, Mr  Creswicke,  who  was  afterwards 
in  the  direction  of  the  East  India  Company;  and  he  determined 
to  send  his  ward  to  seek  his  fortune  as  a  "  writer  "  in  Bengal. 

When  Hastings  landed  at  Calcutta  in  October  1750  the  affairs 
of  the  East  India  Company  were  at  a  low  ebb.  Throughout  the 
entire  south  of  the  peninsula  French  influence  was  predominant. 
The  settlement  of  Fort  St  George  or  Madras,  captured  by  force 
of  arms,  had  only  recently  been  restored  in  accordance  with  a 
clause  of  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  The  organizing  genius  of 
Dupleix  everywhere  overshadowed  the  native  imagination,  and 
the  star  of  Clive  had  scarcely  yet  risen  above  the  horizon.  The 
rivalry  between  the  English  and  the  French,  which  had  already 
convulsed  the  south,  did  not  penetrate  to  Bengal.  That  province 
was  under  the  able  government  of  Ali  Vardi  Khan,  who 
peremptorily  forbade  the  foreign  settlers  at  Calcutta  and  Chander- 
nagore  to  introduce  feuds  from  Europe.  The  duties  of  a  young 
"  writer  "  were  then  such  as  are  implied  in  the  name.  At  an 
early  date  Hastings  was  placed  in  charge  of  an  aurang  or  factory 
in  the  interior,  where  his  duties  would  be  to  superintend  the 
weaving  of  silk  and  cotton  goods  under  a  system  of  money 
advances.  In  1753  he  was  transferred  to  Cossimbazar,  the 
river-port  of  the  native  capital  of  Murshidabad.  In  1756  the 
old  nawab  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson  Suraj- 
ud-Dowlah,  a  young  madman  of  19,  whose  name  is  indelibly 
associated  with  the  tragedy  of  the  Black  Hole.  When  that 
passionate  youn^  prince,  in  revenge  for  a  fancied  wrong,  resolved 
to  drive  the  English  out  of  Bengal,  his  first  step  was  to  occupy 
the  fortified  factory  at  Cossimbazar,  and  make  prisoners  of 
Hastings  and  his  companions.  Hastings  was  soon  released  at  the 
intercession  of  the  Dutch  resident,  and  made  use  of  his  position 
at  Murshidabad  to  open  negotiations  with  the  English  fugitives 
at  Falta,  the  site  of  a  Dutch  factory  near  the  mouth  of  the  Hugli. 
In  later  days  he  used  to  refer  with  pride  to  his  services  on  this 
occasion,  when  he  was  first  initiated  into  the  wiles  of  Oriental 
diplomacy.  After  a  while  he  found  it  necessary  to  fly  from  the 
Mahommedan  court  and  join  the  main  body  of  the  English  at 
Falta.  When  the  relieving  force  arrived  from  Madras  under 
Colonel  Clive  and  Admiral  Watson,  Hastings  enrolled  himself  as 
a  volunteer,  and  took  part  in  the  action  which  led  to  the  recovery 
of  Calcutta.  Clive  showed  his  appreciation  of  Hastings's  merits 
by  appointing  him  in  1758  to  the  important  post  of  resident  at 
the  court  of  Murshidabad.  It  was  there  that  he  first  came  into 
collision  with  the  Bengali  Brahman,  Nuncomar,  whose  sub- 
sequent fate  has  supplied  more  material  for  controversy  than  any 
other  episode  in  his  career.  During  his  three  years  of  office  as 
resident  he  was  able  to  render  not  a  few  valuable  services  to  the 
Company;  but  it  is  more  important  to  observe  that  his  name 
nowhere  occurs  in  the  official  lists  of  those  who  derived  pecuniary 
profit  from  the  necessities  and  weakness  of  the  native  court.  In 
1761  he  was  promoted  to  be  member  of  council,  under  the  presi- 
dency of  Mr  Vansittart,  who  had  been  introduced  by  Clive  from 
Madras.  The  period  of  Vansittart's  government  has  been  truly 
described  as  "  the  most  revolting  page  of  our  Indian  history." 
The  entire  duties  of  administration  were  suffered  to  remain  in 
the  hands  of  the  nawab,  while  a  few  irresponsible  English  traders 
had  drawn  to  themselves  all  real  power.  The  members  of 
council,  the  commanders  of  the  troops,  and  the  commercial 
residents  plundered  on  a  grand  scale.  The  youngest  servant  of 
the  Company  claimed  the  right  of  trading  on  his  own  account, 
Free  from  taxation  and  from  local  jurisdiction,  not  only  for  him- 
self but  also  for  every  native  subordinate  whom  he  might  permit 


HASTINGS,  WARREN 


to  use  his  name.  It  was  this  exemption,  threatening  the  very 
foundations  of  the  Mussulman  government,  that  finally  led  to  a 
rupture  with  the  nawab.  Macaulay,  in  his  celebrated  essay,  has 
said  that  "  of  the  conduct  of  Hastings  at  this  time  little  is  known." 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  book  which  Macaulay  was  professing  to 
review  describes  at  length  the  honourable  part  consistently 
taken  by  Hastings  in  opposition  to  the  great  majority  of  the 
council.  Sometimes  in  conjunction  only  with  Vansittart,  some- 
times absolutely  alone,  he  protested  unceasingly  against  the 
policy  and  practices  of  his  colleagues.  On  one  occasion  he  was 
stigmatized  in  a  minute  by  Mr  Batson  with  "  having  espoused 
the  nawab's  cause,  and  as  a  hired  solicitor  defended  all  his  actions, 
however  dishonourable  and  detrimental  to  the  Company."  An 
altercation  ensued.  Batson  gave  him  the  lie  and  struck  him  in 
the  council  chamber.  When  war  was  actually  begun,  Hastings 
officially  recorded  his  previous  resolution  to  have  resigned,  in 
order  to  repudiate  responsibility  for  measures  which  he  had 
always  opposed.  Waiting  only  for  the  decisive  victory  of  Buxar 
over  the  allied  forces  of  Bengal  and  Oudh,  he  resigned  his  seat 
and  sailed  for  England  in  November  1764. 

After  fourteen  years'  residence  in  Bengal  Hastings  did  not 
return  home  a  rich  man,  estimated  by  the  opportunities  of  his 
position.  According  to  the  custom  of  the  time  he  had  augmented 
his  slender  salary  by  private  trade.  At  a  later  date  he  was 
charged  by  Burke  with  having  taken  up  profitable  contracts  for 
supplying  bullocks  for  the  use  of  the  Company's  troops.  It  is 
admitted  that  he  conducted  by  means  of  agents  a  large  business 
in  timber  in  the  Gangetic  Sundarbans.  When  at  Falta  he  had 
married  Mrs  Buchanan,  the  widow  of  an  officer.  She  bore  him 
two  children,  of  whom  one  died  in  infancy  at  Murshidabad,  and 
was  shortly  followed  to  the  grave  by  her  mother.  Their  common 
gravestone  is  in  existence  at  the  present  day,  bearing  date 
July  n,  1759.  The  other  child,  a  son,  was  sent  to  England,  and 
also  died  shortly  before  his  father's  return.  While  at  home 
Hastings  is  said  to  have  attached  himself  to  literary  society; 
and  it  may  be  inferred  from  his  own  letters  that  he  now  made  the 
personal  acquaintance  of  Samuel  Johnson  and  Lord  Mansfield. 
In  1766  he  was  called  upon  to  give  evidence  before  a  committee 
of  the  House  of  Commons  upon  the  affairs  of  Bengal.  The  good 
sense  and  clearness  of  the  views  which  he  expressed  caused 
attention  to  be  paid  to  his  desire  to  be  again  employed  in  India. 
His  pecuniary  affairs  were  embarrassed,  partly  from  the  liberality 
with  which  he  had  endowed  his  few  surviving  relatives.  The 
great  influence  of  Lord  Clive  was  also  exercised  on  his  behalf. 
At  last,  in  the  winter  of  1768,  he  received  the  appointment  of 
second  in  council  at  Madras.  Among  his  companions  on  his 
voyage  round  the  Cape  were  the  Baron  Imhoff,  a  speculative 
portrait-painter,  and  his  wife,  a  lady  of  some  personal  attractions 
and  great  social  charm,  who  was  destined  henceforth  to  be 
Hastings's  lifelong  companion.  Of  his,  two  years'  work  at  Madras 
it  is  needless  to  speak  in  detail.  He  won  the  good-will  of  his 
employers  *by  devoting  himself  to  the  improvement  of  their 
manufacturing  business,  and  he  kept  his  hands  clean  from  the 
prevalent  taint  of  pecuniary  transactions  with  the  nawab  of  the 
Carnatic.  One  fact  of  some  interest  is  not  generally  known. 
He  drew  up  a  scheme  for  the  construction  of  a  pier  at  Madras, 
to  avoid  the  dangers  of  landing  through  the  surf,  and  instructed 
his  brother-in-law  in  England  to  obtain  estimates  from  the 
engineers  Brindley  and  Smeaton. 

In  the  beginning  of  1772  his  ambition  was  stimulated  by  the 
nomination  to  the  second  place  in  council  in  Bengal  with  a 
promise  of  the  reversion  of  the  governorship  when  Mr  Cartier 
should  retire.  Since  his  departure  from  Bengal  in  1764  the 
situation  of  affairs  in  that  settlement  had  scarcely  improved. 
The  second  governorship  of  Clive  was  marked  by  the  transfer 
of  the  diviani  or  financial  administration  from  the  Mogul  emperor 
to  the  Company,  and  by  the  enforcement  of  stringent  regulations 
against  the  besetting  sin  of  peculation.  But  Clive  was  followed 
by  two  inefficient  successors;  and  in  1770  occurred  the  most 
terrible  Indian  famine  on  record,  which  is  credibly  estimated 
to  have  swept  away  one-third  of  the  population.  In  April  1772 
Warren  Hastings  took  his  seat  as  president  of  the  council  at  Fort 


William.  His  first  care  was  to  carry  out  the  instructions  received 
from  home,  and  effect  a  radical  reform  in  the  system  of  govern- 
ment. Clive's  plan  of  governing  through  the  agency  of  the  native 
court  had  proved  a  failure.  The  directors  were  determined  "  to 
stand  forth  as  dvuoan,  and  take  upon  themselves  by  their  own 
servants  the  entire  management  of  the  revenues."  All  the 
officers  of  administration  were  transferred  from  Murshidabad 
to  Calcutta,  which  Hastings  boasted  at  this  early  date  that  he 
would  make  the  first  city  in  Asia.  This  reform  involved  the 
ruin  of  many  native  reputations,  and  for  a  second  time  brought 
Hastings  into  collision  with  the  wily  Brahman,  Nuncomar. 
At  the  same  time  a  settlement  of  the  land  revenue  on  leases  for 
five  years  was  begun,  and  the  police  and  military  systems  of 
the  country  were  placed  upon  a  new  footing.  Hastings  was  a 
man  of  immense  industry,  with  an  insatiable  appetite  for  detail. 
The  whole  of  this  large  series  of  reforms  was  conducted  under 
his  own  personal  supervision,  and  upon  no  part  of  his  multifarious 
labours  did  he  dwell  in  his  letters  home  with  greater  pride. 
As  an  independent  measure  of  economy,  the  stipend  paid  to  the 
titular  nawab  of  Bengal,  who  was  then  a  minor,  was  reduced  by 
one-half — to  sixteen  lakhs  a  year  (say  £160,000).  Macaulay 
imputes  this  reduction  to  Hastings  as  a  characteristic  act  of 
financial  immorality;  but  in  truth  it  had  been  expressly  enjoined 
by  the  court  of  directors,  in  a  despatch  dated  six  months  before 
he  took  up  office.  His  pecuniary  bargains  with  Shuja-ud-Dowlah, 
the  nawab  wazlr  of  Oudh,  stand  on  a  different  basis.  Hastings 
himself  always  regarded  them  as  incidents  in  his  general  scheme 
of  foreign  policy.  The  Mahrattas  at  this  time  had  got  possession 
of  the  person  of  the  Mogul  emperor,  Shah  Alam,  from  whom 
Clive  obtained  the  grant  of  Bengal  in  1765,  and  to  whom  he 
assigned  in  return  the  districts  of  Allahabad  and  Kora  and  a 
tribute  of  £300,000.  With  the  emperor  in  their  camp,  the 
Mahrattas  were  threatening  the  province  of  Oudh,  and 
causing  a  large  British  force  to  be  cantoned  along  the  frontier 
for  its  defence.  Warren  Hastings,  as  a  deliberate  measure  of 
policy,  withheld  the  tribute  due  to  the  emperor,  and  resold 
Allahabad  and  Kora  to  the  wazlr  of  Oudh.  The  Mahrattas 
retreated,  and  all  danger  for  the  time  was  dissipated  by  the 
death  of  their  principal  leader.  The  wazlr  now  bethought  him 
that  he  had  a  good  opportunity  for  satisfying  an  old  quarrel 
against  the  adjoining  tribe  of  Rohillas,  who  had  played  fast  and 
loose  with  him  while  the  Mahratta  army  was  at  hand.  The 
Rohillas  were  a  race  of  Afghan  origin,  who  had  established 
themselves  for  some  generations  in  a  fertile  tract  west  of  Oudh, 
between  the  Himalayas  and  the  Ganges,  which  still  bears  the 
name  of  Rohilkhand.  They  were  not  so  much  the  occupiers  of 
the  soil  as  a  dominant  caste  of  warriors  and  freebooters.  But 
in  those  troubled  days  their  title  was  as  good  as  any  to  be  found 
in  India.  After  not  a  little  hesitation,  Hastings  consented  to 
allow  the  Company's  troops  to  be  used  to  further  the  ambitious 
designs  of  his  Oudh  ally,  in  consideration  of  a  sum  of  money 
which  relieved  the  ever-pressing  wants  of  the  Bengal  treasury. 
The  Rohillas  were  defeated  in  fair  fight.  Some  of  them  fled  the 
country,  and  so  far  as  possible  Hastings  obtained  terms  for 
those  who  remained.  The  fighting,  no  doubt,  on  the  part  of  the 
wazlr  was  conducted  with  all  the  savagery  of  Oriental  warfare ; 
but  there  is  no  evidence  that  it  was  a  war  of  extermination. 

Meanwhile,  the  affairs  of  the  East  India  Company  had  come 
under  the  consideration  of  parliament.  The  Regulating  Act, 
passed  by  Lord  North's  ministry  in  1773,  effected  considerable 
changes  in  the  constitution  of  the  Bengal  government.  The 
council  was  reduced  to  four  members  with  a  governor-general, 
who  were  to  exercise  certain  indefinite  powers  of  control  over  the 
presidencies  of  Madras  and  Bombay.  Hastings  was  named  in 
the  act  as  governor-general  for  a  term  of  five  years.  The  council 
consisted  of  General  Clavering  and  the  Hon.  Colonel  Monson, 
two  third-rate  politicians  of  considerable  parliamentary  influence; 
Philip  Francis  (q.v.),  then  only  known  as  an  able  permanent 
official;  and  Barwell,  of  the  Bengal  Civil  Service.  At  the  same 
time  a  supreme  court  of  judicature  was  appointed,  composed 
of  a  chief  and  three  puisne  judges,  to  exercise  an  indeterminate 
jurisdiction  at  Calcutta.  The  chief-justice  was  Sir  Elijah  Impey, 


HASTINGS,  WARREN 


57 


already  mentioned  as  a  schoolfellow  of  Hastings  at  Westminster. 
The  whole  tendency  of  the  Regulating  Act  was  to  establish  for 
the  first  time  the  influence  of  the  crown,  or  rather  of  parliament, 
in  Indian  affairs.  The  new  members  of  council  disembarked 
at  Calcutta  on  the  iglh  of  October  1774;  and  on  the  following 
day  commenced  the  long  feud  which  scarcely  terminated  twenty- 
one  years  later  with  the  acquittal  of  Warren  Hastings  by  the 
House  of  Lords.  Macaulay  states  that  the  members  of  council 
were  put  in  ill-humour  because  their  salute  of  guns  was  not 
proportionate  to  their  dignity.  In  a  contemporary  letter 
Francis  thus  expresses  the  same  petty  feeling:  "  Surely  Mr  H. 
might  have  put  on  a  ruffled  shirt."  Taking  advantage  of  an 
ambiguous  clause  in  their  commission,  the  majority  of  the 
council  (for  Harwell  uniformly  sided  with  Hastings)  forthwith 
proceeded  to  pass  in  review  the  recent  measures  of  the  governor- 
general.  All  that  he  had  done  they  condemned;  all  that  they 
could  they  reversed.  Hastings  was  reduced  to  the  position  of  a 
cipher  at  their  meetings.  After  a  time  they  lent  a  ready  ear  to 
detailed  allegations  of  corruption  brought  against  him  by  his 
old  enemy  Nuncomar.  To  charges  from  such  a  source,  and 
brought  in  such  a  manner,  Hastings  disdained  to  reply,  and 
referred  his  accuser  to  the  supreme  court.  The  majority  of  the 
council,  in  their  executive  capacity,  resolved  that  the  governor- 
general  had  been  guilty  of  peculation,  and  ordered  him  to 
refund.  A  few  days  later  Nuncomar  was  thrown  into  prison  on 
a  charge  of  forgery  preferred  by  a  private  prosecutor,  tried  before 
the  supreme  court  sitting  in  bar,  found  guilty  by  a  jury  of 
Englishmen  and  sentenced  to  be  hanged.  Hastings  always 
maintained  that  he  did  not  cause  the  charge  to  be  instituted, 
and  the  legality  of  Nuncomar's  trial  is  thoroughly  proved  by 
Sir  James  Stephen.  The  majority  of  the  council  abandoned 
their  supporter,  who  was  executed  in  due  course.  He  had 
forwarded  a  petition  for  reprieve  to  the  council,  which  Clavering 
took  care  should  not  be  presented  in  time,  and  which  was  subse- 
quently burnt  by  the  common  hangman  on  the  motion  of  Francis. 
While  the  strife  was  at  its  hottest,  Hastings  had  sent  an  agent 
to  England  with  a  general  authority  to  place  his  resignation  in 
the  hands  of  the  Company  under  certain  conditions.  The  agent 
thought  fit  to  exercise  that  authority.  The  resignation  was 
promptly  accepted,  and  one  of  the  directors  was  appointed 
to  the  vacancy.  But  in  the  meantime  Colonel  Monson  had 
died,  and  Hastings  was  thus  restored,  by  virtue  of  his  casting 
vote,  to  the  supreme  management  of  affairs.  He  refused  to 
ratify  his  resignation;  and  when  Clavering  attempted  to  seize 
on  the  governor-generalship,  he  judiciously  obtained  an  opinion 
from  the  judges  of  the  supreme  court  in  his  favour.  From  that 
time  forth,  though  he  could  not  always  command  an  absolute 
majority  in  council,  Hastings  was  never  again  subjected  to 
gross  insult,  and  his  general  policy  was  able  to  prevail. 

A  crisis  was  now  approaching  in  foreign  affairs  which  de- 
manded all  the  experience  and  all  the  genius  of  Hastings  for 
its  solution.  Bengal  was  prosperous,  and  free  from  external 
enemies  on  every  quarter.  But  the  government  of  Bombay  had 
hurried  on  a  rupture  with  the  Mahratta  confederacy  at  a  time 
when  France  was  on  the  point  of  declaring  war  against  England, 
and  when  the  mother-country  found  herself  unable  to  subdue 
her  rebellious  colonists  in  America.  Hastings  did  not  hesitate 
to  take  upon  his  own  shoulders  the  whole  responsibility  of 
military  affairs.  All  the  French  settlements  in  India  were 
promptly  occupied.  On  the  part  of  Bombay,  the  Mahratta  war 
was  conducted  with  procrastination  and  disgrace.  But  Hastings 
amply  avenged  the  capitulation  of  Wargaon  by  the  complete 
success  of  his  own  plan  of  operations.  Colonel  Goddard  with  a 
Bengal  army  marched  across  the  breadth  of  the  peninsula  from 
the  valley  of  the  Ganges  to  the  western  sea,  and  achieved  almost 
without  a  blow  the  conquest  of  Gujarat.  Captain  Popham,  with 
a  small  detachment,  stormed  the  rock  fortress  of  Gwalior,  then 
deemed  impregnable  and  the  key  of  central  India;  and  by  this 
feat  held  in  check  Sindhia,  the  most  formidable  of  the  Mahratta 
chiefs.  The  Bhonsla  Mahratta  raja  of  Nagpur,  whose  dominions 
bordered  on  Bengal,  was  won  over  by  the  diplomacy  of  an 
emissary  of  Hastings.  But  while  these  events  were  taking  place, 


a  new  source  of  embarrassment  had  arisen  at  Calcutta.  The 
supreme  court,  whether  rightly  or  wrongly,  assumed  a  jurisdic- 
tion of  first  instance  over  the  entire  province  of  Bengal.  The 
English  common  law,  with  all  the  absurdities  and  rigours  of  that 
day,  was  arbitrarily  extended  to  an  alien  system  of  society. 
Zaminddrs,  or  government  renters,  were  arrested  on  mesne 
process;  the  sanctity  of  the  zendna,  or  women's  chamber,  as 
dear  to  Hindus  as  to  Mahommedans,  was  violated  by  the  sheriff's 
officer;  the  deepest  feelings  of  the  people  and  the  entire  fabric 
of  revenue  administration  were  alike  disregarded.  On  this  point 
the  entire  council  acted  in  harmony.  Hastings  and  Francis  went 
joint-bail  for  imprisoned  natives  of  distinction.  At  last,  after 
the  dispute  between  the  judges  and  the  executive  threatened  to 
become  a  trial  of  armed  force,  Hastings  set  it  at  rest  by  a  charac- 
teristic stroke  of  policy.  A  new  judicial  office  was  created  in 
the  name  of  the  Company,  to  which  Sir  Elijah  Impey  was 
appointed,  though  he  never  consented  to  draw  the  additional 
salary  offered  to  him.  The  understanding  between  Hastings 
and  Francis,  originating  in  this  state  of  affairs,  was  for  a  short 
period  extended  to  general  policy.  An  agreement  was  come  to 
by  which  Francis  received  patronage  for  his  circle  of  friends, 
while  Hastings  was  to  be  unimpeded  in  the  control  of  foreign 
affairs.  But  a  difference  of  interpretation  arose.  Hastings 
recorded  in  an  official  minute  that  he  had  found  Francis's  private 
and  public  conduct  to  be  "  void  of  truth  and  honour."  They 
met  as  duellists.  Francis  fell  wounded,  and  soon  afterwards 
returned  to  England. 

The  Mahratta  war  was  not  yet  terminated,  but  a  far  more 
formidable  danger  now  threatened  the  English  in  India.  The 
imprudent  conduct  of  the  Madras  authorities  had  irritated 
beyond  endurance  the  two  greatest  Mussulman  powers  in  the 
peninsula,  the  nizam  of  the  Deccan  and  Hyder  Ali,  the  usurper 
of  Mysore,  who  began  to  negotiate  an  alliance  with  the  Mahrattas. 
A  second  time  the  genius  of  Hastings  saved  the  British  empire 
in  the  east.  On  the  arrival  of  the  news  that  Hyder  had  descended 
from  the  highlands  of  Mysore,  cut  to  pieces  the  only  British  army 
in  the  field,  and  swept  the  Carnatic  up  to  the  gates  of  Madras, 
he  at  once  adopted  a  policy  of  extraordinary  boldness.  He 
signed  a  blank  treaty  of  peace  with  the  Mahrattas,  who  were  still 
in  arms,  reversed  the  action  of  the  Madras  government  towards 
the  nizam,  and  concentrated  all  the  resources  of  Bengal  against 
Hyder  Ali.  Sir  Eyre  Coote,  a  general  of  renown  in  former 
Carnatic  wars,  was  sent  by  sea  to  Madras  with  all  the  troops  and 
treasure  that  could  be  got  together;  and  a  strong  body  of  rein- 
forcements subsequently  marched  southwards  under  Colonel 
Pearse  along  the  coast  line  of  Orissa.  The  landing  of  Coote 
preserved  Madras  from  destruction,  though  the  war  lasted 
through  many  campaigns  and  only  terminated  with  the  death 
of  Hyder.  Pearse's  detachment  was  decimated  by  an  epidemic 
of  cholera  (perhaps  the  first  mention  of  this  disease  by  name  in 
Indian  history);  but  the  survivors  penetrated  to  Madras,  and 
not  only  held  in  check  Bhonsla  and  the  nizam,  but  also  corro- 
borated the  lesson  taught  by  Goddard — that  the  Company's 
sepoys  could  march  anywhere,  when  boldly  led.  Hastings's 
personal  task  was  to  provide  the  ways  and  means  for  this  exhaust- 
ing war.  A  considerable  economy  was  effected  by  a  reform  in 
the  establishment  for  collecting  the  land  tax.  The  government 
monopolies  of  opium  and  salt  were  then  for  the  first  time  placed 
upon  a  remunerative  basis.  But  these  reforms  were  of  necessity 
slow  in  their  beneficial  operation.  The  pressing  demands  of  the 
military  chest  had  to  be  satisfied  by  loans,  and  in  at  least  one 
case  from  the  private  purse  of  the  governor-general.  Ready 
cash  could  alone  fill  up  the  void;  and  it  was  to  the  hoards  of 
native  princes  that  Hastings's  fertile  mind  at  once  turned. 
Chait  Sing,  raja  of  Benares,  the  greatest  of  the  vassal  chiefs  who 
had  grown  rich  under  the  protection  of  the  British  rule,  lay 
under  the  suspicion  of  disloyalty.  The  wazir  of  Oudh  had  fallen 
into  arrears  in  the  payment  due  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
Company's  garrison  posted  in  his  dominions,  and  his  administra- 
tion was  in  great  disorder.  In  his  case  the  ancestral  hoards  were 
under  the  control  of  his  mother,  the  begum  of  Oudh,  into  whose 
hands  they  had  been  allowed  to  pass  at  the  time  when  Hastings 


HASTINGS,  WARREN 


was  powerless  in  council.  Hastings  resolved  to  make  a  progress 
up  country  in  order  to  arrange  the  affairs  of  both  provinces,  and 
bring  back  all  the  treasure  that  could  be  squeezed  out  of  its 
holders  by  his  personal  intervention.  When  he  reached  Benares 
and  presented  his  demands,  the  raja  rose  in  insurrection,  and  the 
governor-general  barely  escaped  with  his  life.  But  the  faithful 
Popham  rapidly  rallied  a  force  for  his  defence.  The  insurgents 
were  defeated  again  and  again;  Chait  Sing  took  to  flight,  and 
an  augmented  permanent  tribute  was  imposed  upon  his  suc- 
cessor. The  Oudh  business  was  managed  with  less  risk.  The 
wazir  consented  to  everything  demanded  of  him.  The  begum 
was  charged  with  having  abetted  Chait  Sing  in  his  rebellion; 
and  after  the  severest  pressure  applied  to  herself  and  her 
attendant  eunuchs,  a  fine  of  more  than  a  million  sterling  was 
exacted  from  her.  Hastings  appears  to  have  been  not  altogether 
satisfied  with  the  incidents  of  this  expedition,  and  to  have  antici- 
pated the  censure  which  it  received  in  England.  As  a  measure 
of  precaution,  he  procured  documentary  evidence  of  the  rebellious 
intentions  of  the  raja  and  the  begum,  to  the  validity  of  which 
Impey  obligingly  lent  his  extra-judicial  sanction; 

The  remainder  of  Hastings's  term  of  office  in  India  was  passed 
in  comparative  tranquillity,  both  from  internal  opposition  and 
foreign  war.  The  centre  of  interest  now  shifts  to  the  India 
House  and  to  the  British  parliament.  The  long  struggle  between 
the  Company  and  the  ministers  of  the  crown  for  the  supreme 
control  of  Indian  affairs  and  the  attendant  patronage  had 
reached  its  climax.  The  decisive  success  of  Hastings's  adminis- 
tration alone  postponed  the  inevitable  solution.  His  original 
term  of  five  years  would  have  expired  in  1778;  but  it  was 
annually  prolonged  by  special  act  of  parliament  until  his 
voluntary  resignation.  Though  Hastings  was  thus  irremovable, 
his  policy  did  not  escape  censure.  Ministers  were  naturally 
anxious  to  obtain  the  reversion  to  his  vacant  post,  and  Indian 
affairs  formed  at  this  time  the  hinge  on  which  party  politics 
turned.  On  one  occasion  Dundas  carried  a  motion  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  censuring  Hastings  and  demanding  his  recall. 
The  directors  of  the  Company  were  disposed  to  act  upon  this 
resolution;  but  in  the  court  of  proprietors,  with  whom  the 
decision  ultimately  lay,  Hastings  always  possessed  a  sufficient 
majority.  Fox's  India  Bill  led  to  the  downfall  of  the  Coalition 
ministry  in  1783.  The  act  which  Pitt  successfully  carried  in  the 
following  year  introduced  a  new  constitution,  in  which  Hastings 
felt  that  he  had  no  place.  In  February  1785  he  finally  sailed 
from  Calcutta,  after  a  dignified  ceremony  of  resignation,  and 
amid  enthusiastic  farewells  from  all  classes. 

On  his  arrival  in  England,  after  a  second  absence  of  sixteen 
years,  he  was  not  displeased  with  the  reception  he  met  with  at 
court  and  in  the  country.  A  peerage  was  openly  talked  of  as 
his  due,  while  his  own  ambition  pointed  to  some  responsible 
office  at  home.  Pitt  had  never  taken  a  side  against  him,  while 
Lord  Chancellor  Thurlow  was  his  pronounced  friend.  But  he 
was  now  destined  to  learn  that  his  enemy  Francis,  whom  he  had 
discomfited  in  the  council  chamber  at  Calcutta,  was  more  than 
his  match  in  the  parliamentary  arena.  Edmund  Burke  had  taken 
the  subject  races  of  India  under  the  protection  of  his  eloquence. 
Francis,  who  had  been  the  early  friend  of  Burke,  supplied  him 
with  the  personal  animus  against  Hastings,  and  with  the  know- 
ledge of  detail,  which  he  might  otherwise  have  lacked.  The 
Whig  party  on  this  occasion  unanimously  followed  Burke's  lead. 
Dundas,  Pitt's  favourite  subordinate,  had  already  committed 
himself  by  his  earlier  resolution  of  censure;  and  Pitt  was  induced 
by  motives  which  are  still  obscure  to  incline  the  ministerial 
majority  to  the  same  side.  To  meet  the  oratory  of  Burke  and 
Sheridan  and  Fox,  Hastings  wrote  an  elaborate  minute  with 
which  he  wearied  the  ears  of  the  House  for  two  successive  nights, 
and  he  subsidized  a  swarm  of  pamphleteers.  The  impeachment 
was  decided  upon  in  1786,  but  the  actual  trial  did  not  commence 
until  1788.  For  seven  long  years  Hastings  was  upon  his  defence 
on  the  charge  of  "  high  crimes  and  misdemeanours."  During 
this  anxious  period  he  appears  to  have  borne  himself  with  charac- 
teristic dignity,  such  as  is  consistent  with  no  other  hypothesis 
than  the  consciousness  of  innocence.  At  last,  in  1795,  the  House 


of  Lords  gave  a  verdict  of  not  guilty  on  all  charges  laid  against 
him;  and  he  left  the  bar  at  which  he  had  so  frequently  appeared, 
with  his  reputation  clear,  but  ruined  in  fortune.  However  large 
the  wealth  he  brought  back  from  India,  all  was  swallowed  up  in 
defraying  the  expenses  of  his  trial.  Continuing  the  line  of  conduct 
which  in  most  other  men  would  be  called  hypocrisy,  he  forwarded 
a  petition  to  Pitt  praying  that  he  might  be  reimbursed  his  costs 
from  the  public  funds.  This  petition,  of  course,  was  rejected. 
At  last,  when  he  was  reduced  to  actual  destitution,  it  was 
arranged  that  the  East  India  Company  should  grant  him  an 
annuity  of  £4000  for  a  term  of  years,  with  £90,000  paid  down  in 
advance.  This  annuity  expired  before  his  death;  and  he  was 
compelled  to  make  more  than  one  fresh  appeal  to  the  bounty  of 
the  Company,  which  was  never  withheld.  Shortly  before  his 
acquittal  he  had  been  able  to  satisfy  the  dream  of  his  childhood, 
by  buying  back  the  ancestral  manor  of  Daylesford,  where  the 
remainder  of  his  life  was  passed  in  honourable  retirement.  In 
1813  he  was  called  on  to  give  evidence  upon  Indian  affairs  before 
the  two  houses  of  parliament,  which  received  him  with  excep- 
tional marks  of  respect.  The  university  of  Oxford  conferred  on 
him  the  honorary  degree  of  D.C.L.;  and  in  the  following  year 
he  was  sworn  of  the  privy  council,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  reception  given  to  the  duke  of  Wellington  and  the  allied 
sovereigns.  He  died  on  the  22nd  of  August  1818,  in  his  86th 
year,  and  lies  buried  behind  the  chancel  of  the  parish  church, 
which  he  had  recently  restored  at  his  own  charges. 

In  physical  appearance,  Hastings  "  looked  like  a  great  man, 
and  not  like  a  bad  man."  The  body  was  wholly  subjugated  to 
the  mind.  A  frame  naturally  slight  had  been  further  attenuated 
by  rigorous  habits  of  temperance,  and  thus  rendered  proof 
against  the  diseases  of  the  tropics.  Against  his  private  character 
not  even  calumny  has  breathed  a  reproach.  As  brother,  as 
husband  and  as  friend,  his  affections  were  as  steadfast  as  they 
were  warm.  By  the  public  he  was  always  regarded  as  reserved, 
but  within  his  own  inner  circle  he  gave  and  received  perfect 
confidence.  In  his  dealings  with  money,  he  was  characterized 
rather  by  liberality  of  expenditure  than  by  carefulness  of  acquisi- 
tion. A  classical  education  and  the  instincts  of  family  pride 
saved  him  from  both  the  greed  and  the  vulgar  display  which 
marked  the  typical  "  nabob,"  the  self-made  man  of  those  days. 
He  could  support  the  position  of  a  governor-general  and  of  a 
country  gentleman  with  equal  credit.  Concerning  his  second 
marriage,  it  suffices  to  say  that  the  Baroness  Imhoff  was  nearly 
forty  years  of  age,  with  a  family  of  grown-up  children,  when  the 
complaisant  law  of  her  native  land  allowed  her  to  become  Mrs 
Hastings.  She  survived  her  husband,  who  cherished  towards 
her  to  the  last  the  sentiments  of  a  lover.  Her  children  he 
adopted  as  his  own;  and  it  was  chiefly  for  her  sake  that  he 
desired  the  peerage  which  was  twice  held  out  to  him. 

Hastings's  public  career  will  probably  never  cease  to  be  a 
subject  of  controversy.  It  was  his  misfortune  to  be  the  scape- 
goat upon  whose  head  parliament  laid  the  accumulated  sins, 
real  and  imaginary,  of  the  East  India  Company.  If  the  acquisi- 
tion of  the  Indian  empire  can  be  supported  on  ethical  grounds, 
Hastings  needs  no  defence.  No  one  who  reads  his  private 
correspondence  will  admit  that  even  his  least  defensible  acts 
were  dictated  by  dishonourable  motives.  It  is  more  pleasing  to 
point  out  certain  of  his  public  measures  upon  which  no  difference 
of  opinion  can  arise.  He  was  the  first  to  attempt  to  open  a  trade 
route  with  Tibet,  and  to  organize  a  survey  of  Bengal  and  of  the 
eastern  seas.  It  was  he  who  persuaded  the  pundits  of  Bengal  to 
disclose  the  treasures  of  Sanskrit  to  European  scholars.  He 
founded  the  Madrasa  or  college  for  Mahommedan  education  at 
Calcutta,  primarily  out  of  his  own  funds;  and  he  projected  the 
foundation  of  an  Indian  institute  in  England.  The  Bengal 
Asiatic  Society  was  established  under  his  auspices,  though  he 
yielded  the  post  of  president  to  Sir  W.  Jones.  No  Englishman 
ever  understood  the  native  character  so  well. as  Hastings;  none 
ever  devoted  himself  more  heartily  to  the  promotion  of  every 
scheme,  great  and  small,  that  could  advance  the  prosperity  of 
India.  Natives  and  Anglo-Indians  alike  venerate  his  name,  the 
former  as  their  first  beneficent  administrator,  the  latter  as  the 


HASTINGS 


59 


most  able  and  the  most  enlightened  of  their  own  class.  If  Clive's 
sword  conquered  the  Indian  empire,  it  was  the  brain  of  Hastings 
that  planned  the  system  of  civil  administration,  and  his  genius 
that  saved  the  empire  in  its  darkest  hour. 

See  G.  B.  Malleson,  Life  of  Warren  Hastings  (1894);  G.  W. 
Forrest,  The  Administration  of  Warren  Hastings  (Calcutta,  1892); 
Sir  Charles  Lawson,  The  Private  Life  of  Warren  Hastings  (1895); 
L.  J.  Trotter,  Warren  Hastings  ("  Rulers  of  India  "  series)  (1890); 
Sir  Alfred  Lyall,  Warren  Hastings  ("  English  Men  of  Action  "  series) 
(1889) ;  F.  M.  Holmes,  Four  Heroes  of  India  (1892) ;  G.  W.  Hastings, 
A  Vindication  of  Warren  Hastings  (1909).  Macaulay's  famous  essay, 
though  a  classic,  is  very  partial  and  inaccurate;  and  Burke's  speech, 
on  the  impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings,  is  magnificent  rhetoric. 
The  true  historical  view  has  been  restored  by  Sir  James  Stephen's 
Story  of  Nuncomar  (1885)  and  by  Sir  John  Strachey's  Hastings  and 
the  Rohilla  War  (1892),  and  it  is  enforced  in  some  detail  in  Sydney 
C.  Grier's  Letters  of  Warren  Hastings  to  his  Wife  (1905),  material  for 
which  existed  in  a  mass  of  documents  relating  to  Hastings,  acquired 
by  the  British  Museum.  (J.  S.  Co.) 

HASTINGS,  a  municipal,  county  and  parliamentary  borough 
and  watering-place  of  Sussex,  England,  one  of  the  Cinque  Ports, 
62  m.  S.E.  by  S.  from  London,  on  the  South  Eastern  &  Chatham 
and  the  London,  Brighton  &  South  Coast  railways.  Pop.  (1901), 
65,528.  It  is  picturesquely  situated  at  the  mouth  of  two  narrow 
valleys,  and,  being  sheltered  by  considerable  hills  on  the  north 
and  east,  has  an  especially  mild  climate.  Eastward  along  the 
coast  towards  Fairlight,  and  inland,  the  country  is  beautiful. 
A  parade  fronts  the  English  Channel,  and  connects  the  town  on 
the  west  with  St  Leonard's,  which  is  included  within  the  borough. 
This  is  mainly  a  residential  quarter,  and  has  four  railway  stations 
on  the  lines  serving  Hastings.  Both  Hastings  and  St  Leonard's 
have  fine  piers;  there  is  a  covered  parade  known  as  the  Marina, 
and  the  Alexandra  Park  of  75  acres  was  opened  in  1891.  There 
are  also  numerous  public  gardens.  The  sandy  beach  is  extensive, 
and  affords  excellent  bathing.  On  the  brink  of  the  West  Cliff 
stand  a  square  and  a  circular  tower  and  other  fragments  of  the 
castle,  probably  erected  soon  after  the  time  of  William  the 
Conqueror;  together  with  the  ruins,  opened  up  by  excavation 
in  1824,  of  the  castle  chapel,  a  transitional  Norman  structure 
no  ft.  long,  with  a  nave,  chancel  and  aisles.  Besides  the  chapel 
there  was  formerly  a  college,  both  being  under  the  control  of  a 
dean  and  secular  canons.  The  deanery  was  held  by  Thomas 
Becket,  and  one  of  the  canonries  by  William  of  Wykeham.  The 
principal  public  buildings  are  the  old  parish  churches  of  All 
Saints  and  St  Clements,  the  first  containing  in  its  register  for 
1619  the  baptism  of  Titus  Dates,  whose  father  was  rector  of  the 
parish;  numerous  modern  churches,  the  town  hall  (1880); 
theatre,  music  hall  and  assembly  rooms.  The  Brassey  Institute 
contains  a  public  library,  museum  and  art  school.  The  Albert 
Memorial  clock-tower  was  erected  in  1864.  Educational  institu- 
tions include  the  grammar  school  (1883),  school  of  science  and 
art  (1878)  and  technical  schools.  At  the  west  end  of  the  town 
are  several  hospitals  and  convalescent  homes.  The  prosperity 
of  the  town  depends  almost  wholly  on  its  reputation  as  a  watering- 
place,  but  there  is  a  small  fishing  and  boat-building  industry. 
In  1890  an  act  of  parliament  authorized  the  construction  of  a 
harbour,  but  the  work,  begun  in  1896,  was  not  completed.  The 
fish-market  beneath  the  castle  cliff  is  picturesque.  The  parlia- 
mentary borough,  returning  one  member,  falls  within  the  Rye 
division  of  the  county.  The  county  borough  was  created  in 
1888.  The  municipal  borough  is  under  a  mayor,  10  aldermen 
and  30  councillors.  Area,  4857  acres. 

Rock  shelters  on  Castle  Hill  and  numerous  flint  instruments 
which  have  been  discovered  at  Hastings  point  to  an  extensive 
neolithic  population,  and  there  are  ancient  earthworks  and  a 
promontory  camp  of  unknown  date.  There  is  no  evidence  that 
Hastings  was  a  Roman  settlement,  but  it  was  a  place  of  some 
note  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  period.  In  795  land  at  Hastings 
(Haestingaceaster,  Haestingas,  Haestingaport)  is  included  in  a 
grant,  which  may  possibly  be  a  forgery,  of  a  South  Saxon  chieftain 
to  the  abbey  of  St  Denis  in  France;  and  a  royal  mint  was 
established  at  the  town  by  ^thelstan.  The  battle  of  Hastings 
in  1066  described  below  was  the  first  and  decisive  act  of  the 
Norman  Conquest.  It  was  fought  near  the  present  Battle  Abbey, 


about  6  m.  inland.  After  the  Conquest  William  I.  erected  the 
earthworks  of  the  existing  castle.  By  1086  Hastings  was  a 
borough  and  had  given  its  name  to  the  rape  of  Sussex  in  which 
it  lay.  The  town  at  that  time  had  a  harbour  and  a  market. 
Whether  Hastings  was  one  of  the  towns  afterwards  known  as 
the  Cinque  Ports  at  the  time  when  they  received  their  first  charter 
from  Edward  the  Confessor  is  uncertain,  but  in  the  reign  of 
William  I.  it  was  undoubtedly  among  them.  These  combined 
towns,  of  which  Hastings  was  the  head,  had  special  liberties 
and  a  separate  jurisdiction  under  a  warden.  The  only  charter 
peculiar  to  Hastings  was  granted  in  1589  by  Elizabeth,  and 
incorporated  the  borough  under  the  name  of  "  mayor,  jurats 
and  commonalty,"  instead  of  the  former  title  of  "  bailiff,  jurats 
and  commonalty."  Hastings  returned  two  members  to  parlia- 
ment probably  from  1322,  and  certainly  from  1366,  until  1885, 
when  the  number  was  reduced  to  one. 

Battle  of  Hastings. — On  the  28th  of  September  1066,  William 
of  Normandy,  bent  on  asserting  by  arms  his  right  to  the  English 
crown,  landed  at  Pevensey.  King  Harold,  who  had  destroyed 
the  invaders  of  northern  England  at  the  battle  of  Stamford 
Bridge  in  Yorkshire,  on  hearing  the  news  hurried  southward, 
gathering  what  forces  he  could  on  the  way.  He  took  up  his 
position,  athwart  the  road  from  Hastings  to  London,  on  a  hill1 
some  6  m.  inland  from  Hastings,  with  his  back  to  the  great 
forest  of  Anderida  (the  Weald)  and  in  front  of  him  a  long  glacis- 
like  slope,  at  the  bottom  of  which  began  the  opposing  slope  of 
Telham  Hill.  The  English  army  was  composed  almost  entirely 
of  infantry.  The  shire  levies,  for  the  most  part  destitute  of  body 
armour  and  with  miscellaneous  and  even  improvised  weapons, 
were  arranged  on  either  flank  of  Harold's  guards  (huscarks), 
picked  men  armed  principally  with  the  Danish  axe  and  shield. 

Before  this  position  Duke  William  appeared  on  the  morning 
of  the  I4th  of  October.  His  host,  composed  not  only  of  his 
Norman  vassals  but  of  barons,  knights  and  adventurers  from  all 
quarters,  was  arranged  in  a  centre  and  two  wings,  each  corps 
having  its  archers  and  arblasters  in  the  front  line,  the  rest  of  the 
infantry  in  the  second  and  the  heavy  armoured  cavalry  in  the 
third.  Neither  the  arrows  nor  the  charge  of  the  second  line 
of  foot-men,  who,  unlike  the  English,  wore  defensive  mail,  made 
any  impression  on  the  English  standing  in  a  serried  mass  behind 
their  interlocked  shields.2 

Then  the  heavy  cavalry  came  on,  led  by  the  duke  and  his 
brother  Odo,  and  encouraged  by  the  example  of  the  minstrel 
Taillefer,  who  rode  forward,  tossing  and  catching  his  sword, 
into  the  midst  of  the  English  line  before  he  was  pulled  down  and 
killed.  All  along  the  front  the  cavalry  came  to  close  quarters 
with  the  defenders,  but  the  long  powerful  Danish  axes  were 

1  Freeman  called  this  hill  Senlac  and  introduced  the  fashion  of 
describing  the  battle  as  "  the  battle  of  Senlac."     Mr  J.  H.  Round, 
however,  proved  conclusively  that  this  name,  being  French  (Sen- 
lecque),  could  not  have  been  in  use  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest, 
that  the  battlefield  had  in  fact  no  name,  pointing  out  that  in  William 
of  Malmesbury  and  in  Domesday  Book  the  battle  is  called  "  of 
Hastings  "  (Bellum  Hastingense) ,  while  only  one  writer,  Ordericus 
Vitalis,  describes  it  two  hundred  years  after  the  event  as  Bellum 
Senlacium.     See  Round,  Feudal  England    (London,    1895),   p.   333 
et  seq. 

2  There  is  still  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether  the  English 
were,  or  were  not,  defended  by  any  other  rampart  than  that  of  the 
customary  "  shield-wall."     Freeman,  apparently  as  a  result  of  a 
misunderstanding  of  a  passage  in  Henry  of  Huntingdon  and  the 
slightly  ambiguous  verse  of  Wace  in  the  Roman  du  Ron  (11.  6991- 
6994  and  11.  7815-7826),  affirms  that  Harold  turned  "  the  battle  as 
far  as  possible  into  the  likeness  of  a  siege,"  by  building  round  his 
troops  a  "  palisade  "  of  solid  timber  (Norman  Conquest,  iii.  444): 
This  was  proved  to  be  a  fable  by  J.  H.  Round,  in  the  course  of  a 
general  attack  on  Freeman's  historical  method,  which  provoked  the 
professor's  defenders  to  take  up  the  cudgels  on  his  behalf  in  a  very 
long  and  lively  controversy.     The  result  of  this  was  that  Freeman's 
account  was  wholly  discredited,  though  Round 's  view — that  there  was 
no  wall  of  any  kind  save  the  shield-wall — is  not  generally  accepted. 
Professor  Oman  (Academy,  June  9,  1894),  for  instance,  holds  that 
there  was  "  an  abattis  of  some  sort  "  set  to  hamper  the  advance 
of  cavalry  (see  also  ENGLISH  HISTORY,  vol.  ix.,  p.  474).     Mr  Round 
sums  up  the  controversy,  from  his  point  of  view,  in  his  Feudal 
England,  p.  340  et  seq.,  where  references  to  other  monographs  on 
the  subject  will  be  found. 


6o 


HASTINGS— HAT 


as  formidable  as  the  halbert  and  the  bill  proved  to  be  in  battles 
of  later  centuries,  and  they  lopped  off  the  arms  of  the  assailants 
and  cut  down  their  horses.  The  fire  of  the  attack  died  out  and 
the  left  wing  (Bretons)  fled  in  rout.  But  as  thefyrd  levies  broke 
out  of  the  line  and  pursued  the  Bretons  down  the  hill  in  a  wild, 
formless  mob,  William's  cavalry  swung  round  and  destroyed 
them,  and  this  suggested  to  the  duke  to  repeat  deliberately 
what  the  B  retons  had  done  from  fear.  Another  a  d vance ,  followed 
by  a  feigned  retreat,  drew  down  a  second  large  body  of  the 
English  from  the  crest,  and  these  in  turn,  once  in  the  open,  were 
ridden  over  and  slaughtered  by  the  men-at-arms.  Lastly, 
these  two  disasters  having  weakened  the  defenders  both 
materially  and  morally,  William  subjected  the  huscarles,  who 
had  stood  fast  when  the  fyrd  broke  its  ranks,  to  a  constant  rain 
of  arrows,  varied  from  time  to  time  by  cavalry  charges.  These 
magnificent  soldiers  endured  the  trial  for  many  hours,  from 
noon  till  close  on  nightfall;  but  at  last,  when  the  Norman 
archers  raised  their  bows  so  as  to  pitch  the  arrows  at  a  steep 
angle  of  descent  in  the  midst  of  the  huscarles,  the  strain  became 
too  great.  While  some  rushed  forward  alone  or  in  twos  and  threes 
to  die  in  the  midst  of  the  enemy,  the  remainder  stood  fast,  too 
closely  crowded  almost  for  the  wounded  to  drop.  At  last 
Harold  received  a  mortal  wound,  the  English  began  to  waver, 
and  the  knights  forced  their  way  in.  Only  a  remnant  of  the 
defenders  made  its  way  back  to  the  forest;  and  William,  after 
resting  for  a  night  on  the  hardly-won  ground,  began  the  work  of 
the  Norman  Conquest. 

HASTINGS,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Adams  county, 
Nebraska,  U.S.A.,  about  95  m.  W.  by  S.  of  Lincoln.  Pop. 
(1890)  13,584;  (1900)  7188  (1253  foreign-born);  (1910)  9338. 
Hastings  is  served  by  the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy,  the 
Chicago  &  North-western,  the  Missouri  Pacific  and  the  St  Joseph 
&  Grand  Island  railways.  It  is  the  seat  of  Hastings  College 
(Presbyterian,  coeducational),  opened  in  1882,  and  having  286 
students  in  1908,  and  of  the  state  asylum  for  the  chronic  insane. 
The  city  carries  on  a  considerable  jobbing  business  for  the  farm- 
ing region  of  which  it  is  the  centre  and  produce  market.  There 
are  a  large  foundry  and  several  large  brickyards  here.  Hastings 
was  settled  in  1872,  was  incorporated  in  1874  and  was  chartered 
as  a  city  in  the  same  year. 

HAT,  a  covering  for  the  head  worn  by  both  sexes,  and  dis- 
tinguished from  the  cap  or  bonnet  by  the  possession  of  a  brim. 
The  word  in  O.E.  is  licet,  which  is  cognate  with  O.  Frisian  halt, 
O.N.  hotte,  &c.,  meaning  head-covering,  hood  ;  it  is  distantly 
related  to  the  O.E.  hod,  hood,  which  is  cognate  with  the  German 
for  "  hat,"  Hut.  The  history  of  the  hat  as  part  of  the  apparel 
of  both  sexes,  with  the  various  changes  in  shape  which  it  has 
undergone,  is  treated  in  the  article  COSTUME. 

Hats  were  originally  made  by  the  process  of  felting,  and  as 
tradition  ascribed  the  discovery  of  that  very  ancient  operation 
to  St  Clement,  he  was  assumed  as  the  patron  saint  of  the  craft. 
At  the  present  day  the  trade  is  divided  into  two  distinct  classes. 
The  first  and  most  ancient  is  concerned  with  the  manufacture 
of  felt  hats,  and  the  second  has  to  do  with  the  recent  but  now 
most  extensive  and  important  manufacture  of  silk  or  dress  hats. 
In  addition  to  these  there  is  the  important  manufacture  of  straw 
or  plaited  hats  (see  STRAW  AND  STRAW  MANUFACTURES);  and 
hats  are  occasionally  manufactured  of  materials  and  by  processes 
not  included  under  any  of  these  heads,  but  such  manufactures 
do  not  take  a  large  or  permanent  position  in  the  industry. 

Felt  Hats. — There  is  a  great  range  in  the  quality  of  felt  hats: 
the  finer  and  more  expensive  qualities  are  made  entirely  of  fur; 
for  commoner  qualities  a  mixture  of  fur  and  wool  is  used;  and  for 
the  cheapest  kinds  wool  alone  is  employed.  The  processes  and 
apparatus  necessary  for  making  hats  of  fur  differ  also  from  those 
required  in  the  case  of  woollen  bodies;  and  in  large  manufactories 
machinery  is  now  generally  employed  for  operations  which  at  no 
distant  date  were  entirely  manual.  An  outline  of  the  operations 
by  which  the  old  beaver  hat  was  made  will  give  an  idea  of  the 
manual  processes  in  making  a  fur  napped  hat,  and  the  apparatus 
and  mechanical  processes  employed  in  making  ordinary  hard  and 
soft  felts  will  afterwards  be  noticed. 

Hatters'  fur  consists  principally  of  the  hair  of  rabbits  (technically 
called  coneys)  and  hares,  with  some  proportion  of  nutria,  musquash 
and  beavers'  hair;  and  generally  any  parings  and  cuttings  from 


furriers  are  also  used.  Furs  intended  for  felting  are  deprived  of  their 
long  coarse  hairs,  after  which  they  are  treated  with  a  solution  of 
nitrate  of  mercury,  an  operation  called  carroting  or  secretage,  whereby 
the  felting  properties  of  the  fur  are  greatly  increased.  The  fur  is 
then  cut  by  hand  or  machine  from  the  skip,  and  in  this  state  it  is 
delivered  to  the  hat  maker. 

The  old  process  of  making  a  beaver  hat  was  as  follows.  The 
materials  of  a  proper  beaver  consisted,  for  the  body  or  foundation,  of 
rabbits'  fur,  and  for  the  nap,  of  beaver  fur,  although  the  beaver  was 
often  mixed  with  or  supplanted  by  a  more  common  fur.  In  pre- 
paring the  fur  plate,  the  hatter  weighed  out  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  rabbit  fur  for  a  single  hat,  and  spread  it  out  and  combined  it  by 
the  operation  of  bowing.  The  bow  or  stang  ABC  (fig.  i)  was  about 


FIG.  i. 

7  ft.  long,  and  it  stretched  a  single  cord  of  catgut  D,  which  the 
workman  vibrated  by  means  of  a  wooden  pin  E,  furnished  with  a 
half  knob  at  each  end.  Holding  the  bow  in  his  left  hand,  and  the  pin 
in  his  right,  he  caused  the  vibrating  string  to  come  in  contact  with 
the  heap  of  tangled  fur,  which  did  not  cover  a  space  greater  than  that 
of  the  hand.  At  each  vibration  some  of  the  filaments  started  up  to 
the  height  of  a  few  inches,  and  fell  away  from  the  mass,  a  little  to 
the  right  of  the  bow,  their  excursions  being  restrained  by  a  concave 
frame  of  wicker  work  called  the  basket.  One  half  of  the  material 
was  first  operated  on,  and  by  bowing  and  gathering,  or  a  patting  use 
of  the  basket,  the  stuff  was  loosely  matted  into  a  triangular  figure, 
about  50  by  36  in.,  called  a  bat.  In  this  formation  care  was  taken  to 
work  about  two-thirds  of  the  fur  down  towards  what  was  intended 
for  the  brim,  and  this  having  been  effected,  greater  density  was  in- 
duced by  gentle  pressure  with  the  basket.  It  was  then  covered  with 
a  wettish  linen  cloth,  upon  which  was  laid  the  hardening  skin,  a 
piece  of  dry  half-tanned  horse  hide.  On  this  the  workman  pressed 
until  the  stuff  adhered  closely  to  the  damp  cloth,  in  which  it  was  then 
doubled  up,  freely  pressed  with  the  hand,  and  laid  aside.  By  this 
process,  called  basoning,  the  bat  became  compactly  felted  and 
thinned  toward  the  sides  and  point.  The  other  half  of  the  fur  was  next 
subjected  to  precisely  the  same  processes,  after  which  a  cone-shaped 
slip  of  stiff  paper  was  laid  on  its  surface,  and  the  sides  of  the  bat  were 
folded  over  ics  edges  to  its  form  and  size.  It  was  then  laid  paper-side 
downward  upon  the  first  bat,  which  was  now  replaced  on  the  hurdle, 
and  its  edges  were  transversely  doubled  over  the  introverted  side-lays 
of  the  second  bat,  thus  giving  equal  thickness  to  the  whole  body. 
In  this  condition  it  was  reintroduced  between  folds  of  damp  linen 
cloth,  and  again  hardened,  so  as  to  unite  the  two  halves,  the  knitting 
together  of  which  was  quickly  effected.  The  paper  was  then  with- 
drawn, and  the  body  in  the  form  of  a  large  cone  removed  to  the 
plank  or  battery  room. 

The  battery  consisted  of  an  open  iron  boiler  or  kettle  A  (fig.  2), 
filled  with  scalding  hot  water,  with  shelves,  B,  C,  partly  of  mahogany 
and  partly  of  lead,  slop- 
ing down  to  it.  Here 
the  body  was  first  dipped 
in  the  water,  and  then 
withdrawn  to  the  plank 
to  cool  and  drain,  when 
it  was  unfolded,  rolled 
gently  with  a  pin  tapering 
towards  the  ends,  turned, 
and  worked  in  every 
direction,  to  toughen  and 
shrink  it,  and  at  the  same 
time  prevent  adhesion  of 
its  sides.  Stopping  or 
thickening  any  thin  spots 
seen  on  looking  through 
the  body,  was  carefully 
performed  by  dabbing  on 
additional  stuff  in  succes- 


FIG.  2. 


sive  supplies  from  the  hot  liquor  with  a  brush  frequently  dipped  into 
the  kettle,  until  the  body  was  shrunk  sufficiently  (about  one-half)  and 
thoroughly  equalized.  When  quite  dried,  stiffening  was  effected 
with  a  brush  dipped  into  a  thin  varnish  of  shellac,  and  rubbed  into 
the  body,  the  surface  intended  for  the  inside  having  much  more 
laid  on  it  than  the  outer,  while  the  brim  was  made  to  absorb  many 
times  the  quantity  applied  to  any  other  part. 

On  being  again  dried,  the  body  was  ready  to  be  covered  with  a  nap 
of  beaver  hair.  For  this,  in  inferior  qualities,  the  hair  of  the  otter, 
nutria  or  other  fine  fur  was  sometimes  substituted.  The  requisite 
quantity  of  one  or  other  of  these  was. taken  and  mixed  with  a  pro- 
portion of  cotton,  and  the  whole  was  bowed  up  into  a  thin  uniform 
lap.  The  cotton  merely  s 
to  enable  the  workman 


11,  aliu    Lllc   Wliuic    w<ts   uuvvju   up  liny  a.   ii 

L  merely  served  to  give  sufficient  body  to  the  material 
workman  to  handle  the  lap.     The  body  of  the  hat 


HATCH,  EDWIN— HATCH 


61 


being  damped,  the  workman  spread  over  it  a  covering  of  this  lap, 
and  by  moistening  and  gentle  patting  with  a  brush  the  cut  ends 
of  the  hair  penetrated  and  fixed  themselves  in  the  felt  body.  The 
hat  was  then  put  into  a  coarse  hair  cloth,  dipped  and  rolled  in 
the  hot  liquor  until  the  fur  was  quite  worked  in,  the  cotton  being 
left  on  the  surface  loose  and  ready  for  removal.  The  blocking, 
dyeing  and  finishing  processes  in  the  case  of  beaver  hats  were 
similar  to  those  employed  for  ordinary  felts,  except  that  greater  care 
and  dexterity  were  required  on  the  part  of  the  workmen,  and  further 
that  the  coarse  hairs  or  kemps  which  might  be  in  the  fur  were  cut  off 
by  shaving  the  surface  with  a  razor.  The  nap  also  had  to  be  laid  in 
one  direction,  smoothed  and  rendered  glossy  by  repeated  wettings, 
ironings  and  brushings.  A  hat  so  finished  was  very  durable  and 
much  more  light,  cool  and  easy-fitting  to  the  head  than  the  silk  hat 
which  has  now  so  largely  superseded  it. 

The  first  efficient  machinery  for  making  felt  hats  was  devised  in 
America,  and  from  the  United  States  the  machine-making  processes 
were  introduced  into  England  about  the  year  1858;  and  now  in  all 
large  establishments  machinery  such  as  that  alluded  to  below  is 
employed.  For  the  forming  of  hat  bodies  two  kinds  of  machine  are 
used,  according  as  the  material  employed  is  fur  or  wool.  In  the  case 
of  fur,  the  essential  portion  of  the  apparatus  is  a  "  former,"  con- 
sisting of  a  metal  cone  of  the  size  and  form  of  the  body  or  bat  to 
be  made,  perforated  all  over  with  small  holes.  The  cone  is  made  to 
revolve  on  its  axis  slowly  over  an  orifice  under  which  there  is  a 
powerful  fan,  which  maintains  a  strong  inward  draught  of  air 
through  the  holes  in  the  cone.  At  the  side  of  the  cone,  and  with 
an  opening  towards  it,  is  a  trunk  or  box  from  which  the  fur  to  be 
made  into  a  hat  is  thrown  out  by  the  rapid  revolution  of  a  brush- 
like  cylinder,  and  as  the  cloud  of  separate  hairs  is  expelled  from 
the  trunk,  the  current  of  air  being  sucked  through  the  cone  carries 
the  fibres  to  it  and  causes  them  to  cling  closely  to  its  surface.  Thus 
a  coating  of  loose  fibres  is  accumulated  on  the  copper  cone,  and 
these  are  kept  in  position  only  by  the  exhaust  at  work  under  it. 
When  sufficient  for  a  hat  body  has  been  deposited,  it  is  damped  and  a 
cloth  is  wrapped  round  it ;  then  an  outer  cone  is  slipped  over  it  and 
the  whole  is  removed  for  felting,  while  another  copper  cone  is  placed 
in  position  for  continuing  the  work.  The  fur  is  next  felted  by 
being  rolled  and  pressed,  these  operations  being  performed  partly  by 
hand  and  partly  by  machine. 

In  the  case  of  wool  hats  the  hat  or  body  is  prepared  by  first 
carding  in  a  modified  form  of  carding  machine.  The  wool  is  divided 
into  two  separate  slivers  as  delivered  from  the  cards,  and  these  are 
wound  simultaneously  on  a  double  conical  block  of  wood  mounted 
and  geared  to  revolve  slowly  with  a  reciprocating  horizontal  motion, 
so  that  there  is  a  continual  crossing  and  recrossing  of  the  wool  as 
the  sliver  is  wound  around  the  cone.  This  diagonal  arrangement  of 
the  sliver  is  an  essential  feature  in  the  apparatus,  as  thereby  the 
strength  of  the  finished  felt  is  made  equal  in  every  direction;  and 
when  strained  in  the  blocking  the  texture  yields  in  a  uniform  manner 
without  rupture.  The  wool  wound  on  the  double  block  forms  the 
material  of  two  hats,  which  are  separated  by  cutting  around  the 
median  or  base  line,  and  slipping  each  half  off  at  its  own  end.  Into 
each  cone  of  wool  or  bat  an  "  inlayer  "  is  now  placed  to  prevent  the 
inside  from  matting,  after  which  they  are  folded  in  cloths,  and  placed 
over  a  perforated  iron  plate  through  which  steam  is  blown.  When 
well  moistened  and  heated,  they  are  placed  between  boards,  and 
subjected  to  a  rubbing  action  sufficient  to  harden  them  for  bearing 
the  subsequent  strong  planking  or  felting  operations.  The  planking 
of  wool  hats  is  generally  done  by  machine,  in  some  cases  a  form  of 
fulling  mill  being  used;  but  in  all  forms  the  agencies  are  heat, 
moisture,  pressure,  rubbing  and  turning. 

When  by  thorough  felting  the  hat  bodies  of  any  kind  have  been 
reduced  to  dense  leathery  cones  about  one-half  the  size  of  the  original 
bat,  they  are  dried,  and,  if  hard  felts  are  to  be  made,  the  bodies  are 
at  this  stage  hardened  or  stiffened  with  a  varnish  of  shellac.  Next 
follows  the  operations  of  blocking,  in  which  the  felt  for  the  first  time 
assumes  approximately  the  form  it  is  ultimately  to  possess.  For 
this  purpose  the  conical  body  is  softened  in  boiling  water,  and 
forcibly  drawn  over  and  over  a  hat-shaped  wooden  block.  The 
operation  of  dyeing  next  follows,  and  the  finishing  processes  include 
shaping  on  a  block,  over  which  crown  and  brim  receive  ultimately 
their  accurate  form,  and  pouncing  or  pumicing,  which  consists  of 
smoothing  the  surface  with  fine  emery  paper,  the  hat  being  for  this 
purpose  mounted  on  a  rapidly  revolving  block.  The  trimmer  finajly 
binds  the  outer  brim  and  inserts  the  lining,  after  which  the  brim 
may  be  given  more  or  less  of  a  curl  or  turn  over  according  to  pre- 
vailing fashion. 

Silk  flats. — The  silk  hat,  which  has  now  become  co-extensive  with 
civilization,  is  an  article  of  comparatively  recent  introduction.  It 
was  invented  in  Florence  about  1760,  but  it  was  more  than  half  a 
century  before  it  was  worn  to  any  great  extent. 

A  silk  hat  consists  of  a  light  stiff  body  covered  with  a  plush  of 
silk,  the  manufacture  of  which  in  a  brilliant  glossy  condition  is  the 
most  important  element  in  the  industry.  Originally  the  bodies 
were  made  of  felt  and  various  other  materials,  but  now  calico  is 
chiefly  used.  The  calico  is  first  stiffened  with  a  varnish  of  shellac, 
and  then  cut  into  pieces  sufficient  for  crown,  side  and  brim.  The 
side-piece  is  wound  round  a  wooden  hat  block,  and  its  edges  are 


joined  by  hot  ironing,  and  the  crown-piece  is  put  on  and  similarly 
attached  to  the  side.  The  brim,  consisting  of  three  thicknesses  of 
calico  cemented  together,  is  now  slipped  over  and  brought  to  its 
position,  and  thereafter  a  second  side-piece  and  another  crown  are 
cemented  on.  The  whole  of  the  body,  thus  prepared,  now  receives 
a  coat  of  size,  and  subsequently  it  is  varnished  over,  and  thus  it  is 
ready  for  the  operation  of  covering.  In  covering  this  body,  the 
under  brim,  generally  of  merino,  is  first  attached,  then  the  upper 
brim,  and  lastly  the  crown  and  side  sewn  together  are  drawn  over. 
All  these  by  hot  ironing  and  stretching  are  drawn  smooth  and  tight, 
and  as  the  varnish  of  the  body  softens  with  the  heat,  body  and  coyer 
adhere  all  over  to  each  other  without  wrinkle  or  pucker.  Dressing 
and  polishing  by  means  of  damping,  brushing  and  ironing,  come 
next,  after  which  the  hat  is  "  velured  "  in  a  revolving  machine  by 
the  application  of  haircloth  and  velvet  velures,  which  cleans  the  nap 
and  gives  it  a  smooth  and  glossy  surface.  The  brim  has  only  then  to 
be  bound,  the  linings  inserted,  and  the  brim  finally  curled,  when 
the  hat  is  ready  for  use. 

HATCH,  EDWIN  (1835-1889),  English  theologian,  was  born 
at  Derby  on  the  I4th  of  September  1835,  and  was  educated  at 
King  Edward's  school,  Birmingham,  under  James  Prince  Lee, 
afterwards  bishop  of  Manchester.  He  had  many  struggles  to 
pass  through  in  early  life,  which  tended  to  discipline  his  character 
and  to  form  the  habits  of  severe  study  and  the  mental  independ- 
ence for  which  he  came  to  be  distinguished.  Hatch  became 
scholar  of  Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  took  a  second-class  in 
classics  in  1857,  and  won  the  Ellerton  prize  in  1858.  He  was 
professor  of  classics  in  Trinity  College,  Toronto,  from  1859  to 
1862,  when  he  became  rector  of  the  high  school  at  Quebec. 
In  1867  he  returned  to  Oxford,  and  was  made  vice-principal  of 
St  Mary  Hall,  a  post  which  he  held  until  1885.  In  1883  he  was 
presented  to  the  living  of  Purleigh  in  Essex,  and  in  1884  was 
appointed  university  reader  in  ecclesiastical  history.  In  1880 
he  was  Bampton  lecturer,  and  from  1880  to  1884  Grinfield 
lecturer  on  the  Septuagint.  In  1883  the  university  of  Edinburgh 
conferred  on  him  the  D.D.  degree.  He  was  the  first  editor  of 
the  university  official  Gazette  (1870),  and  of  the  Student's  Hand- 
book to  the  University.  A  reputation  acquired  through  certain 
contributions  to  the  Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities  was 
confirmed  by  his  treatises  On  the  Organization  of  the  Early 
Christian  Churches  (1881,  his  Bampton  lectures),  and  on  The 
Influence  of  Greek  Ideas  and  Usages  on  the  Christian  Church 
(the  Hibbert  lectures  for  1888).  These  works  provoked  no  little 
criticism  on  account  of  the  challenge  they  threw  down  to  the 
high-church  party,  but  the  research  and  fairness  displayed  were 
admitted  on  all  hands.  The  Bampton  lectures  were  translated 
into  German  by  Harnack.  Among  his  other  works  are  The 
Growth  of  Church  Institutions  (1887);  Essays  in  Biblical  Greek 
(1889);  A  Concordance  to  the  Septuagint  (in  collaboration  with 
H.  A.  Redpath);  Towards  Fields  of  Light  (verse,  1889);  The 
God  of  Hope  (sermons  with  memoir,  1890).  Hatch  died  on  the 
loth  of  November  1889. 

An  appreciation  by  W.  Sanday  appeared  in  The  Expositor  for 
February  1890. 

HATCH,  i.  (In  Mid.  Eng.  hacche;  the  word  is  of  obscure 
origin,  but  cognate  forms  appear  in  Swed.  hacka,  and  Dan. 
hackke;  it  has  been  connected  with  "  hatch,"  grating,  with 
possible  reference  to  a  coop,  and  with  "  hack  "  in  the  sense 
"  to  peck,"  of  chickens  coming  out  of  the  shell),  to  bring  out 
young  from  the  egg,  by  incubation  or  other  process,  natural  or 
artificial.  The  word  is  also  used  as  a  substantive  of  a  brood  of 
chickens  brought  out  from  the  eggs.  "  Hatchery  "  is  particularly 
applied  to  a  place  for  the  hatching  of  fish  spawn,  where  the 
natural  process  is  aided  by  artificial  means.  In  a  figurative 
sense  "  to  hatch  "  is  often  used  of  the  development  or  contrivance 
of  a  plot  or  conspiracy. 

2.  (From  the  Fr.  hacker,  to  cut,  hache,  hatchet),  to  engrave 
or  draw  by  means  of  cutting  lines  on  wood,  metal,  &c.,  or  to 
ornament  by  inlaying  with  strips  of  some  other  substance  as 
gold  or  silver.     Engraved  lines,  especially  those  used  in  shading, 
are  called  "  hatches  "  or  "  hachures  "  (see  HACHURE). 

3.  (O.E.  hcec,  a  gate,  rack  in  a  stable;  found    in    various 
Teutonic  languages;  cf.  Dutch  hek,  Dan.  hekke;  the  ultimate 
origin  is  obscure;  Skeat  suggests  a  connexion  with  the  root 
seen  in  "  hook  "),  the  name  given  to  the  lower  half  of  a  divided 


HATCHET- -HATHERLEY,  BARON 


door,  as  in  "  buttery-hatch,"  the  half-door  leading  from  the 
buttery  or  kitchen,  through  which  the  dishes  could  be  passed 
into  the  dining-hall.  It  was  used  formerly  as  another  name  for 
a  ship's  deck,  and  thus  the  phrase  "  under  hatches  "  meant 
properly  below  deck;  the  word  is  now  applied  to  the  doors  of 
grated  framework  covering  the  openings  (the  "  hatchways  ") 
which  lead  from  one  deck  to  another  into  the  hold  through 
which  the  cargo  is  lowered.  In  Cornwall  the  word  is  used  to 
denote  certain  dams  or  mounds  used  to  prevent  the  tin-washes 
and  the  water  coming  from  the  stream-works  from  flowing  into 
the  fresh  rivers. 

HATCHET  (adapted  from  the  Fr.  hachelte,  diminutive  of  hache, 
axe,  hacher,  to  cut,  hack),  a  small,  light  form  of  axe  with  a  short 
handle  (see  TOOL)  ;  for  the  war-hatchet  of  the  North  American 
Indians  and  the  symbolical  ceremonies  connected  'with  it  see 
TOMAHAWK. 

HATCHETTITE,  sometimes  termed  Mountain  Tallow,  Mineral 
Adipocire,  or  Adipocerite,  a  mineral  hydrocarbon  occurring  in 
the  Coal-measures  of  Belgium  and  elsewhere,  occupying  in  some 
cases  the  interior  of  hollow  concretions  of  iron-ore,  but  more 
generally  the  cavities  of  fossil  shells  or  crevices  in  the  rocks. 
It  is  of  yellow  colour,  and  translucent,  but  darkens  and  becomes 
opaque  on  exposure.  It  has  no  odour,  is  greasy  to  the  touch,  and 
has  a  slightly  glistening  lustre.  Its  hardness  is  that  of  soft 
wax.  The  melting  point  is  46°  to  47°  C.,  and  the  composition  is 
C.  85-55,  H.  14-45. 

HATCHMENT,  properly,  in  heraldry,  an  escutcheon  or  armorial 
shield  granted  for  some  act  of  distinction  or  "  achievement," 
of  which  word  it  is  a  corruption  through  such  forms  as  atcheament, 
achement,  hachemenl,  &c.  "  Achievement  "  is  an  adaptation 
of  the  Fr.  achevement,  from  achever,  a  chef  venir,  Lat.  ad  caput 
venire,  to  come  to  a  head,  or  conclusion,  hence  accomplish, 
achieve.  The  term  "  hatchment  "  is  now  usually  applied  to 
funeral  escutcheons  or  armorial  shields  enclosed  in  a  black 
lozenge-shaped  frame  suspended  against  the  wall  of  a  deceased 
person's  house.  It  is  usually  placed  over  the  entrance  at  the 
level  of  the  second  floor,  and  remains  for  from  six  to  twelve 
months,  when  it  is  removed  to  the  parish  church.  This  custom 
is  falling  into  disuse,  though  still  not  uncommon.  It  is  usual  to 
hang  the  hatchment  of  a  deceased  head  of  a  house  at  the  univer- 
sities of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  over  the  entrance  to  his  lodge 
or  residence. 

If  for  a  bachelor  the  hatchment  bears  upon  a  shield  his  arms, 
crest,  and  other  appendages,  the  whole  on  a  black  ground.  If 
for  a  single  woman,  her  arms  are  represented  upon  a  lozenge, 

bordered  with  knotted  ribbons, 
also  on  a  black  ground.  If  the 
hatchment  be  for  a  married 
man  (  as  in  the  illustration),  his 
arms  upon  a  shield  impale  those 
of  his  surviving  wife;  or  if  she 
be  an  heiress  they  are  placed 
upon  a  scutcheon  of  pretence, 
and  crest  and  other  appendages 
are  added.  The  dexter  half  of 
the  ground  is  black,  the  sinister 
white.  For  a  wife  whose  hus- 
band is  alive  the  same  arrange- 
ment is  used,  but  the  sinister 
ground  only  is  black.  For  a 
widower  the  same  is  used  as 
for  a  married  man,  but  the 
whole  ground  is  black;  for  a 
widow  the  husband's  arms  are  given  with  her  own,  but  upon  a 
lozenge,  with  ribbons,  without  crest  or  appendages,  and  the 
whole  ground  is  black.  When  there  have  been  two  wives  or 
two  husbands  the  ground  is  divided  into  three  parts  per  pale, 
and  the  division  behind  the  arms  of  the  survivor  is  white. 
Colours  and  military  or  naval  emblems  are  sometimes  placed 
behind  the  arms  of  military  or  naval  officers.  It  is  thus  easy 
to  discern  from  the  hatchment  the  sex,  condition  and  quality, 
and  possibly  the  name  of  the  deceased. 


In  Scottish  hatchments  it  is  not  unusual  to  place  the  arms 
of  the  father  and  mother  of  the  deceased  in  the  two  lateral 
angles  of  the  lozenge,  and  sometimes  the  4,  8  or  16  genealogical 
escutcheons  are  ranged  along  the  margin. 

HATFIELD,  a  town  in  the  Mid  or  St  Albans  parliamentary 
division  of  Hertfordshire,  England,  172  m.  N.  of  London  by  the 
Great  Northern  railway.  Pop.  (1901),  47 54.  It  lies  picturesquely 
on  the  flank  of  a  wooded  hill,  and  about  its  foot,  past  which  runs 
the  Great  North  Road.  The  church  of  St  Etheldreda,  well 
situated  towards  the  top  of  the  hill,  contains  an  Early  English 
round  arch  with  the  dog-tooth  moulding,  -but  for  the  rest  is 
Decorated  and  Perpendicular,  and  largely  restored.  The  chapel 
north  of  the  chancel  is  known  as  the  Salisbury  chapel,  and  was 
erected  by  Robert  Cecil,  first  earl  of  Salisbury  (d.  1612),  who 
was  buried  here.  It  is  in  a  mixture  of  classic  and  Gothic  styles. 
In  a  private  portion  of  the  churchyard  is  buried,  among  others 
of  the  family,  the  third  marquess  of  Salisbury  (d.  1903).  In  the 
vicinity  is  Hatfield  House,  close  to  the  site  of  a  palace  of  the 
bishops  of  Ely,  which  was  erected  about  the  beginning  of  the 
1 2th  century.  From  this  palace  comes  the  proper  form  of  the 
name  of  the  town,  Bishop's  Hatfield.  In  1538  the  manor  was 
resigned  to  Henry  VIII.  by  Bishop  Thomas  Goodrich  of  Ely, 
in  exchange  for  certain  lands  in  Cambridge,  Essex  and  Norfolk; 
and  after  that  monarch  the  palace  was  successively  the  residence 
of  Edward  VI.  immediately  before  his  accession,  of  Queen 
Elizabeth  during  the  reign  of  her  sister  Mary,  and  of  James  I. 
The  last-named  exchanged  it  in  1607  for  Theobalds,  near 
Cheshunt,  in  the  same  county,  an  estate  of  Robert  Cecil,  earl  of 
Salisbury,  in  whose  family  Hatfield  House  has  since  remained. 
The  west  wing  of  the  present  mansion,  built  for  Cecil  in  1608- 
1611,  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  November  1835,  the  dowager 
marchioness  of  Salisbury,  widow  of  the  ist  marquess,  perishing 
in  the  flames.  Hatfield  House  was  built,  and  has  been  restored 
and  maintained,  in  the  richest  style  of  its  period,  both  without 
and  within.  The  buildings  of  mellowed  red  brick  now  used  as 
stables  and  offices  are,  however,  of  a  period  far  anterior  to  Cecil's 
time,  and  are  probably  part  of  the  erection  of  John  Morton, 
bishop  of  Ely  in  1478-1486.  The  park  measures  some  10  m, 
in  circumference.  From  the  eminence  on  which  the  mansion 
stands  the  ground  falls  towards  the  river  Lea,  which  here  expands 
into  a  small  lake.  Beyond  this  is  a  rare  example  of  a  monks' 
walled  vineyard.  In  the  park  is  also  an  ancient  oak  under 
which  Elizabeth  is  said  to  have  been  seated  when  the  news  of  her 
sister's  death  was  brought  to  her.  Brocket  Park  is  another  fine 
demesne,  at  the  neighbouring  village  of  Lemsford,  and  the 
Brocket  chapel  in  Hatfield  church  contains  memorials  of  the 
families  who  have  held  this  seat. 

HATHERLEY,  WILLIAM  PAGE  WOOD,  IST  BARON  (1801- 
1881),  lord  chancellor  of  Great  Britain,  son  of  Sir  Matthew 
.Wood,  a  London  alderman  and  lord  mayor  who  became  famous 
for  befriending  Queen  Caroline  and  braving  George  IV.,  was  born 
in  London  on  the  29th  of  November  1801.  He  was  educated 
at  Winchester,  Geneva  University,  and  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  became  a  fellow  after  being  24th  wrangler  in 
1824.  He  entered  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1824,  studying  conveyancing  in  Mr  John  Tyrrell's  chambers. 
He  soon  obtained  a  good  practice  as  an  equity  draughtsman 
and  before  parliamentary  committees,  and  in  1830  married 
Miss  Charlotte  Moor.  In  1845  he  became  Q.C.,  and  in  1847  was 
elected  to  parliament  for  the  city  of  Oxford  as  a  Liberal.  In 
1849  he  was  appointed  vice-chancellor  of  the  county  palatine 
of  Lancaster,  and  in  1851  was  made  solicitor-general  and  knighted, 
vacating  that  position  in  1852.  When  his  party  returned  to 
power  in  1853,  he  was  raised  to  the  bench  as  a  vice-chancellor. 
In  1868  he  was  made  a  lord  justice  of  appeal,  but  before  the  end 
of  the  year  was  selected  by  Mr  Gladstone  to  be  lord  chancellor, 
and  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Lord  Hatherley  of  Down 
Hatherley.  He  retired  in  1872  owing  to  failing  eyesight,  but  sat 
occasionally  as  a  law  lord.  His  wife's  death  in  1878  was  a  great 
blow,  from  which  he  never  recovered,  and  he  died  in  London 
on  the  loth  of  July  1881.  Dean  Hook  said  that  Lord  Hatherley 
— who  was  a  sound  and  benevolent  supporter  of  the  Church  of 


HATHERTON,  BARON— HATTON,  SIR  C. 


England — was  the  best  man  he  had  ever  known.  He  was  a 
particularly  clear-headed  lawyer,  and  his  judgments — always 
delivered  extempore — commanded  the  greatest  confidence  both 
with  the  public  and  the  legal  profession.  He  left  no  issue  and 
the  title  became  extinct  on  his  death. 

HATHERTON,  EDWARD  JOHN  LITTLETON,  IST  BARON 
(1791-1863),  was  born  on  the  i8th  of  March  1791  and  was 
educated  at  Rugby  school  and  at  Brasenose  College,  Oxford. 
He  was  the  only  son  of  Moreton  Walhouse  of  Hatherton,  Stafford- 
shire; but  in  1812,  in  accordance  with  the  will  of  his  great-uncle 
Sir  Edward  Littleton,  Bart.  (d.  1812),  he  took  the  name  of 
Littleton.  From  1812  to  1832  he  was  member  of  parliament  for 
Staffordshire  and  from  1832  to  1835  for  the  southern  division  of 
that  county,  being  specially  prominent  in  the  House  of  Commons 
as  an  advocate  of  Roman  Catholic  emancipation.  In  January 
1833,  against  his  own  wish,  he  was  put  forward  by  the  Radicals 
as  a  candidate  for  the  office  of  speaker,  but  he  was  not  elected  and 
in  May  1833  he  became  chief  secretary  to  the  lord-lieutenant  of 
Ireland  in  the  ministry  of  Earl  Grey.  His  duties  in  this  capacity 
brought  him  frequently  into  conflict  with  O'Connell,  but  he  was 
obviously  unequal  to  the  great  Irishman,  although  he  told  his 
colleagues  to  "  leave  me  to  manage  Dan."  He  had  to  deal  with 
the  vexed  and  difficult  question  of  the  Irish  tithes  on  which  the 
government  was  divided,  and  with  his  colleagues  had  to  face  the 
problem  of  a  new  coercion  act.  Rather  hastily  he  made  a 
compact  with  O'Connell  on  the  assumption  that  the  new  act  could 
not  contain  certain  clauses  which  were  part  of  the  old  act. 
The  clauses,  however,  were  inserted;  O'Connell  charged  Littleton 
with  deception;  and  in  July  1834  Grey,  Althorp  (afterwards 
Earl  Spencer)  and  the  Irish  secretary  resigned.  The  two  latter 
were  induced  to  serve  under  the  new  premier,  Lord  Melbourne, 
and  they  remained  in  office  until  Melbourne  was  dismissed  in 
November  1834.  In  1835  Littleton  was  created  Baron  Hatherton, 
and  he  died  at  his  Staffordshire  residence,  Teddesley  Hall,  on  the 
4th  of  May  1863.  In  1888  his  grandson,  Edward  George  Littleton 
(b.  1842),  became  3rd  Baron  Hatherton. 

See  Hatherton's  Memoirs  and  Correspondence  relating  to  Political 
Occurrences,  June-July  1834,  edited  by  H.  Reeve  (1872);  and  Sir 
S.  Walpole,  History  0}  England,  vol.  iii.  (1890). 

HATHRAS,  a  town  of  British  India,  in  the  Aligarh  district 
of  the  United  Provinces,  29  m.  N.  of  Agra.  Pop.  (1901),  42,578. 
At  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  it  was  held  by  a  Jat  chieftain, 
whose  ruined  fort  still  stands  at  the  east  end  of  the  town,  and 
was  annexed  by  the  British  in  1803,  but  insubordination  on 
the  part  of  the  chief  necessitated  the  siege  of  the  fort  in  1817. 
Since  it  came  under  British  rule,  Hathras  has  rapidly  risen  to 
commercial  importance,  and  now  ranks  second  to  Cawnpore 
among  the  trading  centres  of  the  Doab.  The  chief  articles  of 
commerce  are  sugar  and  grain,  there  are  also  factories  for  ginning 
and  pressing  cotton,  and  a  cotton  spinning-mill.  Hathras  is 
connected  by  a  light  railway  with  Muttra,  and  by  a  branch  with 
Hathras  junction,  on  the  East  Indain  main  line. 

HATTIESBURG,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Forrest  county, 
Mississippi,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Hastahatchee  (or  Leaf)  river,  about 
90  m.  S.E.  of  Jackson.  Pop.  (1890)  1172;  (1900)  4175  (1687 
negroes);  (1910)  11,733.  Hattiesburg  is  served  by  the  Gulf  &Ship 
Island,  the  Mississippi  Central,  the  New  Orleans,  Mobile  & 
Chicago  and  the  New  Orleans  &  North  Eastern  railways.  The 
officers  and  employees  of  the  Gulf  &  Ship  Island  railway  own  and 
maintain  a  hospital  here.  The  city  is  in  a  rich  farming,  truck- 
gardening  and  lumbering  "ountry.  Among  its  manufactures 
are  lumber  (especially  yellow-pine),  wood-alcohol,  turpentine, 
paper  and  pulp,  fertilizers,  wagons,  mattresses  and  machine-shop 
products.  Hattiesburg  was  founded  about  1882  and  was  nahied 
in  honour  of  the  wife  of  W.  H.  Hardy,  a  railway  official,  who 
planned  a  town  at  the  intersection  of  the  New  Orleans  &  North- 
Eastern  (which  built  a  round  house  and  repair  shops  here  in  1885) 
and  the  Gulf  &  Ship  Island  railways.  The  latter  railway  was 
opened  from  Gulfport  to  Hattiesburg  in  January  1897,  and  from 
Hattiesburg  to  Jackson  in  September  1900.  Hattiesburg  was 
incorporated  as  a  town  in  1884  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in 
1899.  Formerly  the  "  court  house "  of  the  second  judicial 


district  of  Perry  county,  Hattiesburg  became  on  the  ist  of 
January  1908  the  county-seat  of  Forrest  county,  erected  from 
the  W.  part  of  Perry  county. 

HATTINGEN,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Westphalia,  on  the  river  Ruhr,  21  m.  N.E.  of  Diisseldorf. 
Pop.  ( 1 900) ,  89  7  5 .  It  has  two  Evangelical  and  a  Roman  Catholic 
church.  The  manufactures  include  tobacco,  and  iron  and  steel 
goods.  In  the  neighbourhood  are  the  ruins  of  the  Isenburg, 
demolished  in  1 2  26.  Hattingen,  which  received  communal  rights 
in  1396,  was  one  of  the  Hanse  towns. 

HATTO  I.  (c.  850-913),  archbishop  of  Mainz,  belonged  to  a 
Swabiah  family,  and  was  probably  educated  at  the  monastery 
of  Reichenau,  of  which  be  became  abbot  in  888.  He  soon  became 
known  to  the  German  king,  Arnulf,  who  appointed  him  arch- 
bishop of  Mainz  in  891;  and  he  became  such  a  trustworthy 
and  confidential  counsellor  that  he  was  popularly  called  "  the 
heart  of  the  king."  He  presided  over  the  important  synod  at 
Tribur  in  895,  and  accompanied  the  king  to  Italy  in  894  and 
895,  where  he  was  received  with  great  favour  by  Pope  Formosus. 
In  899,  when  Arnulf  died,  Hatto  became  regent  of  Germany,  and 
guardian  of  the  young  king,  Louis  the  Child,  whose  authority 
he  compelled  Zwentibold,  king  of  Lorraine,  an  illegitimate  son  of 
Arnulf,  to  recognize.  During  these  years  he  did  not  neglect 
his  own  interests,  for  in  896  he  secured  for  himself  the  abbey  of 
Ellwangen  and  in  898  that  of  Lorsch .  He  assisted  the  Franconian 
family  of  the  Conradines  in  its  feud  with  the  Babenbergs,  and 
was  accused  of  betraying  Adalbert,  count  of  Babenberg,  to 
death.  He  retained  his  influence  during  the  whole  of  the  reign 
of  Louis;  and  on  the  king's  death  in  911  was  prominent  in 
securing  the  election  of  Conrad,  duke  of  Fran'conia,  to  the 
vacant  throne.  When  trouble  arose  between  Conrad  and  Henry, 
duke  of  Saxony,  afterwards  King  Henry  the  Fowler,  the  attitude 
of  Conrad  was  ascribed  by  the  Saxons  to  the  influence  of  Hatto, 
who  wished  to  prevent  Henry  from  securing  authority  in  Thur- 
ingia,  where  the  see  of  Mainz  had  extensive  possessions.  He 
was  accused  of  complicity  in  a  plot  to  murder  Duke  Henry,  who 
in  return  ravaged  the  archiepiscopal  lands  in  Saxony  and 
Thuringia.  He  died  on  the  1 5th  of  May  913,  one  tradition  saying 
he  was  struck  by  lightning,  and  another  that  he  was  thrown  alive 
by  the  devil  into  the  crater  of  Mount  Etna.  His.  memory  was 
long  regarded  in  Saxony  with  great  abhorrence,  and  stories  of 
cruelty  and  treachery  gathered  round  his  name.  The  legend  of 
the  Mouse  Tower  at  Bingen  is  connected  with  Hatto  II.,  who 
was  archbishop  of  Mainz  from  968  to  970.  This  Hatto  built 
the  church  of  St  George  on  the  island  of  Reichenau,  was  generous 
to  the  see  of  Mainz  and  to  the  abbeys  of  Fulda  and  Reichenau, 
and  was  a  patron  of  the  chronicler  Regino,  abbot  of  Priim. 

See  E.  Dummler,  Geschichte  des  ostfrankischen  Reichs  (Leipzig, 
1887-1888);  G.  Phillips,  Die  grosse  Synode  von  Tribur  (Vienna, 
1865) ;  J.  Heidemann,  Hatto  I.,  Erzbischof  von  Mainz  (Berlin,  1865) ; 
G.  Waitz,  Jahrbucher  der  deutschen  Geschichte  unter  Heinrich  I. 
(Berlin  and  Leipzig,  1863);  and  J.  F.  Bohmer,  Regesta  archiepisco- 
porum  Maguntinensium,  edited  by  C.  Will  (Innsbruck,  1877-1886). 

HATTON,  SIR  CHRISTOPHER  (1540-1591),  lord  chancellor  of 
England  and  favourite  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  was  a  son  of  William 
Hatton  (d.  1546)  of  Holdenby,  Northamptonshire,  and  was 
educated  at  St  Mary  Hall,  Oxford.  A  handsome  and  accom- 
plished man,  being  especially  distinguished  for  his  elegant 
dancing,  he  soon  attracted  the  notice  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  became 
one  of  her  gentlemen  pensioners  in  1564,  and  captain  of  her 
bodyguard  in  1572.  He  received  numerous  estates  and  many 
positions  of  trust  and  profit  from  the  queen,  and  suspicion  was 
not  slow  to  assert  that  he  was  Elizabeth's  lover,  a  chaige  which 
was  definitely  made  by  Mary  queen  of  Scots  in  1584.  Hatton, 
who  was  probably  innocent  in  this  matter,  had  been  made  vice- 
chamberlain  of  the  royal  household  and  a  member  of  the  privy 
council  in  1578,  and  had  been  a  member  of  parliament  since  1571, 
first  representing  the  borough  of  Higham  Ferrers  and  afterwards 
the  county  of  Northampton.  In  1578  he  was  knighted,  and  was 
now  regarded  as  the  queen's  spokesman  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
being  an  active  agent  in  the  prosecutions  of  John  Stubbs  and 
William  Parry.  He  was  one  of  those  who  were  appointed  to 
arrange  a  marriage  between  Elizabeth  and  Francis,  duke  of 


64 


HATTON,  J.  L.— HAUCH 


Alencon,  in  1581;  was  a  member  of  the  court  which  tried 
Anthony  Babington  in  1586;  and  was  one  of  the  commissioners 
who  found  Mary  queen  of  Scots  guilty.  He  besought  Elizabeth 
not  to  marry  the  French  prince;  and  according  to  one  account 
repeatedly  assured  Mary  that  he  would  fetch  her  to  London  if 
the  English  queen  died.  Whether  or  no  this  story  be  true, 
Hatton's  loyalty  was  not  questioned;  and  he  was  the  foremost 
figure  in  that  striking  scene  in  the  House  of  Commons  in  December 
1584,  when  four  hundred  kneeling  members  repeated  after  him 
a  prayer  for  Elizabeth's  safety.  Having  been  the  constant 
recipient  of  substantial  marks  of  the  queen's  favour,  he  vigor- 
ously denounced  Mary  Stuart  in  parliament,  and  advised  William 
Davison  to  forward  the  warrant  for  her  execution  to  Fother- 
ingay.  In  the  same  year  (1587)  Hatton  was  made  lord  chan- 
cellor, and  although  he  had  no  great  knowledge  of  the  law,  he 
appears  to  have  acted  with  sound  sense  and  good  judgment  in 
his  new  position.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  Roman  Catholic 
in  all  but  name,  yet  he  treated  religious  questions  in  a  moderate 
and  tolerant  way.  He  died  in  London  on  the  2oth  of  November 
1591,  and  was  buried  in  St  Paul's  cathedral.  Although  mention 
has  been  made  of  a  secret  marriage,  Hatton  appears  to  have 
remained  single,  and  his  large  and  valuable  estates  descended 
to  his  nephew,  Sir  William  Newport,  who  took  the  name  of 
Hatton.  Sir  Christopher  was  a  knight  of  the  Garter  and  chan- 
cellor of  the  university  of  Oxford.  Elizabeth  frequently  showed 
her  affection  for  her  favourite  in  an  extravagant  and  ostentatious 
manner.  She  called  him  her  mouton,  and  forced  the  bishop  of 
Ely  to  give  him  the  freehold  of  Ely  Place,  Holborn,  which  became 
his  residence,  his  name  being  perpetuated  in  the  neighbouring 
Hatton  Garden.  Hatton  is  reported  to  have  been  a  very  mean 
man,  but  he  patronized  men  of  letters,  and  among  his  friends 
was  Edmund  Spenser.  He  wrote  the  fourth  act  of  a  tragedy, 
Tancred  and  Gismund,  and  his  death  occasioned  several  pane- 
gyrics in  both  prose  and  verse. 

When  Hatton's  nephew,  Sir  William  Hatton,  died  without 
sons  in  1597,  his  estates  passed  to  a  kinsman,  another  Sir  Christ- 
opher Hatton  (d.  1619),  whose  son  and  successor,  Christopher 
(c.  1605-1670),  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Long  Parliament  in 
1640,  and  during  the  Civil  War  was  a  partisan  of  Charles  I. 
In  1643  he  was  created  Baron  Hatton  of  Kirby;  and,  acting  as 
comptroller  of  the  royal  household,  he  represented  the  king  during 
the  negotiations  at  Uxbridge  in  1645.  Later  he  lived  for  some 
years  in  France,  and  after  the  Restoration  was  made  a  privy 
councillor  and  governor  of  Guernsey.  He  died  at  Kirby  on 
the  4th  of  July  1670,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
By  his  wife  Elizabeth  (d.  1672),  daughter  of  Sir  Charles  Montagu 
of  Boughton,  he  had  two  sons  and  three  daughters.  His  eldest 
son  Christopher  (1632-1706),  succeeded  his  father  as  Baron 
Hatton  and  also  as  governor  of  Guernsey  in  1670.  In  1683  he 
was  created  Viscount  Hatton  of  Grendon.  He  was  married  three 
times,  and  left  two  sons:  William  (1690-1760),  who  succeeded 
to  his  father's  titles  and  estates,  and  Henry  Charles  (c.  1700- 
1762),  who  enjoyed  the  same  dignities  for  a  short  time  after  his 
brother's  death.  When  Henry  Charles  died,  the  titles  became 
extinct,  and  the  family  is  now  represented  by  the  Finch-Hattons, 
earls  of  Winchilsea  and  Nottingham,  whose  ancestor,  Daniel 
Finch,  2nd  earl  of  Nottingham,  married  Anne  (d.  1743),  daughter 
of  the  ist  Viscount  Hatton. 

See  Sir  N.  H.  Nicolas,  Life  and  Times  of  Sir  Christopher  Hatton 
(London,  1847) ;  and  Correspondence  of  the  Family  of  Ilatton,  being 
chiefly  Letters  addressed  to  Christopher,  first  Viscount  Ilatton,  1601- 
1704,  edited  with  introduction  by  E.  M.  Thompson  (London,  1878). 

HATTON,  JOHN  LIPTROT  (1809-1886),  English  musical 
composer,  was  born  at  Liverpool  on  the  i2th  of  October  1809. 
He  was  virtually  a  self-taught  musician,  and  besides  holding 
several  appointments  as  organist  in  Liverpool,  appeared  as  an 
actor  on  the  Liverpool  stage,  subsequently  finding  his  way  to 
London  as  a  member  of  Macready's  company  at  Drury  Lane 
in  1832.  Ten  years  after  this  he  was  appointed  conductor 
at  the  same  theatre  for  a  series  of  English  operas,  and  in  1843 
his  own  first  operetta,  Queen  of  the  Thames,  wasgiven  with  success. 
Staudigl,  the  eminent  German  bass,  was  a  member  of  the  com- 


pany, and  at  his  suggestion  Hatton  wrote  a  more  ambitious  work, 
Pascal  Bruno,  which,  in  a  German  translation,  was  presented  at 
Vienna,  with  Staudig!  in  the  principal  part;  the  opera  con- 
tained a  song,  "  Revenge,"  which  the  basso  made  very  popular 
in  England,  though  the  piece  as  a  whole  was  not  successful 
enough  to  be  produced  here.  Hatton's  excellent  pianoforte 
playing  attracted  much  attention  in  Vienna;  he  took  the 
opportunity  of  studying  counterpoint  under  Sechter,  and  wrote 
a  number  of  songs,  obviously  modelled  on  the  style  of  German 
classics.  In  1846  he  appeared  at  the  Hereford  festival  as  a  singer, 
and  also  played  a  pianoforte  concerto  of  Mozart.  He  undertook 
concert  tours  about  this  time  with  Sivori,  Vieuxtemps  and  others. 
From  1848  to  1850  he  was  in  America;  on  his  return  he  became 
conductor  of  the  Glee  and  Madrigal  Union,  and  from  about 
1853  was  engaged  at  the  Princess's  theatre  to  provide  and  con- 
duct the  music  for  Charles  Kean's  Shakespearean  revivals.  He 
seems  to  have  kept  this  apppointment  for  about  five  years.  In 
1856  a  cantata,  Robin  Hood,  was  given  at  the  Bradford  festival, 
and  a  third  opera,  Rose,  or  Love's  Ransom,  at  Covent  Garden  in 
1864,  without  much  success.  In  1866  he  went  again  to  America, 
and  from  this  year  Hatton  held  the  post  of  accompanist  at  the 
Ballad  Concerts,  St  James's  Hail,  for  nine  seasons.  In  1875 
he  went  to  Stuttgart,  and  wrote  an  oratorio,  Hezekiah,  given 
at  the  Cyrstal  Palace  in  1877;  like  all  his  larger  works  it  met 
with  very  moderate  success.  Hatton  excelled  in  the  lyrical 
forms  of  music,  and,  in  spite  of  his  distinct  skill  in  the  severer 
styles  of  the  madrigal,  &c.,  he  won  popularity  by  such  songs  as 
"  To  Anthea,"  "  Good-bye,  Sweetheart,"  and  "  Simon  the 
Cellarer,"  the  first  of  which  may  be  called  a  classic  in  its  own 
way.  His  glees  and  part-songs,  such  as  "  When  Evening's 
Twilight,"  are  still  reckoned  among  the  best  of  their  class; 
and  he  might  have  gained  a  place  of  higher  distinction  among 
English  composers  had  it  not  been  for  his  irresistible  animal 
spirits  and  a  want  of  artistic  reverence,  which  made  it  uncertain 
in  his  younger  days  whether,  when  he  appeared  at  a  concert, 
he  would  play  a  fugue  of  Bach  or  sing  a  comic  song.  He  died 
at  Margate  on  the  2oth  of  September  1886. 

HAUCH,  JOHANNES  CARSTEN  (1790-1872),  Danish  poet, 
was  born  of  Danish  parents  residing  at  Frederikshald  in  Norway, 
on  the  1 2th  of  May  1790.  In  1802  he  lost  his  mother,  and  in 
1803  returned  with  his  father  to  Denmark.  In  1807  he  fought 
as  a  volunteer  against  the  English  invasion.  He  entered  the 
university  of  Copenhagen  in  1808,  and  in  1821  took  his  doctor's 
degree.  He  became  the  friend  and  associate  of  Steffens  and 
Oehlenschlager,  warmly  adopting  the  romantic  views  about 
poetry  and  philosophy.  His  first  two  dramatic  poems,  The 
Journey  to  Cinistan  and  The  Power  of  Fancy,  appeared  in  1816, 
and  were  followed  by  a  lyrical  drama,  Rosaura  (1817);  but 
these  works  attracted  little  or  no  attention.  Hauch  therefore 
gave  up  all  hope  of  fame  as  a  poet,  and  resigned  himself  entirely 
to  the  study  of  science.  He  took  his  doctor's  degree  in  zoology 
in  1821,  and  went  abroad  to  pursue  his  studies.  At  Nice  he 
had  an  accident  which  obliged  him  to  submit  to  the  amputation 
of  one  foot.  He  returned  to  literature,  publishing  a  dramatized 
fairy  tale,  the  Hamadryad,  and  the  tragedies  of  Bajazet,  Tiberius, 
Gregory  VII.,  in  1828-1829,  The  Death  of  Charles  V.  (1831), 
and  The  Siege  of  Maastricht  (1832).  These  plays  were  violently 
attacked  and  enjoyed  no  success.  Hauch  then  turned  to  novel- 
writing,  and  published  in  succession  five  romances — Vilhelm 
Zabern  (1834);  The  Alchemist  (1836);  A  Polish  Family  (1839); 
The  Castle  on  the  Rhine  (1845);  and  Robert  Fulton  (1853). 
In  1842  he  collected  his  shorter  Poems.  In  1846  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  the  Scandinavian  languages  in  Kiel, 
but  returned  to  Copenhagen  when  the  war  broke  out  in  1848. 
About  this  time  his  dramatic  talent  was  at  its  height,  and  he 
produced  one  admirable  tragedy  after  another;  among  these 
may  be  mentioned  Svend  Grathe  (1841);  The  Sisters  at  Kinne- 
kulle  (1849);  Marshal  Stig  (1850);  Honour  Lost  and  Won  (1851); 
and  Tycho  Brake's  Youth  (1852).  From  1858  to  1860  Hauch 
was  director  of  the  Danish  National  Theatre;  he  produced 
three  more  tragedies — The  King's  Favourite  (1859);  Henry  of 
Navarre  (1863);  and  Julian  the  Apostate  (1866).  In  1861  he 


HAUER— HAUGE 


published  another  collection  of  Lyrical  Poems  and  Romances; 
and  in  1862  the  historical  epic  of  Valdemar  Seir,  volumes  which 
contain  his  best  work.  P'rom  1851,  when  he  succeeded  Oehlen- 
schlager,  to  his  death,  he  held  the  honorary  post  of  professor 
of  aesthetics  at  the  university  of  Copenhagen.  He  died  in  Rome 
in  1872.  Hauch  was  one  of  the  most  prolific  of  the  Danish 
poets,  though  his  writings  are  unequal  in  value.  His  lyrics  and 
romances  in  verse  are  always  fine  in  form  and  often  strongly 
imaginative.  In  all  his  writings,  but  especially  in  his  tragedies, 
he  displays  a  strong  bias  in  favour  of  what  is  mystical  and 
supernatural.  Of  his  dramas  Marshal  Stig  is  perhaps  the  best, 
and  of  his  novels  the  patriotic  tale  of  Vilhelm  Zabern  is  admired 
the  most. 

See  G.  Brandes,  "  Carsten Hauch  "  (1873)  in  DanskeDigtere  (1877) ; 
F.  Ronning,  J.  C.  Hauch  (1890),  and  in  Dansk  Biografisk-Lexicon, 
(vol.  vii.  Copenhagen,  1893).  Hauch's  novels  were  collected  (1873— 
1874)  and  his  dramatic  works  (3  vols.,  2nd  ed.,  1852-1859). 

HAUER, FRANZ,  RITTER  VON  (1822-1899),  Austrian  geologist, 
born  in  Vienna  on  the  3oth  of  January  1822,  was  son  of  Joseph 
von  Hauer  (1778-1863),  who  was  equally  distinguished  as  a  high 
Austrian  official  and  authority  on  finance  and  as  a  palaeontologist. 
He  was  educated  in  Vienna,  afterwards  studied  geology  at 
the  mining  academy  of  Schemnitz  (1839-1843),  and  for  a  time 
was  engaged  in  official  mining  work  in  Styria.  In  1846  he 
became  assistant  to  W.  von  Haidinger  at  the  minera  logical 
museum  in  Vienna;  three  years  later  he  joined  the  imperial 
geological  institute,  and  in  1866  he  was  appointed  director. 
In  1886  he  became  superintendent  of  the  imperial  natural  history 
museum  in  Vienna.  Among  his  special  geological  works  are 
those  on  the  Cephalopoda  of  theTriassicand  Jurassicformations 
of  Alpine  regions  (1855-1856).  His  most  important  general 
work  was  that  of  the  Geological  Map  of  Austro-Hungary,  in 
twelve  sheets  (1867-1871;  4th  ed.,  1884,  including  Bosnia 
and  Montenegro).  This  map  was  accompanied  by  a  series  of 
explanatory  pamphlets.  In  1882  he  was  awarded  the  Wollaston 
medal  by  the  Geological  Society  of  London.  In  1892  von  Hauer 
became  a  life-member  of  the  upper  house  of  the  Austrian  parlia- 
ment. He  died  on  the  2oth  of  March  1899. 

PUBLICATIONS. — Beitrage  zur  Paldontolographie  von  Osterreich 
(1858—1859);  Die  Geologic  und  Hire  Anwendung  auf  die  Kenntnis 
der  Bodcnbeschajfenheit  der  osterr.-ungar.  Monarchie  (1875;  ed.  2, 
1878). 

Memoir  by  Dr  E.  Tietze ;  Jahrbuch  der  K.  K.  geolog.  Reichsanslalt 
(1899,  reprinted  1900,  with  portrait). 

HAUFF,  WILHELM  (1802-1827),  German  poet  and  novelist, 
was  born  at  Stuttgart  on  the  29th  of  November  1802,  the  son 
of  a  secretary  in  the  ministry  of  foreign  affairs.  Young  Hauff 
lost  his  father  when  he  was  but  seven  years  of  age,  and  his  early 
education  was  practically  self-gained  in  the  library  of  his  maternal 
grandfather  at  Tubingen,  to  which  place  his  mother  had  removed. 
In  1818  he  was  sent  to  the  Klosterschule  at  Blaubeuren,  whence 
he  passed  in  1820  to  the  university  of  Tubingen.  In  four  years 
he  completed  his  philosophical  and  theological  studies,  and  on 
leaving  the  university  became  tutor  to  the  children  of  the  famous 
Wurttemberg  minister  of  war,  General  Baron  Ernst  Eugen  von 
Hugel  (1774-1849),  and  for  them  wrote  his  Marchen,  which  he 
published  in  his  Miirchenalmanach  auf  das  Jahr  1826.  He  also 
wrote  there  the  first  part  of  the  Mitteilungen  aus  den  Memoiren 
des  Satan  (1826)  and  Der  Mann  im  Monde  (1825).  The  latter, 
a  parody  of  the  sentimental  and  sensual  novels  of  H.  Clauren 
(pseudonymof  Karl  Gottlieb  Samuel  Heun[i77i-i8s4l), became, 
in  course  of  composition,  a  close  imitation  of  that  author's  style 
and  was  actually  published  under  his  name.  Clauren,  in  con- 
sequence, brought  an  action  for  damages  against  Hauff  and 
gained  his  case.  Whereupon  Plauff  followed  up  the  attack  in 
hi$  witty  and  sarcastic  Kontroverspredigt  uber  H.  Clauren  und 
den  Mann  im  Monde  (1826)  and  attained  his  original  object — 
the  moral  annihilation  of  the  mawkish  and  unhealthy  literature 
with  which  Clauren  was  flooding  the  country.  Meanwhile, 
animated  by  Sir  Walter  Scott's  novels,  Hauff  wrote  the  historical 
romance  Lichlenstein  (1826),  which  acquired  great  popularity 
in  Germany  and  especially  in  Swabia,  treating  as  it  did  the 
most  interesting  period  in  the  history  of  that  country,  the  reign 
xni.  3 


of  Duke  Ulrich  (1487-1550).  While  on  a  journey  to  France, 
the  Netherlands  and  north  Germany  he  wrote  the  second  part 
of  the  Memoiren  des  Satan  and  some  short  novels,  among  them 
the  charming  Bettlerin  iiom  Pont  des  Arts  and  his  masterpiece, 
the  Phantasien  im  Bremer  Ratskeller  (1827).  He  also  published 
some  short  poems  which  have  passed  into  Volkslieder,  among 
them  Morgenrot,  Morgenrot,  leuchtest  mir  zum  friihen  Tod; 
and  Steh'  ich  in  finstrer  Mittcrnacht.  In  January  1827,  Hauff 
undertook  the  editorship  of  the  Stuttgart  Morgenblatt  and  in 
the  following  month  married,  but  his  happiness  was  prematurely 
cut  short  by  his  death  from  fever  on  the  i8th  of  November  1827. 

Considering  his  brief  life,  Hauff  was  an  extraordinarily  prolific 
writer.  The  freshness  and  originality  of  his  talent,  his  inventive- 
ness, and  his  genial  humour  have  won  him  a  high  place  among  the 
south  German  prose  writers  of  the  early  nineteenth  century. 

His  Sdmtliche  Werke  were  published,  with  a  biography,  by 
G.  Schwab  (3  vols.,  1830-1834;  5  vols.,  i8th  ed.,  1882),  and  by 
F.  Bobertag  (1891-1897),  and  a  selection  by  M.  Mendheim  (3  vols., 
1891).  For  his  life  cf.  J.  Klaiber,  Wilhelm  Hauff,  ein  Lebensbild 
(1881);  M.  Mendheim,  Hauffs  Leben  und  Werke  (1894);  and 
H.  Hofmann,  W.  Hauff  (1902). 

HAUG,  MARTIN  (1827-1876),  German  Orientalist,  was  born 
at  Ostdorf  near  Balingen.  Wurttemberg,  on  the  3oth  of  January 
1827.  He  became  a  pupil  in  the  gymnasium  at  Stuttgart  at  a 
comparatively  late  age,  and  in  1848  he  entered  the  university 
of  Tubingen,  where  he  studied  Oriental  languages,  especially 
Sanskrit.  He  afterwards  attended  lectures  in  Gottingen,  and 
in  1854  settled  as  Privatdozent  at  Bonn.  In  1856  he  removed 
to  Heidelberg,  where  he  assisted  Bunsen  in  his  literary  under- 
takings; and  in  1859  he  accepted  an  invitation  to  India,  where 
he  became  superintendent  of  Sanskrit  studies  and  professor  of 
Sanskrit  in  Poona.  Here  his  acquaintance  with  the  Zend 
language  and  literature  afforded  him  excellent  opportunities 
for  extending  his  knowledge  of  this  branch  of  literature.  The 
result  of  his  researches  was  a  volume  of  Essays  on  the  sacred 
language,  writings  and  religion  of  the  Parsees  (Bombay,  1862). 
Having  returned  to  Stuttgart  in  1866,  he  was  called  to  Munich 
as  professor  of  Sanskrit  and  comparative  philology  in  1868. 
He  died  on  the  3rd  of  June  1876. 

Besides  the  Essays  on  the  Parsees,  of  which  a  new  edition,  by 
E.  W.  West,  greatly  enriched  from  the  posthumous  papers  of  the 
author,  appeared  in  1878,  Haug  published  a  number  of  works  of 
considerable  importance  to  the  student  of  the  literatures  of  ancient 
India  and  Persia.  They  include  Die  Pehlewisprache  und  der  Bunde- 
hesch  (1854) ;  Die  Schrfft  und  Sprache  der  zweiten  Keilschriftgattung 
(1855);  Die  funf  Cathas,  edited,  translated  and  expounded  (1858- 
1860) ;  an  edition,  with  translation  and  explanation,  of  the  Aitareya 
Brahmana  of  the  Rigveda  (Bombay,  1863),  which  is  accounted  his 
best  work  in  the  province  of  ancient  Indian  literature;  A  Lecture 
on  an  original  Speech  of  Zoroaster  (1865);  An  old  Zend-Pahlavi 
Glossary  (1867);  Uber  den  Charakter  der  Pehlewisprache  (1869); 
Das  18.  Kapitel  des  Wendidad  (1869);  Uber  das  Ardai-Viraf- 
nameh  (1870) ;  An  old  Pahlavi-Pazand  Glossary  (1870) ;  and  Vedische 
Rdtselfragen  und  Rdtselspruche  (1875). 

For  particulars  of  Haug's  life  and  work,  see  A.  Bezzenberger, 
Beitrage  zur  Kunde  der  indogermanischen  Sprachen,  vol.  i.  pp.  70  seq. 

HAUGE,  HANS  NIELSEN  (1771-1824),  Norwegian  Lutheran 
divine,  was  born  in  the  parish  of  Thuno,  Norway,  on  the  3rd  of 
April  1771,  the  son  of  a  peasant.  With  the  aid  of  various 
religious  works  which  he  found  in  his  father's  house,  he  laboured 
to  supplement  his  scanty  education.  In  his  twenty-sixth  year, 
believing  himself  to  be  a  divinely-commissioned  prophet,  he 
began  to  preach  in  his  native  parish  and  afterwards  throughout 
Norway,  calling  people  to  repentance  and  attacking  rationalism. 
In  1800  he  passed  to  Denmark,  where,  as  at  home,  he  gained 
many  followers  and  assistants,  chiefly  among  the  lower  orders. 
Proceeding  to  Christiansand  in  1804,  Hauge  set  up  a  printing- 
press  to  disseminate  his  views  more  widely,  but  was  almost 
immediately  arrested  for  holding  illegal  religious  meetings, 
and  for  insulting  the  regular  clergy  in  his  books,  all  of  which 
were  confiscated;  he  was  also  heavily  fined.  After  being  in 
confinement  for  some  years,  he  was  released  in  1814  on  payment 
of  a  fine,  and  retiring  to  an  estate  at  Breddwill,  near  Christiania, 
he  died  there  on  the  29th  of  March  1824.  His  adherents,  who 
did  not  formally  break  with  the  church,  were  called  Haugianer 
or  Leser  (i.e.  Readers).  He  unquestionably  did  much  to  revive 


66 


HAUGESUND— HAUGWITZ 


the  spiritual  life  of  the  northern  Lutheran  Church.  His  views 
were  of  a  pietistic  nature.  Though  he  cannot  be  said  to  have 
rejected  any  article  of  the  Lutheran  creed,  the  peculiar  emphasis 
which  he  laid  upon  the  evangelical  doctrines  of  faith  and  grace 
involved  considerable  antagonism  to  the  rationalistic  or  sacerdotal 
views  commonly  held  by  the  established  clergy. 

Hauge's  principal  writings  are  Forsog  til  Afhandeling  om  Cuds 
Visdom  (1796);  Anvisning  til  nogle  morkelige  Sprog  i  Bibelen 
(1798) ;  Forklaring  over  Loven  og  Evangelium  (1803).  For  an  account 
of  his  life  and  doctrines  see  C.  Bang's  Hans  Nielsen  Hauge  og  hans 
Samtid  (Christiania ;  2nd  ed.,  1875);  O.  Rost,  Nogle  Bemaerkninger 
om  Hans  Nielsen  Hauge  og  hans  Reining  (1883),  and  the  article  in 
Herzog-Hauck,  Realencyklopadie. 

HAUGESUND,  a  seaport  of  Norway  in  Stavanger  ami  (county), 
on  the  west  coast,  34  m.  N.  by  W.  of  Stavanger.  Pop.  (1900), 
7935.  It  is  an  important  fishing  centre.  Herrings  are  exported 
to  the  annual  value  of  £100,000  to  £200,000,  also  mackerel  and 
lobsters.  The  principal  imports  are  coal  and  salt.  There  are 
factories  for  woollen  goods  and  a  margarine  factory.  Haugesund 
is  the  reputed  death-place  of  Harald  Haarfager,  to  whpm  an 
obelisk  of  red  granite  was  erected  in  1872  on  the  thousandth 
anniversary  of  his  victory  at  the  Hafsfjord  (near  Stavanger) 
whereby  he  won  the  sovereignty  of  Norway.  The  memorial 
stands  ij  m.  north  of  the  town,  on  the  Haraldshaug,  where  the 
hero's  supposed  tombstone  is  shown. 

HAUGHTON,  SAMUEL  (1821-1897),  Irish  scientific  writer, 
the  son  of  James  Haughton  (1795-1873),  was  born  at  Carlow 
on  the  2ist  of  December  1821.  His  father,  the  son  of  a  Quaker, 
but  himself  a  Unitarian,  was  an  active  philanthropist,  a  strong 
supporter  of  Father  Theobald  Mathew,  a  vegetarian,  and  an 
anti-slavery  worker  and  writer.  After  a  distinguished  career 
in  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  Samuel  was  elected  a  fellow  in  1844. 
He  was  ordained  priest  in  1847,  but  seldom  preached.  In  1851 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  geology  in  Trinity  College,  and 
this  post  he  held  for  thirty  years.  He  began  the  study  of 
medicine  in  1859,  and  in  1862  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  the 
university  of  Dublin.  He  was  then  made  registrar  of  the 
Medical  School,  the  status  of  which  he  did  much  to  improve, 
and  he  represented  the  university  on  the  General  Medical 
Council  from  1878  to  1896.  He  was  elected  F.R.S.  in  1858,  and 
in  course  of  time  Oxford  conferred  upon  him  the  hon.  degree 
of  D.C.L.,  and  Cambridge  and  Edinburgh  that  of  LL.D.  He 
was  a  man  of  remarkable  knowledge  and  ability,  and  he 
communicated  papers  on  widely  different  subjects  to  various 
learned  societies  and  scientific  journals  in  London  and  Dublin. 
He  wrote  on  the  laws  of  equilibrium  and  motion  of  solid  and 
fluid  bodies  (1846),  on  sun-heat,  terrestrial  radiation,  geological 
climates  and  on  tides.  He  wrote  also  on  the  granites  of  Leinster 
and  Donegal,  and  on  the  cleavage  and  joint-planes  in  the  Old 
Red  Sandstone  of  Waterford  (1857-1858).  He  was  president  of 
the  Royal  Irish  Academy  from  1886  to  1891,  and  for  twenty 
years  he  was  secretary  of  the  Royal  Zoological  Society  of  Ireland. 
He  died  in  Dublin  on  the  3ist  of  October  1897. 

PUBLICATIONS. — Manual  of  Geology  (1865);  Principles  of  Animal 
Mechanics  (1873);  Six  Lectures  on  Physical  Geography  (1880).  In 
conjunction  with  his  friend,  Professor  J.  Galbraith,  he  issued  a 
series  of  Manuals  of  Mathematical  and  Physical  Science. 

HAUGHTON,  WILLIAM  (fl.  1598),  English  playwright.  He 
collaborated  in  many  plays  with  Henry  Chettle,  Thomas  Dekker, 
John  Day  and  Richard  Hathway.  The  only  certain  biographical 
information  about  him  is  derived  from  Philip  Henslowe,  who  on 
the  loth  of  March  1600  lent  him  ten  shillings  "  to  release  him 
out  of  the  Clink."  Mr  Fleay  credits  him  with  a  considerable 
share  in  The  Patient  Grissill  (1599),  and  a  merry  comedy  entitled 
English-Men  for  my  Money,  or  A  Woman  will  have  her  Will 
(1598)  is  ascribed  to  his  sole  authorship.  The  Devil  and  his 
Dame,  mentioned  as  a  forthcoming  play  by  Henslowe  in  March 
1600,  is  identified  by  Mr  Fleay  as  Grim,  the  Collier  of  Croydon, 
which  was  printed  in  1662.  In  this  play  an  emissary  is  sent 
from  the  infernal  regions  to  report  on  the  conditions  of  married 
life  on  earth. 

Grim  is  reprinted  in  vol.  viii.,  and  English-Men  for  my  Money  in 
vol.  x.,  of  W.  C.  Hazlitt's  edition  of  Dodsley's  Old  Plays. 


HAUGWITZ,     CHRISTIAN     AUGUST     HEINRICH     KURT, 

COUNT  VON,  FREIHERR  VON  KRAPPITZ  (1752-1831),  Prussian 
statesman,  was  born  on  the  nth  of  June  1752,  at  Peucke  near 
Ols.  He  belonged  to  the  Silesian  (Protestant)  branch  of  the 
ancient  family  of  Haugwitz,  of  which  the  Catholic  branch  is 
established  in  Moravia.  He  studied  law,  spent  some  time  in 
Italy,  returned  to  settle  on  his  estates  in  Silesia,  and  in  1791  was 
elected  by  the  Silesian  estates  general  director  of  the  province. 
At  the  urgent  instance  of  King  Frederick  William  II.  he  entered 
the  Prussian  service,  became  ambassador  at  Vienna  in  1792 
and  at  the  end  of  the  same  year  a  member  of  the  cabinet  at 
Berlin. 

Haugwitz,  who  had  attended  the  young  emperor  Francis  II. 
at  his  coronation  and  been  present  at  the  conferences  held  at 
Mainz  to  consider  the  attitude  of  the  German  powers  towards 
the  Revolution,  was  opposed  to  the  exaggerated  attitude  of  the 
French  emigres  and  to  any  interference  in  the  internal  affairs  of 
France.  After  the  war  broke  out,  however,  the  defiant  temper 
of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  made  an  honourable  peace 
impossible,  while  the  strained  relations  between  Austria  and 
Prussia  on  the  question  of  territorial  "  compensations  "  crippled 
the  power  of  the  Allies  to  carry  the  war  to  a  successful  conclusion. 
It  was  in  these  circumstances  that  Haugwitz  entered  on  the 
negotiations  that  resulted  in  the  subsidy  treaty  between  Great 
Britain  and  Prussia,  and  Great  Britain  and  Holland,  signed  at 
the  Hague  on  the  igth  of  April  1794.  Haugwitz,  however,  was 
not  the  man  to  direct  a  strong  and  aggressive  policy;  the 
failure  of  Prussia  to  make  any  effective  use  of  the  money  "supplied 
broke  the  patience  of  Pitt,  and  in  October  the  denunciation  by 
Great  Britain  of  the  Hague  treaty  broke  the  last  tie  that  bound 
Prussia  to  the  Coalition.  The  separate  treaty  with  France, 
signed  at  Basel  on  the  5th  of  April  1795,  was  mainly  due  to  the 
influence  of  Haugwitz. 

His  object  was  now  to  save  the  provinces  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine  from  being  lost  to  the  Empire.  No  guarantee  of  their 
maintenance  had  been  inserted  in  the  Basel  treaty;  but  Haug- 
witz and  the  king  hoped  to  preserve  them  by  establishing  the 
armed  neutrality  of  North  Germany  and  securing  its  recognition 
by  the  French  Republic.  This  policy  was  rendered  futile  by 
the  victories  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  and  the  virtual  conquest 
of  South  Germany  by  the  French.  Haugwitz,  who  had  con- 
tinued to  enjoy  the  confidence  of  the  new  king,  Frederick 
William  III.,  recognized  this  fact,  and  urged  his  master  to  join 
the  new  Coalition  in  1798.  But  the  king  clung  blindly  to  the 
illusion  of  neutrality,  and  Haugwitz  allowed  himself  to  be  made 
the  instrument  of  a  policy  of  which  he  increasingly  disapproved. 
It  was  not  till  1803,  when  the  king  refused  his  urgent  advice  to 
demand  the  evacuation  of  Hanover  by  the  French,  that  he 
tendered  his  resignation.  In  August  1804  he  was  definitely 
replaced  by  Hardenberg,  and  retired  to  his  estates. 

In  his  retirement  Haugwitz  was  still  consulted,  and  he  used 
all  his  influence  against  Hardenberg's  policy  of  a  rapprochement 
with  France.  His  representations  had  little  weight,  however, 
until  Napoleon's  high-handed  action  in  violating  Prussian 
territory  by  marching  troops  through  Ansbach,  roused  the  anger 
of  the  king.  Haugwitz  was  now  once  more  appointed  foreign 
minister,  as  Hardenberg's  colleague,  and  it  was  he  who  was 
charged  to  carry  to  Napoleon  the  Prussian  ultimatum  which  was 
the  outcome  of  the  visit  of  the  tsar  Alexander  I.  to  Berlin  in 
November.  But  in  this  crisis  his  courage  failed  him;  his  nature 
was  one  that  ever  let  "I  dare  not  wait  upon  I  will  ";  he  delayed 
his  journey  pending  some  turn  in  events  and  to  give  time  for 
the  mobilization  of  the  duke  of  Brunswick's  army;  he  was 
frightened  by  reports  of  separate  negotiations  between  Austria 
and  Napoleon,  not -realizing  that  a  bold  declaration  by  Prussia 
would  nip  them  in  the  bud.  Napoleon,  when  at  last  they  met, 
read  him  like  a  book  and  humoured  his  diplomatic  weakness 
until  the  whole  issue  was  decided  at  Austerlitz.  On  the  I5th  of 
December,  instead  of  delivering  an  ultimatum,  Haugwitz  signed 
at  Schonbrunn  the  treaty  which  gave  Hanover  to  Prussia  in 
return  for  Ansbach,  Cleves  and  Neuchatel. 

The  humiliation  of  Prussia  and  her  minister  was,  however, 


HAUNTINGS 


67 


not  yet  complete.  In  February  1806  Haugwitz  went  to  Paris 
to  ratify  the  treaty  of  Schonbrunn  and  to  attempt  to  secure  some 
modifications  in  favour  of  Prussia.  He  was  received  with  a  storm 
of  abuse  by  Napoleon,  who  insisted  on  tearing  up  the  treaty  and 
drawing  up  a  fresh  one,  which  doubled  the  amount  of  territory 
to  be  ceded  by  Prussia  and  forced  her  to  a  breach  with  Great 
Britain  by  binding  her  to  close  the  Hanoverian  ports  to  British 
commerce.  The  treaty,  signed  on  the  isth  of  February,  left 
Prussia  wholly  isolated  in  Europe.  What  followed  belongs  to 
the  history  of  Europe  rather  than  to  the  biography  of  Haugwitz. 
He  remained,  indeed,  at  the  head  of  the  Prussian  ministry  of 
foreign  affairs,  but  the  course  of  Prussian  policy  it  was  beyond  his 
power  to  control.  The  Prussian  ultimatum  to  Napoleon  was 
forced  upon  him  by  overwhelming  circumstances,  and  with 
the  battle  of  Jena,  on  the  I4th  of  October,  his  political  career 
came  to  an  end.  He  accompanied  the  flight  of  the  king  into  East 
Prussia,  there  took  leave  of  him  and  retired  to  his  Silesian  estates. 
In  1811  he  was  appointed  Curator  of  the  university  of  Breslau; 
in  1820,  owing  to  failing  health,  he  went  to  live  in  Italy,  where 
he  remained  till  his  death  at  Venice  in  1831. 

Haugwitz  was  a  man  of  great  intellectual  gifts,  of  dignified 
presence  and  a  charming  address  which  endeared  him  to  his 
sovereigns  and  his  colleagues;  but  as  a  statesman  he  failed, 
not  through  want  of  perspicacity,  but  through  lack  of  will  power 
and  a  fatal  habit  of  procrastination.  During  his  retirement 
in  Italy  he  wrote  memoirs  in  justification  of  his  policy,  a  fragment 
of  which  dealing  with  the  episode  of  the  treaty  of  Schonbrunn 
was  published  at  Jena  in  1837. 

See  J.  von  Minutoli,  Der  Graf  von  Haugwitz  und  Job  von  Wilzleben 
(Berlin,  1844);  L.  von  Ranke,  Hardenberg  u.  d.  Gesch.  des  preuss. 
Staates  (Leipzig,  1879—1881),  note  on  Haugwitz's  memoirs  in  vol.  ii. ; 
Denkwurdigkeiten  des  Staatskanzlers  Fiirslen  von  Hardenberg,  ed. 
Ranke  (5  vols.,  Leipzig,  1877);  A.  Sorel,  L'Europe  et  la  Revol. 
Frant;.,  passim. 

HAUNTINGS  (from  "  to  haunt,"  Fr.  hanter,  of  uncertain 
origin,  but  possibly  from  Lat.  ambitare,  ambire,  to  go  about, 
frequent),  the  supposed  manifestations  of  existence  by  spirits 
of  the  dead  in  houses  or  places  familiar  to  them  in  life.  The 
savage  practice  of  tying  up  the  corpse  before  burying  it  is  clearly 
intended  to  prevent  the  dead  from  "  walking  ";  and  cremation, 
whether  in  savage  lands  or  in  classical  times,  may  have  originally 
had  the  same  motive.  The  "  spirit  "  manifests  himself,  as  a 
rule,  either  in  his  bodily  form,  as  when  he  lived,  or  in  the  shape 
of  some  animal,  or  by  disturbing  noises,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
poltergeist  (q.v.).  Classical  examples  occur  in  Plautus  (Mostel- 
laria),  Lucian  (Pldlopseud.es) ,  Pliny,  Suetonius,  St  Augustine, 
St  Gregory,  Plutarch  and  elsewhere,  while  Lucretius  has  his 
theory  of  apparitions  of  the  dead.  He  does  not  deny  the  fact; 
he  explains  it  by  "  films  "  diffused  from  the  living  body  and 
persisting  in  the  atmosphere. 

A  somewhat  similar  hypothesis,  to  account  for  certain  alleged 
phenomena,  was  invented  by  Mr  Edmund  Gurney.  Some 
visionary  appearances  in  haunted  houses  do  not  suggest  the  idea 
of  an  ambulatory  spirit,  but  rather  of  the  photograph  of  a  past 
event,  impressed  we  know  not  how  on  we  know  not  what.  In 
this  theory  there  is  no  room  for  the  agency  of  spirits  of  the  dead. 
The  belief  in  hauntings  was  naturally  persistent  through  the 
middle  ages,  and  example  and  theory  abound  in  the  Loca  infesta 
(Cologne,  1598)  of  Petrus  Thyraeus,  S.J.;  Wierius  (c.  1560), 
in  De  praestigiis  daemonum,  is  in  the  same  tale.  According 
to  Thyraeus,  hauntings  appeal  to  the  senses  of  sight,  hearing 
and  touch.  The  auditory  phenomena  are  mainly  thumping 
noises,  sounds  of  footsteps,  laughing  and  moaning.  Rackets 
in  general  are  caused  by  lares  domeslici  ("  brownies  ")  or  the 
Poltergeist.  In  the  tactile  way  ghosts  push  the  living;  "  I  have 
been  thrice  pushed  by  an  invisible  power,"  writes  the  Rev. 
Samuel  Wesley,  in  1717,  in  his  narrative  of  the  disturbances  at 
his  rectory  at  Epworth.  Once  he  was  pushed  against  the  corner 
of  his  desk  in  the  study;  once  up  against  the  door  of  the  matted 
chamber;  and,  thirdly,  "  against  the  right-hand  side  of  the 
frame  of  my  study  door,  as  I  was  going  in."  We  have  thus 
Protestant  corroboration  of  the  statement  of  the  learned 
Jesuit. 


Thyraeus  raises  the  question,  Are  the  experiences  hallucina- 
tory? Did  Mr  Wesley  (to  take  his  case)  receive  a  mere  halluci- 
natory set  of  pushes?  Was  the  hair  of  a  friend  of  the  writer's, 
who  occupied  a  haunted  house,  only  pulled  in  a  subjective 
way?  Thyraeus  remarks  that,  in  cases  of  noisy  phenomena, 
not  all  persons  present  hear  them ;  and,  rather  curiously,  Mr 
Wesley  records  the  same  experience;  he  sometimes  did  not 
hear  sounds  that  seemed  violently  loud  to  his  wife  and  family, 
who  were  with  him  at  prayers.  Thyraeus  says  that,  as  collective 
hallucinations  of  sight  are  rare — all  present  not  usually  seeing 
the  apparition — so*  audible  phenomena  are  not  always  ex- 
perienced by  all  persons  present.  In  such  cases,  he  thinks  that 
the  sights  and  sounds  have  no  external  cause,  he  regards  the 
sights  and  sounds  as  delusions — caused  by  spirits.  This  is  a 
difficult  question.  He  mentions  that  we  hear  all  the  furniture 
being  tossed  about  (as  Sir  Walter  and  Lady  Scott  heard  it  at 
Abbotsford;  see  Lockhart's  Life,  v.  311-315).  Yet,  on  inspec- 
tion, we  find  all  the  furniture  in  its  proper  place.  There  is 
abundant  evidence  to  experience  of  this  phenomenon,  which 
remains  as  inexplicable  as  it  was  in  the  days  of  Thyraeus.  When 
the  sounds  are  heard,  has  the  atmosphere  vibrated,  or  has  the 
impression  only  been  made  on  "  the  inner  ear  "  ?  In  reply, 
Mr.  Procter,  who  for  sixteen  years  (1831-1847)  endured  the 
unexplained  disturbances  at  Willington  Mill,  avers  that  the 
material  objects  on  which  the  knocks  appeared  to  be  struck 
did  certainly  vibrate  (see  POLTERGEIST).  Is  then  the  felt 
vibration  part  of  the  hallucination? 

As  for  visual  phenomena,  "  ghosts,"  Thyraeus  does  not  regard 
them  as  space-filling  entities,  but  as  hallucinations  imposed  by 
spirits  on  the  human  senses;  the  spirit,  in  each  case,  not  being 
necessarily  the  soul  of  the  dead  man  or  woman  whom  the 
phantasm  represents. 

In  the  matter  of  alleged  hauntings,  the  symptoms,  the  pheno- 
mena, to-day,  are  exactly  the  same  as  those  recorded  by  Thyraeus. 
The  belief  in  them  is  so  far  a  living  thing  that  it  greatly  lowers 
the  letting  value  of  a  house  when  it  is  reported  to  be  haunted. 
(An  action  for  libelling  a  house  as  haunted  was  reported  in  the 
London  newspapers  of  the  7th  of  March  1907).  It  is  true  that 
ancient  family  legends  of  haunts  are  gloried  in  by  the  inheritors 
of  stately  homes  in  England,  or  castles  in  Scotland,  and  to 
discredit  the  traditional  ghost — in  the  days  of  Sir  Walter  Scott 
— was  to  come  within  measurable  distance  of  a  duel.  But  the 
time-honoured  phantasms  of  old  houses  usually  survive  only  in 
the  memory  of  "  the  oldest  aunt  telling  the  saddest  tale."  Their 
historical  basis  can  no  more  endure  criticism  than  does  the  family 
portrait  of  Queen  Mary, — signed  by  Medina  about  1750-1770, 
and  described  by  the  family  as  "  given  to  our  ancestor  by  the 
Queen  herself."  After  many  years'  experience  of  a  baronial 
dwelling  credited  with  seven  distinct  and  separate  phantasms, 
not  one  of  which  was  ever  seen  by  hosts,  guests  or  domestics, 
scepticism  as  regards  traditional  ghosts  is  excusable.  Legend 
reports  that  they  punctually  appear  on  the  anniversaries  of  their 
misfortunes,  but  no  evidence  of  such  punctuality  has  been, 
produced. 

The  Society  for  Psychical  Research  has  investigated  hundreds 
of  cases  of  the  alleged  haunting  of  houses,  and  the  reports  are 
in  the  archives  of  the  society.  But,  as  the  mere  rumour  of  a 
haunt  greatly  lowers  the  value  of  a  house,  it  is  seldom  possible 
to  publish  the  names  of  the  witnesses,  and  hardly  ever  permitted 
to  publish  the  name  of  the  house.  From  the  point  of  view  of 
science  this  is  unfortunate  (see  Proceedings  S.P.R.  vol.  viii. 
pp.  311-332  and  Proceedings  of  1882-1883,  1883-1884).  As 
far  as  inquiry  had  any  results,  they  were  to  the  following  effect. 
The  spectres  were  of  the  most  shy  and  fugitive  kind,  seen  now  by 
one  person,  now  by  another,  crossing  a  room,  walking  along  a 
corridor,  and  entering  chambers  in  which,  on  inspection,  they  were 
not  found.  There  was  almost  never  any  story  to  account  for  the 
appearances,  as  in  magazine  ghost-stories,  and,  if  story  there 
were,  it  lacked  evidence.  Recognitions  of  known  dead  persons 
were  infrequent;  occasionally  there  was  recognition  of  a  portrait 
in  the  house.  The  apparitions  spoke  in  only  one  or  two  recorded 
cases,  and,  as  a  rule,  seemed  to  have  no  motive  for  appearing. 


68 


HAUPT— HAUPTMANN,  M. 


The  "  ghost  "  resembles  nothing  so  much  as  a  somnambulist, 
or  the  dream-walk  of  one  living  person  made  visible,  telepathic- 
ally,  to  another  living  person.  Almost  the  only  sign  of  conscious- 
ness given  by  the  appearances  is  their  shyness;  on  being  spoken 
to  or  approached  they  generally  vanish.  Not  infrequently  they 
are  taken,  at  first  sight,  for  living  human  beings.  In  darkness 
they  are  often  luminous,  otherwise  they  would  be  invisible  ! 
Unexplained  noises  often,  but  not  always,  occur  in  houses  where 
these  phenomena  areperceived.  Evidence  is  only  good,  approxi- 
mately, when  a  series  of  persons,  in  the  same  house,  behold  the 
same  appearance,  without  being  aware  that  it  has  previously 
been  seen  by  others.  Naturally  it  ie  almost  impossible  to  prove 
this  ignorance. 

When  inquirers  believe  thai  the  appearances  are  due  to  the 
agency  of  spirits  of  the  dead,  they  usually  suppose  the  method 
to  be  a  telepathic  impact  on  the  mind  of  the  living  by  some 
"  mere  automatic  projection  from  a  consciousness  which  has  its 
centre  elsewhere  "  (Myers,  Proceedings  S.P.R.  vol.  xv.  p.  64). 
Myers,  in  Human  Personality,  fell  back  on  "  palaeolithic  psycho- 
logy," and  a  theory  of  a  phantasmogenetic  agency  producing  a 
phantasm  which  had  some  actual  relation  to  space.  But  space 
forbids  us  to  give  examples  of  modern  experiences  in  haunted 
houses,  endured  by  persons  sane,  healthy  and  well  educated. 
The  cases,  abundantly  offered  in  Proceedings  S.  P.  R.,  suggest  that 
certain  localities,  more  than  others,  are  "  centres  of  permanent 
possibilities  of  being  hallucinated  in  a  manner  more  or  less 
uniform."  The  causes  of  this  fact  (if  causes  there  be,  beyond  a 
rasual  hallucination  or  illusion  of  A,  which,  when  reported, 
begets  by  suggestion,  or,  when  not  reported,  by  telepathy, 
hallucinations  in  B,  C,  D  and  E),  remain  unknown  (Proceedings 
S.P.R.  vol.  viii.  p.  133  et  seq.).  Mr  Podmore  proposed  this 
hypothesis  of  causation,  which  was  not  accepted  by  Myers; 
he  thought  that  the  theory  laid  too  heavy  a  burden  on  telepathy 
and  suggestion.  Neither  cause,  nor  any  other  cause  of  similar 
results,  ever  affects  members  of  the  S.P.R.  who  may  be  sent  to 
dwell  in  haunted  houses.  They  have  no  weird  experiences, 
except  when  they  are  visionaries  who  see  phantoms  wherever 
they  go.  (\-  L.) 

HAUPT,  MORITZ  (1808-1874),  German  philologist,  was  born 
at  Zittau,  in  Lusatia,  on  the  27th  of  July  1808.  His  early 
education  was  mainly  conducted  by  his  father,  Ernst  Friedrich 
Haupt,  burgomaster  of  Zittau,  a  man  of  good  scholarly  attain- 
ment, who  used  to  take  pleasure  in  turning  German  hymns  or 
Goethe's  poems  into  Latin,  and  whose  memoranda  were  employed 
by  G.  Freytag  in  the  4th  volume  of  his  Bilder  aus  der  deutschen 
Vergangenhe.it.  From  the  Zittau  gymnasium,  where  he  spent 
the  five  years  1821-1826,  Haupt  removed  to  the  university  of 
Leipzig  with  the  intention  of  studying  theology;  but  the  natural 
bent  of  his  mind  and  the  influence  of  Professor  G.  Hermann  soon 
turned  all  his  energies  in  the  direction  of  philosophy.  On  the 
close  of  his  university  course  (1830)  he  returned  to  his  father's 
house,  and  the  next  seven  years  were  devoted  to  quiet  work,  not 
only  at  Greek,  Latin  and  German,  but  at  Old  French,  Provencal 
and  Bohemian.  He  formed  with  Lachmann  at  Berlin  a  friendship 
which  had  great  effect  on  his  intellectual  development.  In 
September  1837  he  "  habilitated  "  at  Leipzig  as  Privatdozent, 
and  his  first  lectures,  dealing  with  such  diverse  subjects  as 
Catullus  and  the  Nibelungenlied,  indicated  the  twofold  direction 
of  his  labours.  A  new  chair  of  German  language  and  literature 
being  founded  for  his  benefit,  he  became  professor  extraordinarius 
(1841)  and  then  professor  ordinarius  (1843);  and  in  1842  he 
married  Louise  Hermann,  the  daughter  of  his  master  and  col- 
league. But  the  peaceful  and  prosperous  course  opening  out 
before  him  at  the  university  of  Leipzig  was  brought  to  a  sudden 
close.  Having  taken  part  in  1849  with  Otto  Jahn  and  Theodor 
Mommsen  in  a  political  agitation  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
imperial  constitution,  Haupt  was  deprived  of  his  professorship 
by  a  decree  of  the  22nd  of  April  1851.  Tw  i  years  later,  however, 
he  was  called  to  succeed  Lachmann  at  the  university  of  Berlin; 
and  at  the  same  time  the  Berlin  academy,  which  had  made  him 
a  corresponding  member  in  1841,  elected  him  an  ordinary 
member.  For  twenty-one  years  he  continued  to  hold  a  prominent 


alace  among  the  scholars  of  the  Prussian  capital,  making  his 
presence  felt,  not  only  by  the  prestige  of  his  erudition  and  the 
clearness  of  his  intellect,  but  by  the  tirelessness  of  his  energy 
and  the  ardent  fearlessness  of  his  temperament.  He  died,  of 
icart  disease,  on  the  5th  of  February  1874. 

Haupt's  critical  work  is  distinguished  by  a  happy  union  of  the 
most  painstaking  investigation  with  intrepidity  of  conjecture,  and 
while  in  his  lectures  and  addresses  he  was  frequently  carried  away 
sy  the  excitement  of  the  moment,  and  made  sharp  and  questionable 
attacks  on  his  opponents,  in  his  writings  he  exhibits  great  self- 
control.  The  results  of  many  of  his  researches  are  altogether  lost, 
Decause  he  could  not  be  prevailed  upon  to  publish  what  fell  much 
short  of  his  own  high  ideal  of  excellence.  To  the  progress  of  classical 
scholarship  he  contributed  by  Quaestiones  Catullianae  (1837), 
Obseruationes  criticae  (1841),  and  editions  of  Ovid's  Halieutica 
and  the  Cynegetica  of  Gratius  and  Nemesianus  (1838),  of  Catullus, 
Tibullus  and  Propertius  (3rd  ed.,  1868),  of  Horace  (3rd  ed.,  1871) 
and  of  Virgil  (2nd  ed.,  1873).  As  early  as  1836,  with  Hoffmann 
von  Fallersleben,  he  started  the  Altdeutsche  Blatter,  which  in  1841 
gave  place  to  the  Zeitschrift  fur  deutsches  Altertum,  of  which  he 
continued  editor  till  his  death.  Hartmann  von  Aue's  Erec  (1839) 
and  his  Lieder,  Buchlein  and  Der  arme  Heinrich  (1842),  Rudolf 
von  Ems's  Cuter  Gerhard  (1840)  and  Conrad  von  Wiirzburg's 
Engelhard  (1844)  are  the  principal  German  works  which  he  edited. 
To  form  a  collection  of  the  French  songs  of  the  i6th  century  was 
one  of  his  favourite  schemes,  but  a  little  volume  published  after  his 
death,  Franzosische  Volkslieder  (1877),  is  the  only  monument  of 
his  labours  in  that  direction.  Three  volumes  of  his  Opuscula  were 
published  at  Leipzig  (1875-1877). 

See  Kirchhoff,  "  Gedachtnisrede,"  in  Abhandl.  der  Konigl.  Akad. 
der  Wissenschaflen  zu  Berlin  (1875);  Otto  Belger,  Moritz  Haupt  als 
Lehrer  (1879);  Sandys,  Hist.  Class.  Schol.  iii.  (1908). 

HAUPTMANN,  GERHART  (1862-  ),  German  dramatist, 
was  born  on  the  I5th  of  November  1862  at  Obersalzbrunn  in 
Silesia,  the  son  of  an  hotel-keeper.  From  the  village  school  of 
his  native  place  he  passed  to  the  Realschule  in  Breslau,  and  was 
then  sent  to  learn  agriculture  on  his  uncle's  farm  at  Jauer. 
Having,  however,  no  taste  for  country  life,  he  soon  returned  to 
Breslau  and  entered  the  art  school,  intending  to  become  a 
sculptor.  He  then  studied  at  Jena,  and  spent  the  greater  part 
of  the  years  1883  and  1884  in  Italy.  In  May  1885  Hauptmann 
married  and  settled  in  Berlin,  and,  devoting  himself  henceforth 
entirely  to  literary  work,  soon  attained  a  great  reputation  as 
one  of  the  chief  representatives  of  the  modern  drama.  In  1891 
he  retired  to  Schreiberhau  in  Silesia.  Hauptmann's  first  drama, 
Vor  Sonnenaufgang  (1889)  inaugurated  the  realistic  movement 
in  modern  German  literature;  it  was  followed  by  Das  Friedens- 
fest  (1890),  Einsame  Menschen  (1891)  and  Die  Weber  (1892),  a 
powerful  drama  depicting  the  rising  of  the  Silesian  weavers  in 
1844.  Of  Hauptmann's  subsequent  work  mention  may  be 
made  of  the  comedies  Kollege  Grampian  (1892),  Der  Biberpelz 
(1893)  and  Der  rote  Hahn  (1901),  a  "  dream  poem,"  Hannele 
(1893),  and  an  historical  drama  Florian  Geyer  (1895).  He  also 
wrote  two  tragedies  of  Silesian  peasant  life,  Fuhrmann  Hensc/iel 
(1898)  and  Rose Berndt  (1903),  and  the  "  dramatic  fairy-tales  " 
Die  versunkene  Glocke  (1897)  and  Und  Pippa  tanzt  (1905). 
Several  of  his  works  have  been  translated  into  English. 

Biographies  of  Hauptmann  and  critical  studies  of  his  dramas 
have  been  published  by  A.  Bartels  (1897);  P.  Schlenther  (1898); 
and  U.  C.  Woerner  (2nd  ed.,  1900).  See  also  L.  Benoist-Hanappier, 
Le  Drame  naturaliste  en  Allemagne  (1905). 

HAUPTMANN,  MORITZ  (1792-1868),  German  musical  com- 
poser and  writer,  was  born  at  Dresden,  on  the  I3th  of  October 
1792,  and  studied  music  under  Scholz,  Lanska,  Grosse  and 
Morlacchi,  the  rival  of  Weber.  Afterwards  he  completed  his 
education  as  a  violinist  and  composer  under  Spohr,  and  till  1820 
held  various  appointments  in  private  families,  varying  his 
musical  occupations  with  mathematical  and  other  studies 
bearing  chiefly  on  acoustics  and  kindred  subjects.  For  a  time 
also  Hauptmann  was  employed  as  an  architect,  but  all  other 
pursuits  gave  place  to  music,  and  a  grand  tragic  opera.  Malhilde, 
belongs  to  the  period  just  referred  to.  In  1822  he  entered  the 
orchestra  of  Cassel,  again  under  Spohr's  direction,  and  it  was  then 
that  he  first  taught  composition  and  musical  theory  to  such  men 
as  Ferdinand  David,  Burgmiiller,  Kiel  and  others.  His  com- 
positions at  this  time  chiefly  consisted  of  motets,  masses,  can- 
tatas and  songs.  His  opera  Malhilde  was  performed  at  Cassel 


HAUREAU— HAUSA 


with  great  success.  In  1842  Hauptmann  obtained  the  position 
of  cantor  at  the  Thomas-school  of  Leipzig  (long  previously 
occupied  by  the  great  Johann  Sebastian  Bach)  together  with 
that  of  professor  at  the  conservatoire,  and  it  was  in  this  capacity 
that  his  unique  gift  as  a  teacher  developed  itself  and  was  acknow- 
ledged by  a  crowd  of  enthusiastic  and  more  or  less  distinguished 
pupils.  He  died  on  the  3rd  of  January  1868,  and  the  universal 
regret  felt  at  his  death  at  Leipzig  is  said  to  have  been  all  but 
equal  to  that  caused  by  the  loss  of  his  friend  Medelssohn  many 
years  before.  Hauptmann's  compositions  are  marked'  by 
symmetry  and  perfection  of  workmanship  rather  than  by 
spontaneous  invention. 

Amongst  his  vocal  compositions — by  far  the  most  important 
portion  of  his  work — may  be  mentioned  two  masses,  choral  songs 
for  mixed  voices  (Op.  32,  47),  and  numerous  part  songs.  The  re- 
sults of  his  scientific  research  were  embodied  in  his  book  Die  Natur 
dcr  Harmonik  und  Metrik  (1853),  a  standard  work  of  its  kind,  in 
which  a  philosophic  explanation  of  the  forms  of  music  is  attempted. 

HAUREAU,    (JEAN)    BARTHlJLEMY    (1812-1896),     French 
historian  and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  born  in  Paris.     At  the 
age  of  twenty  he  published  a  series  of  apologetic  studies  on  the 
Montagnards.    In  later  years  he  regretted  the  youthful  enthu- 
siasm of  these  papers,  and  endeavoured  to  destroy  the  copies. 
He  joined  the  staff  of  the  National,  and  was  praised  by  Theophile 
Gautier  as  the  "  tribune  "  of  romanticism.     At  that  time  he 
seemed  to  be  destined  to  a  political  career,  and,  indeed,  after 
the  revolution  of  the  24th  of  February  1848  was  elected  member 
of  the  National  Assembly;  but  close  contact  with  revolutionary 
men  and  ideas  gradually  cooled  his  old  ardour.     Throughout 
his  life  he  was  an  enemy  to  innovators,  not  only  in  politics  and 
religion,  but  also  in  literature.     This  attitude  sometimes  led 
him  to  form  unjust  estimates,  but  only  on  very  rare  occasions, 
for  his  character  was  as  just  as  his  erudition  was  scrupulous. 
After  the  coup  d'etat  he  resigned  his  position  as  director  of  the 
MS.  department  of  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  to  which  he  had 
been  appointed  in  1848,  and  he  refused  to  accept  any  adminis- 
trative post  until  after  the  fall  of  the  empire.     After  having  acted 
as  director  of  the  national  printing  press  from  1870  to  1881,  he 
retired,  but  in  1893  accepted  the  post  of  director  of  the  Fondation 
Thiers.    He  was  also  a  member  of  the  council  of  improvement 
of  the  Ecole  des  Charles.     He  died  on  the  agth  of  April  1896. 
For  over  half  a  century  he  was  engaged  in  writing  on  the  religious, 
philosophical,  and  more  particularly  the  literary  history  of  the 
middle  ages.     Appointed  librarian  of  the  town  of  Le  Mans  in 
1838,  he  was  first  attracted  by  the  history  of  Maine,  and  in  1843 
published  the  first  volume  of  his  Histoire  litteraire  du  Maine 
(4  vols.,  1843-1852),  which  he  subsequently  recast  on  a  new  plan 
(10  vols.,  1870-1877).     In  1845  he  brought  out  an  edition  of 
vol.  ii.  of  G.  Menage's  Histoire  de  Sable.     He  then  undertook 
the  continuation  of  the  Callia  Christiana,  and  produced  vol.  xiv. 
(1856)  for  the  province  of  Tours,  vol.  xv.  (1862)  for  the  province 
of  Besancon,  and  vol.  xvi.  (1865-1870)  for  the  province  of  Vienne. 
This  important  work  gained  him  admission  to  the  Academic  des 
Inscriptions  et  Belles-Lettres  (1862).     In  the  Notices  et  exlraits 
des  manuscrils  he  inserted  several  papers  which  were  afterwards 
published  separately,  with  additions  and  corrections,  under  the 
title  Notices  et  exlraits  de  quelqucs  manuscrits  de  la  Bibliolh'eque 
Nationale  (6  vols.,  1890-1893).     To  the  Histoire  litteraire  de  la 
France  he  contributed  a  number  of  studies,  among  which  must 
be  mentioned  that  relating  to  the  sermon-writers  (vol.  xxvi., 
1873),  whose  works,  being  of  ten  anonymous,  raise  many  problems 
of  attribution,  and,  though  deficient  in  orginality  of  thought 
and  style,  reflect  the  very  spirit  of  the  middle  ages.     Among  his 
other  works  mention  must  be  made  of  his  remarkable  Histoire 
de  la  philosophie  scolastique  (1872-1880),  extending  from  the 
time  of  Charlemagne  to  the  I3th  century,  which  was  expanded 
from  a  paper  crowned  by  the  Academic  des  Sciences  Morales  et 
Politiques  in  1850;  Les  Melanges  poetiques  d'Hildebert  de  Lavardin 
1882);  an  edition  of  the  Works  of  Hugh  of  St  Victor  (1886);  a 
critical  study  of  the  Latin  poems  attributed  to  St  Bernard 
(1890);  and  Bernard  Delicieux  et  I'inquisition  albigeoise  (1877). 
To  these  must  be  added  his  contributions  to  the  Dictionnaire  des 
sciences  philosophiques,  Didot's  Biographie  generate,  the  Biblio- 


theque  de  l'£cole  des  Charles,  and  the  Journal  des  savants.  From 
the  time  of  his  appointment  to  the  Bibliotheque,  Nationale. up 
to  the  last  days  of  his  life  he  was  engaged  in  making  abstracts 
of  all  the  medieval  Latin  writings  (many  anonymous  or  of 
doubtful  attribution)  relating  to  philosophy,  theology,  grammar, 
canon  law,  and  poetry,  carefully  noting  ori  cards  the  first  words 
of  each  passage.  After  his  death  this  index  of  incipits,  arranged 
alphabetically,  was  presented  to  the  Academic  des  Inscriptions, 
and  a  copy  was  placed  in  the  MS.  department  of  the  Bibliotheque 
Nationale. 

See  obituary  notice  read  by  Henri  Wallon  at  a  meeting  of  the 
Academic  des  Inscriptions  on  the  I2th  of  November  1897-  and  the 
notice  by  Paul  Meyer  prefixed  to  vol.  xxxiii.  of  the  Histoire  litteraire 
de  la  France. 

HAUSA,  sometimes  incorrectly  written  HAUSSA,  HOUSSA  or 
HAOUSSA,  a  people  inhabiting  about  half  a  million  square  miles 
in  the  western  and  central  Sudan  from  the  river  Niger  in  the 
west  to  Bornu  in  the  east.  Heinrich  Earth  identifies  them  with 
the  Atarantians  of  Herodotus.  According  to  their  own  traditions 
the  earliest  home  of  the  race  was  the  divide  between  the  Sokoto 
and  Chad  basins,  and  more  particularly  the  eastern  watershed, 
whence  they  spread  gradually  westward.  In  the  middle  ages,' 
to  which  period  the  first  authentic  records  refer,  the  Hausa^ 
though  never  a  conquering  race,  attained  great  political  power. 
They  were  then  divided  into  seven  states  known  as  "  Hausa 
bokoy  "  ("  the  seven  Hausa  ")  and  named  Biram,  Daura,  Gober, 
Kano,  Rano,  Katsena  and  Zegzeg,  after  the  sons  of  their  legendary 
ancestor.  This  confederation  extended  its  authority  over  many 
of  the  neighbouring  countries,  and  remained  paramount  till 
the  Fula  under  Sheikh  Dan  Fodio  in  1810  conquered  the  Hausa 
states  and  founded  the  Fula  empire  of  Sokoto  (see  FULA). 

The  Hausa,  who  number  upwards  of  5,000,000,  form  the  most 
important  nation  of  the  central  Sudan.  They  are  undoubtedly 
nigritic,  though  in  places  with  a  strong  crossing  of  Fula  and 
Arab  blood.  Morally  and  intellectually  they  are,  however, 
far  superior  to  the  typical  Negro.  They  are  a  powerful,  heavily 
built  race,  with  skin  as  black  as  most  Negroes,  but  with  lips  not 
so  thick  nor  hair  so  woolly.  They  excel  in  physical  strength. 
The  average  Hausa  will  carry  on  his  head  a  load  of  ninety  or  a 
hundred  pounds  without  showing  the  slightest  signs  of  fatigue 
during  a  long  day's  march.  When  carrying  their  own  goods 
it  is  by  no  means  uncommon  for  them  to  take  double  this  weight. 
They  are  a  peaceful  and  industrious  people,  living  partly  in 
farmsteads  amid  their  crops,  partly  in  large  trading  centres 
such  as  Kano,  Katsena  and  Yakoba  (Bauchi).  They  are 
extremely  intelligent  and  even  cultured,  and  have  exercised  a 
civilizing  effect  upon  their  Fula  conquerors  to  whose  oppressive 
rule  they  submitted.  They  are  excellent  agriculturists,  and, 
almost  unaided  by  foreign  influence,  they  have  developed  a 
variety  of  industries,  such  as  the  making  of  cloth,  mats,  leather 
and  glass.  In  Sierra  Leone  and  the  Gold  Coast  territory  they 
'orm  the  backbone  of  the  military  police,  and  under  English 
leadership  have  again  and  again  shown  themselves  to  be  admir- 
able fighters  and  capable  of  a  high  degree  of  discipline  and  good 
conduct.  Their  food  consists  chiefly  of  guinea  com  (sorghum 
vtdgare),  which  is  ground  up  and  eaten  as  a  sort  of  porridge 
mixed  with  large  quantities  of  red  pepper.  The  Hausa  attribute 
their  superiority  in  strength  to  the  fact  that  they  live  on  guinea 
corn  instead  of  yams  and  bananas,  which  form  the  staple  food  of 
the  tribes  on  the  river  Niger.  The  Hausa  carried  on  agriculture 
chiefly  by  slave  labour;  they  are  themselves  born  traders, 
and  as  such  are  to  be  met  with  in  almost  every  part  of  Africa 
north  of  the  equator.  Small  colonies  of  them  are  to  be  found  in 
owns  as  far  distant  from  one  another  as  Lagos,  Tunis,  Tripoli, 
Alexandria  and  Suakin. 

Language. — The  Hausa  language  has  a  wider  range  over  Africa 
jorth  of  the  equator,  south  of  Barbary  and  west  of  the  valley  of  the 
Nile,  than  any  other  tongue.  It  is  a  rich  sonorous  language,  with  a 
/ocabulary  containing  perhaps  10,000  words.  As  an  example  of 
he  richness  of  the  vocabulary  Bishop  Crowther  mentions  that  there 
re  eight  names  for  different  parts  of  the  day  from  cockcrow  till 
fter  sunset.  About  a  third  of  the  words  are  connected  with  Arabic 
oots,  nor  are  these  such  as  the  Hausa  could  well  have  borrowed  in 
nything  like  recent  times  from  the  Arabs.  Many  words  representing 


HAUSER— HAUSMANN 


ideas  or  things  with  which  the  Hausa  must  have  been  familiar 
from  the  very  earliest  time  are  obviously  connected  with  Arabic  or 
Semitic  roots.  There  is  a  certain  amount  of  resemblance  between 
the  Hausa  language  and  that  spoken  by  the  Berbers  to  the  south  of 
Tripoli  and  Tunis.  This  language,  again,  has  several  striking  points 
of  resemblance  with  Coptic.  If,  as  seems  likely,  the  connexion 
between  these  three  languages  should  be  demonstrated,  such  con- 
nexion would  serve  to  corroborate  the  Hausa  tradition  that  their 
ancestors  came  from  the  very  far  east  away  beyond  Mecca.  The 
Hausa  language  has  been  reduced  to  writing  for  at  least  a  century, 
possibly  very  much  longer.  It  is  the  only  language  in  tropical 
Africa  which  has  been  reduced  to  writing  by  the  natives  themselves, 
unless  the  Vai  alphabet,  introduced  by  a  native  inventor  in  the 
interior  of  Liberia  in  the  first  half  of  the  igth  century  be  excepted; 
the  character  used  is  a  modified  form  of  Arabic.  Some  fragments  of 
literature  exist,  consisting  of  political  and  religious  poems,  together 
with  a  limited  amount  of  native  history.  A  volume,  consisting  of 
history  and  poems  reproduced  in  facsimile,  with  translations,  has 
been  published  by  the  Cambridge  University  Press. 

Religion. — About  one-third  of  the  people  are  professed  Mahom- 
medans,  one-third  are  heathen,  and  the  remainder  have  apparently 
no  definite  form  of  religion.  Their  Mahommedanism  dates  from  the 
1 4th  century,  but  became  more  general  when  the  Fula  sheikh  Dan 
Fodio  initiated  the  religious  war  which  ended  in  the  founding  of  the 
Fula  empire.  Ever  since  then  the  ruler  of  Sokoto  has  been  acknow- 
ledged as  the  religious  head  of  the  whole  country,  and  tribute  has 
been  paid  to  him  as  such.  The  Hausa  who  profess  Mahommedanism 
are  extremely  ignorant  of  their  own  faith,  and  what  little  religious 
fanaticism  exists  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  Fula.  Large  numbers  of 
the  Hausa  start  every  year  on  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  travelling 
sometimes  across  the  Sahara  desert  and  by  way  of  Tripoli  and  Alex- 
andria, sometimes  by  way  of  Wadai,  Darfur,  Khartum  and  Suakin. 
The  journey  often  occupies  five  or  six  years,  and  is  undertaken  quite 
as  much  from  trading  as  from  religious  motives.  Mahommedanism 
is  making  very  slow,  if  any,  progress  amongst  the  Hausa.  The 
greatest  obstacle  to  its  general  acceptance  is  the  institution  of  the 
Ramadan  fast.  In  a  climate  so  hot  as  that  of  Hausaland,  the 
obligation  to  abstain  from  food  and  drink  from  sunrise  to  sunset 
during  one  month  in  the  year  is  a  serious  difficulty.  Until  the  last 
decade  of  the  igth  century  no  important  attempt  had  been  made  to 
introduce  Christianity,  but  the  fact  that  the  Hausa  are  fond  of  read- 
ing, and  that  native  schools  exist  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  should 
greatly  facilitate  the  work  of  Christian  missionaries. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — El  Hage  Abd  Salam  Shabeeny,  Account  of 
Timbuctoo  and  Haussa  Territories  (1820) ;  Morris,  Dialogues  and  part 
of  the  New  Testament  in  the  English,  Arabic,  Haussa  and  Bornu 
Languages  (1853);  Koelle,  Polyglotta  Africana  (1854);  Schon, 
Grammar  of  the  Hausa  Language  (London,  1862),  Hausa  Reading 
Book  (1877),  and  also  A  Dictionary  of  the  Hausa  Language  (1877). 
Schon  has  also  produced  Hausa  translations  of  Gen.  (1858),  Matt. 
(1857)  and  Luke  (1858).  Heinrich  Barth,  Travels  in  North  and 
Central  Africa  (2  vols.,  London,  1857) ;  Central-afrikanische  Vokabu- 
larien  (Gotha,  1867) ;  C.  H.  Robinson,  Hausaland,  or  Fifteen  Hundred 
Miles  through  the  Central  Soudan  ( 1 896) ;  Specimens  of  Hausa 
Literature  (1896);  Hausa  Grammar  (1897);  Hausa  Dictionary 
(1899) ;  P.  L.  Monteil,  De  St-Louis  a  Tripoli  par  le  lac  Tchad  (Paris, 
1895) ;  Lt.  Seymour  Vandeleur,  Campaigning  on  the  Upper  Nile  and 
Niger  (1898). 

HAUSER,  KASPAR,  a  German  youth  whose  life  was  re- 
markable from  the  circumstances  of  apparently  inexplicable 
mystery  in  which  it  was  involved.  He  appeared  on  the  26th  of 
May  1828,  in  the  streets  of  Nuremberg,  dressed  in  the  garb  of  a 
peasant,  and  with  such  a  helpless  and  bewildered  air  that  he 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  passers-by.  In  his  possession 
was  found  a  letter  purporting  to  be  written  by  a  poor  labourer, 
stating  that  the  boy  was  given  into  his  custody  on  the  7th  of 
October  1812,  and  that  according  to  agreement  he  had  instructed 
him  in  reading,  writing,  and  the  Christian  religion,  but  that  up 
to  the  time  fixed  for  relinquishing  his  custody  he  had  kept  him 
in  close  confinement.  Along  with  this  letter  was  enclosed  another 
purporting  to  be  written  by  the  boy's  mother,  stating  that  he 
was  born  on  the  3Oth  of  April  1812,  that  his  name  was  Kaspar, 
and  that  his  father,  formerly  a  cavalry  officer  in  the  6th  regiment 
at  Nuremberg,  was  dead.  The  appearance,  bearing,  and  pro- 
fessions of  the  youth  corresponded  closely  with  these  credentials. 
He  showed  a  repugnance  to  all  nourishment  except  bread  and 
water,  was  seemingly  ignorant  of  outward  objects,  wrote  his 
name  as  Kaspar  Hauser,  and  said  that  he  wished  to  be  a  cavalry 
officer  like  his  father.  For  some  time  he  was  detained  in  prison 
at  Nuremberg  as  a  vagrant,  but  on  the  i8th  of  July  1828  he 
was  delivered  over  by  the  town  authorities  to  the  care  of  a  school- 
master, Professor  Daumer,  who  undertook  to  be  his  guardian 
and  to  take  the  charge  of  his  education.  Further  mysteries 


accumulated  about  Kaspar's  personality  and  conduct,  not 
altogether  unconnected  with  the  vogue  in  Germany,  at  that  time, 
of  "  animal  magnetism,"  "  somnambulism,"  and  similar  theories 
of  the  occult  and  strange.  People  associated  him  with  all  sorts 
of  possibilities.  On  the  i7th  of  October  1829  he  was  found  to 
have  received  a  wound  in  the  forehead,  which,  according  to  his 
own  statement,  had  been  inflicted  on  him  by  a  man  with  a 
blackened  face.  Having  on  this  account  been  removed  to  the 
house  of  a  magistrate  and  placed  under  close  surveillance,  he 
was  visited  by  Earl  Stanhope,  who  became  so  interested  in  his 
history  that  he  sent  him  in  1832  to  Ansbach  to  be  educated 
under  a  certain  Dr  Meyer.  After  this  he  became  clerk  in  the 
office  of  Paul  John  Anselm  von  Feuerbach,  president  of  the 
court  of  appeal,  who  had  begun  to  pay  attention  to  his  case  in 
1828;  and  his  strange  history  was  almost  forgotten  by  the 
public  when  the  interest  in  it  was  suddenly  revived  by  his 
receiving  a  deep  wound  on  his  left  breast,  on  the  i4th  of  December 
1833,  and  dying  from  it  three  or  four  days  afterwards.  He 
affirmed  that  the  wound  was  inflicted  by  a  stranger,  but  many 
believed  it  to  be  the  work  of  his  own  hand,  and  that  he  did 
not  intend  it  to  be  fatal,  but  only  so  severe  as  to  give  a  sufficient 
colouring  of  truth  to  his  story.  The  affair  created  a  great  sensa- 
tion, and  produced  a  long  literary  agitation.  But  the  whole  story 
remains  somewhat  mysterious.  Lord  Stanhope  eventually 
became  decidedly  sceptical  as  to  Kaspar's  stories,  and  ended  by 
being  accused  of  contriving  his  death ! 

In  1830  a  pamphlet  was  published  at  Berlin,  entitled  Kaspar 
Hauser  nicht  unwahrscheinlich  ein  Betruger;  but  the  truthfulness 
of  his  statements  was  defended  by  Daumer,  who  published  Mittei- 
lungen  uber  Kaspar  Hauser  (Nuremberg,  1832),  and  Enthullungen 
uber  Kaspar  Hauser  (Frankfort,  1859);  as  well  as  Kaspar  Hauser, 
sein  Wesen,  seine  Unschuld,  &c.  (Regensburg,  1873),  in  answer  to 
Meyer's  (a  son  of  Kaspar's  tutor)  Authentische  Mitteilungen  uber 
Kaspar  Hauser  (Ansbach,  1872).  Feuerbach  awakened  considerable 
psychological  interest  in  the  case  by  his  pamphlet  Kaspar  Hauser, 
Beispiel  eines  Verbrechens  am  Seelenleben  (Ansbach,  1832),  and  Earl 
Stanhope  also  took  part  in  the  discussion  by  publishing  Materialen 
zur  Geschichte  K.  Hausers  (Heidelberg,  1836).  The  theory  of  Daumer 
and  Feuerbach  and  other  pamphleteers  (finally  presented  in  1892  by 
Miss  Elizabeth  E.  Evans  in  her  Story  of  Kaspar  Hauser  from  Authentic 
Records)  was  that  the  youth  was  the  crown  prince  of  Baden,  the 
legitimate  son  of  the  grand-duke  Charles  of  Baden,  and  that  he 
had  been  kidnapped  at  Karlsruhe  in  October  1812  by  minions  of 
the  countess  of  Hochberg  (morganatic  wife  of  the  grand-duke)  in 
order  to  secure  the  succession  to  her  offspring;  but  this  theory  was 
answered  in  1875  by  the  publication  in  the  Augsburg  Allgemeine 
Zeitung  of  the  official  record  of  the  baptism,  post-mortem  examina- 
tion and  burial  of  the  heir  supposed  to  have  been  kidnapped.  See 
Kaspar  Hauser  und  sein  badisches  Prinzentum  (Heidelberg,  1876). 
In  1883  the  story  was  again  revived  in  a  Regensburg  pamphlet  attack- 
ing, among  other  people,  Dr  Meyer;  and  the  sons  of  the  latter, 
who  was  dead,  brought  an  action  for  libel,  under  the  German  law, 
to  which  no  defence  was  made;  all  the  copies  of  the  pamphlet  were 
ordered  to  be  destroyed.  The  evidence  has  been  subtly  analyzed 
by  Andrew  Lang  in  his  Historical  Mysteries  (1904),  with  results  un- 
favourable to  the  "  romantic  "  version  of  the  story.  Lang's  view 
is  that  possibly  Kaspar  was  a  sort  of  "  ambulatory  automatist,"  an 
instance  of  a  phenomenon,  known  by  other  cases  to  students  of 
psychical  abnormalities,  of  which  the  characteristics  are  a  mania 
for  straying  away  and  the  persistence  of  delusions  as  to  identity; 
but  he  inclines  to  regard  Kaspar  as  simply  a  "  humbug  "  The 
"  authentic  records  "  purporting  to  confirm  the  kidnapping  story 
Lang  stigmatizes  as  worthless  and  impudent  rubbish."  The 
evidence  is  in  any  case  in  complete  confusion. 

HAUSMANN,  JOHANN  FRIEDRICH  LUDWIG  (1782-1859), 
German  mineralogist,  was  born  at  Hanover  on  the  22nd  of  Feb- 
ruary 1782.  He  was  educated  at  Gottingen,  where  he  obtained 
the  degree  of  Ph.D.  After  making  a  geological  tour  in  Denmark, 
Norway  and  Sweden  in  1807,  he  was  two  years  later  placed  at 
the  head  of  a  government  mining  establishment  in  Westphalia, 
and  he  established  a  school  of  mines  at  Clausthal  in  the  Harz 
mountains.  In  1811  he  was  appointed  professor  of  technology 
and  mining,  and  afterwards  of  geology  and  mineralogy  in  the 
university  of  Gottingen,  and  this  chair  he  occupied  until  a  short 
time  before  his  death.  He  was  also  for  many  years  secretary 
of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Gottingen.  He  published 
observations  on  geology  and  mineralogy  in  Spain  and  Italy  as 
well  as  in  central  and  northern  Europe:  he  wrote  on  gypsum, 
pyrites,  felspar,  tachylite,  cordierite  and  on  some  eruptive 


HAUSRATH— HAUSSONVILLE 


rocks,  and  he  devoted  much  attention  to  the  crystals  developed 
during  metallurgical  processes.  He  died  at  Hanover  on  the  26th 
of  December  1859. 

PUBLICATIONS. — Grundlinien  einer  Encyklopadie  der  Bergwerks- 
wissenschaften  (181 1) ;  Reise  durch  Skandinavien  (5  vois.,  1811-1818) ; 
Handbuch  der  Mineralogie  (3  vols.,  1813;  2nd  ed.,  1828-1847). 

HAUSRATH,  ADOLPH  (1837-1909),  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Karlsruhe  on  the  I3th  of  January  1837  and  was 
educated  at  Jena,  Gottingen,  Berlin  and  Heidelberg,  where 
he  became  Privatdozent  in  1861,  professor  extraordinary  in 
1867  and  ordinary  professor  in  1872.  He  was  a  disciple  of  the 
Tubingen  school  and  a  strong  Protestant.  Among  other  works  he 
wrote  Der  A  pastel  Paulus  (1865),  Neutestamentliche  Zeitgeschichte 
(1868-1873,  4  vols.;  Eng.  trans.),  D.  F.  Strauss  und  die  Theologie 
seiner  Zeit  (1876-1878,  2  vols.),  and  lives  qf  Richard  Rothe 
(2  vols.  1902),  and  Luther  (1904).  His  scholarship  was  sound 
and  his  style  vigorous.  Under  the  pseudonym  George  Taylor 
he  wrote  several  historical  romances,  especially  Antinous  (1880), 
which  quickly  ran  through  five  editions,  and  is  the  story  of  a 
soul  "  which  courted  death  because  the  objective  restraints 
of  faith  had  been  lost."  Klytia  (1883)  was  a  16th-century  story, 
Jetta  (1884)  a  tale  of  the  great  immigrations,  and  Elfriede  "  a 
romance  of  the  Rhine."  He  died  on  the  2nd  of  August  1909. 

HAUSSER,    LUDWIG    (1818-1867),    German   historian,   was 
born  at  Kleeburg,  in  Alsace.    Studying  philology  at  Heidelberg 
in  1835,  he  was  led  by  F.  C.  Schlosser  to  give  it  up  for  history, 
and  after  continuing  his  historical  work  at  Jena  and  teaching 
in  the  gymnasium  at  Wertheim  he  made  his  mark  by  his  Die 
teutschen    Geschichtsschreiber    vom    Anfang    des    Frankenreichs 
bis  auf  die  Hohenstaufen  (1839).    Next  year  appeared  his  Sage 
von  Tell.    After  a  short  period  of  study  in  Paris  on  the  French 
Revolution,  he  spent  some  time  working  in  the  archives  of 
Baden  and  Bavaria,  and  published  in  1845  Die  GeschiMe  der 
rheinischen  Pfalz,  which  won  for  him  a  professorship  extra- 
ordinarius  at  Heidelberg.    In  1850  he  became  professor  ordinarius. 
Hausser  also  interested  himself  in  politics  while  at  Heidelberg, 
publishing  in  i&46Schleswig-Holstein,  Danemark  und  Deutschland, 
and  editing  with  Gervinus  the  Deutsche  Zeitung.    In  1848  he 
was  elected  to  the  lower  legislative  chamber  of  Baden,  and  in 
1850  advocated  the  project  of  union  with  Prussia  at  the  parlia- 
ment held  at  Erfurt. '   Another  timely  work  was  his  edition 
of  Friedrich  List's  Gesammelle  Schriften  (1850),  accompanied 
with  a  life  of  the  author.    His  greatest  achievement,  and  the 
one  on  which  his  fame  as  an  historian  rests,  is  his  Deutsche 
Geschichte  vom   Tode  Friedrichs  des  Grossen  bis  zur  Grundung 
des  deutschen  Bundes  (Leipzig,  1854-1857,  4  vols.).    This  was 
the  first  work  covering  that  period  based  on  a  scientific  study 
of  the  archival  sources.    In  1859  he  again  took  part  in  politics, 
resuming  his  place  in  the  lower  chamber,  opposing  in  1863  the 
project  of  Austria  for  the  reform  of  the  Confederation  brought 
forward  in  the  assembly  of  princes  at  Frankfort,  in  his  book 
Die  Reform  des  deutschen  Bundestages,  and  becoming  one   of 
the  leaders  of  the  "  little  German  "  (kleindeutsche)  party,  which 
advocated  the  exclusion  of  Austria  from  Germany.    In  addition 
to  various  essays  (in  his  Gesammelte  Schriften,  Berlin,   1869- 
1870,  2  vols.),  Hausser's  lectures  have  been  edited  by  W.  Oncken 
in  the  Geschichte  des  Zeitalters  der  Reformation  (1869,  2nd  ed. 
1880),  and  Geschichte  der  franzosischen  Revolution  (1869,  2nd 
ed.  1870).     These  lectures  reveal  all  the  charm  of  style  and 
directness  of  presentation  which  made  Hausser's  work  as  a 
professor  so  vital. 
See  W.  Wattenbach,  Lud.  Hausser,  ein  Vortrag  (Heidelberg,  1867). 
HAUSSMANN,    GEORGES    EUGENE,    BARON    (1809-1891), 
whose  name  is  associated  with  the  rebuilding  of  Paris,  was  born 
in  that  city  on  the  27th  of  March  1809  of  a  Protestant  family, 
German  in  origin.    He  was  educated  at  the  College  Henri  IV, 
and  subsequently   studied   law,   attending   simultaneously   the 
classes  at  the  Paris  conservatoire  of  music,  for  he  was  a  good 
musician.   He  became  sous-prefet  of  Nerac  in  1830,  and  advanced 
rapidly  in  the  civil  service  until  in  1853  he  was  chosen  by  Persigny 
prefect  of  the  Seine  in  succession  to  Jean  Jacques  Berger,  who 
hesitated  to  incur  the  vast  expenses  of  the  imperial  schemes 


for  the  embellishment  of  Paris.  Haussmann  laid  out  the  Bois 
de  Boulogne,  and  made  extensive  improvements  in  the  smaller 
parks.  The  gardens  of  the  Luxembourg  Palace  were  cut  down 
to  allow  of  the  formation  of  new  streets,  and  the  Boulevard 
de  Sebastopol,  the  southern  half  of  which  is  now  the  Boulevard 
St  Michel,  was  driven  through  a  populous  district.  A  new 
water  supply,  a  gigantic  system  of  sewers,  new  bridges,  the 
opera,  and  other  public  buildings,  the  inclusion  of  outlying 
districts — these  were  among  the  new  prefect's  achievements, 
accomplished  by  the  aid  of  a  bold  handling  of  the  public  funds 
which  called  forth  Jules  Ferry's  indictment,  Les  Comptes  fan- 
tasliques  de  Haussmann,  in  1867.  A  loan  of  250  million  francs 
was  sanctioned  for  the  city  of  Paris  in  1865,  and  another  of 
260  million  in  1869.  These  sums  represented  only  part  of  his 
financial  schemes,  which  led  to  his  dismissal  by  the  government 
of  Emile  Ollivier.  After  the  fall  of  the  Empire  he  spent  about 
a  year  abroad,  but  he  re-entered  public  life  in  1877,  when  he 
became  Bonapartist  deputy  for  Ajaccio.  He  died  in  Paris 
on  the  nth  of  January  1891.  Haussmann  had  been  made 
senator  in  1857,  member  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  1867, 
and  grand  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honour  in  1862.  His  name 
is  preserved  in  the  Boulevard  Haussmann.  His  later  years 
were  occupied  with  the  preparation  of  his  Memoires  (3  vols., 
1890-1893). 

HAUSSONVILLE,  JOSEPH  OTHENIN  BERNARD  DE 
CLERON,  COMTE  D'  (1809-1884),  French  politician  and  historian, 
was  born  in  Paris  on  the  27th  of  May  1809.  His  grandfather  had 
been  "  grand  louvetier  "  of  France;  his  father  Charles  Louis 
Bernard  de  Cleron,  comte  d'Haussonville  (1770-1846),  was 
chamberlain  at  the  court  of  Napoleon,  a  count  of  the  French 
empire,  and  under  the  Restoration  a  peer  of  France  and  an 
opponent  of  the  Villele  ministry.  Comte  Joseph  had  filled  a 
series  of  diplomatic  appointments  at  Brussels,  Turin  and  Naples 
before  he  entered  the  chamber  of  deputies  in  1842  for  Provins. 
Under  the  Second  Empire  he  published  a  liberal  anti-imperial 
paper  at  Brussels,  Le  Bulletin  franqais,  and  in  1863  he  actively 
supported  the  candidature  of  Prevost  Paradol.  He  was  elected 
to  the  French  Academy  in  1869,  in  recognition  of  his  historical 
writings,  Histoire  de  la  politique  exterieure  du  gouvernemenl 
franqais  de  1830  a,  1848  (2  vols.,  1850),  Histoire  de  la  reunion  de 
la  Lorraine  a  la  France  (4  vols.,  1854-1859),  L'Eglise  romaine 
et  le  premier  empire  1800-1814  (5  vols.,  1864-1879).  In  1870 
he  published  a  pamphlet  directed  against  the  Prussian  treatment 
of  France,  La  France  el  la  Prusse  devant  I' Europe,  the  sale  of 
which  was  prohibited  in  Belgium  at  the  request  of  King  William 
of  Prussia.  He  was  the  president  of  an  association  formed  to 
provide  new  homes  in  Algeria  for  the  inhabitants  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine  who  elected  to  retain  their  French  nationality.  In 
1878  he  was  made  a  life-senator,  in  which  capacity  he  allied 
himself  with  the  Right  Centre  in  defence  of  the  religious  associa- 
tions against  the  anti-clericals.  He  died  in  Paris  on  the  28th 
of  May  1884. 

His  wife  Louise  (1818-1882),  a  daughter  of  Due  Victor  de 
Broglie,  published  in  1858  a  novel  Robert  Emmet,  followed  by 
Marguerite  de  Valois  reine  de  Navarre  (1870),  Lajeunesse  de  Lord 
Byron  (1872),  and  Les  Dernieres  Annees  de  Lord  Byron  (1874). 

His  son,  GABRIEL  PAUL  OTHENIN  DE  CLERON,  comte 
d'Haussonville,  was  born  at  Gurcy  de  Chatel  (Seine-et-Marne) 
on  the  2ist  of  September  1843,  and  married  in  1865  Mile  Pauline 
d'Harcourt.  He  represented  Seine-et-Marne  in  the  National 
Assembly  (1871)  and  voted  with  the  Right  Centre.  Though  he 
was  not  elected  to  the  chamber  of  deputies  he  became  the  right- 
hand  man  of  his  maternal  uncle,  the  due  de  Broglie,  in  the 
attempted  coup  of  the  i6th  of  May.  His  Etablissements  peni- 
tentiaires  en  France  et  aux  colonies  (1875)  was  crowned  by  the 
Academy,  of  which  he  was  admitted  a  member  in  1888.  In 
1891  the  resignation  of  Henri  Edouard  Bocher  from  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  Orleans  estates  led  to  the  appointment  of  M 
d'Haussonville  as  accredited  representative  of  the  comte  de 
Paris  in  France.  He  at  once  set  to  work  to  strengthen  the 
Orleanist  party  by  recruiting  from  the  smaller  nobility  the 
officials  of  the  local  monarchical  committees.  He  established 


HAUTE-GARONNE— HAUTE-MARNE 


new  Orleanist  organs,  and  sent  out  lecturers  with  instructions 
to  emphasize  the  modern  and  democratic  principles  of  the  comte 
de  Paris;  but  the  prospects  of  the  party  were  dashed  in  1894 
by  the  death  of  the  comte  de  Paris.  In  1904  he  was  admitted 
to  the  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Science.  The  comte 
d'Haussonville  published: — C.  A.  Sainle-Beuve,  sa  vie  et  ses 
ceuvres  (1875),  £.tudes  biographiques  et  litter  aires,  2  series  (1879 
and  1888),  Le  Saloh  de  Mme  Necker  (1882,  2  vols.),  Madame 
de  La  Fayette  (1891),  Madame  Ackermann  (1892),  Le  Comte  de 
Paris,  souvenirs  personnels  (1895),  La  Duchesse  de  Bourgogne 
et  I' alliance  savoy arde  (1898-1903),  Salaire  et  miseres  de  femme 
(1900),  and,  with  G.  Hanotaux,  Souvenirs  sur  Madame  de 
Maintcnon  (3  vols.,  1902-1904). 

HAUTE-GARONNE,  a  frontier  department  of  south-western 
France,  formed  in  1790  from  portions  of  the  provinces  of 
Languedoc(ToulousainandLauraguais)andGascony(Comminges 
and  Nebouzan).  Pop.  (1906),  442,065.  Area,  2458  sq.  m.  It 
is  bounded  N.  by  the  department  of  Tarn-et-Garonne,  E.  by 
Tarn,  Aude  and  Ariege,  S.  by  Spain  and  W.  by  Gers  and  Hautes- 
Pyrenees.  Long  and  narrow  in  shape,  the  department  consists 
in  the  north  of  an  undulating  stretch  of  country  with  continual 
interchange  of  hill  and  valley  nowhere  thrown  into  striking 
relief;  while  towards  the  south  the  land  rises  gradually  to  the 
Pyrenees,  which  on  the  Spanish  border  attain  heights  of  upwards 
of  10,000  ft.  Two  passes,  the  Port  d'Oo,  near  the  beautiful  lake 
and  waterfall  of  Oo,  and  the  Port  de  Venasque,  exceed  9800  and 
7900  ft.  in  altitude  respectively.  Entering  the  department  in 
the  south-east,  the  Garonne  flows  in  a  northerly  direction  and 
traverses  almost  its  entire  length,  receiving  in  its  course  the 
Pique,  the  Salat,  the  Louge,  the  Ariege,  the  Touch  and  the  Save. 
Except  in  the  mountainous  region  the  climate  is  mild,  the  mean 
annual  temperature  being  rather  higher  than  that  of  Paris. 
The  rainfall,  which  averages  24  in.  at  Toulouse,  exceeds  40  in. 
in  some  parts  of  the  mountains;  and  sudden  and  destructive 
inundations  of  the  Garonne — of  which  that  of  1875  is  a  celebrated 
example — are  always  to  be  feared.  The  valley  of  the  Garonne 
is  also  frequently  visited  by  severe  hail-storms.  Thick  forests 
of  oak,  fir  and  pine  exist  in  the  mountains  and  furnish  timber 
for  shipbuilding.  The  arable  land  of  the  plains  and  valleys  is 
well  adapted  for  the  cultivation  of  wheat,  maize  and  other  grain 
crops;  and  the  produce  of  cereals  is  generally  much  more  than  is 
required  for  the  local  consumption.  Market-gardening  flourishes 
around  Toulouse.  A  large  area  is  occupied  by  vineyards,  though 
the  wine  is  only  of  medium  quality;  and  chestnuts,  apples  and 
peaches  are  grown.  As  pasture  laud  is  abundant  a  good  deal 
of  attention  is  given  to  the  rearing  of  cattle  and  sheep,  and 
co-operative  dairies  are  numerous  in  the  mountains;  but  de- 
forestation has  tended  to  reduce  the  area  of  pasture-land,  because 
the  soil,  unretained  by  the  roots  of  trees,  has  been  gradually 
washed  away.  Haute-Garonne  has  deposits  of  zinc  and  lead, 
and  salt- workings;  there  is  an  ancient  and  active  marble- 
working  industry  at  St  Beat.  Mineral  springs  are  common, 
those  of  Bagneres-de-Luchon  Encausse,  Barbazan  and  Salies-du- 
Salat  being  well  known.  The  manufactures  are  various  though 
not  individually  extensive,  and  include  iron  and  copper  goods, 
woollen,  cotton  and  linen  goods,  leather,  paper,  boots  and  shoes, 
tobacco  and  table  delicacies.  Flour-mills,  iron-works  and 
brick-works  are  numerous.  Railway  communication  is  furnished 
by  the  Southern  and  the  Orleans  railways,  the  main  line  of  the 
former  from  Bordeaux  to  Cette  passing  through  Toulouse.  The 
Canal  du  Midi  traverses  the  department  for  32m.  and  the  lateral 
canal  of  the  Garonne  for  ism.  The  Garonne  is  navigable  below 
its  confluence  with  the  Salat.  There  are  four  arrondissements — 
Toulouse,  Villefranche,  Muret  and  St  Gaudcns,  subdivided  into 
39  cantons  and  588  communes.  The  chief  town  is  Toulouse, 
which  is  the  seat  of  a  court  of  appeal  and  of  an  archbishop,  the 
headquarters  of  the  XVIIth  army  corps  and  the  centre  of  an 
academy;  and  St  Gaudens,  Bagneres-de-Luchon  and,  from  an 
architectural  and  historical  standpoint,  St  Bertrand-de- 
Comminges  are  of  importance  and  receive  separate  treatment. 
Other  placesof  interest  are  St  Aventin,Montsaunes  and  Venerque, 
which  possess  ancient  churches  in  the  Romanesque  style.  The 


church  of  St  Just  at  Valcabrere  is  of  still  greater  age,  the  choir 
dating  from  the  8th  or  9th  century  and  part  of  the  nave  from  the 
nth  century.  There  are  ruins  of  a  celebrated  Cistercian  abbey 
at  Bonnefont  near  St  Martory.  Gallo-Roman  remains  and 
works  of  art  have  been  discovered  at  Martres.  Near  Revel  is 
the  fine  reservoir  of  St  Ferreol,  constructed  for  the  canal  du  Midi 
in  the  i7th  century. 

HAUTE-LOIRE,  a  department  of  central  France,  formed 
in  1790  of  Velay  and  portions  of  Vivarais  and  Gevaudan,  three 
districts  formerly  belonging  to  the  old  province  of  Languedoc, 
of  a  portion  of  Forez  formerly  belonging  to  Lyonnais,  and  a 
portion  of  lower  Auvergne.  Pop.  (1906),  314,770.  Area,  1931 
sq.  m.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  Puy-de-D6me  and  Loire,  E.  by  Loire 
and  Ardeche,  S.  by  Ardeche  and  Lozere  and  W.  by  Lozere  and 
Cantal.  Haute-Loire,  which  is  situated  on  the  central  plateau 
of  France,  is  traversed  from  north  to  south  by  four  mountain 
ranges.  Its  highest  point,  the  Mont  Mezenc  (5755  ft.),  in  the 
south-east  of  the  department,  belongs  to  the  mountains  of 
Vivarais,  which  are  continued  along  the  eastern  border  by  the 
Boutieres  chain.  The  Lignon  divides  the  Boutieres  from  the 
Massif  du  Megal,  which  is  separated  by  the  Loire  itself  from  the 
mountains  of  Velay,  a  granitic  range  overlaid  with  the  eruptions 
of  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  craters.  The  Margeride 
mountains  run  along  the  western  border  of  the  department. 
The  Loire  enters  the  department  at  a  point  16  m.  distant  from 
its  source  in  Ardeche,  and  first  flowing  northwards  and  then 
north-east,  waters  its  eastern  half.  The  Allier,  which  joins  the 
Loire  at  Nevers,  traverses  the  western  portion  of  Haute-Loire 
in  a  northerly  direction.  The  chief  affluents  of  the  Loire  within 
the  limits  of  the  department  are  the  Borne  on  the  left,  joining  it 
near  Le  Puy,  and  the  Lignon,  which  descends  from  the  Mezenc, 
between  the  Boutieres  and  Megal  ranges,  on  the  right.  The 
climate,  owing  to  the  altitude,  the  northward  direction  of  the 
valleys,  and  the  winds  from  the  Cevennes,  is  cold,  the  winters 
being  long  and  rigorous.  Storms  and  violent  rains  are  frequent 
on  the  higher  grounds,  and  would  give  rise  to  serious  inundations 
were  not  the  rivers  for  the  most  part  confined  within  deep  rocky 
channels.  Cereals,  chiefly  rye,  oats,  barley  and  wheat,  are 
cultivated  in  the  lowlands  and  on  the  plateaus,  on  which  aromatic 
and  medicinal  plants  are  abundant.  Lentils,  peas,  mangel- 
wurzels  and  other  forage  and  potatoes  are  also  grown.  Horned 
cattle  belong  principally  to  the  Mezenc  breed;  goats  are 
numerous.  The  woods  yield  pine,  fir,  oak  and  beech.  Lace- 
making,  which  employs  about  90,000  women,  and  coal-mining 
are  main  industries;  the  coal  basins  are  those  of  Brassac  and 
Langeac.  There  are  also  mines  of  antimony  and  stone-quarries. 
Silk-milling,  caoutchouc-making,  various  kinds  of  smith's  work, 
paper-making,  glass-blowing,  brewing,  wood-sawing  and  flour- 
milling  are  also  carried  on.  The  principal  imports  are  flour, 
brandy ,wine,  live-stock,  lace-thread  and  agricultural  implements. 
Exports  include  fat  stock,  wool,  aromatic  plants,  coal,  lace. 
The  department  is  served  chiefly  by  the  Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee 
company.  There  are  three  arrondissements — Le  Puy,  Brioude 
and  Yssingeaux,  with  28  cantons  and  265  communes. 

Haute-Loire  forms  the  diocese  of  Le  Puy  and  part  of  the 
ecclesiastical  province  of  Bourges,  and  belongs  to  the  academic 
(educational  division)  of  Clermont-Ferrand.  Its  court  of  appeal 
is  at  Riom.  Le  Puy  the  capital,  Brioude  and  La  Chaise-Dieu 
the  principal  towns  of  the  department,  receive  separate  treat- 
ment. It  has  some  notable  churches,  of  which  those  of  Chama- 
lieres,  St  Paulien  and  Sainte-Marie-des-Chazes  are  Romanesque 
in  style;  Le  Monastier  preserves  the  church,  in  part  Romanesque, 
and  the  buildings  of  the  abbey  to  which  it  owes  its  origin. 
Arlempdes  and  Bouzols  (near  Coubon)  have  the  ruins  of  large 
feudal  chateaus.  The  rocky  plateau  overlooking  Polignac  is 
occupied  by  the  ruins  of  the  imposing  stronghold  of  the  ancient 
family  of  Polignac,  including  a  square  donjon  of  the  i4th  century. 
Interesting  Gallo-Roman  remains  have  been  found  on  the  site. 

HAUTE-MARNE,  a  department,  of  north-eastern  France,  made 
up  for  the  most  part  of  districts  belonging  to  the  former  province 
of  Champagne  (Bassigny,  Perthois,  Vallage),  with  smaller 
portions  of  Lorraine  and  Burgundy,  and  seme  fragments  of 


HAUTERIVE— HAUTES  ALPES 


73 


Franche-Comt6.  Area,  2415  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1906),  221,724.  It  is 
bounded  N.E.  by  Meuse,  E.  by  Vosges,  S.E.  by  Haute-Saone, 
S.  and  S.W.  by  C6te  d'Or,  W.  by  Aube,  and  N.W.  by  Marne. 
Its  greatest  elevation  (1693  ft.)  is  in  the  plateau  of  Langres  in 
the  south  between  the  sources  of  the  Marne  and  those  of  the 
Aube;  the  watershed  between  the  basin  of  the  Rhone  on  the 
south  and  those  of  the  Seine  and  Meuse  on  the  north,  which  is 
formed  by  the  plateau  of  Langres  continued  north-east  by  the 
Monts  Paucities,  has  an  average  height  of  1500  or  1600  ft.  The 
country  descends  rapidly  towards  the  south,  but  in  very  gentle 
slopes  northwards.  To  the  north  is  Bassigny  (the  paybas  or 
low  country,  as  distinguished  from  the  highlands),  a  district 
characterized  by  monotonous  flats  of  little  fertility  and  extensive 
wooded  tracts.  The  lowest  level  of  the  department  is  361  ft. 
Hydrographically  Haute-Marne  belongs  for  the  most  part  to 
the  basin  of  the  Seine,  the  remainder  to  those  of  the  Rhone  and 
the  Meuse.  The  principal  river  is  the  Marne,  which  rises  here, 
and  has  a  course  of  75  m.  within  the  department.  Among  its 
more  important  affluents  are,  on  the  right  the  Rognon,  and  on 
the  left  the  Blaise.  The  Saulx,  another  tributary  of  the  Marne 
on  the  right,  also  rises  in  Haute-Marne.  Westward  the  depart- 
ment is  watered  by  the  Aube  and  its  tributary  the  Aujon,  both 
of  which  have  their  sources  on  the  plateau  of  Langres.  The  Meuse 
also  rises  in  the  Monts  Faucilles,  and  has  a  course  of  31  m.  within 
the  department.  On  the  Mediterranean  side  the  department 
sends  to  the  Sa6ne  the  Apance,  the  Amance,  the  Salon  and  the 
Vingeanne.  The  climate  is  partly  that  of  the  Seine  region, 
partly  that  of  the  Vosges,  and  partly  that  of  the  Rhone;  the 
mean  temperature  is  51°  F.,  nearly  that  of  Paris;  the  rainfall 
is  slightly  below  the  average  for  France. 

The  agriculture  of  the  department  is  carried  on  chiefly  by 
small  proprietors.  The  chief  crops  are  wheat  and  oats,  which 
are  more  than  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  inhabitants;  potatoes, 
lucerne  and  mangel  wurzels  are  next  in  importance.  Natural 
pasture  is  abundant,  especially  in  Bassigny,  where  horse  and 
cattle-raising  flourish.  The  vineyards  produce  some  fair  wines, 
notably  the  white  wine  of  Soyers.  More  than  a  quarter  of  the 
territory  is  under  wood.  The  department  is  rich  in  iron  and 
building  and  other  varieties  of  stone  are  quarried.  The  warm 
springs  of  Bourbonne-les-Bains  are  among  the  earliest  known  and 
most  frequented  in  France.  The  leading  industry  is  the  metal- 
lurgical; its  establishments  include  blast  furnaces,  foundries, 
forges,  plate-rolling  works,  and  shops  for  nailmaking  and  smith's 
work  of  various  descriptions.  St  Dizier  is  the  chief  centre  of 
manufacture  and  distribution.  The  cutlery  trade  occupies 
thousands  of  hands  at  Nogent-en-Bassigny  and  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Langres.  Val  d'Osne  is  well  known  for  its  production 
of  fountains,  statues,  &c.,  in  metal-work.  Flour-milling,  glove- 
making  (at  Chaumont),  basket-making,  brewing,  tanning  and 
other  industries  are  also  carried  on.  The  principal  import  is 
coal,  while  manufactured  goods,  iron,  stone,  wood  and  cereals 
are  exported.  The  department  is  served  by  the  Eastern  railway, 
of  which  the  line  from  Paris  to  Belfort  passes  through  Chaumont 
and  Langres.  The  canal  from  the  Marne  to  the  Saone  and  the 
canal  of  the  Haute-Marne,  which  accompany  the  Marne,  together 
cover  99  m.;  there  is  a  canal  14  m.  long  from  St  Dizier  to  Wassy. 
There  are  three  arrondissements  (Chaumont,  Langres  and  Wassy) , 
with  28  cantons  and  550  communes.  Chaumont  is  the  capital. 
The  department  forms  the  diocese  of  Langres;  it  belongs  to  the 
VII.  military  region  and  to  the  educational  circumscription 
(academic)  of  Dijon,  where  also  is  its  court  of  appeal.  The 
principal  towns— Chaumont,  Langres,  St  Dizier  and  Bourbonne- 
les-Bains — receive  separate  notice.  At  Montier-en-Der  the 
remains  of  an  abbey  founded  in  the  7th  century  include  a  fine 
church  with  nave  and  aisles  of  the  roth,  and  choir  of  the  i3th 
century.  Wassy,  the  scene  in  1562  of  the  celebrated  massacre  of 
Protestants  by  the  troops  of  Francis,  duke  of  Guise,  has  among 
its  old  buildings  a  church  much  of  which  dates  from  the  Roman- 
esque period.  Vignory  has  a  church  of  the  nth  century.  Join- 
ville,  a  metallurgical  centre,  preserves  a  chateau  of  the  dukes  of 
Guise  in  the  Renaissance  style.  Pailly,  near  Langres,  has  a  fine 
chateau  of  the  last  half  of  the  i6th  century. 


HAUTERIVE,  ALEXANDRE  MAURICE  BLANC  DE 
LANAUTTE,  COMTE  D'  (1754-1830),  French  statesman  and 
diplomatist,  was  born  at  Aspres  (Hautes-Alpes)  on  the  i4th  of 
April  1754,  and  was  educated  at  Grenoble,  where  he  became  a 
professor.  Later  he  held  a  similar  position  at  Tours,  and  there 
he  attracted  the  attention  of  the  due  de  Choiseul,  who  invited 
him  to  visit  him  at  Chanteloup.  Hauterive  thus  came  in  contact 
with  the  great  men  who  visited  the  duke,  and  one  of  these,  the 
comte  de  Choiseul-Goiflier,  on  his  appointment  as  ambassador 
to  Constantinople  in  1784  took  him  with  him.  Hauterive  was 
enriched  for  a  time  by  his  marriage  with  a  widow,  Madame  de 
Marchais,  but  was  ruined  by  the  Revolution.  In  1790  he  applied 
for  and  received  the  post  of  consul  at  New  York.  Under  the 
Consulate,  however,  he  was  accused  of  embezzlement  and  re- 
called; and,  though  the  charge  was  proved  to  be  false,  was  not 
reinstated.  In  1798,  after  trying  his  hand  at  farming  in  America, 
Hauterive  was  appointed  to  a  post  in  the  French  foreign  office. 
In  this  capacity  he  made  a  sensation  by  his  L'£tal  de  la  France  a 
la  fin  de  I' an  VIII  (1800),  which  he  had  been  commissioned  by 
Bonaparte  to  draw  up,  as  a  manifesto  to  foreign  nations,  after 
the  coup  d'itat  of  the  i8th  Brumaire.  This  won  him  the  con- 
fidence of  Bonaparte,  and  he  was  henceforth  employed  in  drawing 
up  many  of  the  more  important  documents.  In  1805  he  was 
made  a  councillor  of  state  and  member  of  the  Legion  of  Honour, 
and  between  1805  and  1813  he  was  more  than  once  temporarily 
minister  of  foreign  affairs.  He  attempted,  though  vainly,  to  use 
his  influence  to  moderate  Napoleon's  policy,  especially  in  the 
matter  of  Spain  and  the  treatment  of  the  pope.  In  1805  a 
difference  of  opinion  with  Talleyrand  on  the  question  of  the 
Austrian  alliance,  which  Hauterive  favoured,  led  to  his  with- 
drawal from  the  political  side  of  the  ministry  of  foreign  affairs, 
and  he  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  archives  of  the  same  depart- 
ment. In  this  capacity  he  did  very  useful  work,  and  after  the 
Restoration  continued  in  this  post  at  the  request  of  the  due  de 
Richelieu,  his  work  being  recognized  by  his  election  as  a  member 
of  the  Academic  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles-Lettres  in  1820.  He 
died  at  Paris  on  the  28th  of  July  1830. 

There  is  a  detailed  account  of  Hauterive,  with  considerable  extracts 
from  his  correspondence  with  Talleyrand,  in  the  Biographie  universelle 
by  A.  F.  Artand  de  Montor,  who  published  a  separate  life  in  1831. 
Criticisms  of  his  Etat  de  la  France  appeared  in  Germany  and  England 
by  F.  von  Gentz  (Von  dem  politischen  Zustande,  1801).  and  by 
T.  B.  Clarke  (A  Hist,  and  Pol.  View  ...,  1803). 

HAUTES  ALPES,  a  department  in  S.E.  France,  formed  in 
1790  out  of  the  south-eastern  portion  of  the  old  province  of 
Dauphine,  together  with  a  small  part  of  N.  Provence.  It  is 
bounded  N.  by  the  department  of  Savoie,  E.  by  Italy  and  the 
department  of  the  Basses  Alpes,  S.  by  the  last-named  depart- 
ment and  that  of  the  Dr6me,  and  W.  by  the  departments  of  the 
Drome  and  of  the  Isere.  Its  area  is  2178  sq.  m.,  its  greatest 
length  is  85  m.  and  its  greatest  breadth  62  m.  It  is  very  moun- 
tainous, and  includes  the  Pointe  des  Ecrins  (13,462  ft.),  the 
loftiest  summit  in  France  before  the  annexation  of  Savoy  in 
1860,  as  well  as  the  Meije  (13,081  ft.),  the  Ailefroide  (12,989  ft.) 
and  the  Mont  Pelvoux  (12,973  ft.),  though  Monte  Viso  (12,609  &•) 
is  wholly  in  Italy,  rising  just  over  the  border.  The  department 
is  to  a  large  extent  made  up  of  the  basins  of  the  upper  Durance 
(with  its  tributaries,  the  Guisane,  the  Gyronde  and  the  Guil),  of 
the  upper  Drac  and  of  the  Bue'ch — all  being  to  a  very  large 
extent  wild  mountain  torrents  in  their  upper  course.  The  depart- 
ment is  divided  into  three  arrondissements  (Gap,  Briancon  and 
Embrun),  24  cantons  and  186  communes.  In  1906  its  population 
was  107,498.  It  is  a  very  poor  department  owing  to  its  great 
elevation  above  the  sea-level.  There  are  no  industries  of  any 
extent,  and  its  commerce  is  almost  wholly  of  local  importance. 
The  prolonged  winter  greatly  hinders  agricultural  development, 
while  the  pastoral  region  has  been  greatly  damaged  and  the 
forests  destroyed  by  the  ravages  of  the  Provencal  sheep,  vast 
flocks  of  which  are  driven  up  here  in  the  summer,  as  the  pastures 
are  leased  out  to  a  large  extent,  and  but  little  utilized  by  the 
inhabitants.  It  now  forms  the  diocese  of  Gap  (this  see  is  first 
certainly  mentioned  in  the  6th  century),  which  is  in  the  ecclesi- 
astical province  of  Aix  en  Provence;  in  1791  there  was  annexed 


74 


HAUTE-SAONE— HAUTES-PYRENEES 


to  it  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Embrun,  which  was  then  sup- 
pressed. There  are  114  m.  of  railway  in  the  department.  This 
includes  the  main  line  from  Briancon  past  Gap  towards  Grenoble. 
About  165  m.  W.  of  Gap  is  the  important  railway  junction  of 
Veynes,  whence  branch  off  the  lines  to  Grenoble,  to  Valence  by 
Die  and  Livron,  and  to  Sisteron  for  Marseilles.  The  chief  town 
is  Gap,  while  Briancon  and  Embrun  are  the  only  other  important 
places. 

See  J.  Roman,  Dictionnaire  lopographique  du  dep.  des  Htes-Alpes 
(Paris,  1884),  Tableau  historique  du  dep.  des  Htes-Alpes  (Paris,  1887- 
1890,  2  vols.'),  and  Repertoire  archeologique  du  dep.  des  Htes-Alpes 
(Paris,  1888);  J.  C.  F.  Ladoucette,  Histoire,  topographic,  &c.,  des 
Hautes-Alpes  (yd  ed.,  Paris,  1848).  (W.  A.  B.  C.) 

HAUTE-SAONE,  a  department  of  eastern  France,  formed  in 
1 790  from  the  northern  portion  of  Franche  Comte.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  river  Saone,  bounded  N.  by  the  department  of  the  Vosges, 
E.  by  the  territory  of  Belfort,  S.  by  Doubs  and  Jura,  and  W.  by 
Cote-d'Or  and  Haute-Marne.  Pop.  (1906),  263,890;  area,  2075 
sq.  m.  On  the  north-east,  where  they  are  formed  by  the  Vosges, 
and  to  the  south  along  the  course  of  the  Ognon  the  limits  are 
natural.  The  highest  point  of  the  department  is  the  Ballon  de 
Servance  (3970  ft.),  and  the  lowest  the  confluence  of  the  Saone 
and  Ognon  (610  ft.).  The  general  slope  is  from  north-east  to 
south-west,  the  direction  followed  by  those  two  streams.  In  the 
north-east  the  department  belongs  to  the  Vosgian  formation, 
consisting  of  forest-clad  mountains  of  sandstone  and  granite, 
and  is  of  a  marshy  nature;  but  throughout  the  greater  part  of  its 
extent  it  is  composed  of  limestone  plateaus  800  to  1000  ft.  high 
pierced  with  crevasses  and  subterranean  caves,  into  which  the 
rain  water  disappears  to  issue  again  as  springs  in  the  valleys  200 
ft.  lower  down.  In  its  passage  through  the  department  the 
Saone  receives  from  the  right  the  Amance  and  the  Salon  from  the 
Langres  plateau,  and  from  the  left  the  Coney,  the  Lanterne 
(augmented  by  the  Breuchin  which  passes  by  Luxeuil),  the 
Burgeon  (passing  Vesoul),  and  the  Ognon.  The  north-eastern 
districts  are  cold  and  have  an  annual  rainfall  ranging  from  36 
to  48  in.  Towards  the  south-west  the  climate  becomes  more 
temperate.  At  Vesoul  and  Gray  the  rainfall  only  reaches  24  in. 
per  annum. 

Haute-Saone  is  primarily  agricultural.  Of  its  total  area 
nearly  half  is  arable  land;  wheat,  oats,  meslin  and  rye  are  the 
chief  cereals  and  potatoes  are  largely  grown.  The  vine  flourishes 
mainly  in  the  arrondissement  of  Gray.  Apples,  plums  and 
cherries  (from  which  the  kirsch,  for  which  the  department  is 
famous,  is  distilled)  are  the  chief  fru'ts.  The  woods  which  cover 
a  quarter  of  the  department  are  composed  mainly  of  firs  in  the 
Vosges  and  of  oak,  beech,  hornbeam  and  aspen  in  the  other 
districts.  The  river-valleys  furnish  good  pasture  for  the  rearing 
of  horses  and  of  horned  cattle.  The  department  possesses  mines 
of  coal  (at  Ronchamp)  and  rock-salt  (at  Gouhenans)  and  stone 
quarries  are  worked.  Of  the  many  mineral  waters  of  Haute- 
Saone  the  best  known  are  the  hot  springs  of  Luxeuil  (q.v.). 
Besides  iron-working  establishments  (smelting furnaces,  foundries 
and  wire-drawing  mills) ,  Haute-Saone  possesses  copper-foundries, 
engineering  works,  steel-foundries  and  factories  at  Plancher-les- 
Mines  and  elsewhere  for  producing  ironmongery,  nails,  pins,  files, 
saws,  screws,  shot,  chains,  agricultural  implements,  locks,  spin- 
ning machinery,  edge  tools.  Window-glass  and  glass  wares, 
pottery  and  earthenware  are  manufactured;  there  are  also 
brick  and  tile-works.  The  spinning  and  weaving  of  cotton,  of 
which  Hericourt  (pop.  in  1906,  5194)  is  the  chief  centre,  stand 
next  in  importance  to  metal  working,  and  there  are  numerous 
paper-mills.  Print-works,  fulling  mills,  hosiery  factories  and 
straw-hat  factories  are  also  of  some  account;  as  well  as  sugar 
works,  distilleries,  dye-works,  saw-mills,  starch-works,  the 
chemical  works  at  Gouhenans,  oil-mills,  tanyards  and  flour- 
mills.  The  department  exports  wheat,  cattle,  cheese,  butter, 
iron,  wood,  pottery,  kirschwasser,  plaster,  leather,  glass,  &c. 
The  Saone  provides  a  navigable  channel  of  about  70  m.,  which 
is  connected  with  the  Moselle  and  the  Meuse  at  Corre  by  the 
Canal  de  1'Est  along  the  valley  of  the  Coney.  Gray  is  the  chief 
emporium  of  the  water-borne  trade  of  the  Saone.  Haute-Sa6ne 


is  served  chiefly  by  the  Eastern  railway.  There  are  three  arron- 
dissements — Vesoul,  Gray,  Lure — comprising  28  cantons,  583 
communes.  Haute-Saone  is  in  the  district  of  the  VII.  army 
corps,  and  in  its  legal,  ecclesiastical  and  educational  relations 
depends  on  Besancon. 

Vesoul,  the  capital  of  the  department,  Gray  and  Luxeuil  are 
the  principal  towns.  There  is  an  important  school  of  agri- 
culture at  St  Remy  in  the  arrondissement  of  Vesoul.  The' 
Roman  ruins  and  mosaics  at  Membrey  in  the  arrondissement 
of  Gray  and  the  church  (i3th  and  isth  centuries)  and  abbey 
buildings  at  Faverney,  in  the  arrondissement  of  Vesoul,  are  of 
antiquarian  interest. 

HAUTE-SAVOIE,  a  frontier  department  of  France,  formed 
in  1860  of  the  old  provinces  of  the  Genevois,  the  Chablais  and 
the  Faucigny,  which  constituted  the  northern  portion  of  the 
duchy  of  Savoy.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  the  canton  and  Lake  of 
Geneva,  E.  by  the  Swiss  canton  of  the  Valais,  S.  by  Italy  and  the 
department  of  Savoie,  and  W.  by  the  department  of  the  Ain.  It 
is  mainly  made  up  of  the  river-basins  of  the  Arve  (flowing  along 
the  northern  foot  of  the  Mont  Blanc  range,  and  receiving  the 
Giffre,  on  the  right,  and  the  Borne  and  Foron,  on  the  left — the 
Arve  joins  the  Rhone,  close  to  Geneva),  of  the  Dranse  (with 
several  branches,  all  flowing  into  the  Lake  of  Geneva),  of  the 
Usses  and  of  the  Fier  (both  flowing  direct  into  the  Rhone,  the 
latter  after  forming  the  Lake  of  Annecy) .  The  upper  course  of  the 
Arly  is  also  in  the  department,  but  the  river  then  leaves  it  to  fall 
into  the  Isere.  The  whole  of  the  department  is  mountainous. 
But  the  hills  attain  no  very  great  height,  save  at  its  south-east 
end,  where  rises  the  sncwclad  chain  of  Mont  Blanc,  with  many 
high  peaks  (culminating  in  Mont  Blanc,  15,782  ft.)  and  many 
glaciers.  That  portion  of  the  department  is  alone  frequented  by 
travellers,  whose  centre  is  Chamonix  in  the  upper  Arve  valley. 
The  lowest  point  (945  ft.)  in  the  department  is  at  the  junction  of 
the  Fier  with  the  Rhone.  The  whole  of  the  department  is 
included  in  that  portion  of  the  duchy  of  Savoy  which  was  neutral- 
ized in  1815.  In  1906  the  population  of  the  department  was 
260,617.  Its  area  is  1775  sq.  m.,  and  it  is  divided  into  four 
arrondissements  (Annecy,  the  chief  town,  Bonneville,  St  Julien 
and  Thonon),  28  cantons  and  314  communes.  It  forms  the 
diocese  of  Annecy.  There  are  in  the  department  176  m.  of 
broad-gauge  railways,  and  70  m.  of  narrow-gauge  lines. 
There  are  also  a  number  of  mineral  springs,  only  three  of 
which  are  known  to  foreigners — the  chalybeate  waters  of 
Evian  and  Amphion,  close  to  each  other  on  the  south  shore 
of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  and  the  chalybeate  and  sulphurous 
waters  of  St  Gervais,  at  the  north-west  end  of  the  chain  of  Mont 
Blanc.  Anthracite  and  asphalte  mines  are  numerous,  as  well  as 
stone  quarries.  Cotton  is  manufactured  at  Annecy,  while  Cluses 
is  the  centre  of  the  clock-making  industry.  There  is  a  well-known 
bell  foundry  at  Annecy  le  Vieux.  Thonon  (the  old  capital  of  the 
Chablais)  is  the  most  important  town  on  the  southern  shore  of  the 
Lake  of  Geneva  and,  after  Annecy,  the  most  populous  place  in 
the  department.  (W.  A.  B.  C.) 

HAUTES-PYRENEES,  a  department  of  south-western  France, 
on  the  Spanish  frontier,  formed  in  1790,  half  of  it  being  taken 
from  Bigorre  and  the  remainder  from  Armagnac,  Nebouzan, 
Astarac  and  Quatre  Vallees,  districts  which  all  belonged  to  the 
province  of  Gascony.  Pop.  (1906),  209,397.  Area,  1750  sq.  m. 
Hautes-Pyrenees  is  bounded  S.  by  Spain,  W.  by  the  department 
of  Basses-Pyrenees  (which  encloses  on  its  eastern  border  five 
communes  belonging  to  Hautes-Pyrenees),  N.  by  Gers  and  E. 
by  Haute-Garonne.  Except  on  the  south  its  boundaries  are 
conventional.  The  south  of  the  department,  comprising  two- 
thirds  of  its  area,  is  occupied  by  the  central  Pyrenees.  Some 
of  the  peaks  reach  or  exceed  the  height  of  10,000  ft.,  the  Vigne- 
male  (10,820  ft.)  being  the  highest  in  the  French  Pyrenees.  The 
imposing  cirques  (Cirques  de  Troumouse,  Gavarnie  and  Estaube), 
with  their  glaciers  and  waterfalls,  and  the  pleasant  valleys 
attract  a  large  number  of  tourists,  the  most  noted  point  being 
the  Cirque  de  Gavarnie.  The  northern  portion  of  the  depart- 
ment is  a  region  of  plains  and  undulating  hills  clothed  with  corn- 
fields, vineyards  and  meadows.  To  the  north-east,  however,  the 


HAUTE- VIENNE 


75 


cold  and  wind-swept  plateau  of  Lannemezan  (about  2000  ft.), 
the  watershed  of  the  streams  that  come  down  on  the  French  side 
of  the  Pyrenees,  presents  in  its  bleakness  and  barrenness  a 
striking  contrast  to  the  plain  that  lies  below.  The  department 
is  drained  by  three  principal  streams,  the  Gave  de  Pau,  the  Adour 
and  the  Neste,  an  affluent  of  the  Garonne.  The  sources  of  the 
first  and  third  lie  close  together  in  the  Cirque  of  Gavarnie  and 
on  the  slopes  of  Troumouse,  whence  they  flow  respectively  to 
the  north-west  and  north-east.  An  important  section  of  the 
Pyrenees,  which  carries  the  Massif  Neouvielle  and  the  Pic  du 
Midi  de  Bigorre  (with  its  meteorological  observatory),  runs 
northward  between  these  two  valleys.  From  the  Pic  du  Midi 
descends  the  Adour,  which,  after  watering  the  pleasant  valley 
of  Campan,  leaves  the  mountains  at  Bagneres  and  then  divides 
into  a  multitude  of  channels,  to  irrigate  the  rich  plain  of  Tarbes. 
The  chief  of  these  is  the  Canal  d'Alaric  with  a  length  of  36  m. 
Beyond  Hautes-Pyrenees  it  receives  on  the  right  the  Arros, 
which  flows  through  the  department  from  south  to  north-north- 
west; on  the  left  it  receives  the  Gave  de  Pau.  This  latter 
stream,  rising  in  Gavarnie,  is  joined  at  Luz  by  the  Gave  de 
Bastan  from  Neouvielle,  and  at  Pierrefitte  by  the  Gave  de 
Cauterets,  fed  by  streams  from  the  Vignemale.  The  Gavede  Pau, 
after  passing  Argeles,  a  well-known  centre  for  excursions,  and 
Lourdes,  leaves  the  mountains  and  turns  sharply  from  north 
to  west;  it  has  a  greater  volume  of  water  than  the  Adour,  but, 
being  more  of  a  mountain  torrent,  is  regarded  as  a  tributary 
of  the  Adour,  which  is  navigable  in  the  latter  part  of  its  course. 
The  Neste  d'Aure,  descending  from  the  peaks  of  Neouvielle 
and  Troumouse,  receives  at  Arreau  the  Neste  de  Louron  from 
the  pass  of  Clarabide  and  flows  northwards  through  a  beautiful 
valley  as  far  as  La  Barthe,  where  it  turns  east;  it  is  important 
as  furnishing  the  plateau  of  Lannemezan  with  a  canal,  the  Canal 
de  la  Neste,  the  waters  of  which  are  partly  used  for  irrigation 
and  partly  for  supplying  the  streams  that  rise  there  and  are  dried 
up  in  summer — the  Gers  and  the  Baise,  affluents  of  the  Garonne. 
This  latter  only  touches  the  department.  The  climate  of  Hautes- 
Pyrenees,  though  very  cold  on  the  highlands,  is  warm  and  moist 
in  the  plains,  where  there  are  hot  summers,  fine  autumns,  mild 
winters  and  rainy  springs.  On  the  plateau  of  Lannemezan, 
while  the  summers  are  dry  and  scorching,  the  winters  are  very 
severe.  The  average  annual  rainfall  at  Tarbes,  in  the  north  of 
the  department,  is  about  34  in.;  at  the  higher  altitudes  it  is 
much  greater.  The  mean  annual  temperature  at  Tarbes  is 
59°  Fahr. 

Hautes-Pyrenees  is  agricultural  in  the  plains,  pastoral  in  the 
highlands.  The  more  important  cereals  are  wheat  and  maize, 
which  is  much  used  for  the  feeding  of  pigs  and  poultry,  especially 
geese;  rye,  oats  and  barley  are  grown  in  the  mountain  districts. 
The  wines  of  Madiran  and  Peyriguere  are  well  known  and 
tobacco  is  also  cultivated;  chestnut  trees  and  fruit  trees  are 
grown  on  the  lower  slopes.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Tarbes  and 
Bagneres-de-Bigorre  horse-breeding  is  the  principal  occupation 
and  there  is  a  famous  stud  at  Tarbes.  The  horse  of  the  region 
is  the  result  of  a  fusion  of  Arab,  English  and  Navarrese  blood 
and  is  well  fitted  for  saddle  and  harness;  it  is  largely  used  by 
light  cavalry  regiments.  Cattle  raising  is  important;  the  milch- 
cows  of  Lourdes  and  the  oxen  of  Tarbes  and  the  valley  of  the 
Aure  are  highly  esteemed.  Sheep  and  goats  are  also  reared. 
The  forests,  which  occur  chiefly  in  the  highlands,  contain  bears, 
boars,  wolves  and  other  wild  animals.  There  are  at  Campan 
and  Sarrancolin  quarries  of  fine  marble,  which  is  sawn  and 
worked  at  Bagneres.  There  is  a  group  of  slate  quarries  at 
Labassere.  Deposits  of  lignite,  lead,  manganese  and  zinc  are 
found.  The  mineral  springs  of  Hautes-Pyrenees  are  numerous 
and  much  visited.  The  principal  in  the  valley  of  the  Gave  de 
Pau  are  Cauterets  (hot  springs  containing  sulphur  and  sodium), 
St  Sauveur  (springs  with  sulphur  and  sodium),  and  Bareges 
(hot  springs  with  sulphur  and  sodium),  and  in  the  valley  of  the 
Adour  Bagneres  (hot  or  cold  springs  containing  calcium  sulphates, 
iron,  sulphur  and  sodium)  and  Capvern  near  Lannemezan 
(springs  containing  calcium  sulphates). 

The  department  has  flour-mills  and  saw-mills,  a  large  military 


arsenal  at  Tarbes,  paper-mills,  tanneries  and  manufactories  of 
agricultural  implements  and  looms.  The  spinning  and  weaving 
of  wool  and  the  manufacture  of  knitted  goods  are  carried 
on;  Bagneres-de-Bigorre  is  the  chief  centre  of  the  textile 
industry. 

Of  the  passes  (ports)  into  Spain,  even  the  chief,  Gavarnie 
(7398  ft.),  is  not  accessible  to  carriages.  The  department  is 
served  by  the  Southern  railway  and  is  traversed  from  west  to 
east  by  the  main  line  from  Bayonne  to  Toulouse.  There  are 
three  arrondissements,  those  of  Tarbes,  Argeles  and  Bagneres- 
de-Bigorre,  26  cantons  and  480  communes.  Tarbes  is  the  capital 
of  Hautes-Pyrenees,  which  constitutes  the  diocese  of  Tarbes,  and 
is  attached  to  the  appeal  court  of  Pau;  it  forms  part  of  the  region 
of  the  XVHI.  army  corps.  In  educational  matters  it  falls  within 
the  circumscription  of  the  academic  of  Toulouse.  Tarbes, 
Lourdes,  Bagneres-de-Bigorre  and  Luz-St  Sauveur  are  the  prin- 
cipal towns.  St  Savin,  in  the  valley  of  the  Gave  de  Pau,  and 
Sarrancolin  have  interesting  Romanesque  churches.  The  church 
of  Maubourguet  built  by  the  Temolars  in  the  i2th  century  is  also 
remarkable. 

HAUTE-VIENNE,  a  department  of  central  France,  formed  in 
1790  of  Haut-Limousin  and  of  portions  of  Marche,  Poitou  and 
Berry.  Pop.  (1906),  385,732.  Area,  2144  sq.  m.  It  is  bounded 
N.  by  Indre,  E.  by  Creuse,  S.E.  by  Correze,  S.W.  by  Dordogne, 
W.  by  Charente  and  N.W.  by  Vienne.  Haute- Vienne  belongs 
to  the  central  plateau  of  France,  and  drains  partly  to  the  Loire 
and  partly  to  the  Garonne.  The  highest  altitude  (2549  ft.)  is 
in  the  extreme  south-east,  and  belongs  to  the  treeless  but  well- 
watered  plateau  of  Millevaches,  formed  of  granite,  gneiss  and 
mica.  From  that  point  the  department  slopes  towards  the  west, 
south-west  and  north.  To  the  north-west  of  the  Millevaches 
are  the  Ambazac  and  Blond  Hills,  both  separating  the  valley 
of  the  Vienne  from  that  of  the  Gartempe,  a  tributary  of  the 
Creuse.  The  Vienne  traverses  the  department  from  east  to 
west,  passing  Eymoutiers,  St  Leonard,  Limoges  and  St  Junien, 
and  receiving  on  the  right  the  Maude  and  the  Taurion.  The  Isle, 
which  flows  into  the  Dordogne,  with  its  tributaries  the  Auvezere 
and  the  Dronne,  and  the  Tardoire  and  the  Bandiat,  tributaries 
of  the  Charente,  all  rise  in  the  south  of  the  department.  The 
altitude  and  inland  position  of  Haute-Vienne,  its  geological 
character,  and  the  northern  exposure  of  its  valleys  make  the 
winters  long  and  severe;  but  the  climate  is  milder  in  the  west 
and  north-west.  The  annual  rainfall  often  reaches  36  or  37  in. 
and  even  more  in  the  mountains.  Haute-Vienne  is  on  the  whole 
unproductive.  Rye,  wheat,  buckwheat  and  oats  are  the  cereals 
most  grown,  but  the  chestnut,  which  is  a  characteristic  product 
of  the  department,  still  forms  the  staple  food  of  large  numbers 
of  the  population.  Potatoes,  mangolds,  hemp  and  colza  are 
cultivated.  After  the  chestnut,  walnuts  and  cider-apples  are 
the  principal  fruits.  Good  breeds  of  horned  cattle  and  sheep  are 
reared  and  find  a  ready  market  in  Paris.  Horses  for  remount 
purposes  are  also  raised.  The  quarries  furnish  granite  and  large 
quantities  of  kaolin,  which  is  both  exported  and  used  in  the 
porcelain  works  of  the  department.  Amianthus,  emeralds  and 
garnets  are  found.  Limoges  is  the  centre  of  the  porcelain  industry 
and  has  important  liqueur  distilleries.  Woollen  goods,  starch, 
paper  and  pasteboard,  wooden  and  leather  shoes,  gloves,  agri- 
cultural implements  and  hats  are  other  industrial  products, 
and  there  are  flour-mills,  breweries,  dye-<works,  tanneries,  iron 
foundries  and  printing  works.  Wine  and  alcohol  for  the  liqueur- 
manufacture,  coal,  raw  materials  for  textile  industries, 
hops,  skins  and  various  manufactured  articles  are  among  the 
imports. 

The  department  is  served  almost  entirely  by  the  Orleans 
Railway.  It  is  divided  into  the  arrondissements  of  Limoges, 
Bellac,  Rochechouart  and  St  Yrieix  (29  cantons  and  205  com- 
munes), and  belongs  to  the  academic  (educational  division)  of 
Poitiers  and  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Bourges.  Limoges, 
the  capital,  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  and  of  a  court  of  appeal, 
and  is  the  headquarters  of  the  XII.  army  corps.  The  other  prin- 
cipal towns  are  St  Yrieix  and  St  Junien.  Solignac,  St  Leonard 
and  Le  Dorat  have  fine  Romanesque  churches.  The  remains 


76 


HAUT-RHIN— HAVANA 


of  the  chateau  of  Chalusset  (S.S.E.  of  Limoges) ,  the  most  remark- 
able feudal  ruins  in  Limousin,  and  the  chateau  of  Rochechouart, 
which  dates  from  the  I3th,  isth  and  i6th  centuries,  are  also  of 
interest. 

HAUT-RHIN,  before  1871  a  department  of  eastern  France, 
formed  in  1790  from  the  southern  portion  of  Alsace.  The 
name  "  Haut-Rhin  "  is  sometimes  used  of  the  territory  of 
Belfort  (?.».). 

HAUY,  REN&  JUST  (1743-1822),  French  mineralogist, 
commonly  styled  the  Abbe  Haiiy,  from  being  an  honorary 
canon  of  Notre  Dame,  was  born  at  St  Just,  in  the  department 
of  Oise,  on  the  28th  of  February  1743.  His  parents  were  in 
a  humble  rank  of  life,  and  were  only  enabled  by  the  kindness  of 
friends  to  send  their  son  to  the  college  of  Navarre  and  afterwards 
to  that  of  Lemoine.  Becoming  one  of  the  teachers  at  the 
latter,  he  began  to  devote  his  leisure  hours  to  the  study  of  botany ; 
but  an  accident  directed  his  attention  to  another  field  in  natural 
history.  Happening  to  let  fall  a  specimen  of  calcareous  spar 
belonging  to  a  friend,  he  was  led  by  examination  of  the  fragments 
to  make  experiments  which  resulted  in  the  statement  of  the 
geometrical  law  of  crystallization  associated  with  his  name 
(see  CRYSTALLOGRAPHY).  The  value  of  this  discovery,  the 
mathematical  theory  of  which  is  given  by  Haiiy  in  his  Traite 
de  mineralogie,  was  immediately  recognized,  and  when  communi- 
cated to  the  Academy,  it  secured  for  its  author  a  place  in  that 
society.  Haiiy's  name  is  also  known  for  the  observations  he 
made  in  pyro-electricity.  When  the  Revolution  broke  out,  he 
was  thrown  into  prison,  and  his  life  was  even  in  danger,  when 
he  was  saved  by  the  intercession  of  E.  Geoffrey  Saint-Hilaire. 
In  1802,  under  Napoleon,  he  became  professor  of  mineralogy 
at  the  museum  of  natural  history,  but  after  1814  he  was  deprived 
of  his  appointments  by  the  government  of  the  Restoration. 
His  latter  days  were  consequently  clouded  by  poverty,  but  the 
courage  and  high  moral  qualities  which  had  helped  him  forward 
in  his  youth  did  not  desert  him  in  his  old  age;  and  he  lived 
cheerful  and  respected  till  his  death  at  Paris  on  the  3rd  of  June 
1822. 

The  following  are  his  principal  works:  Essai  d'une  theorie  sur 
la  structure  des  cristaux  (1784);  Exposition  raisonnee  de  la  theorie 
de  I'eleclricM  et  du  magnetisme,  d'apres  les  principes  d'Aepinus 
(1787);  De  la  structure  consideree  comme  caractere  distinctif  des 
mineraux  (1793);  Exposition  abregee  de  la  theorie  de  la  structure 
des  cristaux  (1793);  Extrait  d'un  traite  elementaire  de  mineralogie 
(1797);  Traite  de  mineralogit  (4  vols.,  1801);  Traite  elementaire 
de  physique  (2  vols.,  1803,  1806);  Tableau  comparatif  des  resultats 
de  la  cristallographie,  et  de  I'analyse  chimique  relativement  &  la 
classification  des  mineraux  (1809);  Trnite  des  pierres  precieuses 
(1817);  Traite  de  cristallographie  (2  vols.,  1822).  He  also  contri- 
buted papers,  of  which  loo  are  enumerated  in  the  Royal  Society's 
catalogue,  to  various  scientific  journals,  especially  the  Journal  de 
physique  and  the  Annals  du  Museum  d'Histoire  Naturelle. 

HAVANA  (the  name  is  of  aboriginal  origin;  Span.  Habana 
or,  more  fully,  San  Cristobal  de  la  Habana),  the  capital  of  Cuba, 
the  largest  city  of  the  West  Indies,  and  one  of  the  principal 
seats  of  commerce  in  the  New  World,  situated  on  the  northern 
coast  of  the  island  in  23°  9'  N.  lat.  and  82°  22'  W.  long.  Pop. 
(1899),  235,981 ;  (1907),  297,159.  The  city  occupies  a  peninsula 
to  the  W.  of  the  harbour,  between  its  waters  and  those  of  the 
sea.  Several  small  streams,  of  which  the  Almendares  river  is 
the  largest,  empty  into  the  harbour.  The  pouch-shaped,  land- 
locked bay  is  spacious  and  easy  of  access.  Large  merchantmen 
and  men-of-war  can  come  up  and  unload  along  at  least  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  water-front.  The  entrance,  which  is  encumbered 
by  neither  bar  nor  rock,  averages  about  260  yds.  in  width  and 
is  about  1400  yds.  long.  Within,  the  bay  breaks  up  into  three 
distinct  arms,  Marimalena  or  Regla  Bay,  Guanabacoa  Bay 
and  the  Bay  of  Atares.  On  the  left  hand  of  the  entrance  stands 
the  lofty  lighthouse  tower  of  the  Morro.  The  sewage  of  the 
city  and  other  impurities  were  for  centuries  allowed  to  pollute 
the  bay,  but  the  extent  to  which  the  harbour  was  thereby  filled 
up  has  been  exaggerated.  Though  certainly  very  much  smaller 
than  it  once  was,  there  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether 
the  harbour  has  grown  smaller  since  the  end  of  the  i8th  century. 

From  the  sea  the  city  presents  a  picturesque  appearance. 


The  Havana  side  of  the  bay  has  a  sea-wall  and  an  excellent 
drive.  The  city  walls,  begun  in  1671  and  completed  about  1740, 
were  almost  entirely  demolished  between  1863  and  1880,  only 
a  few  insignificant  remnants  having  survived  the  American 
military  occupation  of  1899-1902;  but  it  is  still  usual  to  speak 
of  the  "  intramural  "  and  the  "  extramural  "  city.  The  former, 
the  old  city,  lying  close  to  the  harbour  front,  has  streets  as 
narrow  as  is  consistent  with  wheel  traffic.  Obispo  (Pi  y  Margali 
in  the  new  republican  nomenclature),  O'Reilly  and  San  Rafael 
are  the  finest  retail  business  streets,  and  the  Prado  and  the 
Cerro  the  handsomest  residential  streets  in  the  city  proper. 
The  new  city,  including  the  suburbs  to  the  W.  overlooking  the 
sea,  has  been  laid  out  on  a  somewhat  more  spacious  plan,  with 
isolated  dwellings  and  wide  thoroughfares,  some  planted  with 
trees.  Most  of  the  houses,  and  especially  those  of  the  planter 
aristocracy,  are  massively  built  of  stone,  with  large  grated 
windows,  flat  roofs  with  heavy  parapets  and  inner  courts.  As 
the  erection  of  wooden  buildings  was  illegal  long  after  1772, 
it  is  only  in  the  suburban  districts  that  they  are  to  be  seen. 
The  limestone  which  underlies  almost  all  the  island  affords 
excellent  building  stone.  The  poorer  houses  are  built  of  brick 
with  plaster  fronts.  Three-fourths  of  all  the  buildings  of  the 
city  are  of  one  very  high  storey;  there  are  but  a  few  dozen 
buildings  as  high  as  four  storeys.  Under  Spanish  rule,  Havana 
was  reputed  to  be  a  city  of  noises  and  smells.  There  was  no 
satisfactory  cleaning  of  the  streets  or  draining  of  the  sub-soil, 
and  the  harbour  was  rendered  visibly  foul  by  the  impurities 
of  the  town.  A  revolution  was  worked  in  this  respect  during 
the  United  States  military  occupation  of  the  city,  and  the 
republic  continued  the  work. 

Climate. — The  general  characteristics  of  the  climate  of  Havana  are 
described  in  the  article  CUBA.  A  temperature  as  low  as  40°  F.  is 
extraordinary;  and  freezing  point  is  only  reached  on  extremely 
rare  occasions,  such  as  during  hurricanes  or  electric  storms.  The 
mean  annual  temperature  is  about  25-7°  C.  (78°  F.);  that  of  the 
hottest  month  is  about  28-8°  C.  (84°  F.),  and  that  of  the  coldest, 
2 1  °  C.  (70°  F.).  The  means  of  the  four  seasons  are  approximately — 
for  December,  January,  February  and  successive  quarters — 23°, 
27°,  28°  and  26*  C.  (73-4°,  80-6°,  82-4°  and  78-8°  F.).  The  mean 
relative  humidity  is  between  75  and  80  for  all  seasons  save  spring, 
when  it  is  least  and  may  be  from  65  upward.  A  difference  of  30°  C. 
(54°  F.)  at  mid-day  in  the  temperature  of  two  spots  close  together, 
one  in  sun  and  one  in  shade,  is  not  unusual.  The  daily  variation  of 
temperature  is  also  considerable.  The  depressing  effect  of  the  heat 
and  humidity  is  greatly  relieved  by  afternoon  breezes  from  the  sea, 
and  the  nights  are  invariably  comfortable  and  generally  cool. 

Defences. — The  principal  defences  of  Havana  under  Spanish  rule, 
when  the  city  was  maintained  as  a  military  stronghold  of  the  first 
rank,  were  (to  use  the  original  and  unabbreviated  form  of  the  names) 
the  Castillo  de  San  Salvador  de  la  Punta,  to  the  W.  of  the  harbour 
entrance;  the  Castillo  de  Los  Tres  Reyes  del  Morro  and  San  Carlos 
de  la  Cabana,  to  the  E. ;  the  Santo  Domingo  de  Alarms,  at  the 
head  of  the  western  arm  of  the  bay,  commanding  the  city  and  its 
vicinity;  and  the  Castillo  del  Principe  (1767-1780),  situated  inland 
on  an  eminence  to  the  W.  El  Morro,  as  it  is  popularly  called,  was 
first  erected  in  1590-1640,  and  La  Punta,  a  much  smaller  fort,  is  of 
the  same  period;  both  were  reconstructed  after  the  evacuation  of 
the  citybythe  English  in  1763, from  which  time  also  date  the  castles 
of  Principe,  Atares  and  tlje  Cabana.  The  Cabana,  which  alone 
can  accommodate  some  6000  men,  fronts  the  bay  for  a  distance  of 
more  than  800  yds.,  and  was  long  supposed,  at  least  by  Spaniards, 
to  be  the  strongest  fortress  of  America.  Here  is  the  "  laurel 
ditch  "  or  "  dead-line  " — commemorated  by  a  handsome  bronze 
relief  set  in  the  wall  of  the  fortress— where  scores  of  Cuban  patriots 
were  shot.  To  the  E.  and  W.  inland  are  several  small  forts.  The 
military  establishment  of  the  republic  is  very  small. 

Churches. — Of  the  many  old  churches  in  the  city,  the  most  note- 
worthy is  the  cathedral.  The  original  building  was  abandoned 
in  1762.  The  present  one,  originally  the  church  of  the  Jesuits,  was 
erected  in  1656-1724.  The  interior  decoration  dates  largely  from 
the  last  decade  of  the  i8th  century  and  the  first  two  decades  of  the 
igth.  In  the  wall  of  the  chancel,  a  medallion  and  inscription  long 
distinguished  the  tomb  of  Columbus,  whose  remains  ware  removed 
hither  from  Santo  Domingo  in  1796.  In  1898  they  were  taken  to 
Spain.  Mention  may  also  be  made  of  the  churches  of  Santo  Domingo 
(begun  in  1578),  Santa  Catalina  (1700),  San  Agustin  (1608),  Santa 
Clara  (1644),  La  Merced  (1744,  with  a  collection  of  oil  paintings) 
and  San  Felipe  (1693).  Monasteries  and  nunneries  were  very 
numerous  until  the  suppression  of  the  religious  orders  in  1842, 
when  many  became  simple  churches.  Some  of  the  convents  were 
successful  in  conserving  their  wealth.  The  former  monastery  of  the 
Jesuits,  now  the  Jesuit  church  of  Bel6n  (1704),  at  the  corner  of  Luz 


HAVANA 


77 


and  Compostela  Streets,  is  one  of  the  most  elegant  and  richly 
ornamented  in  Cuba. 

Public  Buildings. — The  Palace,  which  served  as  a  residence  for  the 
captains-general  during  the  Spanish  rule,  is  the  home  of  the  city 
government  and  the  residence  of  the  president  of  the  republic.  It 
is  a  large  and  handsome  stone  structure  (tinted  in  white  and  yellow), 
and  stands  on  the  site  of  the  original  parish  church,  facing  the  Plaza 
de  Armas  from  the  east.  It  was  erected  in  1773-1792  and  radically 
altered  in  1835  and  1851.  A  large  municipal  gaol  (1834-1837), 
capable  of  receiving  500  inmates,  with  barracks  for  a  regiment,  is  a 
striking  object  on  the  Prado.  The  Castillo  del  Principe  now  serves 
as  the  state  penitentiary.  Among  other  public  buildings  are, the 
exchange  (El  Muelle),  the  custom-house  (formerly  the  church  of  San 
Francisco;  begun  about  1575,  rebuilt  in  1731-1737),  and  the 
Maestranza  (c.  1723),  once  the  navy  yard  and  the  headquarters  of 
the  artillery  and  now  the  home  of  the  national  library.  All  these 
are  in  the  old  city.  Some  of  the  older  structures — notably  the 
church  of  Santo  Domingo  and  the  Maestranza — are  built  of  grey 
limestone.  In  the  old  city  also  are  the  Plaza  Vieja,  dating  from  the 
middle  of  the  i6th  century  (with  the  modern  Mercado  de  Cristina, 
of  1837— destroyed  1908),  the  old  stronghold  La  Fuerza,  erected  by 
Hernando  de  Soto  in  1538,  once  the  treasury  of  the  flotas  and 
galleons,  and  residence  of  the  governors,  with  its  old  watch-tower 
(La  Vigia);  and  the  Plaza  de  Armas,  with  the  palace,  the  Senate 
building,  a  statue  of  Fernando  VII.  (1833),  and  a  commemorative 
chapel  (El  Templete,  1828)  to  mark  the  supposed  spot  where  mass 
was  first  said  at  the  establishment  of  the  city.  Mention  must  be 
made  of  the  large  and  interesting  markets,  especially  those  of 
Colon  and  Tacon.  Of  the  theatres,  which  until  the  end  of  the 
Spanish  period  had  to  compete  with  the  bull-ring  and  the  cock- 
pit, the  most  important  is  the  Tacon  (now  "  Nacional  ")  erected 
in  1838. 

Havana  is  famous  for  its  promenades,  drives  and  public  gardens. 
On  the  city's  E.  harbour  front  runs  the  Paseo  (Alameda)  de  Paula 
(1772-1775,  improved  1844-1845),  an  embanked  drive,  continued 
by  the  Paseo  de  Rocali  and  the  Cortina  de  Valdes,  with  fine  views 
of  the  forts  and  the  harbour.  On  the  N.,  along  the  sea,  beginning 
at  the  Punta  fortress  and  running  W.  for  several  miles  along  the  sea- 
wall, is  a  speedway  and  pleasure-drive,  known — from  the  wall — 
as  the  Malecon.  Beginning  at  the  Punta  fortress — where  a  park 
was  laid  out  in  1899  in  the  place  of  an  ugly  quarter,  with  a  memorial 
to  the  students  judicially  murdered  by  the  Spanish  volunteers  in 
1871 — and  running  along  the  line  of  the  former  city  walls,  past  the 
Parque  Central,  through  the  Parque  de  Isabel  II.  and  the  Parque  de 
la  India  (these  two  names  are  now  practically  abandoned)  to  the 
Parque  de  Colon  or  Campo  de  Marte,  is  the  Prado,1  a  wide  and  hand- 
some -promenade  and  drive,  shaded  with  laurels  and  lined  with  fine 
houses  and  clubs.  In  1907  a  hurricane  destroyed  the  greater  part  of 
the  laurels  of  the  Prado  and  the  roVal  palms  of  the  Parque  de  Colon. 
Central  Park  is  surrounded  by  hotels,  theatres,  caf6s  and  clubs, 
the  last  including  the  Centro  Asturiano  and  Casino  Espanol.  In  the 
centre  is  a  monument  to  Jos6  Marti  (1853-1895),  "  the  apostle  of 
independence,"  and  in  an  adjoining  square  is  the  city's  fine  monu- 
ment to  the  Cuban  engineer  Francisco  de  Albear,  to  whom  she  owes 
her  water  system.  From  the  Parque  de  Colon  the  Calle  (or  Calzada) 
de  la  Reina — an  ordinary,  business  street,  once  a  promenade  and 
known  as  the  Alameda  de  Isabel  1 1 . — with  its  continuations,  the  Paseo 
de  Carlos  III.  and  Paseo  de  Tacon,  runs  westward  through  the  city 
past  the  botanical  gardens  and  the  Quinta  de  los  Molinos  to  the 
citadel  of  El  Principe  (1774-1794).  A  statue  of  Charles  III.  by 
Canova  (1803),  fountains,  pavilions  and  four  rows  of  trees  adorn  the 
PaseodeCarlos  III.  Thegardcns  of  Los  Molinos,  where  the  captains- 
general  formerly  maintained  their  summer  residence,  and  the  ad- 
joining botanical  gardens  of  the  university,  contain  beautiful 
avenues  of  palm  trees.  Near  El  Principe  is  the  Columbus  cemetery, 
with  a  fine  gateway,  a  handsome  monument  (1888)  to  the  students 
shot  in  1871,  and  another  (1897;  75  ft.  high)  to  the  firemen  lost  in  a 
great  fire  in  1890,  besides  many  smaller  memorials.  The  Calzada 
de  la  Infanta  is  a  fine  street  at  the  W.  end  of  the  new  city;  the 
Cerro,  in  the  S.W.,  is  lined  with  massive  residences,  once  the  homes 
of  Cuban  aristocracy. 

Suburbs. — In  the  coral  rock  of  the  coast  sea-baths  are  excavated, 
so  that  bathers  may  run  no  risk  from  sharks.  On  the  S.  and  W.  the 
city  is  backed  by  an  amphitheatre  of  hills,  which  are  crowned  in 
the  W.  by  the  conspicuous  fortifications  of  Castillo  del  Principe. 
On  the  lower  heights  near  the  city  lie  Vedado,  Jesus  del  Monte, 
Luyano  and  other  healthy  suburbs.  Chorrera,  Puentes  Grandes, 
Marianao  (founded  1830;  pop.  1907,  9332)  and  Guanabacoa  (with 
mineral  springs),  are  attractive  places  of  resort.  Regla,  just  across 
the  bay  (now  part  of  the  municipio),  has  large  business  interests. 

Chanties  and  Education. — Among  the  numerous  charitable  in- 
stitutions the  most  important  hospital  is  the  Casa  de  Beneficencia 
y  Maternidad  (Charity  and  Maternity  Asylum),  opened  in  1794,  and 
containing  an  orphan  asylum,  a  maternity  ward,  a  home  for  vagrants, 
a  lunatic  asylum  and  an  infirmary.  There  is  also  in  the  city  an 
immense  lazaretto  for  lepers.  The  Centro  Asturiano,  a  club  with  a 
membership  of  some  ten  or  fifteen  thousand  (not  limited  to  Asturians), 


1  Renamed  Paseo  de  Marti  by  the  republic,  but  the  name  is  never 
used. 


maintains  for  the  benefit  of  its  members  a  large  and  well-managed 
sanatorium  in  spacious  grounds  in  the  midst  of  the  city. 

Of  the  schools  of  the  city  the  most  noteworthy  is  the  university 
(581  regular  students,  1907),  founded  in  1728.  Its  quarters  were  in 
the  old  convent  of  Santo  Domingo  until  1900,  when  the  American 
military  government  prepared  better  quarters  for  it  in  the  former 
Pirotecnica  Militar,  near  El  Principe.  There  are  various  laboratories 
in  the  city.  Other  schools  are  the  provincial  Institute  of  Secondary 
Education  (490  regular  students  in  1907;  library  of  12,863  vols.), 
a  provincial  school  of  arts  and  trades  (opened  1882),  a  theological 
seminary,  a  boys'  technical  school,  a  school  of  painting  and  sculpture, 
a  conservatory  of  music,  normal  school,  mercantile  school  and  a 
military  academy.  The  Jesuit  church  (Bel6n)  has  a  large  college 
for  boys,  laboratories,  an  observatory,  a  museum  of  natural  history, 
and  an  historical  library.  Great  progress  has  been  made  in  educa- 
tion, which  was  extremely  backward  until  after  the  end  of  Spanish 
rule.  The  Sociedad  Economica  de  Amigos  del  Pais,  established  in 
1792,  has  always  had  considerable  influence.  It  has  a  library  of 
some  42,000  volumes,  rich  in  material  for  Cuban  history.  Among 
other  similar  organizations  are  an  Academy  of  Medical,  Physical 
and  Natural  Sciences  (1863);  a  national  library,  established  in  1901, 
and  having  in  1908  about  40,000  volumes,  including  the  finest 
collection  in  the  world  of  materials  for  Cuban  history;  an  anthropo- 
logical society;  various  medical  societies;  and  a  Bar  association. 
An  association  of  sugar  planters  is  a  very  important  factor  in  the 
economic  development  of  the  island. 

Of  the  newspapers  of  Havana  the  most  notable  is  the  El  Diario 
de  la  Marina  (established  in  1838;  under  its  present  name,  1844; 
morning  and  evening),  which  was  almost  from  its  foundation  an 
official  organ  of  the  Spanish  government,  and  generally  the  mouth- 
piece of  the  most  intransigent  peninsular  opinion  in  all  that  con- 
cerned the  politics  of  the  island.  El  Ansador  Cpmercial  (1868; 
evening)  is  devoted  almost  exclusively  to  commercial  and  financial 
news.  Of  the  other  newspapers  the  leading  ones  in  1909  were 
La  Discusion  (1888;  evening),  La  Lucha  (1884;  evening)  and  El 
Mundo  (1902;  morning). 

Trade.— Havana  commands  the  wholesale  trade  of  all  the  western 
half  of  the  island,  and  is  the  centre  of  commercial  and  banking 
interests.  Its  foreign  trade  in  the  five  calendar  years  1902-1906 
(average  imports  $57,201,276;  exports,  $40,563,637)  amounted  to 
68-9%  of  the  imports  and  44-6%  of  the  exports  of  the  island. 
The  average  number  of  vessels  entering  the  port  annually  in  the  ten 
years  from  1864  to  1873  was  1981  (771,196  tons),  and  the  average 
entries  in  the  five  years  1902-1906  were  3698  of  3,904,906  gross  tons 
(coast  trade  alone,  2162  of  333,795  tons). 

In  spite  of  high  tariffs  and  civil  wars,  and  the  competition  of 
Matanzas,  Cardenas,  Cienfuegos  and  other  Cuban  ports  opened  to 
foreign  trade  in  modern  times,  the  commerce  of  Havana  has  steadily 
increased.  The  chief  foreign  customers  are  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States.  The  two  staple  articles  of  export  are  sugar  and 
tobacco-wares.  Other  exports  of  importance  are  rum,  wax  and 
honey;  and  of  less  primary  importance,  fruits,  fine  cabinet  woods, 
oils  and  starch.  The  leading  imports  are  grains,  flour,  lard  and 
various  other  foodstuffs,  coal,  lumber,  petroleum  and  machinery, 
all  mainly  from  the  United  States;  wines  and  olive  oil  from  Spain; 
jerked  beef  from  South  America;  fabrics  and  other  staples  from 
varied  sources.  Rice  is  a  principal  food  of  the  people;  it  was 
formerly  taken  from  the  East  Indies,  but  is  now  mostly  raised  in  the 
island. 

The  chief  manufacturing  industry  of  Havana  is  that  of  tobacco. 
Of  the  cigar  factories,  some  of  which  are  in  former  public  and  private 
palaces,  more  than  a  hundred  may  be  reckoned  as  of  the  first  class. 
Besides  the  making  of  boxes  and  barrels  and  other  articles  necessarily 
involved  in  its  sugar  and  tobacco  trade,  Havana  also,  to  some  extent, 
builds  carriages  and  small  ships,  and  manufactures  iron  and 
machinery;  but  the  weight  of  taxation  during  the  Spanish  period 
was  always  a  heavy  deterrent  on  the  development  of  any  business 
requiring  great  capital.  There  are  minor  manufacturing  interests  in 
tanneries,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  sweetmeats,  malt  and  distilled 
liquors,  especially  rum,  besides  soaps,  candles,  starch,  perfume,  &c. 
There  is  one  large  and  complete  petroleum  refinery  (1905). 

Havana  has  frequent  steam-boat  communication  with  New  York, 
Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  Tampa,  Mobile,  New  Orleans  and  other 
ports  of  the  United  States;  and  about  as  frequent  with  several 
ports  in  England,  Spain  and  France.  It  is  the  starting-point  of  a 
railway  system  which  reaches  the  six  provincial  capitals  between 
Pinar  del  Rio  and  Santiago,  Cardenas,  Cienfuegos  and  other  ports. 
Telegraphs  radiate  to  all  parts  of  the  island;  a  submarine  cable  to 
Key  West  forms  part  of  the  line  of  communication  between  Colon 
and  New  York,  and  by  other  cables  the  island  has  connexion  with 
various  parts  of  the  West  Indies  and  with  South  America. 

Population  and  Health. — The  population  of  Havana  was  reported 
as  51,307  in  1791;  96,304  in  1811;  94,023  in  1817;  184,508  in  1841. 
In  1899  the  American  census  showed  235,981,  of  whom  about  25% 
were  foreign  (20  %  Spanish);  and  the  census  of  1907  showed 
297,159  (not  including  the  attached  country  districts)  and  302,526 
(including  these  country  districts),  the  last  being  for  the"  municipio  " 
of  Havana.  The  industrial  population  is  very  densely  crowded. 
Owing  to  this,  as  well  as  to  the  entire  lack  of  proper  sanitary  customs 
among  the  people,  the  horrible  condition  of  sewerage  and  the 


78 


HAVANT 


prevalence  of  yellow  fever  (first  brought  to  Havana,  it  is  thought,  in 
1761,  from  Vera  Cruz),  the  reputation  of  the  city  as  regards  health 
was  long  very  bad.  The  practical  extermination  of  yellow  fever 
•during  the  U.S.  military  occupation  following  1899  was  a  remarkable 
achievement.  In  1895-1899,  owing  to  the  war,  there  were  few 
non-immune  persons  in  the  city,  and  there  was  no  trouble  with 
the  fever,  but  from  the  autumn  of  1899  a  heavy  immigration  from 
Spain  began.and  a  fever  epidemic  was  raging  in  1900.  TheAmerican 
military  authorities  found  that  the  most  extraordinary  measures  for 
cleansing  the  city — involving  repeated  house-to-house  inspection, 
enforced  cleanliness,  improved  drainage  and  sewerage,  the  destruc- 
tion of  various  public  buildings,  and  thorough  cleansing  of  the  streets 
• — although  decidedly  effective  in  reducing  the  general  death-rate 
of  the  city  (average,  1890-1899,  45-83;  1900,  24-40;  1901,  22-11; 
1902,  20-63;  general  death-rate  of  U.S.  soldiers  in  1898,  67-94;  'n 
1901-1902,  7-00),  apparently  did  not  affect  yellow  fever  at  all. 
In  1900-1901  Major  Walter  Reed  (1851-1902),  a  surgeon  in  the 
United  States  army,  proved  by  experiments  on  voluntary  human 
subjects  that  the  infection  was  spread  by  the  Stegomyia  mosquito,1 
and  the  prevention  of  the  disease  was  then  undertaken  by  Major 
William  C.  Gorgas — all  patients  being  screened  and  mosquitoes 
practically  exterminated.2  The  number  of  subsequent  deaths  from 
yellow  fever  has  depended  solely  on  the  degree  to  which  the  necessary 
precautionary  measures  were  taken. 

The  entire  administrative  system  of  the  island,  when  a  Spanish 
colony,  was  centred  at  Havana.  Under  the  republic  this  remains 
the  capital  and  the  residence  of  the  president,  the  supreme  court, 
Congress  when  in  session  and  the  chief  administrative  officers. 
None  of  the  public  services  was  good  in  the  Spanish  period,  except 
the  water-supply,  which  was  excellent.  The  water  is  derived  from 
the  Vento  springs,  9  m.  from  Havana,  and  is  conducted  through 
aqueducts  constructed  between  1859  and  1894  at  a  cost  of  some 
$5,000,000.  About  40,000,000  gallons  are  supplied  daily.  The 
system  is  owned  by  the  municipality.  The  older  Fernando  VII. 
aqueduct  (1831-1835)  is  still  usable  in  case  of  need;  its  supply  was 
the  Almendares  river  (until  long  after  the  construction  of  this,  a 
still  older  aqueduct,  opened  at  the  end  of  the  l6th  century,  was  in 
use).  The  sewerage  system  and  conditions  of  house  sanitation 
were  found  extremely  inadequate  when  the  American  army  occupied 
the  city  in  1899.  Several  public  buildings  were  so  foul  that  they 
were  demolished  and  burned.  The  improvement  since  the  end  of 
Spanish  rule  has  been  steady. 

History. — Havana,  originally  founded  by  Diego  Velasquez 
in  1514  on  an  unhealthy  site  near  the  present  Batabano  (pop. 
in  1907,  15,435,  including  attached  country  districts),  on  the 
south  coast,  was  soon  removed  to  its  present  position,  was 
granted  an  ayuntamiento  (town  council),  and  shortly  came  to 
be  considered  one  of  the  most  important  places  in  the  New 
World.  Its  commanding  position  gained  it  in  1634,  by  royal 
decree,  the  title  of  "  Llave  del  Nuevo  Mundo  y  Antemural 
de  las  Indias  Occidentales  "  (Key  of  the  New  World  and  Bulwark 
of  the  West  Indies),  in  reference  to  which  it  bears  on  its  coat 
of  arms  a  symbolic  key  and  representations  of  the  Morro,  Punta 
and  Fuerza.  In  the  history  of  the  place  in  the  i6th  century 
few  things  stand  out  except  the  investments  by  buccaneers: 
in  1537  it  was  sacked  and  burned,  and  in  1555  plundered  by 
French  buccaneers,  and  in  1586  it  was  threatened  by  Drake. 
In  1589  Philip  II.  of  Spain  ordered  the  erection  of  the  Punta 
and  the  Morro.  In  the  same  year  the  residence  of  the  governor 
of  the  island  was  moved  from  Santiago  de  Cuba  to  Havana. 
Philip  II.  granted  Havana  the  title  of  "  ciudad  "  in  1592.  Sugar 
plantations  in  the  environs  appeared  before  the  end  of  the 
1 6th  century.  The  population  of  the  city,  probably  about  3000 
at  the  beginning  of  the  I7th  century,  was  doubled  in  the 
years  following  1655  by  the  coming  of  Spaniards  from  Jamaica. 
In  the  course  of  the  i7th  century  the  port  became  the  great 

1  Dr  Carlos  Finlay  of  Havana,  arguing  from  the  coincidence 
between  the  climatic  limitation  of  yellow  fever  and  the  geographical 
limitation  of  the  mosquito,  urged  (1881  sqq.)  that  there  was  some 
relation  between  the  disease  and  the  insect.  Reed  worked  from 
the  observation  of  D  H.  R.  Carter  (U.S.  Marine  Hospital  Service) 
that  although  the  incubation  of  the  disease  was  5  days,  15  to  20  days 
had  to  elapse  before  the  "  infection  "  of  the  house,  and  from  Ross's 
demonstration  of  the  part  played  in  malaria  by  the  Anopheles. 
See  H.  A.  Kelly,  Walter  Reed  and  Yellow  Fever  (New  York,  1907). 

1  The  average  number  of  deaths  from  yellow  fever  annually  from 
1885  (when  reliable  registration  began)  to  1898  was  455;  maximum 
1282  in  1896  (supposed  average  for  4  years,  1856-1859,  being  1489-8 
and  for  7  years,  1873-1879,  1395-1),  minimum  136,  in  1898;  average 
deaths  of  military,  1885-1898,  278-4  (in  1896-1897  constituting  1966 
out  of  a  total  of  2140);  deaths  of  American  soldiers,  1899—1900, 
18  out  of  431. 


rendezvous  for  the  royal  merchant  and  treasure  fleets  that  mono- 
polized trade  with  America,  and  the  commercial  centre  of  the 
Spanish-American  possessions.  It  was  blockaded  four  times 
by  the  Dutch  (who  were  continually  molesting  the  treasure 
fleets)  in  the  first  half  of  the  i7th  century.  In  1671  the  city 
walls  were  begun;  they  were  completed  in  1702.  The  European 
wars  of  the  i7th  and  i8th  centuries  were  marked  by  various 
incidents  in  local  history.  After  the  end  of  the  Spanish  War  of 
Succession  (1713)  came  a  period  of  comparative  prosperity 
in  slave-trading  and  general  commerce.  The  creation  in  1740 
of  a  monopolistic  trading-company  was  an  event  of  importance 
in  the  history  of  the  island.  English  squadrons  threatened  the 
city  several  times  in  the  first  half  of  the  i8th  century,  but  it 
was  not  until  1762  than  an  investment,  made  by  Admiral  Sir 
George  Pocock  and  the  earl  of  Albemarle,  was  successful.  The 
siege  lasted  from  June  to  August  and  was  attended  by  heavy 
loss  to  both  besiegers  and  besieged.  The  British  commanders 
wrung  great  sums  from  the  church  and  the  city  as  prize  of  war 
and  price  of  good  order.  By  the  treaty  of  the  loth  of  February 
1763,  at  the  close  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  Havana  was  restored 
to  Spain  in  exchange  for  the  Floridas.  The  English  turned 
over  the  control  of  the  city  on  the  6th  of  July.  Their  occupation 
greatly  stimulated  commerce,  and  from  it  dates  the  modern 
history  of  the  city  and  of  the  island  (see  CUBA).  The  gradual 
removal  of  obstacles  from  the  commerce  of  the  island  from 
1766  to  1818  particularly  benefited  Havana.  At  the  end  of  the 
1 8th  century  the  city  was  one  of  the  seven  or  eight  great  com- 
mercial centres  of  the  world,  and  in  the  first  quarter  of  the 
1 9th  century  was  a  rival  in  population  and  in  trade  of  Rio 
Janeiro,  Buenos  Aires  and  New  York.  In  1789  a  bishopric 
was  created  at  Havana  suffragan  to  the  archbishopric  at  Santiago. 
From  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  Havana,  as  the  centre  of 
government,  was  the  centre  of  movement  and  interest.  During 
the  administration  of  Miguel  Tac6n  Havana  was  improved 
by  many  important  public  works;  his  name  is  frequent  in  the 
nomenclature  of  the  city.  The  railway  from  Havana  to  Giiines 
was  built  between  1835  and  1838.  Fifty  Americans  under 
Lieut.  Crittenden,  members  of  the  Bahia  Honda  filibustering 
expedition  of  Narciso  Lopez,  were  shot  at  Fort  Atares  in  1851. 
Like  the  rest  of  Cuba,  Havana  has  frequently  suffered  severely 
from  hurricanes,  the  most  violent  being  those  of  1768  (St 
Theresa's),  1810  and  1846.  The  destruction  of  the  U.S.  battle- 
ship "  Maine  "  in  the  harbour  of  Havana  on  the  isth  of 
February  1898  was  an  influential  factor  in  causing  the  outbreak 
of  the  Spanish-American  War,  and  during  the  war  the  city  was 
blockaded  by  a  United  States  fleet. 

See  J.  de  la  Pezuela,  Diccionario de  la  Isla  de  Cuba,  vol.  iii.  (Madrid, 
1863),  for  minute  details  of  history,  administration  and  economic 
conditions  down  to  1862;  J.  M.  de  la  Torre,  Lo  que  fuimos  y  lo 
que  somos,  6  la  Habana  antigua  y  moderna  (Habana,  1857);  P.  J. 
Guite'ras,  Historia  de  la  conquista  de  la  Habana  1762  (Philadelphia, 
1856);  J.  de  la  Pezuela,  Sitio  y  rendition  de  la  Habana  en  1762 
(Madrid,  1859);  A.  Bachiller  y  Morales,  Monografia  historica 
(Habana,  1883),  minutely  covering  the  English  occupation  (the 
best  account)  of  1762-1763;  Maria  de  los  Mercedes,  comtesse  de 
Merlin,  La  Havana  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1844) ;  and  the  works  cited  under 
CUBA. 

HAVANT,  a  market-town  in  the  Fareham  parliamentary 
division  of  Hampshire,  England,  67  m.  S.W.  from  London  by 
the  London  &  South  Western  and  the  London,  Brighton  & 
South  Coast  railways.  Pop.  of  urban  district  (.1901),  3837. 
The  urban  district  of  Warblington,  i  m.  S.E.  (pop.  3639),  has 
a  fine  church,  Norman  and  later,  with  traces  of  pre-Norman 
work,  and  some  remains  of  a  Tudor  castle.  Havant  lies  in  a 
flat  coastal  district,  near  the  head  of  Langstone  Harbour,  a  wide 
shallow  inlet  of  the  English  Channel.  The  church  of  St  Faith 
was  largely  rebuilt  in  1875,  but  retains  some  good  Early  English 
work.  There  are  breweries  and  tanneries,  and  the  manufacture 
of  parchment  is  carried  on.  Off  the  mainland  near  Havant  lies 
Hayling,  a  flat  island  of  irregular  form  lying  between  the  harbours 
of  Langstone  and  Chichester.  It  measures  4  m.  in  length  from 
N.  to  S.,  and  is  nearly  the  same  in  breadth  at  the  south,  but  the 
breadth  generally  is  about  i\  m.  It  is  well  wooded  and  fertile. 
A  railway  serves  the  village  of  South  Hayling,  which  is  in  some 


HAVEL— HAVELOCK,  SIR  HENRY 


79 


favour  as  a  seaside  resort,  having  a  wide  sandy  beach  and  good 
golf  links.  The  island  was  in  the  possession  of  successive  religious 
bodies  from  the  Conquest  (when  it  was  given  to  the  Benedictines 
of  Jumieges,  near  Rouen),  until  the  Dissolution.  The  church 
of  South  Hayling  is  a  fine  Early  English  building. 

HAVEL,  a  river  of  Prussia,  Germany,  having  its  origin  in 
Lake  Dambeck  (223  ft.)  on  the  Mecklenburg  plateau,  a  few 
miles  north-west  of  Neu-Strelitz,  and  after  threading  several 
lakes  flowing  south  as  far  as  Spandau.  Thence  it  curves  south- 
west, past  Potsdam  and  Brandenburg,  traversing  another  chain 
of  lakes,  and  finally  continues  north-west  until  it  joins  the  Elbe 
from  the  right  some  miles  above  Wittenberge  after  a  total 
course  of  221  m.  and  a  total  fall  of  only  158  ft.  Its  banks  are 
mostly  marshy  or  sandy,  and  the  stream  is  navigable  from  the 
Mecklenburg  lakes  downwards.  Several  canals  connect  it 
with  these  lakes,  as  well  as  with  other  rivers — e.g.  the  Finow 
canal  with  the  Oder,  the  Ruppin  canal  with  the  Rhin,  the  Berlin- 
Spandau  navigable  canal  (55  m.)  with  the  Spree,  and  the  Plaue- 
Ihle  canal  with  the  Elbe.  The  Sakrow-Paretz  canal,  1 1  m.  long, 
cuts  off  the  deep  bend  at  Potsdam.  The  most  notable  of  the 
tributaries  is  the  Spree  (227  m.  long),  which  bisects  Berlin  and 
joins  the  Havel  at  Spandau.  Area  of  river  basin,  10,159  sq.m. 

HAVELBERG,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Brandenburg,  on  the  Havel  and  the  railway  Glowen-Havel- 
berg.  Pop.  (1905),  5988.  The  town  is  built  partly  on  an  island 
in  the  Havel,  and  partly  on  hills  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river, 
on  one  of  which  stands  the  fine  Romanesque  cathedral  dating 
from  the  I2th  century.  The  two  parts,  which  are  connected 
by  a  bridge,  were  incorporated  as  one  town  in  1875.  The 
inhabitants  are  chiefly  engaged  in  tobacco  manufacturing, 
sugar-refining  and  boat-building,  and  in  the  timber  trade. 

Otto  I.  founded  a  bishopric  at  Havelberg  in  946;  the  bishop, 
however,  who  was  a  prince  of  the  Empire,  generally  resided  at 
Plattenburg,  or  Wittstock,  a  few  miles  to  the  north.  In  1548 
the  bishopric  was  seized  by  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  who 
finally  took  possession  of  it  fifty  years  later,  and  the  cathedral 
passed  to  the  Protestant  Church,  retaining  its  endowments  till 
the  edict  of  1810,  by  which  all  former  ecclesiastical  oossessions 
were  assumed  by  the  crown.  The  final  secularization  was  delayed 
till  1819.  Havelberg  was  formerly  a  strong  fortress,  but  in  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  it  was  taken  from  the  Danish  by  the  imperial 
troops  in  1627.  Recaptured  by  the  Swedes  in  1631,  a'nd  again 
in  1635  and  1636,  it  was  in  1637  retaken  by  the  Saxons.  It 
suffered  severely  from  a  conflagration  in  1870. 

HAVELOCK,  SIR  HENRY  (1795-1857),  British  soldier,  one  of 
the  heroes  of  the  Indian  Mutiny,  the  second  of  four  brothers  (all 
of  whom  entered  the  army),  was  born  at  Ford  Hall,  Bishop- 
Wearmouth,  Sunderland,  on  the  5th  of  April  1795.  His  parents 
were  William  Havelock,  a  wealthy  shipbuilder  in  Sunderland, 
and  Jane,  daughter  of  John  Carter,  solicitor  at  Stockton-on-Tees. 
When  about  five  years  old  Henry  accompanied  his  elder  brother 
William  to  Mr  Bradley's  school  at  Swanscombe,  whence  at  the 
age  of  ten  he  removed  for  seven  years  to  Charterhouse  school. 
In  accordance  with  the  desire  of  his  mother,  who  had  died  in 
1811,  he  entered  the  Middle  Temple  in  1813,  studying  under 
Chitty  the  eminent  special  pleader.  His  legal  studies  having  been 
abridged  by  a  misunderstanding  with  his  father,  he  in  1815 
accepted  a  second  lieutenancy  in  the  Rifle  Brigade  (gsth), 
procured  for  him  by  the  interest  of  his  brother  William.  During 
the  following  eight  years  of  service  in  Britain  he  read  extensively 
and  acquired  a  good  acquaintance  with  the  theory  of  war.  In 
1823,  having  exchanged  into  the  2ist  and  thence  into  the  i3th 
Light  Infantry,  he  followed  his  brothers  William  and  Charles 
to  India,  first  qualifying  himself  in  Hindustani  under  Dr  Gilchrist, 
a  celebrated  Orientalist. 

At  the  close  of  twenty-three  years'  service  he  was  still  a 
lieutenant,  and  it  was  not  until  1838  that,  after  three  years' 
adjutancy  of  his  regiment,  he  became  captain.  Before  this, 
however,  he  had  held  several  staff  appointments,  notably  that 
of  deputy  assistant-adjutant-general  of  the  forces  in  Burma  till 
the  peace  of  Yandabu,  of  which  he,  with  Lumsden  and  Knox, 
procured  the  ratifications  at  Ava  from  the  "  Golden  Foot," 


who  bestowed  on  him  the  "  gold  leaf  "  insignia  of  Burmese 
nobility.  His  first  command  had  been  at  a  stockade  capture 
in  the  war,  and  he  was  present  also  at  the  battles  of  Napadee, 
Patanago  and  Pagan.  He  had  also  held  during  his  lieutenancy 
various  interpreterships  and  the  adjutancy  of  the  king's  troops 
at  Chinsura.  In  1828  he  published  at  Serampore  Campaigns  in 
Ava,  and  in  1829  he  married  Hannah  Shepherd,  daughter  of  Dr 
Marshman,  the  eminent  missionary.  About  the  same  time  he 
became  a  Baptist,  being  baptized  by  Mr  John  Mack  at  Serampore. 
During  the  first  Afghan  war  he  was  present  as  aide-de-camp  to 
Sir  Willoughby  Cotton  at  the  capture  of  Ghazni,  on  the  23rd  of 
July  1839,  and  at  the  occupation  of  Kabul.  After  a  short  absence 
in  Bengal  to  secure  the  publication  of  his  Memoirs  of  the  Afghan 
Campaign,  he  returned  to  Kabul  in  charge  of  recruits,  and 
became  interpreter  to  General  Elphinstone.  In  1840,  being 
attached  to  Sir  Robert  Sale's  force,  he  took  part  in  the  Khurd- 
Kabul  fight,  in  the  celebrated  passage  of  the  defiles  of  the  Ghilzais 
(1841)  and  in  the  fighting  from  Tezeen  to  Jalalabad.  Here, 
after  many  months'  siege,  his  column  in  a  sortie  en  masse  defeated 
Akbar  Khan  on  the  7th  of  April  1842.  He  was  now  madedeputy 
adjutant-general  of  the  infantry  division  in  Kabul,  and  in 
September  he  assisted  at  Jagdalak,  at  Tezeen,  and  at  the  release 
of  the  British  prisoners  at  Kabul,  besides  taking  a  prominent 
part  at  Istaliff.  Having  obtained  a  regimental  majority  he  next 
went  through  the  Mahratta  campaign  as  Persian  interpreter 
to  Sir  Hugh  (Viscount)  Gough,  and  distinguished  himself  at 
Maharajpore  in  1843,  and  also  in  the  Sikh  campaign  at  Moodkee, 
Ferozeshah  and  Sobraon  in  1845.  For  these  services  he  was 
made  deputy  adjutant-general  at  Bombay.  He  exchanged  from 
the  I3th  to  the  39th,  then  as  second  major  into  the  53rd  at  the 
beginning  of  1849,  and  soon  afterwards  left  for  England,  where 
he  spent  two  years.  In  1854  he  became  quartermaster-general, 
then  full  colonel,  and  lastly  ajdutant-general  of  the  troops  in 
India. 

In  1857  he  was  selected  by  Sir  James  Outram  for  the  command 
of  a  division  in  the  Persian  campaign,  during  which  he  was  present 
at  the  actions  of  Muhamra  and  Ahwaz.  Peace  with  Persia  set 
him  free  just  as  the  Mutiny  broke  out;  and  he  was  chosen  to 
command  a  column  "  to  quell  disturbances  in  Allahabad,  to 
support  Lawrence  at  Lucknow  and  Wheeler  at  Cawnpore,  to 
disperse  and  utterly  destroy  all  mutineers  and  insurgents."  At 
this  time  Lady  Canning  wrote  of  him  in  her  diary:  "  General 
Havelock  is  not  in  fashion,  but  all  the  same  we  believe  that  he 
will  do  well.  No  doubt  he  is  fussy  and  tiresome,  but  his  little 
old  stiff  figure  looks  as  active  and  fit  for  use  as  if  he  were  made  of 
steel."  But  in  spite  of  this  lukewarm  commendation  Havelock 
proved  himself  the  man  for  the  occasion,  and  won  the  reputation 
of  a  great  military  leader.  At  Fatehpur,  on  the  i2th  of  July, 
at  Aong  and  Pandoobridge  on  the  isth,  at  Cawnpore  on  the 
i6th,  at  Unao  on  the  2gth,  at  Busherutgunge  on  the  2gth  and 
again  on  the  5th  of  August,  at  Boorhya  on  the  i2th  of  August, 
and  at  Bithur  on  the  i6th,  he  defeated  overwhelming  forces. 
Twice  he  advanced  for  the  relief  of  Lucknow,  but  twice  prudence 
forbade  a  reckless  exposure  of  troops  wasted  by  battle  and 
disease  in  the  almost  impracticable  task.  Reinforcements  arriv- 
ing at  last  under  Outram,  he  was  enabled  by  the  generosity  of  his 
superior  officer  to  crown  his  successes  on  the  25th  of  September 
1857  by  the  capture  of  Lucknow.  There  he  died  on  the  24th  of 
November  1857,  of  dysentery,  brought  on  by  the  anxieties  and 
fatigues  connected  with  his  victorious  march  and  with  the 
subsequent  blockade  of  the  British  troops.  He  lived  long  enough 
to  receive  the  intelligence  that  he  had  been  created  K.C.B.  for 
the  first  three  battles  of  the  campaign;  but  of  the  major-general- 
ship which  Vas  shortly  afterwards  conferred  he  never  knew. 
On  the  26th  of  November,  before  tidings  of  his  death  had  reached 
England,  letters-patent  were  directed  to  create  him  a  baronet 
and  a  pension  of  £1000  a  year  was  voted  at  the  assembling  of 
parliament.  The  baronetcy  was  afterwards  bestowed  upon  his 
eldest  son;  while  to  his  widow,  by  royal  order,  was  given  the 
rank  to  which  she  would  have  been  entitled  had  her  husband 
survived  and  been  created  a  baronet.  To  both  widow  and  son 
pensions  of  £1000  were  awarded  by  parliament. 


8o 


HAVELOK  THE  DANE— HAVERFORDWEST 


See  Marshman,  Life  of  Havelock  (1860) ;  L.  J.  Trotter,  The  Bayard 
of  India  (1903);  F.  M.  Holmes,  Four  Heroes  of  India;  G.  B.  Smith, 
Heroes  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  (1901);  and  A.  Forbes,  Havelock 
("  English  Men  of  Action  "  series,  1890). 

HAVELOK  THE  DANE,  an  Anglo-Danish  romance.     The  hero, 
under  the  name  of  CUHERAN  or  CUARAN,  was  a  scullion-jongleur 
at  the  court  of  Edelsi  (Alsi)  or  Godric,  king  of  Lincoln  and 
Lindsey.     At   the  same  court  was  brought   up   Argentine   or 
Goldborough,  the  orphan  daughter  of  Adelbrict,  the  Danish 
king  of  Norfolk,  and   his   wife   Orwain,    Edelsi's  sister;   and 
Edelsi,  to  humiliate  his  ward,  married  her  to  the  scullion  Cuaran. 
But,  inspired  by  a  vision,  Cuaran  and  Goldborough  set  out  for 
Grimsby,  where  Cuaran  learned  that  Grim,  his  supposed  father, 
was  dead.     His  foster-sister,  moreover,  told  him  that  his  real 
name  was  Havelok,  that  he  was  the  son  of  Gunter  (or  Birkabeyn), 
king  of  Denmark,  and  had  been  rescued  by  Grim,  who  though 
a  poor  fisherman  was  a  noble  in  his  own  country,  when  Gunter 
perished  by  treason.     The  hero  then  wins  back  his  own  and 
Goldborough's  kingdoms,  punishing  traitors  and  rewarding  the 
faithful.     The  story  exists  in  two  French  versions:  as  an  inter- 
polation between   Geffrei   Gaimar's  Brut  and  his   Estorie  des 
Engles  (c.  1150)  and  in  the  Anglo-Norman  Lai  d' Havelok  (i2th 
century).     The  English  Havelok  (c.  1300)  is  written  in  a  Lincoln- 
shire dialect  and  embodies  abundant  local  tradition.     A  short 
version  of  the  tale  is  interpolated  in  the  Lambeth  MS.  of  Robert 
Mannyng's  Handlyng  Synne.     The  story  reappears  more  than 
once  in  English  literature,  notably  in  the  ballad  of  "  Argentille 
and  Curan  "  in  William  Warner's  Albion's  England.     The  name 
of  Havelok  (Habloc,  Abloec,  Abloyc)  is  said  to  correspond  in 
Welsh  to  Anlaf  or  Olaf.     Now  the  historical  Anlaf  Curan  was  the 
son  of  a  Viking  chief  Sihtric,  who  was  king  of  Northumbria  in 
925  and  died  in  927.     Anlaf  Sihtricson  was  driven  into  exile  by 
his  stepmother's  brother  ^Ethelstan,  and  took  refuge  in  Scotland 
at  the  court  of  Constantine  II.,  whose  daughter  he  married. 
He  was  defeated  with  Constantine1  at  Brunanburh  (937),  but 
was  nevertheless  for  two  short  periods  joint  ruler  in  Northumbria 
with  his  cousin  Anlaf  Godfreyson.     He  reigned  in  Dublin  till  980, 
when  he  was  defeated.     He  died  the  next  year  as  a  monk  at  lona. 
Round  the  name  of  Anlaf  Curan  a  number  of  legends  rapidly 
gathered,  and  the  legend  of  the  Danish  hero  probably  filtered 
through  Celtic  channels,  as  the  Welsh  names  of  Argentille  and 
Orwain  indicate.     The  close  similarity  between  the  Havelok 
saga  and  the  story  of  Hamlet  (Amlethus)  as  told  by  Saxo  Gram- 
maticus  was  pointed  out  long  ago  by  Scandinavian  scholars. 
The  individual  points  they  have  in  common  are  found  in  other 
legends,  but  the  series  of  coincidences  between  the  adventurous 
history  of  Anlaf  Curan  and  the  life  of  Amlethus  can  hardly  be 
fortuitous.     Interesting  light  is  thrown  on  the  whole  question  by 
Professor  I.  Gollancz  (Hamlet  in  Iceland,  1898)  by  the  identifica- 
tion of  Amhlaide — who  is  said  by  Queen  Gormflaith2  in  the 
Annals  of  Ireland   by  the  Four  Masters  to  have  slain  Niall 
Glundubh— with  Anlaf's  father  Sihtric.     The  exploits  of  father 
and  son  were  likely  to  be  confused. 

The  mythical  elements  in  the  Havelok  story  are  numerous. 
Argentille,  as  H.  L.  Ward  points  out,  is  a  disguised  Valkyrie. 
Like  Svava  she  inspired  a  dull  and  nameless  youth,  and  as  Hild 
raised  the  dead  to  fight  by  magic,  so  Argentille  in  Havelok  and 
Hermuthruda  in  Amlelh  prop  up  dead  or  wounded  men  with 
stakes  to  bluff  the  enemy.  Havelok's  royal  lineage  is  betrayed 
by  his  flame  breath  when  he  is  asleep,  a  phenomenon  which  has 
parallels  in  the  history  of  Servius  Tullius  and  of  Dietrich  of  Bern. 
Part  of  the  Havelok  legend  lingers  in  local  tradition.  Havelok 
destroyed  his  enemies  in  Denmark  by  casting  down  great  stones 
upon  them  from  the  top  of  a  tower,  and  Grim  is  said  to  have 
1  H.  L.  Ward  (Cat.  of  Romances,  i.  426)  suggests  that  it  was  the 
mention  of  Constantine  in  the  Havelock  legend  which  led  Gaimar 
to  place  the  tale  in  the  6th  century  in  the  days  of  the  Constantine 
who  succeeded  King  Arthur.  Gaimar  voices  more  than  once  an 
Anglo-Danish  legend  of  a  Danish  dynasty  in  Britain  anterior  to  the 
Saxon  invasion. 

JA  different  person  from  the  second  wife  of  Anlaf  Curan,  alsi 
Gormflaith,  who  forms  another  link  with  Amlethus,  as  she  was  a 
woman   of   the   Hermuthruda   type   and    married   her   husband' 
conqueror. 


licked  three  of  the  turrets  from  the  church  tower  in  his  efforts  to 
destroy  the  enemy's  ships.  John  Weever  (Antient  Funerall 
Monuments,  1631,  p.  749)  says  that  the  privilege  of  the  town  in 
ilsinore,  where  its  merchants  were  free  from  toll,  was  due  to  the 
nterest  of  Havelok,  the  Danish  prince,  and  the  common  seal  of 
he  town  of  Grimsby  represents  Grim,  with  "  Habloc  "  on  his 
ight  hand  and  Goldeburgh  on  his  left. 

The  English  MS.  of  Havelok  (MSS.  Laud  Misc.  108)  in  the  Bodleian 
ibrary  is  unique.  It  was  edited  for  the  Roxburghe  Club  by  Sir 
r.  Madden  in  1828.  This  edition  contains,  besides  the  English  text, 
he  two  French  versions.  There  are  subsequent  editions  by  W.  W. 

ikeat  (1868)  for  the  E.E.  Text  Society,  by  F.  Holthausen  (London, 

Mew  York  and  Heidelberg,  1901),  and  by  W.  W.  Skeat  (Clarendon 
Vess,  Oxford,  1902,  where  further  bibliographical  references  will 
ie  found) ;  and  a  modern  English  version  by  Miss  E.  Hickey  (London, 

-902).  Gaimar's  text  and  the  French  lai  are  edited  by  Sir  T.  D. 
lardy  and  C.  F.  Martin  in  Rerum  Brit.  med.  aev.  scriptores,  vol.  i. 
1888).  See  also  the  account  of  the  saga  by  H.  L.  Ward  (Cat._of 
Romances,  i.  423-446);  for  the  identification  of  Havelok  with 

Anlaf  Curan  see  G.  Storm,  Englische  Studien  (1880),  iii.  533,  a 
eprint  of  an  earlier  article ;  E.  K.  Putnam,  The  Lambeth  Version  of 
'iavelok  (Baltimore,  1900). 

HAVERFORDWEST    (Welsh    Hwlfordd,    the    English    name 
)eing  perhaps  a  corruption  of  the  Scandinavian  Hafna-Fjord), 
he  chief  town  of  Pembrokeshire,   S.   Wales,   a  contributory 
parliamentary  and  municipal  borough,  and  a  county  of  itself 
with  its  own  lord-lieutenant.     Pop.  (1901),  6007.     It  is  pictur- 
esquely situated  on  the  slopes  overlooking  the  West  Cleddau  river, 
which  is  here  crossed  by  two  stone  bridges.     It  has  a  station  on 
the  Great  Western  Railway  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  and 
when  viewed  from  this  point  the  town  presents  an  imposing 
appearance  with  its  castle-keep  and  its  many  ancient  buildings. 
The  river  is  tidal  and  navigable  for  vessels  of  not  more  than 
150  tons.     Coal,  cattle,  butter  and  grain  are  exported,  but  the 
commercial  importance  of  the  place  has  greatly  declined,  as  the 
many  ruined  warehouses  near  the  river  plainly  testify.     The 
old  walls  and  fortifications  have  almost  disappeared,  but  Haver- 
iordwest  is  still  rich  in  memorials  of  its  past  greatness.     The  huge 
castle-keep,  which  dominates  the  town,  was  probably  built  by 
Gilbert  de  Clare,  early  in  the  I2th  century;  formerly  used  as 
the  county  gaol,  it  now  serves  as  the  police-station.     The  large 
church  of  St  Mary,  at  the  top  of  the  steep  High  Street,  has  fine 
clerestory  windows,  clustered  columns  and  an  elaborate  carved- 
oak  ceiling  of  the  isth  century;  it  contains  several  interesting 
monuments  of  the   I7th  and   i8th  centuries,  some  of  which 
commemorate'members  of  the  family  of  Philipps  of  Picton  Castle. 
At  the  N.  corner  of  the  adjacent  churchyard  stands  an  ancient 
building  with  a  vaulted  roof,  once  the  record  office,  but  now  used 
as  a  fish-market.     St  Martin's,  with  a  low  tower  and  spire,  close 
to  the  castle,  is  probably  the  oldest  church  in  the  town,  but  has 
been  much  modernized.     Near  St  Thomas's  church  on  the  Green 
stands  an  old  Moravian  chapel  which  is  closely  associated  with 
the  great  scholar  and  divine,  Bishop  John  Gambold  (1711-1771). 
In  a  meadow  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  river  are  the  considerable 
remains  of  the  Augustinian  Priory  of  St  Mary  and  St  Thomas, 
built  by  Robert  de  Hwlfordd,  lord  of  Haverford,  about  the  year 
.  joo.     On  the  E.  bank  are  the  suburbs  of  Cartlet  and  Prender- 
gast,  the  latter  of  which  contains  the  ancient  parish  church  of 
St  David  and  the  ruins  of  a  large  mansion  originally  built  by 
Maurice  de  Prendergast  (i2th  century)  and  subsequently  the 
seat  of  the  Stepney  family.  A  little  to  the  S.  of  the  town  are  the 
remains  of  Haroldstone,  once  the  residence  of  the  powerful 
Perrot  family.     The  charities  belonging  to  the  town,   which 
include    John    Perrot's    bequest    (i579)>   yielding  about  £350 
annually  for  the  improvement  of  the  town,  and  Tasker's  charity 
school  (1684),  are  very  considerable. 

Haverfordwest  owes  its  origin  to  the  advent  of  the  Flemings, 
who  were  permitted  by  Henry  I.  to  settle  in  the  hundred  of 
Roose,  or  Rhos,  in  the  years  1106-1108,  in  mi,  and  again  in 
1156.  English  is  exclusively  spoken  in  the  town  and  district, 
and  its  inhabitants  exhibit  their  foreign  extraction  by  their 
language,  customs  and  appearance.  Haverfordwest  is,  in  fact, 
the  capital  of  that  English-speaking  portion  of  Pembrokeshire, 
which  has  been  nicknamed  "  Little  England  beyond  Wales." 


HAVERGAL— HAVERSACK 


81 


This  new  settlement  of  intruding  foreigners  had  naturally  to  be 
protected  against  the  infuriated  natives,  and  the  castle  was 
accordingly  built  c.  1113  by  Gilbert  de  Clare,  first  earl  of  Pem- 
broke, who  subsequently  conferred  the  seignory  of  Haverford 
on  his  castellan,  Richard  Fitz-Tancred.  On  the  death  of  Robert 
de  Hwlfordd,  the  benefactor  and  perhaps  founder  of  the  priory 
of  St  Mary  and  St  Thomas,  in  1213,  the  lordship  of  the  castle 
reverted  to  the  Crown,  and  was  purchased  for  1000  marks  from 
King  John  by  William  Marshal,  earl  of  Pembroke,  who  gave 
various  privileges  to  the  town.  Of  the  numerous  charters  the 
earliest  known  (through  an  allusion  found  in  a  document  of 
Bishop  Houghton  of  St  Davids,  c.  1370)  is  one  from  Henry  II., 
who  therein  confirms  all  former  rights  granted  by  his  grand- 
father, Henry  I.  John  in  1207  gave  certain  rights  to  the  town 
concerning  the  Port  of  Milford,  while  William  Marshal  II.,  earl 
of  Pembroke,  presented  it  with  three  charters,  the  earliest  of 
which  is  dated  1219.  An  important  charter  of  Edward  V.,  as 
prince  of  Wales  and  lord  of  Haverford,  enacted  that  the  town 
should  be  incorporated  under  a  mayor,  two  sheriffs  and  two 
bailiffs,  duly  chosen  by  the  burgesses.  In  1536,  under  Henry 
VIII.,  Haverfordwest  was  declared  a  town  and  county  of  itself 
and  was  further  empowered  to  send  a  representative  burgess  to 
parliament. 

The  town  long  played  a  prominent  part  in  South  Welsh 
history.  In  1220  Llewelyn  ap  lorwerth,  prince  of  North 
Wales,  during  the  absence  of  William  Marshal  II.,  earl  of 
Pembroke,  attacked  and  burnt  the  suburbs,  but  failed  to  reduce 
the  castle  by  assault.  Several  of  the  Plantagenet  kings  visited 
the  town,  including  Richard  II.,  who  stopped  here  some  time 
on  his  return  from  Ireland  in  1299,  and  is  said  to  have  performed 
here  his  last  regal  act — the  confirmation  of  the  grant  of  a 
burgage  to  the  Friars  Preachers.  Oliver  Cromwell  spent  some 
days  here  on  his  way  to  Ireland,  and  his  original  warrant  to  the 
mayor  and  council  for  the  demolition  of  the  castle  is  still 
preserved  in  the  council  chamber.  The  prosperity  and  local  im- 
portance of  Haverfordwest  continued  unimpaired  throughout  the 
i7th  and  iSth  centuries,  and  Richard  Fenton,  the  historian  of 
Pembrokeshire,  describes  it  in  1810,  as  "  the  largest  town  in  the 
county,  if  not  in  all  Wales."  With  the  rise  of  Milford,  however, 
the  shipping  trade  greatly  declined,  and  Haverfordwest  has  now 
the  appearance  of  a  quiet  country  town. 

HAVERGAL,  FRANCES  RIDLEY  (1836-1879),  English  hymn- 
writer,  daughter  of  the  Rev.  William  Henry  Havergal,  was  born 
at  Astley,  Worcestershire,  on  the  i4th  of  December  1836.  At 
the  age  of  seven  she  began  to  write  verse,  most  of  it  of  a  religious 
character.  As  a  hymn-writer  she  was  particularly  successful, 
and  the  modern  English  Church  collections  include  several  of  her 
compositions.  Her  collected  Poetical  Works  were  published  in 
1884.  She  died  at  Caswell  Bay,  Swansea,  on  the  3rd  of  June 
1879. 

See  Memorials  of  Frances  Ridley  Havergal  (1880),  by  her  sister. 

HAVERHILL,  a  market  town  of  England,  in  the  Sudbury 
parliamentary  division  of  Suffolk,  and  the  Saffron  Walden 
division  of  Essex.  Pop.  of  urban  district  (1901),  4862.  It  is 
55  m.  N.N.E.  from  London  by  the  Great  Eastern  railway,  on 
the  Long  Melford-Cambridge  branch,  and  is  the  terminus  of 
the  Colne  Valley  railway  from  Chappel  in  Essex.  The  church 
of  St  Mary  is  Perpendicular,  but  extensively  restored.  There 
.  are  large  manufactures  of  cloth,  silk,  matting,  bricks,  and  boots 
and  shoes,  and  a  considerable  agricultural  trade. 

HAVERHILL,  a  city  of  Essex  county,  Massachusetts,  U.S.A., 
situated  on  the  Merrimac  river,  at  the  head  of  tide  and  navigation, 
and  on  the  Boston  &  Maine  railway,  33  m.  N.  of  Boston.  Pop. 
(1880)  18,472;  (1890)  27,412;  (1900)  37,175,  of  whom  8530 
were  foreign-born  (including  2403  French  Canadians,  1651 
English  Canadians  and  2144  Irish),  and  15,077  were  of  foreign 
parentage  (both  parents  foreign-bom);  (1910  census)  44,115. 
The  city,  3  m.  wide  and  10  m.  long,  lies  for  its  entire  length 
along  the  Merrimac  river,  from  which  it  rises  picturesquely, 
its  surface  being  undulating,  with  several  detached  round  hills 
(maximum  339  ft.).  Like  all  old  New  England  cities,  it  is 
irregularly  laid  out.  A  number  of  lakes  within  its  limits  are  the 


source  of  an  abundant  and  excellent  water  supply.  There  are 
fifteen  public  parks,  the  largest  of  which,  Winnikenni  Park 
(214  acres),  contiguous  to  Lake  Kenoza,  is  of  great  natural 
beauty.  The  city  has  three  well-equipped  hospitals,  the  beautiful 
Pentucket  club  house,  a  children's  home,  an  old  ladies'  home 
and  numerous  charitable  organizations.  The  schools  of  the 
city,  both  public  and  private,  are  of  high  standing;  they  include 
Bradford  Academy  (1803)  for  girls  and  the  St  James  School 
(Roman  Catholic).  The  public  library  is  generously  endowed, 
and  in  1908  had  about  90,000  volumes.  Almost  from  the 
beginning  of  its  history  Haverhill  was  active  industrially. 
Thomas  Dustin,  the  husband  of  Hannah  Dustin,  manufactured 
bricks,  and  this  industry  has  been  carried  on  in  the  same  locality 
for  more  than  two  hundred  years.  The  large  Stevens  woollen 
mills  are  the  outgrowth  of  mills  established  in  1835.  The 
manufacture  of  woollen  hats,  established  in  the  middle  of  the 
i8th  century,  is  one  of  the  prominent  industries.  There  are 
large  morocco  factories.  By  far  the  leading  industry  of  the 
city  is  the  manufacture  of  boots,  shoes  and  slippers,  chiefly 
of  the  finer  kinds,  of  which  it  is  one  of  the  largest  producers  in 
the  world.  In  1905  Haverhill  ranked  fourth  among  the  cities 
of  the  United  States  in  the  product  value  of  this  manufacture, 
which  was  4-8%  of  the  total  value  of  boots  and  shoes  made  in 
the  United  States.  This  industry  began  about  1795.  In  1905 
Haverhill's  manufacturing  establishments  produced  goods  valued 
at  $24,446,594,  83-9%  of  this  output  being  represented  by 
boots  and  shoes  or  their  accessories.  One  of  the  largest  sole- 
leather  manufactories  in  the  world  is  here. 

Haverhill  was  settled  in  June  1640  by  a  small  colony  from 
Newbury  and  Ipswich,  and  its  Indian  name,  Pentucket,  was 
replaced  by  that  of  Haverhill  in  compliment  to  the  first  minister, 
Rev.  John  Ward,  who  was  born  at  Haverhill,  England.  In  its 
earlier  years  this  frontier  town  suffered  severely  from  the  forays 
of  the  Indians,  and  in  1690  the  abandonment  of  the  settlement 
was  contemplated.  Two  Indian  attacks  are  particularly 
noteworthy — one  in  1698,  in  which  Hannah  Dustin,  her  new- 
born babe,  and  her  nurse  were  carried  away  to  the  vicinity  of 
Penacook,  now  Concord,  New  Hampshire.  Here  in  the  night 
Mrs  Dustin,  assisted  by  her  nurse  and  by  a  captive  English  boy, 
tomahawked  and  scalped  ten  Indians  (two  men,  the  others 
children  and  women)  and  escaped  down  the  river  to  Haverhill; 
a  monument  to  her  stands  in  City  Hall  Park.  In  1708  250 
French  and  Indians  attacked  the  village,  killing  40  of  its 
inhabitants.  In  1873  a  destructive  fire  caused  the  loss  of  35 
places  of  business,  and  on  the  i7th  of  February  1882  almost  the 
entire  shoe  district  (consisting  of  10  acres)  was  burned,  with  a 
loss  of  more  than  $2,000,000;  but  a  greater  business  district 
was  built  on  the  ruins  of  the  old.  Haverhill  was  the  birthplace 
of  Whittier,  who  lived  here  in  1807-1836,  and  who  in  his  poem 
Haverhill,  written  for  the  25oth  anniversary  of  the  town  in  1890, 
and  in  many  of  his  other  poems,  gave  the  poet's  touch  to  the 
history,  the  legends  and  the  scenery  of  his  native  city.  His 
birthplace,  the  scene  of  Snow-Bound  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
city,  is  owned  by  the  Whittier  Association  and  is  open  to 
visitors.  A  petition  from  Haverhill  to  the  national  House  of 
Representatives  in  1842,  praying  for  a  peaceable  dissolution 
of  the  Union,  raised  about  J.  Q.  Adams,  its  presenter,  perhaps 
the  most  violent  storm  in  the  long  course  of  his  defence  of  the 
right  of  petition.  Haverhill  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in 
1645  and  became  a  city  in  1869.  Bradford,  a  town  (largely 
residential)  lying  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river,  became 
a  part  of  the  city  in  1897.  In  October  1908,  by  popular  vote, 
the  city  adopted  a  new  charter  providing  for  government  by 
commission. 

HAVERSACK,  or  HAVRESACK  (through  the  French  from 
Ger.  Habersack,  an  oat-sack,  a  nose-bag,  Hafer  or  Haver,  oats), 
the  bag  in  which  horsemen  carried  the  oats  for  their  horses. 
In  Scotland  and  the  north  of  England  haver,  meaning  oats,  is 
still  used,  as  haver-meal  or  haver-bread.  Haversack  is  now 
used  for  the  strong  bag  made  of  linen  or  canvas,  in  which  soldiers, 
sportsmen  or  travellers,  carry  their  personal  belongings,  or  more 
usually  the  provisions  for  the  day. 


HAVERSTRAW— HAVRE 


HAVERSTRAW,  a  village  of  Rockland  county,  New  York, 
U.S.A.,  in  a  township  of  the  same  name,  32  m.  N.  of  New  York 
City,  and  finely  situated  on  the  W.  shore  of  Haverstraw  Bay, 
an  enlargement  of  the  Hudson  river.  Pop.  of  the  village  (1890), 
5070;  (1900)  5935,  of  whom  1231  were  foreign-born  and  568 
were  negroes;  (1905,  state  census)  6182;  (1910)  5669;  of  the  town- 
ship (1910)  9335.  Haverstraw  is  served  by  the  West  Shore, 
the  New  Jersey  &  New  York  (Erie),  and  the  New  York,  Ontario 
&  Western  railways,  and  is  connected  by  steamboat  lines  with 
Peekskill  and  Newburgh.  The  village  lies  at  the  N.  base  of 
High  Tor  (83  2  ft.).  It  has  a  public  library,  founded  by  the  King's 
Daughters'  Society  in  1895  and  housed  in  the  Fowler  library 
building.  Excellent  clay  is  found  in  the  township,  and  Haver- 
straw is  one  of  the  largest  brick  manufacturing  centres  in  the 
world;  brick-machines  also  are  manufactured  here.  The 
Minesceongo  creek  furnishes  water  power  for  silk  mills,  dye 
works  and  print  works.  Haverstraw  was  settled  by  the  Dutch 
probably  as  early  as  1648.  Near  the  village  of  Haverstraw 
(in  the  township  of  Stony  Point),  in  the  Joshua  Hett  Smith 
House,  or  "  Old  Treason  House,"  as  it  is  generally  called, 
Benedict  Arnold  and  Major  Andre  met  before  daylight  on  the 
22nd  of  September  1780  to  arrange  plans  for  the  betrayal  of 
West  Point.  In  1826  a  short-lived  Owenite  Community  (of 
about  80  members)  was  established  near  West  Haverstraw  and 
Garnerville  (in  the  township  of  Haverstraw).  The  members 
of  the  community  established  a  Church  of  Reason,  in  which 
lectures  were  delivered  on  ethics,  philosophy  and  science. 
Dissensions  soon  arose  in  the  community,  the  experiment  was 
abandoned  within  five  months,  and  most  of  the  members  joined 
in  turn  the  Coxsackie  Community,  also  in  New  York,  and  the 
Kendal  Community,  near  Canton,  Ohio,  both  of  which  were 
also  short-lived.  The  village  of  Haverstraw  was  originally 
known  as  Warren  and  was  incorporated  under  that  name  in 
1854;  in  1873  it  became  officially  the  village  of  Haverstraw — 
both  names  had  previously  been  used  locally.  The  village  of 
West  Haverstraw  (pop.  in  1890, 180;  in  1900,  2079;  and  in  1910, 
2369),  also  in  Haverstraw  township,  was  founded  in  1830,  was 
long  known  as  Samsondale,  and  was  incorporated  under  its 
present  name  in  1883. 

See  F.  B.  Green,  History  of  Rockland  County  (New  York,  1886). 

HAVET,  EUGENE  AUGUSTE  ERNEST  (1813-1889),  French 
scholar,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  nth  of  April  1813.  Educated 
at  the  Lycee  Saint-Louis  and  the  Ecole  Normale,  he  was  for 
many  years  before  his  death  on  the  2ist  of  December  1889 
professor  of  Latin  eloquence  at  the  College  de  France.  His  two 
capital  works  were  a  commentary  on  the  works  of  Pascal,  Pensees 
de  Pascal  publiees  dans  leur  texte  aulhenlique  aiiec  un  commentaire 
suivi  (1852;  2nd  ed.  2  vols.,  1881),  and  Le  Christianisme  et  ses 
origines  (4  vols.,  1871-1884),  the  chief  thesis  of  which  was  that 
Christianity  owed  more  to  Greek  philosophy  than  to  the  writings 
of  the  Hebrew  prophets.  His  elder  son,  Pierre  Antoine  Louis 
Ha  vet  (b.  1849),  was  professor  of  Latin  philology  at  the  College 
de  France  and  a  member  of  the  Institute.  The  younger,  Julien, 
is  separately  noticed. 

HAVET,  JULIEN  (PIERRE  EUGENE)  (1853-1893),  French 
historian,  was  born  at  Vitry-sur-Seine  on  the  4th  of  April  1853, 
the  second  son  of  Ernest  Havet.  He  early  showed  a  remarkable 
aptitude  for  learning,  but  had  a  pronounced  aversion  for  pure 
rhetoric.  His  studies  at  the  Ecole  des  Charles  (where  he  took 
first  place  both  on  entering  and  leaving)  and  at  the  Ecole  des 
Hautes  Etudes  did  much  to  develop  his  critical  faculty,  and  the 
historical  method  taught  and  practised  at  these  establishments 
brought  home  to  him  the  dignity  of  history,  which  thenceforth 
became  his  ruling  passion.  His  valedictory  thesis  at  the  Ecole 
des  Chart  es,  Serie  chronologique  des  gardiens  et  seigneurs  des  lies 
Normandes  (1876),  was  a  definitive  work  and  but  slightly  affected 
by  later  research.  In  1 878  he  followed  his  thesis  by  a  study  called 
Les  Cours  royales  dans  les  lies  Normandes.  Both  these  works  were 
composed  entirely  from  the  original  documents  at  the  Public 
Record  Office,  London,  and  the  archives  of  Jersey  and  Guernsey. 
On  the  history  of  Merovingian  institutions,  Havet's  conclusions 
were  widely  accepted  (see  La  Formule  N.  rex  Francor.,  v.  M., 


1885).  His  first  work  in  this  province  was  Du  sens  du  mot 
"  romain  "  dans  les  loisfranques  (1876),  a  critical  study  on  a  theory 
of  Fustel  de  Coulanges.  In  this  he  showed  that  the  status  of  the 
homo  Romanus  of  the  barbarian  laws  was  inferior  to  that  of  the 
German  freeman;  that  the  Gallo-Romans  had  been  subjected 
by  the  Germans  to  a  state  of  servitude;  and,  consequently, 
that  the  Germans  had  conquered  the  Gallo-Romans.  He  aimed 
a  further  blow  at  Fustel's  system  by  showing  that  the  Prankish 
kings  had  never  borne  the  Roman  title  of  vir  inluster,  and  that 
they  could  not  therefore  be  considered  as  being  in  the  first  place 
Roman  magistrates;  and  that  in  the  royal  diplomas  the  king 
issued  his  commands  as  rex  Francorum  and  addressed  his 
functionaries  as  viri  inlwslres.  His  attention  having  been  drawn 
to  questions  of  authenticity  by  the  forgeries  of  Vrain  Lucas,  he 
devoted  himself  to  tracing  the  spurious  documents  that  en- 
cumbered and  perverted  Merovingian  and  Carolingian  history. 
In  his  A  propos  des  decoutiertes  de  Jerome  Vignier  (1880),  he 
exposed  the  forgeries  committed  in  the  i7th  century  by  this 
priest.  He  then  turned  his  attention  to  a  group  of  documents 
relating  to  ecclesiastical  history  in  the  Carolingian  period  and 
bearing  on  the  question  of  false  decretals,  and  produced  Les 
Charles  de  Si-Calais  (1887)  and  Les  Actes  de  Vbieche  du  Mans 
(1894).  On  the  problems  afforded  by  the  chronology  of  Gerbert's 
(Pope  Silvester  II.)  letters^and  by  the  notes  in  cipher  in  the  MS. 
of  his  letters,  he  wrote  L'Ecriture  secrete  de  Gcrbert  (1877),  which 
may  be  compared  with  his  Notes  tironiennes  dans  les  dipldmes 
merovingiens  (1885).  In  1889  he  brought  out  an  edition  of 
Gerbert's  letters,  which  was  a  model  of  critical  sagacity.  Each 
new  work  increased  his  reputation,  in  Germany  as  well  as  France. 
At  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  where  he  obtained  a  post,  he 
rendered  great  service  by  his  wide  knowledge  of  foreign  languages, 
and  read  voraciously  everything  that  related,  however  remotely, 
to  his  favourite  studies.  He  was  finally  appointed  assistant 
curator  in  the  department  of  printed  books.  He  died  pre- 
maturely at  St  Cloud  on  the  igth  of  August  1893. 

After  his  death  his  published  and  unpublished  writings  were 
collected  and  published  (with  the  exception  of  Les  Cours  royales  des 
lies  Normandes  and  Lettres  de  Gerbert)  in  two  volumes  called  Questions 
merovingiennes  and  Opuscules  inedits  (1896),  containing,  besides 
important  papers  on  diplomatic  and  on  Carolingian  and  Merovingian 
history',  a  large  number  of  short  monographs  ranging  over  a  great 
variety  of  subjects.  A  collection  of  his  articles  was  published 
by  his  friends  under  the  title  of  Melanges  Havet  (1895),  pre- 
fixed by  a  bibliography  of  his  works  compiled  by  his  friend  Henri 
Omont.  (C.  B.*) 

HAVRE,  LE,  a  seaport  of  north-western  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Seine-Inferieure,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  estuary  of  the 
Seine,  143  m.  W.N.W.  of  Paris  and  55  m.  W.  of  Rouen  by  the 
Western  railway.  Pop.  (1906),  129,403.  The  greater  part  of  the 
town  stands  on  the  level  strip  of  ground  bordering  the  esluary, 
but  on  the  N.  rises  an  eminence,  la  Cote,  covered  by  the  gardens 
and  villas  of  the  richer  quarter.  The  central  point  of  the  town 
is  the  Place  de  1'hotel  de  ville  in  which  are  the  public  gardens. 
It  is  crossed  by  the  Boulevard  de  Strasbourg,  running  from  the 
sea  on  the  west  to  the  railway  station  and  the  barracks  on  the 
east.  The  rue  de  Paris,  the  busiest  street,  starts  at  the  Grand 
Quai,  overlooking  the  outer  harbour,  and,  intersecting  the  Place 
Gambetta,  runs  north  and  enters  the  Place  de  1'hotel  de  ville  on 
its  southern  side.  The  docks  start  immediately  to  the  east  of  this 
street  and  extend  over  a  large  area  to  the  south  and  south-east 
of  the  town.  Apart  from  the  church  of  Notre-Dame,  dating 
from  the  i6th  and  i7th  centuries,  the  chief  buildings  of  Havre, 
including  the  h6tel  de  ville,  the  law  courts,  and  the  exchange, 
are  of  modern  erection.  The  museum  contains  a  collection  of 
antiquities  and  paintings.  Havre  is  the  seat  of  a  sub-prefect, 
and  forms  part  of  the  maritime  arrondissement  of  Cherbourg. 
Among  the  public  institutions  are  a  tribunal  of  first  instance,  a 
1  ribunal  of  commerce,  a  board  of  trade  arbitrators,  a  tribunal  of 
maritime  commerce,  a  chamber  of  commerce  and  a  branch  of  the 
Bank  of  France.  There  are  lycees  for  boys  and  girls,  schools  of 
commerce  and  other  educational  establishments.  Havre,  which  is 
a  fortified  place  of  the  second  class,  ranks  second  to  Marseilles 
among  French  seaports.  There  are  nine  basins  (the  oldest  of  which 


HAWAII 


dates  back  to  i66g)  with  an  area  of  about  200  acres  and  more 
than  8  m.  of  quays.  They  extend  to  the  east  of  the  outer 
harbour  which  on  the  west  opens  into  the  new  outer  harbour, 
formed  by  two  breakwaters  converging  from  the  land  and  leaving 
an  entrance  facing  west.  The  chief  docks  (see  DOCK  for  plan) 
are  the  Bassin  Bellot  and  the  Bassin  de  1'Eure.  In  the  latter 
the  mail-steamers  of  the  Compagnie  Generale  Transatlantique  are 
berthed;  and  the  Tancarville  canal,  by  which  river-boats  unable 
to  attempt  the  estuary  of  the  Seine  can  make  the  port  direct, 
enters  the  harbour  by  this  basin.  There  are,  besides,  several 
repairing  docks  and  a  petroleum  dock  for  the  use  of  vessels  carry- 
ing that  dangerous  commodity.  The  port,  which  is  an  important 
point  of  emigration,  has  regular  steam-communication  with 
New  York  (by  the  vessels  of  the  Compagnie  Generale  Trans- 
atlantique) and  with  many  of  the  other  chief  ports  of  Europe, 
North,  South  and  Central  America,  the  West  Indies  and  Africa. 
Imports  in  1907  reached  a  value  of  £57,686,000.  The  chief  were 
cotton,  for  which  Havre  is  the  great  French  market,  coffee, 
copper  and  other  metals,  cacao,  cotton  goods,  rubber,  skins  and 
hides,  silk  goods,  dye-woods,  tobacco,  oil-seeds,  coal,  cereals  and 
wool.  In  the  same  year  exports  were  valued  at  £47,130,000,  the 
most  important  being  cotton,  silk  and  woollen  goods,  coffee,  hides, 
leather,  wine  and  spirits,  rubber,  tools  and  metal  ware,  earthen- 
ware and  glass,  clothes  and  millinery,  cacao  and  fancy  goods. 
In  1907  the  total  tonnage  of  shipping  (with  cargoes)  reached  its 
highest  point,  viz.  5,671,975  tons  (4018  vessels)  compared  with 
3,816,340  tons  (3832  vessels)  in  1898.  Forty-two  per  cent  of 
this  shipping  sailed  under  the  British  flag.  France  and  Germany 
were  Great  Britain's  most  serious  rivals.  Havre  possesses  oil 
works,  soap  works,  saw  mills,  flour  mills,  works  for  extracting 
dyes  and  tannin  from  dye-woods,  an  important  tobacco  manu- 
factory, chemical  works  and  rope  works.  It  also  has  metal- 
lurgical and  engineering  works  which  construct  commercial  and 
war-vessels  of  every  kind  as  well  as  engines  and  machinery, 
cables,  boilers,  &c. 

Until  1516  Havre  was  only  a  fishing  village  possessing  a 
chapel  dedicated  to  Notre-Dame  de  Grace,  to  which  it  owes 
the  name,  Havre  (harbour)  de  Grace,  given  to  it  by  Francis  I. 
when  he  began  the  construction  of  its  harbour.  The  town  in 
1562  was  delivered  over  to  the  keeping  of  Queen  Elizabeth 
by  Louis  I.,  prince  de  Conde,  leader  of  the  Huguenots,  and  the 
command  of  it  was  entrusted  to  Ambrose  Dudley,  earl  of  Warwick ; 
but  the  English  were  expelled  in  1563,  after  a  most  obstinate 
siege,  which  was  pressed  forward  by  Charles  IX.  and  his  mother, 
Catherine  de'  Medici,  in  person.  The  defences  of  the  town 
and  the  harbour-works  were  continued  by  Richelieu  and  com- 
pleted by  Vauban.  In  1694  it  was  vainly  besieged  by  the 
English,  who  also  bombarded  it  in  1759,  1794  and  1795.  It 
was  a  port  of  considerable  importance  as  early  as  1572,  and 
despatched  vessels  to  the  whale  and  cod-fishing  at  Spitsbergen 
and  Newfoundland.  In  1672  it  became  the  entrep6t  of  the 
French  East  India  Company,  and  afterwards  of  the  Senegal 
and  Guinea  companies.  Napoleon  I.  raised  it  to  a  war  harbour 
of  the  first  rank,  and  under  Napoleon  III.  works  begun  by  Louis 
XVI.  were  completed. 

See  A.  E.  Borely,  Histoire  de  la  mile  du  Havre  (Le  Havre,  1880- 
1881). 

HAWAII  (HAWAIIAN  or  SANDWICH  ISLANDS),  a  Territory  of 
the  United  States  of  America,  consisting  of  a  chain  of  islands 
in  the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  eight  inhabited  and  several  unin- 
habited. The  inhabited  islands  lie  between  latitudes  18°  54' 
and  22°  15'  N.,  and  between  longitudes  154°  50'  and  160°  30'  W., 
and  extend  about  380  m.  from  E.S.E.  to  W.N.W.;  the  unin- 
habited ones,  mere  rocks  and  reefs,  valuable  only  for  their 
guano  deposits  and  shark-fishing  grounds,  continue  the  chain 
several  hundred  miles  farther  W.N.W.  From  Honolulu,  the 
capital,  which  is  about  100  m.  N.W.  of  the  middle  of  the  inhabited 
group,  the  distance  to  San  Francisco  is  about  2100  m.;  to 
Auckland,  New  Zealand,  about  3810  m.;  to  Sydney,  New  South 
Wales,  about  4410  m. ;  to  Yokohama,  about  3400  m.;  to 
Hong- Kong,  about  4920  m.;  to  Manila,  about  4890  m.  The 
total  area  of  the  inhabited  islands  is  6651  sq.  m.,  distributed  as 


follows:  Hawaii,  4210;  Maui,   728;  Oahu,  about  600;  Kauai, 
547;  Molokai,  261;  Lanai,  139;  Niihau,  97;  Kahoolawe,  69. 

All  the  islands  are  of  volcanic  origin,  and  have  been  built  up  by 
the  eruptive  process  from  a  base  about  15,000  ft.  below  the  sea  to  a 
maximum  height  (Mauna  Kea)  on  the  largest  island  (Hawaii)  of 
13,823  ft.  above  the  sea;  altogether  there  are  forty  volcanic  peaks. 
Evidence  of  slight  upheaval  is  occasionally  afforded  by  an  elevated 
coral-reef  along  the  shore,  and  evidence  of  the  subsidence  of  the  S. 
portion  of  Oahu  for  several  hundred  feet  has  been  discovered  by 
artesian  borings  through  coral-rock.  In  some  instances,  notably 
the  high  and  nearly  vertical  wall  along  the  N.  shore  of  the  E.  half 
of  Molokai,  there  is  evidence  of  a  fracture  followed  by  the  sub- 
mergence of  a  portion  of  a  volcano.  With  the  exception  of  the  coral 
and  a  small  amount  of  calcareous  sandstone,  the  rocks  are  entirely 
volcanic  and  range  from  basalt  to  trachyte,  but  are  mainly  basalt. 
Cinder  cones  and  tufa  cones  abound,  but  one  of  the  most  distinguish- 
ing features  of  the  Hawaiian  volcanoes  is  the  great  number  of 
craters  of  the  engulfment  type,  i.e.  pit-craters  which  enlarge  slowly 
by  the  breaking  off  and  falling  in  of  their  walls,  and  discharge  vast 
lava-flows  with  comparatively  little  violence.  The  age  of  the  several 
inhabited  islands,  or  at  least  the  time  since  the  last  eruptions  on 
them,  decreases  from  W.  to  E.,  and  on  the  most  easterly  (Hawaii) 
volcanic  forces  are  still  in  operation.  That  those  to  the  westward 
have  long  been  inactive  is  shown  by  the  destruction  of  craters  by 
denudation,  by  deep  ravines,  valleys  and  tall  cliffs  eroded  on  the 
mountain  sides,  especially  on  the  windward  side,  by  the  depth  of 
soil  formed  from  the  disintegrated  rocks,  and  by  the  amount  as  well 
as  variety  of  vegetable  life. 

Hawaii  Island,  from  which  the  group  and  later  the  Territory 
was  named,  has  the  shape  of  a  rude  triangle  with  sides  of  90  m., 
75  m.  and  65  m.  Its  coast,  unlike  that  of  the  other  islands  of 
the  archipelago,  has  few  coral  reefs.  Its  surface  consists  mainly 
of  the  gentle  slopes  of  five  volcanic  mountains  which  have 
encroached  much  upon  one  another  by  their  eruptions. 

Mauna  Loa  ("  Great  Mountain  "),  on  the  S.,  is  by  far  the  largest 
volcano  in  the  world ;  from  a  base  measuring  at  sea-level  about  75  m. 
from  N.  to  S.  and  50  m.  from  E.  to  W.,  it  rises  gradually  to  a  height 
of  13,675  ft.  On  its  E.S.E.  side,  at  an  elevation  of  4000  ft.  above 
the  sea  (300  ft.  above  the  adjoining  plain  on  the  W.)  is  Kilauea, 
from  whose  lava-flows  the  island  has  been  extended  to  form  its  S.E. 
angle.  To  the  N.N.E.  ot  Mauna  Loa,  and  blending  with  it  in  an 
intervening  plateau,  is  Mauna  Kea  ("  White  Mountain,"  so  named 
from  the  snow  on  its  summit),  with  a  much  smaller  base  but  with 
steeper  slopes  and  a  crowning  cinder  cone  13,823  ft.  above  the  sea, 
the  maximum  height  in  the  Pacific  Ocean;  blending  with  Mauna 
Loa  on  the  N.N.W.  is  Mauna  Hualalai,  8269  ft.  in  height;  and  rising 
abruptly  from  the  extreme  N.W.  shore  are  the  remains  of  the  oldest 
mountains  of  the  island,  the  Kohala,  with  a  summit  5505  ft.  in  height. 
On  the  land  side  the  Kohala  Mountains  have  been  covered  with  lava 
from  Mauna  Kea,  and  form  the  broad  plains  of  Kohala,  having  a 
maximum  elevation  of  about  3000  ft. ;  on  the  ocean  side,  wherever 
this  lava  has  not  extended,  erosion  has  gone  on  until  bluffs  1000  ft. 
in  height  face  the  sea  and  the  enormous  gorges  of  Waipio  and 
Waimanu,  with  nearly  perpendicular  walls  as  much  as  3000  ft. 
high  and  extending  inland  5-6  m.,  have  been  formed.  Mauna  Kea 
is  not  nearly  so  old  as  the  Kohala  Mountains,  but  there  is  no  record 
of  its  eruption,  nor  have  its  lavas  a  modern  aspect.  The  last  eruption 
of  Mauna  Hualalai  was  in  1801.  Mauna  Loa  and  Kilauea  are  still 
active.  Cinder  cones  are  the  predominant  type  of  craters  on  both 
Mauna  Kea  and  the  Kohala  Mountains,  and  they  are  also  numerous 
on  the  upper  slopes  of  Mauna  Hualalai;  but  the  more  typically 
Hawaiian  pit  or  engulfment  craters  also  abound  on  Mauna  Hualalai 
and  Mokuaweoweo,  crowning  the  summit  of  Mauna  Loa,  as  well  as 
Kilauea,  to  the  S.E.  of  it,  are  prominent  representatives  of  this  type. 
Kilauea  is  the  largest  active  crater  in  the  world  (8  m.  in  circum- 
ference) and  is  easily  accessible.  -  Enclosed  by  a  circular  wall  from 
200  to  700  ft.  in  height  is  a  black  and  slightly  undulating  plain 
having  an  area  of  4-14  sq.  m.,  and  within  this  plain  is  a  pit,  Hale- 
maumau,  of  varying  area  (about  2000  ft.  in  diameter  in  1905),  now 
full  of  boiling  lava,  now  empty  to  a  depth  of  perhaps  1000  ft.  When 
most  active,  Halemaumau  affords  a  grand  spectacle,  especially  at 
night :  across  the  crust  run  glowing  cracks,  the  crust  is  then  broken 
into  cakes,  the  cakes  plunge  beneath,  lakes  of  liquid  lava  are  forme'd, 
over  whose  surface  play  fire-fountains  10  to  50  ft.  in  height,  the 
surface  again  solidifies  and  the  process  is  repeated.1  According  to 
an  account  of  the  natives,  a  violent  eruption  of  Kilauea  occurred  in 
1789,  or  about  that  time,  and  deposits  of  volcanic  sand,  large  stones, 
sponge-like  scoria  (pumice)  and  ashes  for  miles  around  are  evidence 
of  such  an  eruption.  Since  the  Rev.  William  Ellis  and  a  party  of 
American  missionaries  first  made  the  volcano  known  to  the  civilized 

1  Among  the  minor  phenomena  of  Hawaiian  volcanoes  are  the 
delicate  glassy  fibres  called  Pele's  hair  by  the  Hawaiians,  which  are 
spun  by  the  wind  from  the  rising  and  falling  drops  of  liquid  lava, 
and  blown  over  the  edge  or  into  the  crevices  of  the  crater.  Pele  in 
idolatrous  times  was  the  dreaded  goddess  of  Kilauea. 


84 


HAWAII 


D 


HAWAII 

Scale,  1:3,500,000 

English  Miles 
o      10      20     30    40     50    60      70     80 

County  Seats © 

Railways, -^. 

Lave,  flows _ 3SB 


&fg%s  ^s~d$Sjg&Z' 

LanaiQ^ 

•malaDau  Harb.)  ^-*V> 


70*          West  165'  Long.        160' 


160' 


B 


Longitude  West  158"  of  Greenwich 


Emtry  Wjlktf   1C. 


world  in  1823,  the  eruptions  have  consisted  mainly  in  the  quiet 
discharge  of  lava  through  a  subterranean  passage  into  the  sea.  In 
the  eruptions  of  1823,  1832,  1840  and  1868  the  floor  of  the  crater 
rose  on  the  eve  of  an  eruption  and  then  sank,  sometimes  hundreds 
of  feet,  with  the  discharge  of  lava;  but  since  1868  (in  1879,  1886, 
1891,  1894  and  1907;  and  once,  before  1868,  in  1855)  this  action 
has  been  confined  to  Halemaumau  and  such  other  pits  as  at  the  time 
existed. 

Mokuaweoweo,  on  the  flat  top  of  Mauna  Loa,  is  a  pit  crater  with 
a  floor  3-7  sq.  m.  in  area  and  sunk  500-600  ft.  within  walls  that 
are  almost  vertical  and  that  measure  9-47  m.  in  circumference. 
Formerly,  on  the  eve  of  a  great  eruption  of  Mauna  Loa,  this  crater 
often  spouted  forth  great  columns  of  flame  and  emitted  clouds  of 
vapour,  but  in  modern  times  this  action  has  usually  been  followed 
by  a  fracture  of  the  mountain  side  from  the  summit  down  to  a  point 
1000  ft.  or  more  below  where  the  lava  was  discharged  in  great 
streams,  the  action  at  the  summit  diminishing  or  wholly  ceasing 
when  this  discharge  began.  The  first  recorded  eruption  of  Mauna 
Loa  was  in  1832;  since  then  there  have  been  eruptions  in  1851, 
1852,  1855,  1859,  1868,  1880-1881,  1887,  1896,  1899  and  1907.  The 
eruptions  of  1868,  1887  and  1907  were  attended  by  earthquakes; 
in  1868  huge  sea  waves,  40  ft.  in  height,  were  raised,  and,  as  they 
broke  on  the  S.  shore,  they  destroyed  the  villages  of  Punaluu, 
Ninole,  Kawaa  and  Honuapo.  But  the  eruptions  of  Mauna  Loa 
have  consisted  mainly  in  the  quiet  discharge  of  enormous  flows  of 
lava:  in  1859  the  lava-stream,  which  began  to  run  on  the  23rd  of 
January,  flowed  N.W.,  reached  the  sea,  33  m.  distant,  eight  days 
later,  and  continued  to  flow  into  it  until  the  25th  of  November; 
and  the  average  length  of  the  flows  from  seven  other  eruptions  is 
nearly  14  m.  The  surface  of  the  upper  slopes  of  Mauna  Loa  is 
almost  wholly  of  two  widely  different  kinds  of  barren  lava-flows, 
called  by  the  Hawaiians  the  pahoehoe  and  the  aa.  The  pahoehoe 
has  a  smooth  but  billowy  or  hummocky  surface,  and  is  marked  by 
lines  which  show  that  it  cooled  as  it  flowed.  The  aa  is  lava  broken 
into  fragments  having  sharp  and  jagged  edges.  As  the  same  stream 
sometimes  changes  abruptly  from  one  kind  to  the  other,  the  two 
kinds  must  be  due  to  different  conditions  affecting  the  flow,  and 
among  the  conditions  which  may  cause  a  stream  to  break  up  into 
the  aa  have  been  mentioned  the  greater  depth  of  the  stream,  a 
sluggish  current,  impediments  in  its  course  just  as  it  is  granulating, 
and,  what  is  more  probable,  subterranean  moisture  which  causes  it 
to  cool  from  below  upward  instead  of  from  above  downward  as  in 
the  pahoehoe.  The  natives  are  in  the  habit  of  making  holes  in  the  aa, 
and  planting  in  them  banana  shoots  or  sweet-potato  cuttings,  and 
though  the  holes  are  simply  filled  with  stones  or  fern  leaves,  the 


plants  grow  and  in  due  time  are  productive.  Another  curious  feature 
of  Mauna  Loa,  and  to  some  extent  of  other  Hawaiian  volcanoes,  is 
the  great  number  of  caves,  some  of  them  as  much  as  60  to  80  ft.  in 
height  and  several  miles  in  length ;  they  were  produced  by  the 
escape  of  lava  over  which  a  crust  had  formed.  In  the  midst  of 
barren  wastes  to  the  S.E.  and  S.W.  of  Kilauea  are  small  channels 
with  steam  cracks,  along  which  appears  the  only  vegetation  of  the 
region. 

Maui,  lying  26  m.  N.W.  of  Hawaii,  is  composed  of  two 
mountains  connected  by  an  isthmus,  Wailuku,  7  or  8  m.  long, 
about  6  m.  across,  and  about  160  ft.  above  the  sea  in  its 
highest  part. 

Mauna  Haleakala,  on  the  E.  peninsula,  has  a  height  of  10,032  ft., 
and  forms  a  great  dome-like  mass,  with  a  circumference  at  the  base 
of  90  m.  and  regular  slopes  of  only  8°  or  9°.  It  has  numerous  cinder 
cones  on  its  S.W.  slope,  is  well  wooded  on  the  N.  and  E.  slopes, 
and  has  on  its  summit  an  extinct  pit-crater  which  is  one  of  the 
largest  in  the  world.  This  crater  is  7-48  m.  long,  2-37  m.  wide, 
and  covers  19  sq.  m.;  the  circuit  of  its  walls,  which  are  composed  of 
a  hard  grey  clinkstone  much  fissured,  is  20  m.;  its  greatest  depth 
is  2720  ft.  At  opposite  ends  are  breaks  in  the  walls  a  mile  or  more 
in  width — one  about  1000  ft.,  the  other  at  least  3000  ft.  in  depth — 
through  which  poured  the  lava  of  probably  the  last  great  eruption. 
From  the  floor  of  the  crater  rise  sixteen  well-preserved  cinder-cones, 
which  range  from  more  than  400  ft.  to  900  ft.  in  height.  Along  the 
N.  base  of  the  mountain  are  numerous  ravines  (several  hundred  feet 
deep),  to  the  bottom  of  which  small  streams  of  water  fall  in  long 
cascades,  but  elsewhere  on  the  eastern  mountain  there  is  littleerosion 
or  other  mark  of  age.  That  the  mountainous  mass  of  western  Maui 
is  much  older  is  shown  by  the  destruction  of  its  crater,  by  its  sharp 
ridges  and  by  deeply  eroded  gorges  or  valleys.  Its  highest  peak, 
Puu  Kukui,  rises  5788  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  directly  under  this 
is  the  head  of  lao  Valley,  5  m.  long  and  2  m.  wide,  which  has  been  cut 
in  the  mountain  to  a  depth  of  4000  ft.  This  and  the  smaller  valleys 
are  noted  for  the  beauty  of  their  tropical  scenery. 

Kahoolawe  is  a  small  island  6  m.  S.W.  of  Maui.  It  is  14  m. 
long  by  6  m.  wide.  Its  mountains,  which  rise  to  a  height  of 
1472  ft.,  are  rugged  and  nearly  destitute  of  verdure,  but  the 
intervening  valleys  afford  pasturage  for  sheep. 

Lanai  is  another  small  island,  7  m.  W.  of  Maui,  about  18  m. 
long  and  12  m.  wide.  It  has  a  mountain- range  which  rises  to  a 


HAWAII 


maximum  height,  S.E.  of  its  centre,  of  about  3480  ft.  The  N.E. 
slope  is  cut  by  deep  gorges,  and  at  the  bottom  of  one  of  these, 
which  is  2000  ft.  deep,  is  the  only  water-supply  on  the  island. 
On  the  S.  side  is  a  rolling  table-land  affording  considerable 
pasturage  for  sheep,  but  over  the  whole  N.W.  portion  of  the 
island  the  trade  winds,  driving  through  the  channel  between 
Maui  and  Molokai,  sweep  the  rocks  bare.  Kahoolawe  and  Lanai 
are  both  privately  owned. 

Molokai,  8  m.  N.W.  of  Maui,  extends  40  m.  from  E.  to  W. 
and  has  an  average  width  of  nearly  7  m.  From  the  S.W.  ex- 
tremity of  the  island  rises  the  backbone  of  a  ridge  which  extends 
E.N.E.  about  10  m.,  where  it  culminates  in  the  round-topped 
hill  of  Mauna  Loa,  1382  ft.  above  the  sea.  Both  the  northern 
and  southern  slopes  of  this  ridge  are  cut  by  ravines  and  gulches, 
and  along  the  N.  shore  is  a  steep  sea-cliff.  At  the  E.  extremity 
of  the  ridge  there  is  a  sudden  drop  to  a  low  and  gently  rolling 
plain,  but  farther  on  the  surface  rises  gradually  towards  a  range 
of  mountains  which  comprises  more  than  one-half  the  island 
and  attains  a  maximum  height  of  4958  ft.  in  the  peak  of  Kama- 
kou.  The  S.  slope  of  this  range  is  gradual  but  is  cut  by  many 
straight  and  narrow  ravines,  in  some  instances  to  a  great  depth. 
The  N.  slope  is  abrupt,  with  precipices  from  1000  to  4000  ft. 
in  height.  Extending  N.  from  the  foot  of  the  precipice,  a  little 
E.  of  the  centre  of  the  island,  is  a  comparatively  low  peninsula 
(separated  from  the  mainland  by  a  rock  wall  2000  ft.  high), 
on  which  is  a  famous  leper  settlement.  The  peninsula  forms  a 
separate  county,  Kalawao. 

Oahu,  23  m.  N.W.  of  Molokai,  has  an  irregular  quadrangular 
form.  It  is  traversed  from  S.E.  to  N.W.  by  two  roughly  parallel 
ranges  of  hill  separated  by  a  plain  that  is  20  m.  long  and  in  some 
parts  9  to  10  m.  wide.  The  highest  point  in  the  island  is  Mauna 
Kaala,  4030  ft.,  in  the  Waianae  or  W.  range;  but  the  Koolau 
or  E.  range  is  much  longer  than  the  other,  and  its  ridge  is  very 
much  broken;  on  the  land  side  there  are  many  ravines  formed 
by  lateral  spurs,  but  to  the  sea  for  30  m.  it  presents  a  nearly 
vertical  wall  without  a  break.  The  valleys  are  remarkable  for 
beautiful  scenery, — peaks,  cliffs,  lateral  ravines,  cascades  and 
tropical  vegetation.  There  are  few  craters  on  the  loftier  heights, 
but  on  the  coasts  there  are  several  groups  of  small  cones  with 
craters,  some  of  lava,  others  of  tufa.  The  greater  part  of  the 
coast  is  surrounded  by  a  coral  reef,  often  half  a  mile  wide;  in 
several  localities  an  old  reef  upheaved,  sometimes  100  ft.  high, 
forms  part  of  the  land. 

Kauai,  63  m.  W.N.W.  of  Oahu,  has  an  irregularly  circular 
form  with  a  maximum  diameter  of  about  25  m.  On  the  N.W. 
is  a  precipice  2000  ft.  or  more  in  height  and  above  this  is  a 
mountain  plain,  but  elsewhere  around  the  island  is  a  shore 
plain,  from  which  rises  Mount  Waialeale  to  a  height  of  5250  ft. 
The  peaks  of  the  mountain  are  irregular,  abrupt  and  broken; 
its  sides  are  deeply  furrowed  by  gorges  and  ravines;  the  shore 
plain  is  broken  by  ridges  and  by  broad  and  deep  valleys;  no 
other  island  of  the  group  is  so  well  watered  on  all  sides  by  large 
mountain  streams;  and  it  is  called  "  garden  isle." 

Niihau,  the  most  westerly  of  the  inhabited  islands,  is  18  m. 
W. by  S. of  Kauai.  It  is  16  m. longand  6  m.  wide.  The  western 
two-thirds  consists  of  a  low  plain,  composed  of  an  uplifted 
coral  reef  and  matter  washed  down  from  the  mountains;  but 
on  the  E.  side  the  island  rises  precipitously  from  the  sea  and 
attains  a  maximum  height  of  1304  ft.  at  Paniau.  There  are 
large  salt  lagoons  on  the  southern  coast. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  cooler  than  that  of  other  regions  in  the 
same  latitude,  and  is  very  healthy.  The  sky  is  usually  cloudless 
or  only  partly  cloudy.  The  N.E.  trades  blow  with  periodic  varia- 
tions from  March  to  December;  and  the  leeward  coast,  being  pro- 
tected by  high  mountains,  is  refreshed  by  regular  land  and  sea 
breezes.  During  January,  February  and  a  part  of  March  the  wind 
blows  strongly  from  the  S.  or  S.W. ;  and  at  this  season  an  unpleasant 
hot,  damp  wind  is  sometimes  felt.  More  rain  falls  from  January  to 
May  than  during  the  other  months;  very  much  more  falls  on  the 
windward  side  of  the  principal  islands  than  on  the  leeward ;  and  the 
amount  increases  with  the  elevation  also  up  to  about  4000  ft.  The 
greatest  recorded  extremes  of  local  rainfall  for  a  year  within  the  larger 
islands  range  from  12  to  300  in.  For  Honolulu  the  mean  annual 
rainfall  (1884-1899)  was  28-18  in.;  the  maximum  49-82;  and  the 


minimum  13-46.  At  sea  level  the  daily  average  temperature  for 
July  is  76-4°  F.,  for  December  70-7°  F. ;  the  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture is  about  73°  F. — 68°  during  the  night,  80°  during  the  day — 
and  for  each  200  ft.  of  elevation  the  temperature  falls  about  1°  F., 
and  snow  lies  for  most  of  the  time  on  the  highest  mountains. 

Flora.— The  Hawaiian  Islands  have  a  peculiar  flora.  As  a  result 
of  their  isolation,  the  proportion  of  endemic  plants  is  greater  here 
than  in  any  other  region,  and  the  great  elevation  of  the  mountains, 
with  the  consequent  variation  in  temperature,  moisture  and  baro- 
metric pressure,  has  multiplied  the  number  of  species.  Towards  the 
close  of  the  igth  century  William  Hillebrand  found  365  genera  and 
999  species,  and  of  this  number  of  species  653  were  peculiar  to  this 
part  of  the  Pacific.  The  number  of  species  is  greatest  on  the  older 
islands,  particularly  Kauai  and  Oahu,  and  the  total  number  for  the 
group  has  been  constantly  increasing,  some  being  introduced,  others 
possibly  being  produced  by  the  varying  climatic  conditions  from 
those  already  existing.  Among  the  peculiar  dicotyledonous  plants 
there  is  not  a  single  annual,  and  by  far  the  greater  number  ar*  per- 
ennial and  woody.  Hawaiian  forests  are  distinctly  tropical,  and  are 
composed  for  the  most  part  of  trees  below  the  medium  height.  They 
are  most  common  between  elevations  of  2000  and  8000  ft. ;  there 
are  only  a  few  species  below  2000  ft.,  and  above  8000  ft.  the  growth 
is  stunted.  The  destruction  of  considerable  portions  of  the  forests 
by  cattle,  goats,  insects,  fire  and  cutting  has  been  followed  by  re- 
foresting, the  planting  of  hitherto  barren  tracts,  the  passage  of  severe 
forest  fire  laws,  and  the  establishment  of  forest  reserves,  of  which 
the  area  in  1909  was  545,746  acres,  of  which  357,180  were  govern- 
ment land.  In  regions  of  heavy  rainfall  the  ohia-lehua  (Metrosideros 
polymorpha),  a  tree  growing  from  30  to  100  ft.  in  height,  is  predomi- 
nant, and  on  account  of  the  dense  undergrowth  chiefly  of  ferns 
and  climbing  vines,  forms  the  most  impenetrable  of  the  forests; 
its  hard  wood  is  used  chiefly  for  fuel.  The  koa  (Acacia  koa),  from 
the  wood  of  which  the  natives  used  to  make  the  bodies  of  their  canoes, 
and  the  only  tree  of  the  islands  that  furnishes  much  valuable  lumber 
(a  hard  cabinet  wood  marketed  as  "  Hawaiian  mahogany  "),  forms 
extensive  forests  on  Hawaii  and  Maui  between  elevations  of  2000  and 
4000  ft.  The  mamane  (Sophora  chrysophytta) ,  which  furnishes  the 
best  posts,  grows  principally  on  the  high  slopes  of  Mauna  Kea  and 
Hualalai.  Posts  and  railway  ties  are  also  made  from  ohia-ha 
(Eugenia  sandwicensis).  In  many  districts  between  elevations  of 
2000  and  6000  ft.,  where  there  is  only  a  moderate  amount  of  moisture, 
occur  mixed  forests  of  koa,  koaia  (Acacia  koaia),  kopiko  (Straussia 
oncocarpa  and  5.  hawaiiensis) ,  kolea  (Myrsine  kauaiensis  and 
M.  lanaiensis),  naio  or  bastard  sandalwood  (Myoporum  sandwicense) 
and  pua  (Olea  sandwicensis);  of  these  the  koaia  furnishes  a  hard 
wood  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  and  out  of  it  the 
natives  formerly  made  spears  and  fancy  paddles.  The  wood  of 
the  naio  when  dry  has  a  fragrance  resembling  that  of  sandalwood, 
and  is  used  for  torches  in  fishing.  The  kukui  (Aleurites  triloba)  and 
the  algaroba  (Prosopis  juliflora)  are  the  principal  species  of  forest 
trees  that  occur  below  elevations  of  2000  ft.  The  kukui  grows  along 
streams  and  gulches;  from  its  nuts,  which  are  very  oily,  the  natives 
used  to  make  candles,  and  it  is  still  frequently  called  the  candlenut 
tree.  On  the  leeward  side,  from  near  the  sea  level  to  elevations 
of  1500  ft.,  and  on  ground  that  was  formerly  barren,  the  algaroba 
tree  has  formed  dense  forests  since  its  introduction  in  1837.  Forests 
of  iron-wood  and  blue  gum  have  also  been  planted.  Sandalwood 
(Sanlalum  album  or  freycinetianum)  was  once  abundant  on  rugged 
and  rather  inaccessible  heights,  but  so  great  a  demand  arose  for  it  in 
China,1  where  it  was  used  for  incense  and  for  the  manufacture  of 
fancy  articles,  that  the  supply  was  nearly  exhausted  between  1802 
and  1836;  since  then  some  young  trees  have  sprung  up,  but  the 
number  is  relatively  small.  Other  peculiar  trees  prized  for  their 
wood  are:  the  kauila  (Alphitonia  ponderosa),  used  for  making 
spears,  mallets  and  other  tools;  the  kela  (Mezoneuron  kauaiense), 
the  hard  wood  of  which  resembles  ebony;  the  halapepe  (Dracaena 
OMreo),  out  of  the  soft  wood  of  which  the  natives  carved  many  of 
their  idols;  and  the  wiliwili  (Erythrina  monosperma),  the  wood  of 
which  is  as  light  as  cork  and  is  used  for  outriggers.  In  1909,  on  six 
large  rubber  plantations,  mostly  on  the  windward  side  of  the  island  of 
Maui,  there  were  planted  444,450  ceara  trees,  66,700  hevea  trees,  and 
600  castilloa  trees.  About  the  only  indigenous  fruit-bearing  plants 
are  the  Chilean  strawberry  (Fragaria  chilensis)  and  the  ohelo  berry 
(Vaccinium  reticulatum) ,  both  of  which  grow  at  high  elevations  on 
Hawaii  and  Maui.  The  ohelo  berry  is  famous  in  song  and  story,  and 
formerly  served  as  a  propitiatory  offering  to  Pele.  The  number  of 
fruit-bearing  trees,  shrubs  and  plants  that  have  been  introduced  and 
are  successfully  cultivated  or  grow  wild  is  much  greater;  among 
them  are  the  mango,  orange,  banana,  pineapple,  coconut,  palm,  grape, 
fig,  strawberry,  litchi  (Nephelium  litchi) — the  favourite  fruit  of  the 
Chinese — avocado  or  alligator  pear  (Persea  gratissima),  Sapodilla  pear 
(Achras  sapota),  loquat  or  mespilus  plum  (Eriobotrya  japonica) ,  Cape 
gooseberry  (Physalis  peruviana),  tamarind  (Tamarindus  indica), 
papaw  (Carica  papaya),  resembling  in  appearance  the  cantaloupe, 
granadilla  (Passiflora  quadrangularis)  and  guava  (Psidiumguajava). 
Most  of  the  native  grasses  are  too  coarse  for  grazing,  and  some  of 


1  The  Chinese  name  for  the  Hawaiian  Islands  means  "  Sandalwood 
Islands." 


86 


HAWAII 


them,  particularly  the  hilo  grass  (Paspalum  conjugatum) ,  which  forms 
a  dense  mat  over  the  ground,  prevent  the  spread  of  forests.  The  pili 
grass  (Heteropogon  contortus)  is  also  noxious,  for  its  awns  get  badly 
entangled  in  the  wool  of  sheep.  The  native  manienie  (Slenotaphrum 
americanum)  and  kukai  (Panicum  pruriens),  however,  are  relished 
by  stock  and  are  found  on  all  the  inhabited  islands;  the  Bermuda 
grass  (Cynodon  dactylon),  a  June  grass  (Poa  annua),  and  Guinea  grass 
(Panicum  iumentorum)  have  also  been  successfully  introduced. 
The  Paspalum  orbiculare  is  the  large  swamp  grass  with  which  the 
natives  covered  their  houses.  On  the  island  of  Niihau  is  a  fine 
grass  (Cyperus  laevigatus) ,  out  of  which  the  beautiful  Niihau  mats 
were  formerly  made;  it  is  used  in  making  Panama  hats.  Mats 
were  also  made  of  the  leaves  of  the  hala  tree  (Pandanus  odoratissi- 
mus).  The  wauke  plant  (Broussonetia  papyrifera),  and  to  a  less 
extent  the  mamake  (Pipturus  albidus)  and  Boehmeria  stipularis, 
furnished  the  bark  out  of  which  the  famous  kapa  cloth  was  made, 
while  theolopa  ( Cheirodendron  gaudichaudi i)  and  the  koolea  (Myrsine 
lessertiana)  furnished  the  dyes  with  which  it  was  coloured.  From 
several  species  of  Cibotium  is  obtained  a  glossy  yellowish  wool, 
used  for  making  pillows  and  mattresses.  Ferns,  of  which  there  are 
about  130  species  varying'  from  a  few  inches  to  30  ft.  in  height, 
form  a  luxuriant  undergrowth  in  the  ohia-lehua  and  the  koa  forests, 
and  the  islands  are  noted  for  the  profusion  and  beautiful  colours 
of  their  flowering  plants.  Kalo  (Colocasia  antiquorum,  var.,  escu- 
lenta),  which  furnishes  the  principal  food  of  the  natives,  and  sugar 
cane  (Saccharum  officinaruni),  the  cultivation  of  which  has  become 
the  chief  industry  of  the  islands,  were  introduced  before  the  discovery 
of  the  group  by  Captain  Cook  in  1778.  Sisal  hemp  has  been  intro- 
duced, and  there  is  a  large  plantation  of  it  W.  of  Honolulu. 

Over  seventy  varieties  of  seaweeds,  growing  in  the  fresh-water 
pools  and  in  the  waters  near  the  coast,  are  used  by  the  natives 
as  food.  These  limus,  as  they  are  called  by  the  Kanakas,  are 
washed,  salted,  broken  and  eaten  as  a  relish  or  as  a  flavouring 
for  fish  or  other  meat.  The  culture  of  such  algae  may  prove  of  eco- 
nomic importance;  gelatine,  glue  and  agar-agar  would  be  valuable 
by-products. 

Fauna. — A  day-flying  bat,  whales  and  dolphins  are  about  the  only 
indigenous  mammals ;  hogs,  dogs  and  rats  had  been  introduced  before 
Cook's  discovery.  Fish  in  an  interesting  variety  of  colours  and 
shapes  abound  in  the  sea  and  in  artificial  ponds  along  the  coasts.1 
There  are  some  fine  species  of  birds,  and  the  native  avifauna  is  so 
distinctive  that  Wallace  argued  from  it  that  the  Hawaiian  Archi- 
pelago had  long  been  separated  from  any  other  land.  There  were 
native  names  for  89  varieties.  The  most  typical  family  is  the 
Drepanidae,  so  named  for  the  stout  sickle-shaped  beak  with  which 
the  birds  extract  insects  from  heavy-barked  trees;  Gadow  con- 
siders the  family  American  in  its  origin,  and  thinks  that  the  Moho,1 
a  family  of  honey-suckers,  were  later  comers  and  from  Australia. 
The  mamo  (Drepanis  pacifica)  has  large  golden  feathers  on  its  back ; 
it  is  now  very  rare,  and  is  seldom  found  except  on  Mauna  Loa, 
Hawaii,  about  4000  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  smaller  yellow  feathers, 
once  used  for  the  war  cloaks  of  the  native  chiefs,  were  furnished  by 
the  oo  (Moho_  nobilis)  and  the  aa  (Moho  braccatus),  now  found  only 
occasionally  in  the  valleys  of  Kauai  near  Hanalei,  on  the  N.  side  of 
the  island ;  scarlet  feathers  for  similar  mantles  were  taken  from  the 
iiwi  (Vestiaria  coccinea),  a  black-bodied,  scarlet-winged  song-bird, 
which  feeds  on  nectar  and  on  insects  found  in  the  bark  of  the  koa 
and  ohia  trees,  and  from  the  Fringilla  coccinea.  In  the  old  times 
birds  were  protected  by  the  native  belief  that  divine  messages  were 
conveyed  by  bird  cries,  and  by  royal  edict  forbidding  the  killing 
of  species  furnishing  the  material  for  feather  cloaks,  contributions 
towards  which  were  long  almost  the.  only  taxes  paid.  Thus  the 
downfall  of  the  monarchy  and  of  the  ancient  cults  nave  been  nearly 
fatal  to  some  of  the  more  beautiful  birds;  feather  ornaments, 
formerly  worn  only  by  nobles,  came  to  be  a  common  decoration; 
and  many  species  (for  example  the  Hawaiian  gallinule,  Gallinula 
sandwicensis,  which,  because  of  its  crimson  frontal  plate  and  bill, 
was  said  by  the  natives  to  have  played  the  part  of  Prometheus, 
burning  its  head  with  fire  stolen  from  the  gods  and  bestowed  on 
mortals)  have  been  nearly  destroyed  by  the  mongoose,  or  have 
been  driven  from  their  lowland  homes  to  the  mountains,  such  being 
the  fate  of  the  mamo,  mentioned  above,  and  of  the  Sandwich  Island 
goose  (Bernicla  sandwicensis},  which  is  here  a  remarkable  example  of 
adaptation,  as  its  present  habitat  is  quite  arid.  This  goose  has 
been  introduced  successfully  into  Europe.  A  bird  called  moho, 
but  actually  of  a  different  family,  was  the  Pennula  ecaudata  or 
millsi,  which  had  hardly  any  tail,  and  had  wings  so  degenerate 
that  it  was  commonly  thought  wingless.  The  turnstone  (Strepsilas 
interpres)  arrives  in  the  islands  in  August  after  breeding  in  Alaska. 
There  are  no  parrots.  The  only  reptiles  are  three  species  of  skinks 
and  four  of  the  gecko ;  the  islands  are  famed  for  their  freedom  from 


1  Partly  described  by  T.  S.  Streets,  Contributions  to  the  Natural 
History  of  the  Hawaiian  and  Fanning  Islands,  Bulletin  7  of  U.S. 
National   Museum   (Washington,   1877).     Several  new  species  are 
described  in  U.S.  Bureau  of  Fisheries  Document,  No.  623  (Washing- 
ton, 1907). 

2  So  Lesson  called  the  family  from  the  native  name  in   1831; 
Cabanis  (1847)  suggested  Acrulocercus. 


snakes.  Land-snails,  mostly  A  chatinellidae,  are  remarkably  frequent 
and  diverse;  over  300  varieties  exist.  Insects  are  numerous,  and 
of  about  500  species  of  beetle  some  80%  are  not  known  to  exist 
elsewhere;  cockroaches  and  green  locusts  are  pests,  as  are,  also, 
mosquitoes,3  wasps,  scorpions,  centipedes  and  white  ants,  which 
have  all  been  introduced  from  elsewhere. 

Soil. — The  soil  of  the  Territory  is  almost  wholly  a  decomposition 
of  lava,  and  in  general  differs  much  from  the  soils  of  the  United 
States,  particularly  in  the  large  amount  of  nitrogen  (often  more 
than  1-25%  in  cane  and  coffee  soil,  and  occasionally  2-2%)  and 
iron,  and  in  the  high  degree  of  acidity.  High  up  on  the  windward 
side  of  a  mountain  it  is  thin,  light  red  or  yellow,  and  of  inferior 
quality.  Low  down  on  the  leeward  side  it  is  dark  red  and  fertile, 
but  still  too  pervious  to  retain  moisture  well.  In  the  older  valleys 
on  the  islands  of  Kauai,  Oahu  and  Maui,  as  well  as  on  the  jowland 
plain  of  Molokai,  the  soil  is  deeper  and  usually,  too,  the  moisture  is 
retained  by  a  heavy  clay.  In  some  places  along  the  coast  there  is  a 
narrow  strip  of  decomposed  coral  limestone ;  often,  too,  a  coral  reef 
has  served  to  catch  the  sediment  washed  down  the  mountain 
side  until  a  deep  sedimentary  soil  has  been  deposited.  On  the  still 
lower  levels  the  soil  is  deepest  and  most  productive. 

Agriculture. — The  tenure  by  which  lands  were  held  before  1838 
was  strictly  feudal,  resembling  that  of  Germany  in  the  nth  century, 
and  lands  were  sometimes  enfeoffed  to  the  seventh  degree.  But 
in  the  "  Great  Division  "  which  took  place  in  1848  and  forms  the 
foundation  of  present  land  titles,  about  984,000  acres,  nearly  one- 
fourth  of  the  inhabited  area,  were  set  apart  for  the  crown,  about 
1,495,000  acres  for  the  government,  and  about  1,619,000  acres  for 
the  several  chiefs;  and  the  common  people  received  fee-simple 
titles  4  for  their  house  lots  and  the  pieces  of  land  which  they  culti- 
vated for  themselves,  about  28,600  acres,  almost  entirely  in  isolated 
patches  of  irregular  shape  hemmed  in  by  the  holdings  of  the  crown, 
the  government  or  the  great  chiefs.  Generally  the  chiefs  ran  into 
debt;  many  died  without  heirs;  and  their  lands  passed  largejy 
into  the  hands  of  foreigners.  At  the  abolition  of  the  monarchy  in 
1893,  the  crown  domains  were  declared  to  be  public  lands,  and, 
with  the  other  government  lands,  were  by  the  terms  of  annexation 
turned  over  to  the  United  States  in  1898.  They  had  been  offered  for 
sale  or  lease  in  accordance  with  land  acts  (of  1884  and  1895 — the 
latter  corresponding  generally  to  the  land  laws  of  New  Zealand) 
designed  to  promote  division  into  small  farms  and  their  immediate 
improvement.  In  1909  the  area  of  the  public  land  was  about 
1,700,000  acres.  In  1900  there  were  in  the  Territory  2273  farms,  of 
which  1209  contained  less  than  10  acres,  785  contained  between  10 
and  loo  acres,  and  116  contained  1000  acres  or  more.  The  natives 
seldom  cultivate  more  than  half  an  acre  apiece,  and  the  Portuguese 
settlers  usually  only  25  or  30  acres  at  most.  Of  the  total  area  of 
the  Territory  only  86,854  acres,  or  2-77%,  were  under  cultivation 
in  1900,  and  of  this  65,687  acres,  or  75-6%,  were  divided  into  170 
farms  and  planted  to  sugar-cane.  In  1909  it  was  estimated  that 
213,000  acres  (about  half  of  which  was  irrigated)  were  planted  to  sugar, 
one  half  being  cropped  each  year.  The  average  yield  per  acre  of 
cane-sugar  is  the  greatest  in  the  world,  30  to  40  tons  of  cane  being 
an  average  per  acre,  and  as  much  as  ioj  tons  of  sugar  having  been 
produced  from  a  single  acre  under  irrigation.  The  cultivation  of  the 
cane  was  greatly  encouraged  by  the  Reciprocity  Treaty  of  1875, 
which  established  practically  free  trade  between  the  islands  and  the 
United  States,  and  since  1879  it  has  been  widely  extended  by  means 
of  irrigation,  the  water  being  obtained  both  by  pumping  from 
numerous  artesian  wells  and  by  conducting  surface  water  through 
canals  and  ditches.  The  sugar  farms  are  mostly  on  the  islands 
of  Hawaii,  Oahu,  Maui  and  Kauai,  at  the  bases  of  mountains;  those 
on  the  leeward  side  have  the  better  soil,  but  require  much  more 
irrigating.  The  product  increased  from  26,072,429  Ib  in  1876 
to  259,789,462  ID  in  1890,  542,098,500  ft  in  1899  and  about 
1,060,000,000  Ib  (valued  at  more  than  840,000,000)  in  1909.  Nearly 
all  of  it  is  exported  to  the  United  States.  Rice  was  the  second 
product  in  importance  until  competition  with  Japan,  Louisiana  and 
Texas  made  the  crop  a  poor  investment;  improved  culture  and 
machinery  may  restore  rice  culture  to  its  former  importance.  It  is 
grown  almost  wholly  by  Japanese  and  Chinese  on  small  low  farms 
along  the  coasts,  mostly  on  the  islands  of  Kauai  and  Oahu.  In 
1899  the  product  amounted  to  33,442,400  ft;  in  1907  about  12,000 
acres  were  planted,  and  the  crop  was  estimated  to  be  worth  82,500,000. 
Coffee  of  good  quality  is  grown  at  elevations  ranging  between  1000 
to  3000  ft.  above  the  sea;  the  Hawaiian  product  is  called  Kona 
coffee — from  Kona,  a  district  of  the  S.  side  of  Hawaii  island,  where 
much  of  it  is  grown.  In  1909  about  4500  acres  were  in  coffee, 
the  value  of  the  crop  was  $350,000;  and  1,763,119  ft  of  coffee, 
valued  at  $211,535,  were  exported  from  Hawaii  to  the  mainland  of 
the  United  States.  A  few  bananas  and  (especially  from  Oahu) 
pineapples  of  fine  quality  are  exported;  since  1901  the  canning  of 

3  The    entomological    department    of    the    Hawaii    Experiment 
Station  undertakes  "  mosquito  control,"  and  in  1905-1906  imported 
top-minnows  (Poeciliidae)  to  destroy  mosquito  larvae. 

4  These  and  other  title-holders  received  corresponding  rights  to 
the  use  of  irrigation  ditches,  and  to  fish  in  certain  sea  areas  adjacent 
to  their  holdings. 


HAWAII 


87 


pineapples  has  been  successfully  carried  on,  and  in  the  year  ending 
May  31,  1907,  186,700  cases  were  exported,  being  packed  in  nine 
canneries.  Oranges,  lemons,  limes,  figs,  mangoes,  grapes  and 
peaches,  besides  a  considerable  variety  of  vegetables,  are  raised 
in  small  quantities  for  local  consumption.  In  1909  the  exports  of 
fruits  and  nuts  to  the  continental  United  States  were  valued  at 
$1,457,644.  An  excellent  quality  of  sisal  is  grown.  Rubber  trees 
have  been  planted  with  some  success,  particularly  on  the  eastern 
part  of  the  island  of  Maui;  they  were  not  tapped  for  commercial 
use  until  1909.  In  1907  there  were  vanilla  plantations  in  the  islands 
of  Oahu  and  Hawaii.  Tobacco  of  a  high  grade,  especially  for 
wrappers,  has  been  grown  at  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station's 
farm  at  Hamakua,  on  the  island  of  Hawaii,  where  the  tobacco  is 
practically  "  shade  grown  "  under  the  afternoon  fogs  from  Mauna 
Kea.  Cotton  and  silk  culture  have  been  experimented  with  on  the 
islands;  and  the  work  of  the  Hawaiian  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  is  of  great  value,  in  introducing  new  crops,  in  improving 
old,  in  studying  soils  and  fertilizers  and  in  entomological  research. 
Honey  is  a  crop  of  some  importance;  in  1908  the  yield  was  about 
950  tons  of  honey  and  15  tons  of  wax.  The  small  islands  of  Lanai, 
Niihau  and  Kahoolawe  are  devoted  chiefly  to  the  raising  of  sheep 
and  cattle — Niihau  is  one  large  privately  owned  sheep-ranch. 
There  are  large  cattle-ranches  on  the  islands  supplying  nearly  all 
the  meat  for  domestic  consumption,  and  cattle-raising  is  second  in 
importance  to  the  sugar  industry.  It  -was  estimated  in  1908  that 
there  were  about  130,500  cattle  and  about  99,500  sheep  on  the 
islands.  The  "  native  "  cattle,  descended  from  those  left  on  the 
islands  by  early  navigators,  are  being  improved  by  breeding  with 
imported  Hereford,  Shorthorn,  Angus  and  Holstein  bulls,  the  Here- 
fords  being  the  best  for  the  purpose.  In  the  fiscal  year  1908, 
359,413  ft  of  wool  (valued  at  858,133)  and  928,599  ft  of  raw  hides 
(valued  at  $87,599)  were  shipped  from  the  Territory  to  the  United 
States. 

Minerals. — The  islands  have  large  (unworked)  supplies  of  pumice, 
sandstone,  sulphur,  gypsum,  alum  and  mineral-paint  ochres,  and 
some  salt,  kaolin  and  sal-ammoniac,  but  otherwise  they  are  without 
mineral  wealth  other  than  lava  rocks  for  building  purposes. 

Manufactures. — The  manufactures  are  chiefly  sugar,  fertilizers, 
and  such  products  of  the  foundry  and  machine  shop  as  are  required 
for  the  machinery  of  the  sugar  factories.  Most  of  the  manufacturing 
industries,  indeed,  are  maintained  for  supplying  the  local  market, 
there  being  only  three  important  exceptions — the  manufacture  of 
sugar,  the  cleaning  of  coffee  and  the  cleaning  and  polishing  of  rice. 
The  manufacture  of  sugar,  which  began  between  1830  and  1840, 
has  long  been  much  the  most  important  of  the  manufacturing  in- 
dustries: thus  in  1900  the  value  of  the  sugar  production  was 
$19,254,773,  and  the  total  value  of  all  manufactures,  including 
custom  work  and  repairing,  was  only  $24,992,068.  Next  to  sugar, 
fertilizers  were  the  most  important  manufactured  product,  their  value 
being  $1,150,625;  the  products  of  the  establishments  for  the 
polishing  and  cleaning  of  rice  were  valued  at  $664,300.  Of  the  total 
product  in  1900,  only  18-5%  (by  value)  is  to  be  credited  to  the  city 
of  Honolulu.  The  growth  of  manufacturing  is  much  hampered  by 
the  lack  of  labour.  Excellent  water  power  is  utilized  on  the  island 
of  Kauai  in  an  electric  plant. 

Communications. — There  are  good  wagon  roads  on  the  islands, 
some  of  them  macadamized,  built  of  the  hard  blue  lava  rock. 
Hawaii  had  in  1909  about  200  m.  of  railway,  of  which  the  principal 
line  is  that  of  the  Oahu  Railway  &  Land  Company  (about  89  m.), 
extending  from  Honolulu  W.  and  N.  along  the  coast  to  Kahuku 
about  one-half  the  distance  around  Oahu;  another  line  from 
Kahuku  Mill,  the  most  northerly  point  of  the  island,  S.E.  to  Hono- 
lulu, was  projected  in  1905;  on  the  island  of  Hawaii  is  the  Hilo 
Railroad  (about  46  m.),  carrying  sugar,  pineapples,  rubber  and 
lumber;  other  railways  are  for  the  most  part  short  lines  on  sugar 
estates  and  in  coffee-producing  sections  of  the  islands  of  Hawaii 
and  Maui.  Each  of  the  larger  islands  has  one  or  more  ports  which  a 
local  steamboat  serves  regularly,  and  Honolulu  has  the  regular 
service  of  seven  trans-Pacific  lines  (the  American-Hawaiian  Steamship 
Co.,  the  Canadian-Australian  Steamship  Co.,  the  Matson  Navigation 
Co.,  the  Oceanic  Steamship  Co.,  the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Co.,  the 
Mexican  Oriental  and  the  Toyo  Kisen  Kaisha);  it  is  a  midway 
station  for  vessels  between  the  United  States  (mainland)  and  Australia 
and  Southern  Asia.  In  1908  five  steamship  companies  were  engaged 
in  traffic  between  island  ports  and  the  mainland  (including  Mexico). 
Honolulu  has  cable  connexion  with  San  Francisco  and  the  East,  and 
the  several  islands  of  the  group  are  served  by  wireless  telegraph. 

Commerce. — The  position  of  the  archipelago,  at  the  "  cross-roads  " 
of  the  North  Pacific,  has  made  it  commercially  important  since  the 
days  of  the  whale  fishery,  and  it  has  a  practical  monopoly  of  coaling, 
watering  and  victualling.  Its  main  disadvantage  is  the  lack  of 
harbours — Honolulu  and  Pearl  Harbor  are  the  only  ones  in  the  archi- 
pelago; but  under  the  River  and  Harbour  Act  of  1905  examinations 
and  surveys  were  made  to  improve  Hilo  Bay  on  the  island  of  Hawaii. 
Pearl  Harbor  is  the  U.S.  naval  station,  and  a  great  naval  dock, 
nearly  1200  ft.  long,  was  projected  for  the  station  in  1908.  Within 
recent  years  commerce  has  grown  greatly  in  volume;  it  has  always 
been  almost  entirely  with  the  United  States.  In  1880  the  value  of 
imports  from  the  United  States  was  $2,086,000,  that  of  exports 
to  the  United  States  was  $4,606,000;  in  1907  the  value  of  shipments 


of  domestic  merchandise  from  the  United  States  to  Hawaii  was 
$I5.357t9°7>  .and  the  value  of  shipments  of  domestic  merchandise 
from  Hawaii  to  the  United  States  was  $31,984,433,  of  which 
1^0,111,524  was  the  value  of  brown  sugar,  $133,133  the  value  of 
rice,  $601,748  the  value  of  canned  fruits,  $124,146  the  value  of 
green,  ripe  or  dried  fruits,  $117,403  the  value  of  hides  and  skins, 
and  $105,515  the  value  of  green  or  raw  coffee.  The  shipments  of 
foreign  merchandise  each  way  are  relatively  insignificant.  In  the 
fiscal  year  1908  the  exports  from  Hawaii  to  foreign  countries  were 
valued  at  $597,640,  ten  times  as  much  as  in  1905  ($59,541);  the 
imports  into  Hawaii  from  foreign  countries  were  valued  at  $4,682,399 
in  the  fiscal  year  1908,  as  against  $3,014,964  in  1905. 

Population. — The  total  population  of  the  islands  in  1890  was 
89,990;  in  1900  it  was  154,001,  an  increase  within  the  decade 
of  71-13%;  in  1910  it  was  191,909.  In  1908  there  were  about 
72,000  Japanese,  18,000  Chinese,  5000  Koreans,  23,000  Portu- 
guese, 2000  Spanish,  2000  Porto  Ricans,  35,000  Hawaiians  and 
part  Hawaiians  and  12,000  Teutons.  Of  the  total  for  1900 
there  were  61,111  Japanese,  25,767  Chinese  and  233  negroes; 
of  the  same  total  there  were  90,780  foreign-born,  of  whom 
56,234  were  natives  of  Japan,  and  6512  were  natives  of  Portugal. 
There  were  in  all  in  1900,  106,369  males  (69-1%;  a  preponder- 
ance due  to  the  large  number  of  Mongolian  labourers,  whose 
wives  are  left  in  Asia)  and  only  47,632  females.  About  three- 
fifths  of  the  Hawaiians  and  nearly  all  of  American,  British  or 
North  European  descent  are  Protestants.  Most  of  the  Portuguese 
and  about  one-third  of  the  native  Hawaiians  are  Roman  Catholics. 
The  Mormons  claim  more  than  4000  adherents,  whose  principal 
settlement  is  at  Laie,  on  the  north-east  shore  of  Oahu;  the  first 
Mormon  missionaries  came  to  the  islands  in  1850.  The  popula- 
tion of  1910  was  distributed  among  the  several  islands  as  follows: 
Oahu,  82,028;  Hawaii,  55,382;  Kauai  and  Niihau,  23,952;  Kalawao, 
785;  and  Maui,  Lanai,  Kahoolawe  and  Molokai,  29,762.  The 
population  of  Honolulu  district ,  the  entire  urban  population  of  the 
Territory,  was  22,907  in  1890,  39,306  in  1900,  and  52,183  in  1910. 

The  aboriginal  Hawaiians  (sometimes  called  Kanakas,  from 
a  Hawaiian  word  kanaka,  meaning  "  man  ")  belong  to  the 
Malayo-Polynesian  race;  they  probably  settled  in 
Hawaii  in  the  loth  century,  having  formerly  lived  in  %*pula- 
Samoa,  and  possibly  before  that  in  Tahiti  and  the  tion. 
Marquesas.  Their  reddish-brown  skin  has  been  com- 
pared in  hue  to  tarnished  copper.  Their  hair  is  dark  brown  or 
black,  straight,  wavy  or  curly;  the  beard  is  thin,  the  face  broad, 
the  profile  not  prominent,  the  eyes  large  and  expressive,  the 
nose  somewhat  flattened,  the  lips  thick,  the  teeth  excellent  in 
shape  and  of  a  pearly  whiteness.  The  skull  is  sub-brachycephalic 
in  type,  with  an  index  of  82-6  from  living  "  specimens  "  and  79 
from  a  large  collection  of  skulls;  it  is  never  prognathous.  Most 
of  the  people  are  of  moderate  stature,  but  the  chiefs  and  the 
women  of  their  families  have  been  remarkable  for  their  height, 
and  400  pounds  was  formerly  not  an  unusual  weight  for  one  of 
this  class.  This  corpulence  was  due  not  alone  to  over-feeding  but 
to  an  almost  purely  vegetable  diet;  stoutness  was  a  part  of  the 
ideal  of  feminine  beauty.  The  superiority  in  physique  of  the 
nobles  to  the  common  people  may  have  been  due  in  part  to  a 
system  of  massage,  the  lomi-lomi;  it  is  certainly  contrary 
to  the  belief  in  the  bad  effects  of  inbreeding — among  the  upper 
classes  marriage  was  almost  entirely  between  near  relatives. 

The  Rev.  William  Ellis,  an  early  English  missionary,  described 
the  natives  as  follows:  "  The  inhabitants  of  these  islands  are, 
considered  physically,  amongst  the  finest  races  in  the  Pacific, 
bearing  the  strongest  resemblance  to  the  New  Zealanders  in 
stature,  and  in  their  well-developed  muscular  limbs.  The  tattoo- 
ing of  their  bodies  is  less  artistic  than  that  of  the  New  Zealanders, 
and  much  more  limited  than  among  some  of  the  other  islanders. 
They  are  also  more  hardy  and  industrious  than  those  living 
nearer  the  equator.  This  in  all  probability  arises  from  their 
salubrious  climate,  and  the  comparative  sterility  of  their  soil 
rendering  them  dependent  upon  the  cultivation  of  the  ground 
for  the  yam,  the  arum,  and  the  sweet  potato,  their  chief  articles 
of  food.  Though,  like  all  undisciplined  races,  the  Sandwich 
Islanders  [Hawaiians]  have  proved  deficient  in  firm  and  steady 
perseverance,  they  manifest  considerable  intellectual  capability. 
Their  moral  character,  when  first  visited  by  Europeans,  was  not 


88 


HAWAII 


superior  to  that  of  other  islanders;  and  excepting  when  improved 
and  preserved  by  the  influence  of  Christianity,  it  has  suffered 
much  from  the  vices  of  intemperance  and  licentiousness 
introduced  by  foreigners.  Polygamy  prevailed  among  the  chiefs 
and  rulers,  and  women  were  subject  to  all  the  humiliations  of 
the  tabu  system,  which  subjected  them  to  many  privations,  and 
kept  them  socially  in  a  condition  of  inferiority  to  the  other  sex. 
Infanticide  was  practised  to  some  extent,  the  children  destroyed 
being  chiefly  females.  Though  less  superstitious  than  the 
Tahitians,  the  idolatry  of  the  Sandwich  Islanders  was  equally 
barbarous  and  sanguinary,  as,  in  addition  to  the  chief  objects 
of  worship  included  in  the  mythology  of  the  other  islands,  the 
supernatural  beings  supposed  to  reside  in  the  volcanoes  and 
direct  the  action  of  subterranean  fires  rendered  the  gods  objects 
of  peculiar  terror.  Human  sacrifices  were  slain  on  several 
occasions,  and  vast  offerings  presented  to  the  spirits  supposed  to 
preside  over  the  volcanoes,  especially  during  the  periods  of 
actual  eruptions.  The  requisitions  of  their  idolatry  were  severe 
and  its  rites  cruel  and  bloody.  Grotesque  and  repulsive  wooden 
figures,  animals  and  the  bones  of  chiefs  were  the  objects  of 
worship.  Human  sacrifices  were  offered  whenever  a  temple 
was  to  be  dedicated,  or  a  chief  was  sick,  or  a  war  was  to  be  under- 
taken; and  these  occasions  were  frequent.  The  apprehensions 
of  the  people  with  regard  to  a  future  state  were  undefined,  but 
fearful.  The  lower  orders  expected  to  be  slowly  devoured  by 
evil  spirits,  or  to  dwell  with  the  gods  in  burning  mountains. 
The  several  trades,  such  as  that  of  fisherman,  the  tiller  of  the 
ground,  and  the  builder  of  canoes  and  houses,  had  each  their  pre- 
siding deities.  Household  gods  were  also  kept,  which  the  natives 
worshipped  in  their  habitations.  One  merciful  provision, 
however,  had  existed  from  time  immemorial,  and  that  was 
[the  puuhonuas]  sacred  inclosures,  places  of  refuge,  into  which 
those  who  fled  in  time  of  war,  or  from  any  violent  pursuer, 
might  enter  and  be  safe.  To  violate  their  sanctity  was  one  of 
the  greatest  crimes  of  which  a  man  could  be  guilty."  The  native 
religion  was  an  admixture  of  idolatry  and  hero-worship,  of  some 
ethical  hut  little  moral  force.  The  king  was  war  chief,  priest  and 
god  in 'one,  and  the  shocking  licence  at  the  death  of  a  king  was 
probably  due  to  the  feeling  that  all  law  or  restraint  was  annulled 
by  the  death  of  the  king — incarnate  law.  The  mythic  and 
religious  legends  of  the  people  were  preserved  in  chants,  handed 
down  from  generati9n  to  generation;  and  in  like  poetic  form 
was  kept  the  knowledge  of  the  people  of  botany,  medicine  and 
other  sciences.  Name-songs,  written  at  the  birth  of  a  chief, 
gave  his  genealogy  and  the  deeds  of  his  ancestors;  dirges  and 
love-songs  were  common.  These  were  without  rhyme  or  rhythm, 
but  had  alliteration  and  a  parallelism  resembling  Hebrew  poetry. 
Drums,  gourd  and  bamboo  flutes,and  a  kind  of  guitar,  were  known 
before  Cook's  day. 

When  the  islands  first  became  known  to  Europeans,  the 
Hawaiian  family  was  in  a  stage  including  both  polyandry 
and  polygyny,  and,  according  to  Morgan,  older  than  either: 
two  or  more  brothers,  with  their  wives,  or  two  or  more  sisters 
with  their  husbands,  cohabited  with  seeming  promiscuity. 
This  system  called  punalua  (a  word  which  in  the  modern  verna- 
cular means  merely  "  dear  friend  ")  was  first  brought  to  the 
attention  of  ethnologists  in  1871  by  Lewis  H.  Morgan  (who 
was  incorrect  in  many  of  his  premises)  and  was  made  the  basis 
of  his  second  stage,  the  punaluan,  in  the  evolution  of  the  family. 
These  conditions  did  not  last  long  after  the  coming  of  the  mission- 
aries. Descent  was  more  commonly  traced  through  the  female 
line.  As  regard  cannibalism,  it  appears  that  the  heart  and  liver 
of  the  human  victims  offered  in  the  temples  were  eaten  as  a 
religious  rite,  and  that  the  same  parts  of  any  prominent  warrior 
slain  in  battle  were  devoured  by  the  victor  chiefs,  who  believed 
that  they  would  thereby  inherit  the  valour  of  the  dead  man. 
Under  taboo  as  late  as  1819  women  were  to  be  put  to  death  if  they 
ate  bananas,  cocoa-nuts,  pork,  turtles  or  certain  fish.  In  the 
days  of  idolatry  the  only  dress  worn  by  the  men  was  a  narrow 
strip  of  cloth  wound  around  the  loins  and  passed  between  the 
legs.  Women  wore  a  short  petticoat  made  of  kapa  cloth  (already 
referred  to),  which  reached  from  the  waist  to  the  knee.  But  now 


the  common  class  of  men  wear  a  shirt  and  trousers;  the  better 
class  are  attired  in  the  European  fashion.  The  women  are  clad 
in  the  holoka,  a  loose  white  or  coloured  garment  .with  sleeves, 
reaching  from  the  neck  to  the  feet.  A  coloured  handkerchief 
is  twisted  around  the  head  or  a  straw  hat  is  worn.  Both  sexes 
delight  in  adorning  themselves  with  garlands  (Ids)  of  flowers  and 
necklaces  of  coloured  seeds.  The  Hawaiians  are  a  good-tempered, 
light-hearted  and  pleasure-loving  race.  They  have  many  games 
and  sports,  including  boxing,  wrestling  (both  in  and  out  of  water), 
hill-sliding,  spear-throwing,  and  a  game  of  bowls  played  with 
stone  discs.  Both  sexes  are  passionately  fond  of  riding.  They 
delight  to  be  in  the  water  and  swim  with  remarkable  skill  and 
ease.  In  the  exciting  sport  of  surf-riding,  which  always  astonishes 
strangers,  they  balance  themselves  lying,  kneeling  or  standing 
on  a  small  board  which  is  carried  landwards  on  the  curling  crest 
of  a  great  roller.  All  games  were  accompanied  by  gambling. 
Dances,  especially  the  indecent  hula,  "  danse  du  ventre,"  were 
favourite  entertainments. 

Even  at  the  time  when  they  were  first  known  to  Europeans, 
they  had  stone  and  lava  hatchets,  shark's-tooth  knives,  hard- 
wood spades,  kapa  cloth  or  paper,  mats,  fans,  fish-hooks  and  nets, 
woven  baskets,  &c.,  and  they  had  introduced  a  rough  sort  ol 
irrigation  of  the  inland  country  with  long  canals  from  highlands 
to  plains.  They  derived  their  sustenance  chiefly  from  pork 
and  fish  (both  fresh  and  dried),  from  seaweed  (limu),  and  from 
the  kalo  (Colocasia  antiquorum,  var.  esculenta),  the  banana, 
sweet  potato,  yam,  bread-fruit  and  cocoa-nut.  From  the  root 
of  the  kalo  is  made  the  national  dish  called  poi;  after  having  been 
baked  and  well  beaten  on  a  board  with  a  stone  pestle  it  is  made 
into  a  paste  with  water  and  then  allowed  to  ferment  for  a  few 
days,  when  it  is  ready  to  be  eaten.  One  of  the  table  delicacies 
of  former  days  was  a  particular  breed  of  dog  which  was  fed 
exclusively  on  poi  before  it  was  killed,  cooked  and  served.  Like 
other  South  Sea  Islanders  they  made  an  intoxicating  drink, 
awa  or  kava,  from  the  roots  of  the  Macropiper  latifolium  or 
Piper  methyslicum;  in  early  times  this  could  be  drunk  only  by 
nobles  and  priests.  The  native  dwellings  are  constructed  of 
wood,  or  occasionally  are  huts  thatched  with  grass  at  the  sides 
and  top.  What  little  cooking  is  undertaken  among  the  poorer 
natives  is  usually  done  outside.  The  oven  consists  of  a  hole 
in  the  ground  in  which  a  fire  is  lighted  and  stones  made  hot; 
and  the  fire  having  been  removed,  the  food  is  wrapped  up  in 
leaves  and  placed  in  the  hole  beside  the  hot  stones  and  covered 
up  until  ready;  or  else,  as  is  now  more  common,  the  cooking 
is  done  in  an  old  kerosene-oil  can  over  a  fire. 

The  Hawaiian  language  is  a  member  of  the  widely-diffused 
Malayo-Polynesian  group  and  closely  resembles  the  dialect  of 
the  Marquesas;  Hawaiians  and  New  Zealanders,  although 
occupying  the  most  remote  regions  north  and  south  at  which 
the  race  has  been  found,  can  understand  each  other  without 
much  difficulty.  Various  unsuccessful  attempts  have  been  made 
to  prove  the  language  Aryan  in  its  origin.  It  is  soft  and  har- 
monious, being  highly  vocalic  in  structure.  Every  syllable  is 
open,  ending  in  a  vowel  sound,  and  short  sentences  may  be 
constructed  wholly  of  vocalic  sounds.  The  only  consonants  are 
k,  I,  m,  n  and  p,  which  with  the  gently  aspirated  h,  the  five  vowels, 
and  the  vocalic  w,  make  up  all  the  letters  in  use.  The  letters  r 
and  /  have  been  discarded  in  favour  of  I  and  k,  as  expressing 
more  accurately  the  native  pronunciation,  so'  that,  for  example, 
taro,  the  former  name  of  the  Colocasia  plant,  is  now  kalo.  The 
language  was  not  reduced  to  a  written  form  until  after  the 
arrival  of  the  missionaries.  A  Hawaiian  spelling  book  was 
printed  in  1822;  in  1834  two  newspapers  were  founded;  and  in 
1839  the  first  translation  of  the  Bible  was  published. 

In  spite  of  moral  and  material  progress — indeed  largely  because 
of  changes  in  their  food,  clothing,  dwellings  and  of  other  "  advan- 
tages "  of  civilization — the  race  is  probably  dying  out.  Captain 
Cook  estimated  the  number  of  natives  at  400,000,  probably  an 
over-estimate;  in  1823  the  American  missionaries  estimated 
their  number  at  142,000;  the  census  of  1832  showed  the  popula- 
tion to  be  130,313;  the  census  of  1878  proved  that  the  number 
of  natives  was  no  more  than  44,088.  In  1890  they  numbered 


HAWAII 


89 


34,436;  in  1900,  29,834,  a  decrease  of  4602  or  13-3%  within 
the  decade.  To  account  for  this  it  is  said  that  the  blood  of  the 
race  has  become  poisoned  by  the  introduction  of  foreign  dis- 
eases. The  women  are  much  less  numerous  than  the  men;  and 
the  married  ones  have  few  children  at  the  most;  two  out  of 
three  have  none.  Moreover,  the  mothers  appear  to  have  little 
maternal  instinct  and  neglect  their  offspring.  It  is,  however, 
thought  by  some  that  these  causes  are  now  diminishing  in  force, 
and  that  the  "  fittest  "  of  the  race  may  survive.  The  part- 
Hawaiians,  the  offspring  of  intermarriage  between  Hawaiian 
women  and  men  of  other  races,  increased  from  3420  in  1878  to 
6186  in  1890  and  7835  in  1900. 

The  pressing  demand  for  labour  created  by  the  Reciprocity  Treaty 
of  1875  with  the  United  States  led  to  great  changes  in  the  population 
of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  It  became  the  policy  of  the 
Immlgra-  government  to  assist  immigrants  from  different  countries. 
Uoa-  In  1877  arrangements  were  made  for  the  importation  of 

Portuguese  families  from  the  Azores  and  Madeira,  and  during  the 
next  ten  years  about  7000  of  these  people  were  brought  to  the 
islands;  in  1906-1907  there  was  a  second  immigration  from  the 
Azores  and  Madeira  of  1325  people.  In  1900  the  total  number  of 
Portuguese  in  the  islands,  including  those  born  there,  was  not  far 
from  1 6,000,  about  2400  of  whom  were  employed  in  sugar  plantations. 
They  have  shown  themselves  to  be  industrious,  thrifty  and  law- 
abiding.  In  1907  2201  Spanish  immigrants  from  the  sugar  district 
about  Malaga  arrived  in  Hawaii,  and  about  the  same  number  of 
Portuguese  immigrated  in  the  same  year.  The  Board  of  Immigration, 
using  funds  contributed  by  planters,  was  very  active  in  its  efforts  to 
encourage  the  immigration  of  suitable  labourers,  but  the  general  im- 
migration law  of  1907  prohibited  the  securing  of  such  immigration 
through  contributions  from  corporations.  Persistent  efforts  have 
also  been  made  to  introduce  Polynesian  islanders,  as  being  of  a 
cognate  race  with  the  Hawaiians,  but  the  results  have  been  wholly 
unsatisfactory.  About  2000,  mainly  from  the  Gilbert  Islands, 
were  brought  in  at  the  expense  of  the  government  between  1878  and 
1884;  but  they  did  not  give  satisfaction  either  as  labourers  or  as 
citizens,  and  most  of  them  have  been  returned  to  their  homes. 
There  never  existed  any  treaty  or  labour  convention  between  Hawaii 
and  China.  In  early  days  a  limited  number  of  Chinese  settled  in 
the  islands,  intermarried  with  the  natives  and  by  their  industry 
and  economy  generally  prospered.  About  750  of  them  were  natural- 
ized under  the  monarchy.  The  first  importation  of  Chinese  labourers 
was  in  1852.  In  1878  the  number  of  Chinese  had  risen  to  5916. 
During  the  next  few  years  there  was  such  a  steady  influx  of  Chinese 
free  immigrants  that  in  the  spring  of  1881  the  Hawaiian  government 
sent  a  despatch  to  the  governor  of  Hong  Kong  to  stop  this  invasion. 
Again,  in  April  1883,  it  was  suddenly  renewed,  and  within  twenty 
days  five  steamers  arrived  from  Hong  Kong  bringing  2253  Chinese 
passengers,  followed  the  next  month  by  noo  more,  with  the  news 
that  several  thousand  more  were  ready  to  embark.  Accordingly, 
the  Hawaiian  government  sent  another  despatch  to  the  governor  of 
Hong  Kong,  refusing  to  permit  any  further  immigration  of  male 
Chinese  from  that  port.  Various  regulations  restricting  Chinese 
immigration  were  enacted  from  time  to  time,  until  in  1886  the 
landing  of  any  Chinese  passenger  without  a  passport  was  prohibited. 
The  number  of  Chinese  in  the  islands  had  then  risen  to  21,000. 
The  consent  of  the  Japanese  government  to  the  immigration  of  its 
subjects  to  Hawaii  was  obtained  with  difficulty  in  1884,  and  in  1886 
a  labour  convention  was  ratified.  Subsequently  the  increase  of 
the  Japanese  element  in  the  population  was  rapid.  It  rose  from  1 16 
in  1884  to  12,360  in  1890  and  24,400  in  1896.  Most  of  these  were 
recruited  from  the  lowest  classes  in  Japan.  Unlike  the  Chinese,  they 
show  no  inclination  to  intermarry  with  the  Hawaiians.  The  effect 
of  making  Hawaii  a  Territory  of  the  United  States  was  to  put  an 
end  to  all  assisted  immigration,  of  whatever  race,  and  to  exclude 
all  Chinese  labourers.  No  Chinese  labourer  is  allowed  to  enter  any 
other  Territory  of  the  Union  from  Hawaii;  and  the  act  of  Congress 
of  the  26th  of  February  1885,  "  to  prohibit  the  importation  and 
migration  of  foreigners  and  aliens  under  contract  or  agreement  to 
perform  labour  in  the  United  States,  its  Territories  and  the  District 
of  Columbia,"  and  the  amending  and  supplementary  acts,  are 
extended  to  it.  But  in  the  treaty  of  1894  between  the  United  States 
and  Japan  there  is  nothing  to  limit  the  free  immigration  of  Japanese ; 
and  several  companies  have  been  formed  to  promote  it.  The  system 
of  contract  labour,  which  was  abolished  by  the  act  of  Congress  in 
1900,  and  under  which  labourers  had  been  restrained  from  leaving 
their  work  before  the  end  of  the  contract  term,  concerned  few 
labourers  except  the  Japanese.  Various  methods  of  co-operation 
or  profit-sharing  are  in  successful  operation  on  some  plantations. 

An  interesting  sociological  problem  is  raised  by  the  presence  of 
the  large  Asiatic  element  in  the  population.  The  Japanese  and 
Koreans,  and  in  less  measure  the  Chinese,  act  as  domestic  servants, 
work  under  white  contractors  on  irrigating  ditches  and  reservoirs, 
do  most  of  the  plantation  labour  and  compete  successfully  with 
whites  and  native  islanders  in  all  save  skilled  urban  occupations, 
such  as  printing  and  the  manufacture  of  machinery.  The  '  Yellow 


Peril  "  is  considered  less  dangerous  in  Hawaii  than  formerly,  although 
it  was  used  as  a  political  cry  in  the  campaign  for  American  annexa- 
tion. No  success  met  the  apparently  well-meaning  efforts  of  the 
Central  Japanese  League  which  was  organized  in  November  and 
December  1903  to  promote  the  observance  of  law  and  order  by  the 
Japanese  in  the  islands,  who  assumed  a  too  independent  attitude  and 
felt  themselves  free  from  governmental  control  whether  Japanese 
or  American;  indeed,  after  the  League  had  been  in  operation 
for  a  year  or  more,  it  almost  seemed  that  it  contributed  to  industrial 
disorders  among  the  Japanese.  At  about  the  same  time  Japanese 
immigration  to  Hawaii  fell  off  upon  the  opening  of  now  fields  for 
colonization  by  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  and  Korean  immigration 
was  promoted  by  employers  on  the  islands.  From  the  first  of 
January  1903  to  the  3Oth  of  June  1905  Japanese  immigrants  num- 
bered 18,027;  Koreans  7388  (four  Koreans  to  every  ten  Japanese); 
but  in  the  last  twelve  months  of  this  same  period  there  were  4733 
Koreans  to  5941  Japanese  (eight  Koreans  to  every  ten  Japanese). 
Another  fact  which  is  possibly  contributing  to  the  solution  of  the 
problem  is  that  the  Japanese  are  leaving  the  islands  in  large  numbers 
as  compared  with  the  Koreans.  The  Japanese  leaving  Hawaii 
between  the  I4th  of  June  1900  and  the  jist  of  December  1905 
numbered  42,313,  o:  4284  more  than  the  number  of  Japanese 
immigrants  arriving  during  the  same  period.  The  corresponding 
figures  for  Koreans  during  the  same  period  are  as  follows:  number 
leaving  between  the  I4th  of  June  1900  and  the  3lst  of  December 
1905,  721,  or  6673  less  than  the  Korean  immigrants  for  the  same 
period.  The  acceleration  of  the  departure  of  the  Japanese  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  in  the  eighteen  months  (July  1904  to  January  1906) 
occurred  19,114  of  the  42,313  departures  in  the  sixty-six  months 
from  July  1900  to  January  1906.'  After  1906,  owing  to  restrictions 
by  the  Japanese  government,  immigration  to  Hawaii  greatly  de- 
creased. At  the  same  time  the  number  of  departures  was  decreasing 
rapidly.  The  change  in  the  character  of  the  immigration  of  Japanese 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  the  fiscal  year  1906-1907  the  ratio  of 
female  immigrants  to  males  was  as  I  to  8,  in  the  fiscal  year  1907- 
1908  it  was  as  I  to  2,  and  in  the  latter  year,  of  4593  births  in  the 
Territory,  2445  were  Japanese. 

Administration. — The  Hawaiian  Islands  are  governed  under 
an  Act  of  Congress,  signed  by  the  president  on  the  30th  of  April 
1900,  which  first  organized  them  as  a  Territory  of  the  United 
States.  The  legislature,  which  meets  biennially  at  Honolulu, 
consists  of  a  Senate  of  1 5  members  holding  office  for  four  years, 
and  a  House  of  Representatives  of  30  members  holding  office 
for  two  years.  In  order  to  vote  for  Representatives  or  Senators, 
the  elector  must  be  a  male  citizen  of  the  United  States  who  has 
attained  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  has  lived  in  the  Territory 
not  less  than  one  year  preceding,  and  is  able  to  speak,  read  and 
write  the  English  or  Hawaiian  language.  No  person  is  allowed 
to  vote  by  reason  of  being  in  or  attached  to  the  army  or  navy. 
The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor,  appointed  by  the 
president  and  holding  office  for  four  years.  He  must  not  be 
less  than  thirty-five  years  of  age  and  must  be  a  citizen  of  the 
Territory.  The  secretary  of  the  Territory  is  appointed  in  like 
manner  for  a  term  of  the  same  length.  The  governor  appoints, 
by  and  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate  of  the  Territory,  an 
attorney-general,  treasurer,  commissioner  of  public  lands, 
commissioner  of  agriculture  and  forestry,  superintendent  of 
public  works,  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  commissioners 
of  public  instruction,  auditor  and  deputy-auditor,  surveyor, 
high  sheriff,  members  of  the  board  of  health,  board  of  prison 
inspectors,  board  of  registration,  inspectors  of  election,  &c. 
All  such  officers  are  appointed  for  four  years  except  the  com- 
missioners of  public  instruction  and  the  members  of  the  said 

1  Large  numbers  of  Japanese  immigrants  have  used  the  Hawaiian 
Islands  merely  as  a  means  of  gaining  admission  at  the  mainland 
ports  of  the  United  States.  For,  as  the  Japanese  government 
would  issue  only  a  limited  number  of  passports  to  the  mainland  but 
would  quite  readily  grant  passports  to  Honolulu,  the  latter  were 
accepted,  and  after  a  short  stay  on  some  one  of  the  islands  the  im- 
migrants would  depart  on  a  "  coastwise  "  voyage  to  some  mainland 
port.  The  increasing  numbers  arriving  by  this  means,  however, 
provoked  serious  hostility  in  the  Pacific  coast  states,  especially  in 
San  Francisco,  and  to  remedy  the  difficulty  Congress  inserted  a 
clause  in  the  general  immigration  act  of  the  2Oth  of  February  1907 
which  provides  that  whenever  the  president  is  satisfied  that  passports 
issued  by  any  foreign  government  to  any  other  country  than  the 
United  States,  or  to  any  of  its  insular  possessions,  or  to  the  Canal 
Zone,  "  are  being  used  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  the  holders  to 
come  to  the  continental  territory  of  the  United  States  to  the  detri- 
ment of  labour  conditions  therein,"  he  may  refuse  to  admit  them. 
This  provision  has  been  successful  in  reducing  the  number  of  Japanese 
coming  to  the  mainland  from  Hawaii. 


9° 


HAWAII 


boards,  whose  terms  are  as  provided  by  the  laws  of  the  Territory ; 
all  must  be  citizens  of  the  Territory.  The  judicial  power  is 
vested  in  a  supreme  court,  5  circuit  courts,  and  29  district 
courts,  each  having  a  jurisdiction  corresponding  to  similar 
courts  in  each  state  in  the  Union;  and,  entirely  distinct  from 
these  territorial  courts,  Hawaii  has  a  United  States  district 
court.  A  Supplementary  Act  of  the  3rd  of  March  1905  provides 
that  writs  of  error  and  appeals  may  be  taken  from  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Hawaii  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
"  in  all  cases  where  the  amount  involved  exclusive  of  costs  or 
value  exceeds  the  sum  of  five  thousand  dollars."  The  Territory 
was  without  the  forms  of  local  government  common  to  the 
United  States  until  1905,  when  the  Territorial  legislature  divided 
it  into  five  counties1  without,  however,  giving  to  them  the 
usual  powers  of  taxation.  Each  county  has  the  following 
officers:  a  board  of  supervisors,  a  clerk,  a  treasurer,  an  auditor, 
an  assessor  and  tax-collector,  a  sheriff  and  coroner,  and  an 
attorney.  The  members  (from  five  to  nine)  of  the  board  of 
supervisors  are  elected  by  districts  into  which  the  county  is 
divided,  usually  only  one  from  each.  All  county  officers  are 
elected  for  a  term  of  two  years.  The  act  of  1900  provides  for 
the  election  of  a  delegate  to  Congress,  and  prescribes  that  the 
delegate  shall  have  the  qualifications  necessary  for  membership 
in  the  Hawaiian  Senate,  and  shall  be  elected  by  voters  qualified 
to  vote  for  members  of  the  House  of  Representatives  of  Hawaii. 
As  usual,  the  delegate  has  a  right  to  take  part  in  the  debates  in 
the  national  House  of  Representatives,  but  may  not  vote. 

Charities. — The  principal  public  charity  of  the  Territory  is  the  leper 
asylum  on  a  peninsula  almost  10  sq.  ra.  in  area  on  the  N.  side  of  the 
island  of  Molokai.  A  steep  precipice  forms  a  natural  wall  between 
it  and  the  rest  of  the  island.  The  place  became  an  asylum  for  lepers 
and  the  caring  for  them  began  to  be  a  charity  under  government 
charge  in  1866;  but  conditions  here  were  at  first  unspeakably 
unhygienic,  their  improvement  being  largely  due  to  Father  Damien, 
who  devoted  himself  to  this  work  in  1873.  The  patients  are  almost 
exclusively  native  Hawaiians,  and  their  number  is  slowly  but  steadily 
decreasing;  in  1908  they  numbered  791,  and  there  were  at  Molokai 
46  non-leprous  helpers  and  27  officers  and  assistants,  including  the 
Roman  Catholic  brothers  and  sisters  in  charge  of  the  homes.  In 
1905  the  United  States  government  appropriated  $100,000  for  a 
hospital  station  and  laboratory  "  for  the  study  of  the  methods  of 
transmission,  cause  and  treatment  of  leprosy,"  and  $50,000  a  year 
for  their  maintenance;  the  station  and  laboratory  to  be  established 
when  the  territorial  government  should  have  ceded  to  the  United 
States  a  tract  of  I  sq.  m.  on  the  leper  reservation.  The  cession  was 
made  soon  afterward  by  the  territorial  government.  In  1907-1908 
a  home  for  non-leprous  boys  of  leprous  parents  was  established  at 
Honolulu.  Another  public  charity  of  Hawaii  is  the  general  free 
dispensary  maintained  by  the  territorial  government  at  Honolulu. 

Education. — Education  is  universal,  compulsory  and  free.  Every 
child  between  the  ages  of  six  and  fifteen  must  attend  either  a  public 
school  or  a  duly  authorized  private  school.  Consequently  the  per- 
centage of  illiteracy  is  extremely  low.  The  school  system  is  essenti- 
ally American  in  its  text -books  and  in  its  methods,  thanks  to  the 
foundations  laid  by  American  missionaries.  Between  1820  and  1824 
the  missionaries  taught  about  2000  natives  to  read.  Several  im- 
portant schools  were  founded  before  1840,  when  the  first  written 
laws  were  published.  Among  these  was  a  law  providing  for  com- 
pulsory education,  and  decreeing  that  no  illiterate  born  after  the 
beginning  of  Liholiho's  reign  should  hold  office,  and  that  no  illiterate 
man  or  woman,  born  after  the  same  date,  could  marry.  The  first 
Hawaiian  minister  of  public  instruction  was  the  Rev.  William 
Richards  (1792-1847),  who  held  office  from  1843  to  1847,  and  was 
followed  by  Richard  Armstrong  (1805-1860),  an  American  Presby- 
terian missionary,  the  father  of  General  S.  C.  Armstrong.  He  laid 
stress  on  the  importance  of  manual  and  industrial  training  during 
his  term  of  office  (1847-1855),  and  was  succeeded  by  a  board  of 
education  (1855-1865),  of  which  he  was  first  president;  then  an 
inspector-general  of  schools  was  appointed,  Judge  Abraham  For- 
nander  being  the  first  inspector;  in  1896  an  executive  department 
was  created  under  a  minister  of  public  instruction  and  six  com- 

1  These  are:  the  county  of  Hawaii,  consisting  of  the  island  of  the 
same  name;  the  county  of  Maui,  including  the  islands  of  Maui, 
Lanai  and  Kahoolawe,  and  the  greater  part  of  Molokai;  the  county 
of  Kalawao,  being  the  leper  settlement  on  Molokai;  the  city  and 
county  of  Honolulu  (created  from  the  former  county  of  Oahu  by 
an  act  of  1907,  which  came  into  effect  in  1909),  consisting  of  the 
island  of  Oahu  and  various  small  islands,  of  which  the  only  ones  of 
any  importance  are  the  Midway  Islands,  1232  m.  from  Honolulu, 
a  Pacific  cable  relay  station  and  a  post  of  the  U.S.  navy  marines; 
and  the  county  of  Kauai,  including  Kauai  and  Niihau  islands. 


missioners;  in  1900  a  superintendent  of  public  instruction  was 
first  appointed.  English  is  by  law  the  medium  of  instruction  in  all 
schools,  both  public  and  private,  although  other  languages  may  be 
taught  in  addition.  Formal  instruction  in  Hawaiian  ceased  in  1898. 
The  schools  are  in  session  forty  weeks  during  the  year.  In  1908  there 
were  154  public  schools  with  18,564  pupils  (27-06%  of  whom  were 
Japanese,  20-89%  Hawaiian,  I3'54%  part  Hawaiian,  18-72% 
Portuguese  and  10-63%  Chinese)  and  51  private  schools  with 
4881  pupils.  A  normal  school  has  been  established  at  Honolulu, 
with  a  practice  school  attached  to  it.  The  territorial  legislature  of 
1907  established  the  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts  of  the 
Territory  of  Hawaii,  and  also  founded  a  public  library.  The  Hono- 
lulu high  school  does  excellent  work  and  has  beautiful  buildings  and 
grounds.  The  Lahainaluna  Seminary  on  west  Maui,  founded  in 
1831  as  a  training  school  for  teachers,  furnishes  instruction  to 
Hawaiian  boys  in  agriculture,  carpentry,  printing  and  mechanical 
drawing.  The  boys  in  the  industrial  school  (1902)  at  Waialee, 
on  the  island  of  Oahu,  are  taught  useful  trades.  The  teaching  of 
sewing  in  the  public  schools  has  met  with  great  success,  and  a  simple 
form  of  the  Swedish  sloid  was  introduced  into  many  of  the  schools 
in  1894.  Lace  work  was  introduced  into  the  public  schools  in  1903. 
But  the  best  industrial  instruction  is  furnished  by  the  independent 
schools,  among  which  the  Kamehameha  schools  take  the  first  place. 
They  were  founded  by  Mrs  Bernice  Pauahi  Bishop  (1831-1884), 
the  last  lineal  descendant  of  Kamehameha  I.,  who  left  her* extensive 
landed  estates  in  the  hands  of  trustees  for  their  support.  They  furnish 
a  good  manual  and  technical  training  to  Hawaiian  boys  and  girls, 
in  addition  to  a  primary  and  grammar  school  course  of  study,  and 
exert  a  strong  religious  influence.  There  are  six  boarding  schools  for 
Hawaiian  girls,  supported  by  private  resources.  The  most  advanced 
courses  of  study  are  offered  by  Oahu  College,  which  occupies  a 
beautiful  site  near  the  beach  just  E.  of  Honolulu;  it  was  founded 
in  1841  as  the  Punahou  School  for  missionaries'  children,  and  was 
chartered  as  Oahu  College  in  1852.  It  is  well  equipped  with  build- 
ings and  apparatus,  and  has  an  endowment  of  about  8300,000. 

Finance. — The  revenue  of  the  Territory  for  the  fiscal  year  ending 
the  3Oth  of  June  1908  amounted  to  $2,669,748-32,  of  which 
$640,051-42  was  the  proceeds  of  the  tax  on  real  estate,  $635,265-81 
was  the  proceeds  of  the  tax  on  personal  property ;  and  among  the 
larger  of  the  remaining  items  were  the  income  tax  ($266,241-74), 
waterworks  ($141,898-04),  public  lands  (sales,  $37,585-75;  revenue, 
$122,541-71)  and  licences  ($206,374-28).  On  the  3Oth  of  June  1908 
the  bonded  debt  of  the  Territory  was  $3,979,000;  there  was  on  hand 
net  cash,  without  floating  debt,  $677,648-48. 

History. — The  history  of  the  islands  before  their  discovery 
by  Captain  James  Cook,  in  1778,  is  obscure.2  This  famous 
navigator,  who  named  the  islands  in  honour  of  the  earl  of  Sand- 
wich, was  received  by  the  natives  with  many  demonstrations 
of  astonishment  and  delight;  and  offerings  and  prayers  were 
presented  to  him  by  their  priest  in  one  of  the  temples;  and 
though  in  the  following  year  he  was  killed  by  a  native  when  he 
landed  in  Kealakekua  Bay  in  Hawaii,  his  bones  were  preserved 
by  the  priests  and  continued  to  receive  offerings  and  homage 
from  the  people  until  the  abolition  of  idolatry.  At  the  time  of 
Cook's  visit  the  archipelago  seems  to  have  been  divided  into 
three  distinct  kingdoms:  Hawaii;  Oahu  and  Maui;  and  Lanai 
and  Molokai.  On  the  death  of  the  chief  who  ruled  Hawaii  at 
that  time  there  succeeded  one  named  Kamehameha  (1736-1819), 
who  appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  quick  perception  and  great 
force  of  character.  When  Vancouver  visited  the  islands  in  1792, 
he  left  sheep  and  neat  cattle,3  protected  by  a  ten  years'  taboo, 
and  laid  down  the  keel  of  a  European  ship  for  Kamehameha. 
Ten  or  twelve  years  later  Kamehameha  had  20  vessels  (of  25 
to  50  tons),  which  traded  among  the  islands.  He  afterwards 
purchased  others  from  foreigners.  Having  encouraged  a  warlike 
spirit  in  his  people  and  having  introduced  firearms,  Kamehameha 
attacked  and  overcame  the  chiefs  of  the  other  kingdoms  one  after 
another,  until  (in  1795)  he  became  undisputed  master  of  the  whole 
group.  He  made  John  Young  (c.  1775-1835)  and  Isaac  Davis, 
Americans  from  one  of  the  ships  of  Captain  Metcalf  which  visited 
the  island  in  1789,  his  advisers,  encouraged  trade  with  foreigners, 

2  Their  discovery  in  the  i6th  century  (in  1542  or  1555  by  Juan 
Gaetan,  or  in  1528  when  two  of  the  vessels  of  Alvaro  de  Saavedra 
were  shipwrecked  here  and  the  captain  of  one,  with  his  sister,  sur- 
vived and  intermarried  with  the  natives)  seems  probable,  because 
there  are  traces  of  Spanish  customs  in  the  islands;  and  they  are 
marked  in  their  correct  latitude  on  an  English  chart  of  1687,  which 
is  apparently  based  on  Spanish  maps;  a  later  Spanish  chart  (1743) 
gives  a  group  of  islands  10°  E.  of  the  true  position  of  the  Hawaiian 
Islands. 

•  The  first  horses  were  left  by  Captain  R.  J.  Cleveland  in  1803. 


HAWAII 


and  derived  from  its  profits  a  large  increase  of  revenue  as  well 
as  the  means  of  consolidating  his  power.  He  died  in  1819,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Lilohilo,  or  Kamehameha  II.,  a  mild 
and  well-disposed  prince,  but  destitute  of  his  father's  energy. 
One  of  the  first  acts  of  Kamehameha  II.  was,  for  vicious  and 
selfish  reasons,  to  abolish  taboo  and  idolatry  throughout  the 
islands.  Some  disturbances  were  caused  thereby,  but  the 
insurgents  were  defeated. 

On  the  3ist  of  March  1820  missionaries  of  the  American  Board 
of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions — two  clergymen,  two 
teachers,  a  physician,  a  farmer,  and  a  printer,  each  with  his 
wife — and  three  Hawaiians  educated  in  the  Cornwall  (Con- 
necticut) Foreign  Missionary  School,  arrived  from  America 
and  began  their  labours  at  Honolulu.  A  short  time  afterwards 
the  British  government  presented  a  small  schooner  to  the  king, 
and  this  afforded  an  opportunity  for  the  Rev.  William  Ellis, 
the  well-known  missionary,  to  visit  Honolulu  with  a  number 
of  Christian  natives  from  the  Society  Islands.  Finding  the 
language  of  the  two  groups  nearly  the  same,  Mr  Ellis,  who  had 
spent  several  years  in  the  southern  islands,  was  able  to  assist 
the  American  missionaries  in  reducing  the  Hawaiian  language 
to  a  written  form.  In  1825  the  ten  commandments  were  recog- 
nized by  the  king  as  the  basis  of  a  code  of  laws.  In  the  years 
1830-1845  the  educational  work  of  the  American  missionaries 
was  so  successful  that  hardly  a  native  was  unable  to  read  and 
write.  A  law  prohibiting  drunkenness  (1835)  was  followed  in 
1838  by  a  licence  law  and  in  1839  by  a  law  prohibiting  the 
importation  of  spirits  and  taxing  wines  fifty  cents  a  gallon;  in 
1840  another  prohibitory  law  was  enacted;  but  licence  laws 
soon  made  the  sale  of  liquor  common.  Missionary  effort  was 
particularly  fruitful  in  Hilo,  where  Titus  Coan  (1801-1882),  sent 
out  in  1835  by  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign 
Missions,  worked  in  repeated  revivals,  induced  most  of  his 
church  members  to  give  up  tobacco  even,  and  received  prior  to 
1880  more  than  12,000  members  into  a  church  which  became 
self-supporting  and  sent  missions  to  the  Gilbert  Islands  and  the 
Marquesas.  In  1823  Keopuolani,  the  king's  mother,  was  baptized; 
and  on  a  single  Sunday  in  1838  Coan  baptized  1705  converts  at 
Hilo.  In  1864  the  American  Board  withdrew  its  control  of 
evangelical  work. 

In  1824  the  king  and  queen  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  paid  a 
visit  to  England,  and  both  died  there  of  measles.  His  successor, 
Kamehameha  III.  ruled  from  1825  to  1854.  In  1839  Kame- 
hameha III.  signed  a  Bill  of  Rights  and  in  1840  he  promulgated 
the  first  constitution  of  the  realm;  in  1842  a  code  of  laws  was 
proclaimed;  by  1848  the  feudal  system  of  land  tenure  was 
completely  abolished;  the  first  legislature  met  in  1845  and  full 
suffrage  was  granted  in  1852,  but  in  1864  suffrage  was  restricted. 
Progress  was  at  times  interrupted  by  the  conduct  of  the  officers 
of  foreign  powers.  On  one  occasion  (July  1839)  French  officers 
abrogated  the  laws  (particularly  against  the  importation  of 
liquor),  dictated  treaties,  extorted  $20,000  and  by  force  of  arms 
procured  privileges  for  Roman  Catholic  1  priests  in  the  country; 
and  at  another  time  (February  1843)  a  British  officer,  Captain 
Paulet  of  the  "  Carysfort,"  went  so  far  as  to  take  possession  of 
Oahu  and  establish  a  commission  for  its  government.  The  act 
of  the  British  officer  was  disavowed  by  his  superiors  as  soon  as 
known. 

These  incidents  led  to  a  representation  on  the  part  of  the 
native  sovereign  to  the  governments  of  Great  Britain,  France 
and  the  United  States,  and  the  independence  of  the  islands 
(recognized  by  the  United  States  in  1842)  was  recognized  in 
1844  by  France  and  Great  Britain.  In  1844  John  Ricord,  an 
American  lawyer,  became  the  first  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 
A  new  constitution  came  into  effect  in  1852.  It  was  the  aim 
of  Kamehameha  III.  and  his  advisers  to  combine  the  native 
and  the  foreign  elements  under  one  government;  to  make 
the  king  the  sovereign  not  of  one  race  or  class,  but  of  all;  and  to 
extend  equal  and  impartial  laws  over  all  inhabitants  of  the 

1  The  first  Roman  Cathojic  priests  came  in  1827  and  were  banished 
in  1831,  but  returned  in  1837.  An  edict  of  toleration  in  1839  shortly 
preceded  the  visit  of  the  "  Artemise." 


country.  Kamehameha  IV.  and  his  queen,  Emma,  ruled  from 
1855  to  1863  and  were  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Kamehameha 
V.,  who  died  in  1872,  and  in  whose  reign  a  third  (and  a  re- 
actionary) constitution  went  into  effect  in  1864,  by  mere  royal 
proclamation.  Lunalilor  a  grandson  of  Kamehameha  I.,  was 
king  for  two  years,  and  in  1874,  backed  by  American  influence, 
Kalakaua  was  elected  his  successor,  in  preference  to  Queen 
Emma,  a  member  of  the  Anglican  Church  and  the  candidate 
of  the  pro-British  party.  Kalakaua  considered  residents  of 
European  or  American  descent  as  alien  invaders,  and  he  aimed 
to  restore  largely  the  ancient  system  of  personal  government, 
under  which  he  should  have  control  of  the  public  treasury.  On 
the  2nd  of  July  1878,  and  again  on  the  I4th  of  August  1880, 
he  dismissed  a  ministry  without  assigning  any  reason,  after 
it  had  been  triumphantly  sustained  by  a  test  vote  of  the  legis- 
lature. On  the  latter  occasion  he  appointed  C.  C.  Moreno, 
who  had  come  to  Honolulu  in  the  interest  of  a  Chinese  steam- 
ship company,  as  Premier  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  This 
called  forth  the  protest  of  the  representatives  of  Great  Britain, 
France  and  the  United  States,  and  aroused  such  opposition 
on  the  part  of  both  the  foreigners  and  the  better  class  of  natives 
that  the  king  was  obliged,  after  four  days  of  popular  excitement, 
to  remove  the  obnoxious  minister.  During  the  king's  absence 
on  a  tour  round  the  world  in  1881,  his  sister,  Mrs  Lydia  Dominis 
(b.  1838),  also  styled  Liliuokalani,  acted  as  regent.  After  his 
return  the  contest  was  renewed  between  the  so-called  National 
party,  which  favoured  absolution,  and  the  Reform  party,  which 
sought  to  establish  parliamentary  gcjvernment.  The  king  took 
an  active  part  in  the  elections,  and  used  his  patronage  to  the 
utmost  to  influence  legislation.  For  three  successive  sessions 
a  majority  of  the  legislature  was  composed  of  office-holders, 
dependent  on  the  favour  of  the  executive.  Among  the  measures 
urged  by  the  king  and  opposed  by  the  Reform  party  were  the 
project  of  a  ten-million  dollar  loan,  chiefly  for  military  purposes; 
the  removal  of  the  prohibition  of  the  sale  of  alcoholic  liquor  to 
Hawaiians,  which  was  carried  in  1882;  the  licensing  of  the  sale 
of  opium;  the  chartering  of  a  lottery  company;  the  licensing 
of  kahunas,  or  medicine  men,  &c.  Systematic  efforts  were 
made  to  turn  the  constitutional  question  into  a  race  issue,  and 
the  party  cry  was  raised  of  "  Hawaii  for  Hawaiians."  Adroit 
politicians  flattered  the  king's  vanity,  defended  his  follies  and 
taught  him  how  to  violate  the  spirit  of  the  constitution  while 
keeping  the  letter  of  the  law.  From  1882  till  1887  his  prime 
minister  was  Walter  Murray  Gibson  (1823-1888),  a  singular  and 
romantic  genius,  a  visionary  adventurer  and  a  shrewd  politician, 
who  had  been  imprisoned  by  the  Dutch  government  in  Batavia 
in  1852  on  a  charge  of  inciting  insurrection  in  Sumatra,  and  had 
arrived  at  Honolulu  in  1861  with  the  intention  of  leading  a 
Mormon  colony  to  the  East  Indies.  To  exalt  his  royal  dignity, 
which  was  lowered,  he  thought,  by  his  being  only  an  elected 
king,  Kalakaua  caused  himself  to  be  crowned  with  imposing 
ceremonies  on  the  ninth  anniversary  of  his  election  (Feb.  12, 
1883). 

Kalakaua  was  now  no  longer  satisfied  with  being  merely 
king  of  Hawaii,  but  aspired  to  what  was  termed  the  "  Primacy 
of  the  Pacific."  Accordingly  Mr  Gibson  addressed  a  protest  to 
the  great  powers,  deprecating  any  further  annexation  of  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  claiming  for  Hawaii  the  ex- 
clusive right  "  to  assist  them  in  improving  their  political  and 
social  condition."  In  pursuance  of  this  policy,  two  commissioners 
were  sent  to  the  Gilbert  Islands  in  1883  to  prepare  the  way  for 
a  Hawaiian  protectorate.  On  the  23rd  of  December  1886  Mr 
J.  E.  Bush  was  commissioned  as  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the 
king  of  Samoa,  the  king  of  Tonga  and  the  other  independent 
chiefs  of  Polynesia.  He  arrived  in  Samoa  on  the  3rd  of  January 
1887,  and  remained  there  six  months,  during  which  time  he 
concluded  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Malietoa,  which  was  ratified 
by  his  government.  The  "  Explorer,"  a  steamer  of  170  tons, 
which  had  been  employed  in  the  copra  trade,  was  purchased  for 
$20,000,  and  refitted  as  a  man-of-war,  to  form  the  "  nest-egg  " 
of  the  future  Hawaiian  navy.  She  was  renamed  the  "  Kaim- 
iloa,"  and  was  despatched  to  Samoa  on  the  i7th  of  May  1887 


HAWAII 


to  strengthen  the  hands  of  the  embassy.  As  R.  L.  Stevenson 
wrote:  "  The  history  of  the  '  Kaimiloa  '  is  a  story  of  debauchery, 
mutiny  and  waste  of  government  property."  At  length  the 
intrigues  of  the  Hawaiian  embassy  gave  umbrage  to  the  German 
government,  and  it  was  deemed  prudent  to  recall  it  to  Honolulu 
in  July  1887.  Meanwhile  a  reform  league  had  been  formed  to 
stop  the  prevailing  misrule  and  extravagance;  it  was  supported 
by  a  volunteer  military  force,  the  "  Honolulu  Rifles."  The 
king  carried  through  the  legislature  of  1886  a  bill  for  an  opium 
licence,  as  well  as  a  Loan  Act,  under  which  a  million  dollars  were 
borrowed  in  London.  Under  his  influence  the  Hale  Naua 
Society  was  organized  in  1886  for  the  spread  of  idolatry  and 
king-worship;  and  in  the  same  year  a  "Board  of  Health" 
was  formed  which  revived  the  vicious  practices  of  the  kahunas 
or  medicine-men. 

The  king's  acceptance  of  two  bribes — one  of  $75,000  and 
another  of  $80,000  for  the  assignment  of  an  opium  licence — 
precipitated  the  revolution  of  1887.  An  immense  mass  meeting 
was  held  on  the  30th  of  June,  which  sent  a  committee  to  the 
king  with  specific  demands  for  radical  reforms.  Finding  himself 
without  support,  he  yielded  without  a  struggle,  dismissed  his 
ministry  and  signed  a  constitution  on  the  7th  of  July  1887, 
revising  that  of  1864,  and  intended  to  put  an  end  to  personal 
government  and  to  make  the  cabinet  responsible  only  to 
the  legislature;  this  was  called  the  "  bayonet  constitution," 
because  it  was  so  largely  the  result  of  the  show  of  force  made  by 
the  Honolulu  Rifles.  By  its  terms  office-holders  were  made 
ineligible  for  seats  in  the  legislature,  and  no  member  of  the 
legislature  could  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the 
government  during  the  term  for  which  he  had  been  elected. 
The  members  of  the  Upper  House,  instead  of  being  appointed 
by  the  king  tor  life,  were  henceforth  to  be  elected  for  terms  of 
six  years  by  electors  possessing  a  moderate  property  qualification. 
The  remainder  of  Kalakaua's  reign  teemed  with  intrigues 
and  conspiracies  to  restore  autocratic  rule.  One  of  these 
came  to  a  head  on  the  3oth  of  July  1889,  but  this  "  Wilcox 
rebellion,"  led  by  R.  W.  Wilcox,  a  half-breed,  educated  in 
Italy,  and  a  friend  of  the  king  and  of  his  sister,  was  promptly 
suppressed.  Seven  of  the  insurgents  were  killed  and  a  large 
number  wounded.  For  his  health  the  king  visited  California 
in  the  United  States  cruiser  "  Charleston  "  in  November  1890, 
and  died  on  the  2Oth  of  January  1891  in  San  Francisco.  On 
the  zgth  of  January  at  noon  his  sister,  the  regent,  took  the  oath 
to  maintain  the  constitution  of  1887,  and  was  proclaimed  queen, 
under  the  title  of  Liliuokalani. 

The  history  of  her  reign  shows  that  it  was  her  constant  purpose 
to  restore  autocratic  government.  The  legislative  session  of 

1892,  during  which  four  changes  of  ministry  took  place,  was 
protracted  to  eight  months  chiefly  by  her  determination  to 
carry  through  the  opium  and  lottery  bills  and  to  have  a  pliable 
cabinet.     She  had  a  new  constitution  drawn  up,  practically 
providing  for  an  absolute  monarchy,  and  disfranchising  a  large 
class  of  citizens  who  had  voted  since  1887;  this  constitution 
(drawn  up,  so  the  royal  party  declared,  in  reply  to  a  petition 
signed  by  thousands  of  natives)  she  undertook  to  force  on  the 
country  after  proroguing  the  legislature  on  the  i4th  of  January 

1893,  but  her  ministers  shrank  from  the  responsibility  of  so 
revolutionary  an  act,  and  with  difficulty  prevailed  upon  her  to 
postpone  the  execution  of  her  design.     An  uprising  similar  to 
that  of  1887  declared  the  monarchy  forfeited  by  its  own  act. 
A  third  party  proposed  a  regency  during  the  minority  of  the 
heir-apparent,  Princess  Kaiulani,  but  in  her  absence  this  scheme 
found  few  supporters.     A  Committee  of  Safety  was  appointed 
at  a  public  meeting,  which  formed  a  provisional  government 
and  reorganized  the  volunteer  military  companies,  which  had 
been  disbanded  in  1890.     Its  leading  spirits  were  the  "  Sons  of 
Missionaries  "  (as  E.  L.  Godkin  styled  them),  who  were  accused 
of  using  their  knowledge  of  local  affairs  and  their  inherited 
prestige  among  the  natives  for  private  ends — of  founding  a 
"  Gospel  Republic  "  which  was  actually  a  business  enterprise. 
The  provisional  government  called  a  mass  meeting  of  citizens, 
which  met  on  the  afternoon  of  the  6th  and  ratified  its  action. 


The  United  States  steamer  "  Boston,"  which  had  unexpectedly 
arrived  from  Hilo  on  the  I4th,  landed  a  small  force  on  the 
evening  of  the  i6th,  at  the  request  of  the  United  States  minister, 
Mr  J.  L.  Stevens,  and  a  committee  of  residents,  to  protect  the 
lives  and  property  of  American  citizens  in  case  of  riot  or  in- 
cendiarism. On  the  1 7th  the  Committee  of  Safety  took  possession 
of  the  government  building,  and  issued  a  proclamation  declaring 
a  monarchy  to  be  abrogated,  and  establishing  a  provisional 
government,  to  exist  "  until  terms  of  union  with  the  United 
States  of  America  shall  have  been  negotiated  and  agreed  upon." 
Meanwhile  two  companies  of  volunteer  troops  arrived  and 
occupied  the  grounds.  By  the  advice  of  her  ministers,  and  to 
avoid  bloodshed,  the  queen  surrendered  under  protest,  in  view 
of  the  landing  of  United  States  troops,  appealing  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  to  reinstate  her  in  authority.  A 
treaty  of  annexation  was  negotiated  with  the  United  States 
during  the  next  month,  just  before  the  close  of  President 
Benjamin  Harrison's  administration,  but  it  was  withdrawn 
on  the  gth  of  March  1893  by  President  Harrison's  successor, 
President  Cleveland,  who  then  despatched  James  H.  Blount 
1837-1903)  of  Macon,  Georgia,  as  commissioner  paramount, 
to  investigate  the  situation  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  On 
receiving  Blount's  report  to  the  effect  that  the  revolution  had 
been  accomplished  by  the  aid  of  the  United  States  minister 
and  by  the  landing  of  troops  from  the  "  Boston,"  President 
Cleveland  sent  Albert  Sydney  Willis  (1843-1897)  of  Kentucky 
to  Honolulu  with  secret  instructions  as  United  States  minister. 
Willis  with  much  difficulty  and  delay  obtained  the  queen's 
promise  to  grant  an  amnesty,  and  made  a  formal  demand  on  the 
provisional  government  for  her  reinstatement  on  the  igth  of 
December  1893.  On  the  23rd  President  Sanford  B.  Dole  sent 
a  reply  to  Wiliis,  declining  to  surrender  the  authority  of  the 
provisional  government  to  the  deposed  queen.  The  United 
States  Congress  declared  against  any  further  intervention  by 
adopting  on  the  3  ist  of  May  1894  the  Turpie  Resolution.  On  the 
3oth  of  May  1894  a  convention  was  held  to  frame  a  constitution 
for  the  republic  of  Hawaii,  which  was  proclaimed  on  the  ath  of 
July  following,  with  S.  B.  Dole  as  its  first  president.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  same  year  a  plot  was  formed  to  overthrow  the 
republic  and  to  restore  the  monarchy.  A  cargo  of  arms  and 
ammunition  from  San  Francisco  was  secretly  landed  at  a  point 
near  Honolulu,  where  a  company  of  native  royalists  were 
collected  on  the  6th  of  January  1895,  intending  to  capture  the 
government  buildings  by  surprise  that  night,  with  the  aid  of 
their  allies  in  the  city.  A  premature  encounter  with  a  squad 
of  police  alarmed  the  town  and  broke  up  their  plans.  There 
were  several  other  skirmishes  during  the  following  week,  resulting 
in  the  capture  of  the  leading  conspirators,  with  most  of  their 
followers.  The  ex-queen,  on  whose  premises  arms  and  am- 
munition and  a  number  of  incriminating  documents  were 
found,  was  arrested  and  was  imprisoned  for  nine  months  in  the 
former  palace.  On  the  24th  of  January  1895  she  formally 
renounced  all  claim  to  the  throne  and  took  the  oath  of  allegiance 
to  the  republic.  The  ex-queen  and  forty-eight  others  were 
granted  conditional  pardon  on  the  7th  of  September,  and  on 
the  following  New  Year's  Day  the  remaining  prisoners  were 
set  at  liberty. 

On  the  inauguration  of  President  McKinley,  in  March  1897, 
negotiations  with  the  United  States  were  resumed,  and  on  the 
1 6th  of  June  a  new  treaty  of  annexation  was  signed  at  Washington. 
As  its  ratification  by  the  Senate  had  appeared  to  be  uncertain, 
extreme  measures  were  taken:  the  Newlands  joint  resolution, 
by  which  the  cession  was  "accepted,  ratified  and  confirmed," 
was  passed  by  the  Senate  by  a  vote  of  42  to  21  and  by  the 
House  of  Representatives  by  a  vote  of  209  to  91,  and  was 
signed  by  the  president  on  the  7th  of  July  1898.  The  formal 
transfer  of  sovereignty  took  place  on  the  i2th  of  August  1898, 
when  the  flag  of  the  United  States  (the  same  flag  hauled  down 
by  order  of  Commissioner  Blount)  was  raised  over  the  Executive 
Building  with  impressive  ceremonies. 

The  sovereigns  of  the  monarchy,  the  president  of  the  republic 
and  the  governors  of  the  Territory  up  to  1910  were  as  follows: 


HAWARDEN— HAWES,  STEPHEN 


93 


Sovereigns:  Kamehameha  I.,  1795-1819;  Kamehameha  II., 
1819-1824;  Kaahumanu  (regent),  1824-1832;  Kamehameha 
III.,  1832-1854;  Kamehameha  IV.,  1855-1863;  Kamehameha 
V.,  1863-1872;  Lunalilo,  1873-1874;  Kalakaua,  1874-1891; 
Liliuokalani,  1891-1893.  President:  Sanford  B.  Dole,  1893- 
1898.  Governors:  S.  B.  Dole,  1898-1904;  George  R.  Carter, 
1904-1907;  W.  F.  Frear,  1907. 

AUTHORITIES. — Consult  the  bibliography  in  Adolf  Marcuse,  Die 
hawaiischen  Inseln  (Berlin,  1894);  A.  P.  C.  Griffen,  List  of  Books 
relating  to  Hawaii  (Washington,  1898);  C.  E.  Dutton,  Hawaiian 
Volcanoes,  in  the  fourth  annual  report  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey  (Washington,  1884);  J.  D.  Dana,  Characteristics  of  Volcanoes 
with  Contribution  of  Facts  and  Principles  from  the  Hawaiian  Islands 
(New  York,  1890);  W.  H.  Pickering,  Lunar  and  Hawaiian  Physical 
Features  compared  (1906) ;  C.  H.  Hitchcock,  Hawaii  and  its  Volcanoes 
(Honolulu,  1909);  Augustin  Kramer,  Hawaii,  Ostmikronesien 
und  Samoa  (Stuttgart,  1906);  Sharp,  Fauna  (London,  1899); 
Walter  Maxwell,  Lavas  and  Soils  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands 
(Honolulu,  1898);  W.  Hillebrand,  Flora  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands 
(London,  1888);  G.  P.  Wilder,  Fruits  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands 
(3  vols.,  Honolulu,  1907);  H.  W.  Henshaw,  Birds  of  the  Hawaiian 
Islands  (Washington,  1902);  A.  Fornander,  Account  of  the  Poly- 
nesian Race  and  the  Ancient  History  of  the  Hawaiian  People  to  the 
Times  of  Kamehameha  I.  (3  vols.,  London,  1878-1885);  W.  D. 
Alexander,  A  Brief  History  of  the  Hawaiian  People  (New  York, 
1899) ;  C.  H.Forbes-Lindsay,  American  Insular  Possessions  (Phila- 
delphia, 1906) ;  Jos6  de  Olivares,  Our  Islands  and  their  People  (New 
York,  1899);  J.  A.  Owen,  Story  of  Hawaii  (London,  1898);  E.  J. 
Carpenter,  America  in  Hawaii  (Boston,  1899);  W.  F.  Blackman, 
The  Making  of  Hawaii,  a  Study  in  Social  Evolution  (New  York, 
1899),  with  bibliography;  T.  G.  Thrum,  Hawaiian  Almanac  and 
Annual  (Honolulu);  Lucien  Young,  The  Real  Hawaii  (New  York, 
1899),  written  by  a  lieutenant  of  the  "  Boston,"  an  ardent  defender 
of  Stevens;  Liliuokalani,  Hawaii's  Story  (Boston,  1898);  C.  T. 
Rodgers,  Education  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands  (Honolulu,  1897); 
Henry  E.  Chambers,  Constitutional  History  of  Hawaii  (Baltimore, 
1896),  in  Johns  Hopkins  University  Studies;  W.  Ellis,  Tour  Around 
Hawaii  (London,  1829);  J.  J.  Jarves,  History  of  the  Sandwich  Islands 
(Honolulu,  1847);  H.  Bingham,  A  Residence  of  Twenty-one  Years 
in  the  Sandwich  Islands  (Hartford,  1848);  Isabella  Bird,  Six  Months 
in  the  Sandwich  Islands  (New  York,  1881);  Adolf  Bastian,  Zur 
Kenntnis  Hawaiis  (Berlin,  1883) ;  the  annual  Reports  of  the  governor 
of  Hawaii,  of  the  Hawaii  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  of  the 
Hawaiian  Sugar  Planters'  Experiment  Station,  of  the  Board  of 
Commissioners  on  Agriculture  and  Forestry,  and  of  the  Hawaii 
Promotion  Committee;  and  the  Papers  of  the  Hawaiian  Historical 
Society. 

HAWARDEN  (pronounced  Harden,  Welsh  Penarldg),  a 
market-town  of  Flintshire,  North  Wales,  6  m.  W.  of  Chester, 
on  a  height  commanding  an  extensive  prospect;  connected 
by  a  branch  with  the  London  &  North- Western  railway.  Pop. 
(1901),  5372.  It  lies  in  a  coal  district,  with  clay  beds  near. 
Coarse  earthenware,  draining  tiles  and  fire-clay  bricks  are  the 
chief  manufactures.  The  Maudes  take  the  title  of  viscount 
from  the  town.  Hawarden  castle— built  in  1752,  added  to  and 
altered  in  the  Gothic  style  in  1814 — stands  in  a  fine  wooded 
park  near  the  old  castle  of  the  same  name,  which  William  the 
Conqueror  gave  to  his  nephew,  Hugh  Lupus.  It  was  taken  in 
1282  by  Dafydd,  brother  of  Llewelyn,  prince  of  Wales,  destroyed 
by  the  Parliamentarians  in  the  Civil  War,  and  came  into  the 
possession  of  Sergeant  Glynne,  lord  chief  justice  of  England 
under  Cromwell.  The  last  baronet,  Sir  Stephen  R.  Glynne, 
dying  in  1874,  Castell  Penarlag  passed  to  his  brother-in-law, 
William  Ewart  Gladstone.  St  Deiniol  church,  early  English, 
was  restored  in  1857  and  1878.  There  are  also  a  grammar 
school  (1606),  a  Gladstone  golden-wedding  fountain  (1889),  and 
St  Deiniol's  Hostel  (with  accommodation  for  students  and  an 
Anglican  clerical  warden);  west  of  the  church,  on  Truman's 
hill,  is  an  old  British  camp. 

HAWAWIR  (HAUHAUIN),  an  African  tribe  of  Semitic  origin, 
dwelling  in  the  Bayuda  desert,  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan.  They 
are  found  along  the  road  from  Debba  to  Khartum  as  far  as 
Bir  Gamr,  and  from  Ambigol  to  Wadi  Bishara.  They  have 
adopted  none  of  the  negro  customs,  such  as  gashing  the  cheeks 
or  elaborate  hairdressing.  They  own  large  herds  of  oxen,  sheep 
and  camels. 

HAWEIS,  HUGH  REGINALD  (1838-1901),  English  preacher 
and  writer,  was  born  at  Egham,  Surrey,  on  the  3rd  of  April 
1838.  On  leaving  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  he  travelled  in 


Italy  and  served  under  Garibaldi  in  1860.  On  his  return  to- 
England  he  was  ordained  and  held  various  curacies  in  London, 
becoming  in  1866  incumbent  of  St  James's,  Marylebone.  His 
unconventional  methods  of  conducting  the  service,  combined 
with  his  dwarfish  figure  and  lively  manner,  soon  attracted 
crowded  congregations.  He  married  Miss  M.  E.  Joy  in  1866, 
and  both  he  and  Mrs  Haweis  (d.  1898)  contributed  largely  to 
periodical  literature  and  travelled  a  good  deal  abroad.  Haweis 
was  Lowell  lecturer  at  Boston,  U.S.A.,  in  1885,  and  represented 
the  Anglican  Church  at  the  Chicago  Parliament  of  Religions  in 
1893.  He  was  much  interested  in  music,  and  wrote  books  on 
violins  and  church  bells,  besides  contributing  an  article  to  the 
gth  edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  on  bell-ringing. 
His  best-known  book  was  Music  and  Morals  (3rd  ed.,  1873); 
and  for  a  time  he  was  editor  of  Cassell's  Magazine.  He  also 
wrote  five  volumes  on  Christ  and  Christianity  (a  popular  church 
history,  1886-1887).  Other  writings  include  Trawl  and  Talk 
(1896),  and  similar  chatty  and  entertaining  books.  He  died  on 
the  29th  of  January  1901. 

HAWES,  STEPHEN  (fl.  1502-1521),  English  poet,  was  probably 
a  native  of  Suffolk,  and,  if  his  own  statement  of  his  age  may  be 
trusted,  was  born  about  1474.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
and  travelled  in  England,  Scotland  and  France.  On  his  return 
his  various  accomplishments,  especially  his  "  most  excellent 
vein  "  in  poetry,  procured  him  a  place  at  court,  He  was  groom 
of  the  chamber  to  Henry  VII.  as  early  as  1502.  He  could  repeat 
by  heart  the  works  of  most  of  the  English  poets,  especially  the 
poems  of  John  Lydgate,  whom  he  called  his  master.  He  was 
still  living  in  1521,  when  it  is  stated  in  Henry  VIII. 's  household 
accounts  that  £6,  135.  4d.  was  paid  "  to  Mr  Hawes  for  his 
play,"  and  he  died  before  1530,  when  Thomas  Field,  in  his 
"  Conversation  between  a  Lover  and  a  Jay,"  wrote  "  Yong 
Steven  Hawse,  whose  soule  God  pardon,  Treated  of  love  so 
clerkly  and  well."  His  capital  work  is  The  Passetyme  of  Pleasure, 
or  the  History  of  Graunde  Amour  and  la  Bel  Pucel,  conteining 
the  knowledge  of  the  Seven  Sciences  and  the  Course  of  Man's  Life 
in  this  Worlde,  printed  by  Wynkyn  de  Worde,  1509,  but  finished 
three  years  earlier.  It  was  also  printed  with  slightly  varying 
titles  by  the  same  printer  in  1517,  by  J.  Wayland  in  1554,  by 
Richard  Tottel  and  by  John  Waley  in  1555.  Tottel's  edition 
was  edited  by  T.  Wright  and  reprinted  by  the  Percy  Society 
in  1845.  The  poem  is  a  long  allegory  in  seven-lined  stanzas  of 
man's  life  in  this  world.  It  is  divided  into  sections  after  the 
manner  of  the  Morte  Arthur  and  borrows  the  machinery  of 
romance.  Its  main  motive  is  the  education  of  the  knight, 
Graunde  Amour,  based,  according  to  Mr  W.  J.  Courthope 
{Hist,  of  Eng.  Poetry,  vol.  i.  382),  on  the  Marriage  of  Mercury  and 
Philology,  by  Martianus  Capella,  and  the  details  of  the  description 
prove  Hawes  to  have  been  well  acquainted  with  medieval  systems 
of  philosophy.  At  the  suggestion  of  Fame,  and  accompanied 
by  her  two  greyhounds,  Grace  and  Governance,  Graunde  Amour 
starts  out  in  quest  of  La  Bel  Pucel.  He  first  visits  the  Tower  of  • 
Doctrine  or  Science  where  he  acquaints  himself  with  the  arts  of 
grammar,  logic,  rhetoric  and  arithmetic.  After  a  long  dis- 
putation with  the  lady  in  the  Tower  of  Music  he  returns  to  his 
studies,  and  after  sojourns  at  the  Tower  of  Geometry,  the  Tower 
of  Doctrine,  the  Castle  of  Chivalry,  &c.,  he  arrives  at  the  Castle 
of  La  Bel  Pucel,  where  he  is  met  by  Peace,  Mercy,  Justice, 
Reason  and  Memory.  His  happy  marriage  does  not  end  the 
story,  which  goes  on  to  tell  of  the  oncoming  of  Age,  with  the 
concomitant  evils  of  Avarice  and  Cunning.  The  admonition 
of  Death  brings  Contrition  and  Conscience,  and  it  is  only  when 
Remembraunce  has  delivered  an  epitaph  chiefly  dealing  with 
the  Seven  Deadly  Sins,  and  Fame  has  enrolled  Graunde  Amour's 
name  with  the  knights  of  antiquity,  that  we  are  allowed  to  part 
with  the  hero.  This  long  imaginative  poem  was  widely  read 
and  esteemed,  and  certainly  exercised  an  influence  on  the  genius 
of  Spenser. 

The  remaining  works  of  Hawes  are  all  of  them  bibliographical 
rarities.  The  Conversyon  of  Swerers  (1509)  and  A  Joyfull  Medy- 
tacyon  to  all  Englonde,  a  coronation  poem  (1509),  was  edited  by 
David  Laing  for  the  Abbotsford  Club  (Edinburgh,  1865).  A 


94 


HA  WES,  WILLIAM— HAWK 


Compendyous  Story  .  .  .  called  the  Example  of  Vertu  (pr.  1512)  and 
the  Comfort  of  Lovers  (not  dated)  complete  the  list  of  his  extant 
work. 

See  also  G.  Saintsbury,  The  Flourishing  of  Romance  and  the  Rise  of 
Allegory  (Edin.  and  Lond.,  1897) ;  the  same  writer's  Hist,  of  English 
Prosody  (vol.  i.  1906);  and  an  article  by  W.  Murison  in  the  Cam- 
bridge History  of  English  Literature  (vol.  ii.  1908). 

HAWES,  WILLIAM  (1785-1846),  English  musician,  was  born 
in  London  in  1785,  and  was  for  eight  years  (1793-1801)  a  chorister 
of  the  Chapel  Royal,  where  he.  studied  music  chiefly  under  Dr 
Ayrton.  He  subsequently  held  various  musical  posts,  being  in 
1817  appointed  master  of  the  children  of  the  Chapel  Royal. 
He  also  carried  on  the  business  of  a  music  publisher,  and  was 
for  many  years  musical  director  of  the  Lyceum  theatre,  then 
devoted  to  English  opera.  In  the  last-named  capacity  (July 
23rd,  1824),  he  introduced  Weber's  Der  Freischiitz  for  the  first 
time  in  England,  at  first  slightly  curtailed,  but  soon  afterwards 
in  its  entirety.  Winter's  Interrupted  Sacrifice,  Mozart's  Cosi 
fan  tulle,  Marschner's  Vampyre  and  other  important  works 
were  also  brought  out  under  his  auspices.  Hawes  also  wrote 
or  compiled  the  music  for  numerous  pieces.  Better  were  his 
glees  and  madrigals,  of  which  he  published  several  collections. 
He  also  superintended  a  new  edition  of  the  celebrated  Triumph 
of  Oriana.  He  died  on  the  i8th  of  February  1846. 

HAWFINCH,  a  bird  so  called  from  the  belief  that  the  fruit 
of  the  hawthorn  (Crataegus  Oxyacantha)  forms  its  chief  food, 
the  Loxia  coccolhraustes  of  Linnaeus,  and  the  Coccothraustes 
vulgaris  of  modern  ornithologists,  one  of  the  largest  of  the  finch 
family  (Fringillidae),  and  found  over  nearly  the  whole  of  Europe, 
in  Africa  north  of  the  Atlas  and  in  Asia  from  Palestine  to  Japan. 
It  was  formerly  thought  to  be  only  an  autumnal  or  winter- 
visitor  to  Britain,  but  later  experience  has  proved  that,  though 
there  may  very  likely  be  an  immigration  in  the  fall  of  the  year, 
it  breeds  in  nearly  all  the  English  counties  to  Yorkshire,  and 
abundantly  in  those  nearest  to  London.  In  coloration  it  bears 
some  resemblance  to  a  chaffinch,  but  its  much  larger  size  and 
enormous  beak  make  it  easily  recognizable,  while  on  closer 
inspection  the  singular  bull-hook  form  of  some  of  its  wing-feathers 
will  be  found  to  be  very  remarkable.  Though  not  uncommonly 
frequenting  gardens  and  orchards,  in  which  as  well  as  in  woods 
it  builds  its  nest,  it  is  exceedingly  shy  in  its  habits,  so  as  seldom 
to  afford  opportunities  for  observation.  (A.  N.) 

HAWICK,  a  municipal  and  police  burgh  of  Roxburghshire, 
Scotland.  Pop.  (1891),  19,204;  (1901),  17,303.  It  is  situated 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Slitrig  (which  flows  through  the  town) 
with  the  Teviot,  10  m.  S.W.  of  Jedburgh  by  road  and  52!  m. 
S.E.  of  Edinburgh  by  the  North  British  railway.  The  name 
has  been  derived  from  the  O.  Eng.  heaih-wic,  "  the  village  on  the 
flat  meadow,"  or  haga-wic,  "  the  fenced-in  dwelling,"  the  Gadeni 
being  supposed  to  have  had  a  settlement  at  this  spot.  Hawick  is 
a  substantial  and  flourishing  town,  the  prosperity  of  which  dates 
from  the  beginning  of  the  igth  century,  its  enterprise  having 
won  for  it  the  designation  of  "  The  Glasgow  of  the  Borders." 
The  municipal  buildings,  which  contain  the  free  library  and 
reading-room,  stand  on  the  site  of  the  old  town  hall.  The 
Buccleuch  memorial  hall,  commemorating  the  5th  duke  of 
Buccleuch,  contains  the  Science  and  Art  Institute  and  a  museum 
rich  in  exhibits  illustrating  Border  history.  The  Academy 
furnishes  both  secondary  and  technical  education.  The  only 
church  of  historical  interest  is  that  of  St  Mary's,  the  third  of 
the  name,  built  in  1763.  The  first  church,  believed  to  have  been 
founded  by  St  Cuthbert  (d.  687),  was  succeeded  by  one  dedicated 
in  1214,  which  was  the  scene  of  the  seizure  of  Sir  Alexander 
Ramsay  of  Dalhousie  in  1342  by  Sir  William  Douglas.  The 
modern  Episcopal  church  of  St  Cuthbert  was  designed  by  Sir 
Gilbert  Scott.  The  Moat  or  Moot  hill  at  the  south  end  of  the 
town — an  earthen  mound  30  ft.  high  and  300  ft.  in  circumference 
— is  conjectured  to  have  been  the  place  where  formerly  the  court 
of  the  manor  met;  though  some  authorities  think  it  was  a 
primitive  form  of  fortification.  The  Baron's  Tower,  founded  in 
11 55  by  the  Lovels,  lords  of  Branxholm  and  Hawick,  and  after- 
wards the  residence  of  the  Douglases  of  Drumlanrig,  is  said  to 
have  been  the  only  building  that  was  not  burned  down  during 


the  raid  of  Thomas  Radcliffe,  3rd  earl  of  Sussex,  in  April  1570. 
At  a  later  date  it  was  the  abode  of  Anne,  duchess  of  Buccleuch 
and  Monmouth,  after  the  execution  of  her  husband,  James, 
duke  of  Monmouth  in  1585,  and  finally  became  the  Tower  Hotel. 
Bridges  across  the  Teviot  connect  Hawick  with  the  suburb  of 
Wilton,  in  which  a  public  park  has  been  laid  out,  and  St  Leonard's 
Park  and  race-course  are  situated  on  the  Common,  2  m.  S.W. 
The  town  is  governed  by  a  provost,  bailies  and  council,  and 
unites  with  Selkirk  and  Galashiels  (together  known  as  the 
Border  burghs)  to  send  a  member  to  parliament.  The  leading 
industries  are  the  manufacture  of  hosiery,  established  in  1771, 
and  woollens,  dating  from  1830,  including  blankets,  shepherd's 
plaiding  and  tweeds.  There  are,  besides,  tanneries,  dye  works, 
oil-works,  saw-mills,  iron-founding  and  engineering  works, 
quarries  and  nursery  gardens.  The  markets  for  live  stock  and 
grain  are  also  important. 

In  1537  Hawick  received  from  Sir  James  Douglas  of  Drum- 
lanrig a  charter  which  was  confirmed  by  the  infant  Queen  Mary 
in  1545,  and  remained  in  force  until  1861,  when  the  corporation 
was  reconstituted  by  act  of  parliament.  Owing  to  its  situation 
Hawick  was  often  imperilled  by  Border  warfare  and  maraud- 
ing freebooters.  Sir  Robert  Umfraville  (d.  1436),  governor  of 
Berwick,  burned  it  about  1417,  and  in  1562  the  regent  Moray 
had  to  suppress  the  lawless  with  a  strong  hand.  Neither  of 
the  Jacobite  risings  aroused  enthusiasm.  In  1715  the  dis- 
contented Highlanders  mutinied  on  the  Common,  500  of  them 
abandoning  their  cause,  and  in  1745  Prince  Charles  Edward's 
cavalry  passed  southward  through  the  town.  In  1514,  the  year 
after  the  battle  of  Flodden,  in  which  the  burghers  had  suffered 
severely,  a  number  of  young  men  surprised  an  English  force  at 
Hornshole,  a  spot  on  the  Teviot  2  m.  below  the  town,  routed 
them  and  bore  away  their  flag.  This  event  is  celebrated  every 
June  in  the  ceremony  of  "  Riding  the  Common  " — in  which  a 
facsimile  of  the  captured  pennon  is  carried  in  procession  to  the 
accompaniment  of  a  chorus  "  Teribus,  ye  Teri  Odin,"  supposed 
to  be  an  invocation  to  Thor  and  Odin — a  survival  of  Northum- 
brian paganism.  Two  of  the  most  eminent' natives  of  the  burgh 
were  Dr  Thomas  Somerville  (1741-1830), the  historian,  and  James 
Wilson  (1805-1860),  founder  of  the  Economist  newspaper  and 
the  first  financial  member  of  the  council  for  India. 

Minto  House,  5  m.  N.E.,  is  the  seat  of  the  earl  of  Minto.  Denholm, 
about  midway  between  Hawick  and  Jedburgh,  was  the  birthplace 
of  John  Leyden  the  poet.  The  cottage  in  which  Leyden  was  born 
is  now  the  property  of  the  Edinburgh  Border  Counties  Association, 
and  a  monument  to  his  memory  has  been  erected  in  the  centre  of 
Denholm  green.  Cavers,  nearer  Hawick,  was  once  the  home  of 
a  branch  of  the  Douglases,  and  it  is  said  that  in  Cavers  House  are 
still  preserved  the  pennon  that  was  borne  before  the  Douglas  at 
the  battle  of  Otterburn  (Chevy  Chase),  and  the  gauntlets  that  were 
then  taken  from  the  Percy  (1388).  Two  m.  S.W.  of  Hawick  is  the 
massive  peel  of  Goldielands — the  "  watch-tower  of  Branxholm,"  a 
well-preserved  typical  Border  stronghold.  One  mile  beyond  it, 
occupying  a  commanding  site  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Teviot,  stand? 
Branxholm  Castle,  the  Branksome  Hall  of  The  Lay  of  the  Last 
Minstrel,  once  owned  by  the  Lovels,  but  since  the  middle  of  the  I5th 
century  the  property  of  the  Scotts  of  Buccleuch,  and  up  to  1756 
the  chief  seat  of  the  duke.  It  suffered  repeatedly  in  English  in- 
vasions and  was  destroyed  in  1570.  It  was  rebuilt  next  year,  the 
peel,  finished  five  years  later,  forming  part  of  the  modern  mansion. 
About  3  m.  W.  of  Hawick,  finely  situated  on  high  ground  above 
Harden  Burn,  a  left-hand  affluent  of  Borthwick  Water,  is  Harden, 
the  home  of  Walter  Scott  (1550-1629),  an  ancestor  of  the  novelist. 

HAWK  (O.  Eng.  hafoc  or  heafoc,  a  common  Teutonic  word, 
cf.  Dutch  havik,  Ger.  Habicht;  the  root  is  hab-,  fiaf-,  to  hold, 
cf.  Lat.  accipiter,  from  caper e),  a  word  of  somewhat  indefinite 
meaning,  being  often  used  to  signify  all  diurnal  birds-of-prey 
which  are  neither  vultures  nor  eagles,  and  again  more  exclusively 
for  those  of  the  remainder  which  are  not  buzzards,  falcons, 
harriers  or  kites.  Even  with  this  restriction  it  is  comprehensive 
enough,  and  will  include  more  than  a  hundred  species,  which  have 
been  arrayed  in  genera  varying  in  number  from  a  dozen  to  above 
a  score,  according  to  the  fancy  of  the  systematizer.  Speaking 
generally,  hawks  may  be  characterized  by  possessing  compara- 
tively short  wings  and  long  legs,  a  bill  which  begins  to  decurve 
directly  from  the  cere  (or  soft  bare  skin  that  covers  its  base), 
and  has  the  cutting  edges  of  its  maxilla  (or  upper  mandible) 


HAWKE,  BARON 


95 


sinuated1  but  never  notched.  To  these  may  be  added  as 
characters,  structurally  perhaps  of  less  value,  but  in  other 
respects  quite  as  important,  that  the  sexes  differ  very  greatly  in 
size,  that  in  most  species  the  irides  are  yellow,  deepening  with 
age  into  orange  or  even  red,  and  that  the  immature  plumage  is 
almost  invariably  more  or  less  striped  or  mottled  with  heart- 
shaped  spots  beneath,  while  that  of  the  adults  is  generally  much 
barred,  though  the  old  males  have  in  many  instances  the  breast 
and  belly  quite  free  from  markings.  Nearly  all  are  of  small 
or  moderate  size — the  largest  among  them  being  the  gos-hawk 
(q.v.)  and  its  immediate  allies,  and  the  male  of  the  smallest, 
Accipiter  tinus,  is  not  bigger  than  a  song-thrush.  They  are  all 
birds  of  great  boldness  in  attacking  a  quarry,  but  if  foiled  in 
the  first  attempts  they  are  apt  to  leave  the  pursuit.  Thoroughly 
arboreal  in  their  habits,  they  seek  their  prey,  chiefly  consisting 
of  birds  (though  reptiles  and  small  mammals  are  also  taken), 
among  trees  or  bushes,  patiently  waiting  for  a  victim  to  shew 


European  Sparrow-Hawk  (Male  and  Female). 

itself,  and  gliding  upon  it  when  it  appears  to  be  unwary  with  a 
rapid  swoop,  clutching  it  in  their  talons,  and  bearing  it  away  to 
eat  it  in  some  convenient  spot. 

Systematic  ornithologists  differ  as  to  the  groups  into  which 
the  numerous  forms  known  as  hawks  should  be  divided.  There  is 
at  the  outset  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  scientific  name 
which  the  largest  and  best  known  of  these  groups  should  bear— 
some  authors  terming  it  Nisus,  and  others,  who  seem  to  have  the 
most  justice  on  their  side,  Accipiter.  In  Europe  there  are  two 
species — first,  A.  nisus,  the  common  sparrow-hawk,  which  has  a 
wide  distribution  from  Ireland  to  Japan,  extending  also  to 
northern  India,  Egypt  and  Algeria,  and  secondly,  A.  brevipcs 
(by  some  placed  in  the  group  Micronisus  and  by  others  called 
an  Astur),  which  only  appears  in  the  south-east  and  the  adjoining 
parts  of  Asia  Minor  and  Persia.  In  North  America  the  place  of 
the  former  is  taken  by  two  very  distinct  species,  a  small  one, 
A.fuscus,  usually  known  in  Canada  and  the  United  States  as  the 
sharp-shinned  hawk,  and  Stanley's  or  Cooper's  hawk,  A.  cooperi 
(by  some  placed  in  another  genus,  Cooperastur) ,  which  is  larger 
and  has  not  so  northerly  a  range.  In  South  America  there  are 
four  or  five  more,  including  A.  tinus,  before  mentioned  as  the 
smallest  of  all,  while  a  species  not  much  larger,  A.  minullus, 
together  with  several  others  of  greater  size,  inhabits  South 
Africa.  Madagascar  and  its  neighbouring  islands  have  three 
or  four  species  sufficiently  distinct,  and  India  has  A.  badlus. 
A  good  many  more  forms  are  found  in  south-eastern  Asia, 
in  the  Indo-Malay  Archipelago,  and  in  Australia  three  or  four 
species,  of  which  A.  cirrhocephalus  most  nearly  represents  the 
sparrow-hawk  of  Europe  and  northern  Asia,  while  A.  radiatus 
and  A.  approximans  show  some  affinity  to  the  gos-hawks  (Astur) 

1  In  one  form,  Nisoides,  which  on  that  account  has  been  generically 
separated,  they  are  said  to  be  perfectly  straight. 


with  which  they  are  often  classed.  The  differences  between  all 
the  forms  above  named  and  the  much  larger  number  here 
unnamed  are  such  as  can  be  only  appreciated  by  the  specialist. 
The  so-called  "  sparrow-hawk  "  of  New  Zealand  (Hieracidea) 
does  not  belong  to  this  group  of  birds  at  all,  and  by  many 
authors  has  been  deemed  akin  to  the  falcons.  For  hawking 
see  FALCONRY.  (A.  N.) 

HAWKE,  EDWARD  HAWKE,  BARON  (1705-1781),  British 
admiral,  was  the  only  son  of  Edward  Hawke,  a  barrister.  On 
his  mother's  side  he  was  the  nephew  of  Colonel  Martin  Bladen 
(1680-1746),  a  politician  of  some  note,  and  was  connected  with 
the  family  of  Fairfax.  Edward  Hawke  entered  the  navy  on  the 
2oth  of  February  1720  and  served  the  time  required  to  qualify 
him  to  hold  a  lieutenant's  commission  on  the  North  American 
and  West  Indian  stations.  Though  he  passed  his  examination 
on  the  2nd  of  June  1725,  he  was  not  appointed  to  a  ship  to  act  in 
that  rank  till  1729,  when  he  was  named  third  lieutenant  of  the 
"  Portland  "  in  the  Channel.  The  continuance  of  peace  allowed 
him  no  opportunities  of  distinction,  but  he  was  fortunate  in 
obtaining  promotion  as  commander  of  the  "  Wolf  "  sloop  in 
1733,  and  as  post  captain  of  the  "  Flamborough  "  (20)  in  1734. 
When  war  began  with  Spain  in  1739,  he  served  as  captain  of  the 
"  Portland  "  (50)  in  the  West  Indies.  His  ship  was  old  and  rotten. 
She  nearly  drowned  her  captain  and  crew,  and  was  broken  up 
after  she  was  paid  off  in  1742.  In  the  following  year  Hawke  was 
appointed  to  the  "  Berwick  "  (70),  a  fine  new  vessel,  and  was 
attached  to  the  Mediterranean  fleet  then  under  the  command 
of  Thomas  Mathews.  The  "  Berwick  "  was  manned  badly,  and 
suffered  severely  from  sickness,  but  in  the  ill-managed  battle  of 
Toulon  on  the  nth  of  January  1744  Hawke  gained  great  dis- 
tinction by  the  spirit  with  which  he  fought  his  ship.  The  only 
prize  taken  by  the  British  fleet,  the  Spanish  "  Poder  "  (74), 
surrendered  to  him,  and  though  she  was  not  kept  by  the  admiral, 
Hawke  was  not  in  any  degree  to  blame  for  the  loss  of  the  only 
trophy  of  the  fight.  His  gallantry  attracted  the  attention  of 
the  king.  There  is  a  story  that  he  was  dismissed  the  service  for 
having  left  the  line  to  engage  the  "  Poder,"  and  was  restored 
by  the  king's  order.  The  legend  grew  not  unnaturally  out  of  the 
confusing  series  of  courts  martial  which  arose  out  of  the  battle, 
but  it  has  no  foundation.  There  is  better  reason  to  believe  that 
when  at  a  later  period  the  Admiralty  intended  to  pass  over 
Hawke's  name  in  a  promotion  of  admirals,  the  king,  George  II., 
did  insist  that  he  should  not  be  put  on  the  retired  list. 

He  had  no  further  chance  of  making  his  energy  and  ability 
known  out  of  the  ranks  of  his  own  profession,  where  they  were 
fully  realized,  till  1747.  In  July  of  that  year  he  attained  flag 
rank,  and  was  named  second  in  command  of  the  Channel  fleet. 
Owing  to  the  ill  health  of  his  superior  he  was  sent  in  command  of 
the  fourteen  ships  detached  to  intercept  a  French  convoy  on  its 
way  to  the  West  Indies.  On  the  i4th  of  October  1747  he  fell  in 
with  it  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  The  French  force,  under  M.  Desher- 
biers  de  1'Etenduere,  consisted  of  nine  ships,  which  were,  how- 
ever, on  the  average  larger  than  Hawke's.  He  attacked  at  once. 
The  French  admiral  sent  one  of  his  liners  to  escort  the  merchant 
ships  on  their  way  to  the  West  Indies,  and  with  the  other  eight 
fought  a  very  gallant  action  with  the  British  squadron.  Six 
of  the  eight  French  ships  were  taken.  The  French  admiral  did 
for  a  time  succeed  in  saving  the  trading  vessels  under  his  charge, 
but  most  of  them  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British  cruisers  in 
the  West  Indies.  Hawke  was  made  a  knight  of  the  Bath  for 
this  timely  piece  of  service,  a  reward  which  cannot  be  said  to 
have  been  lavish. 

In  1747  Hawke  had  been  elected  M.P.  for  Portsmouth,  which 
he  continued  to  represent  for  thirty  years,  though  he  can  seldom 
have  been  in  his  place,  and  it  does  not  appear  that  he  often  spoke. 
A  seat  in  parliament  was  always  valuable  to  a  naval  officer  at 
that  time,  since  it  enabled  him  to  be  useful  to  ministers,  and 
increased  his  chances  of  obtaining  employment.  Hawke  had 
married  a  lady  of  fortune  in  Yorkshire,  Catherine  Brook,  in  1737, 
and  was  able  to  meet  the  expenses  entailed  by  a  seat  in  parlia- 
ment, which  were  considerable  at  a  time  when  votes  were  openly 
«paid  for  by  money  down.  In  the  interval  between  the  war  of 


96 


HAWKE,  BARON 


the  Austrian  Succession  and  the  Seven  Years'  War,  Hawke  was 
almost  always  on  active  service.  From  1748  till  1752  he  was 
in  command  at  home,  and  he  rehoisted  his  flag  in  1755  as  admiral 
in  command  of  the  Western  Squadron.  Although  war  was  not 
declared  for  some  time,  England  and  France  were  on  very  hostile 
terms,  and  conflicts  between  the  officers  of  the  two  powers  in 
America  had  already  taken  place.  Neither  government  was 
scrupulous  in  abstaining  from  the  use  of  force  while  peace  was 
still  nominally  unbroken.  Hawke  was  sent  to  sea  to  intercept  a 
French  squadron  which  had  been  cruising  near  Gibraltar,  but 
a  restriction  was  put  on  the  limits  within  which  he  might  cruise, 
and  he  failed  to  meet  the  French.  The  fleet  was  much  weakened 
by  ill-health.  In  June  1756  the  news  of  John  Byng's  retreat 
from  Minorca  reached  England  and  aroused  the  utmost  indigna- 
tion. Hawke  was  at  once  sent  out  to  relieve  him  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean command,  and  to  send  him  home  for  trial.  He  sailed 
in  the  "Antelope,"  carrying,  as  the  wits  of  the  day  put  it,  "a 
cargo  of  courage  "  to  supply  deficiencies  in  that  respect  among 
the  officers  then  in  the  Mediterranean.  Minorca  had  fallen, 
from  want  of  resources  rather  than  the  attacks  of  the  French, 
before  he  could  do  anything  for  the  assistance  of  the  garrison  of 
Fort  St  Philip.  In  winter  he  was  recalled  to  England,  and  he 
reached  home  on  the  I4th  of  January  1757.  On  the  24th  of 
February  following  he  was  promoted  full  admiral. 

It  is  said,  but  on  no  very  good  authority,  that  he  was  not 
on  good  terms  with  Pitt  (afterwards  earl  of  Chatham) ,  and  it  is 
certain  that  when  Pitt's  great  ministry  was  formed  in  June 
1757,  he  was  not  included  in  the  Board  of  Admiralty.  Yet  as 
he  was  continued  in  command  of  important  forces  in  the  Channel, 
it  is  obvious  that  his  great  capacity  was  fully  recognized.  In 
the  late  summer  of  1757  he  was  entrusted  with  the  naval  side 
of  an  expedition  to  the  coast  of  France.  These  operations, 
which  were  scoffingly  described  at  the  time  as  breaking  windows 
with  guineas,  were  a  favourite  device  of  Pitt's  for  weakening 
the  French  and  raising  the  confidence  of  the  country.  The 
expedition  of  1757  was  directed  against  Rochefort,  and  it 
effected  nothing.  Hawke,  who  probably  expected  very  little 
good  from  it,  did  his  own  work  as  admiral  punctually,  but  he 
cannot  be  said  to  have  shown  zeal,  or  any  wish  to  inspirit  the 
military  officers  into  making  greater  efforts  than  they  were 
disposed  naturally  to  make.  The  expedition  returned  to  Spit- 
head  by  the  6th  of  October.  No  part  of  the  disappointment  of 
the  public,  which  was  acute,  was  visited  on  Hawke.  During 
the  end  of  1757  and  the  beginning  of  1758  he  continued  cruising 
in  the  Channel  in  search  of  the  French  naval  forces,  without 
any  striking  success.  In  May  of  that  year  he  was  ordered  to 
detach  a  squadron  under  the  command  of  Howe  to  carry  out 
further  combined  operations.  Hawke  considered  himself  as 
treated  with  a  want  of  due  respect,  and  was  at  the  time  in  bad 
humour  with  the  Admiralty.  He  somewhat  pettishly  threw 
up  his  command,  but  was  induced  to  resume  it  by  the  board, 
which  knew  his  value,  and  was  not  wanting  in  flattery.  He  re- 
tired in  June  for  a  time  on  the  ground  of  health,  but  happily 
for  his  own  glory  and  the  service  of  the  country  he  was  able  to 
hoist  his  flag  in  May  1759,  the  "  wonderful  year  "  of  Garrick's 
song. 

France  was  then  elaborating  a  scheme  of  invasion  which  bears 
much  resemblance  to  the  plan  afterwards  formed  by  Napoleon. 
An  army  of  invasion  was  collected  at  the  Morbihan  in  Brittany, 
and  the  intention  was  to  transport  it  under  the  protection  of  a 
powerful  fleet  which  was  to  be  made  up  by  uniting  the  squadron 
at  Brest  with  the  ships  at  Toulon.  The  plan,  like  Napoleon's, 
had  slight  chance  of  success,  since  the  naval  part  of  the  invading 
force  must  necessarily  be  brought  together  from  distant  points 
at  the  risk  of  interruption  by  the  British  squadrons.  The 
naval  forces  of  England  were  amply  sufficient  to  provide  what- 
ever was  needed  to  upset  the  plans  of  the  French  government. 
But  the  country  was  not  so  confident  in  the  capacity  of  the 
navy  to  serve  as  a  defence  as  it  was  taught  to  be  in  later  genera- 
tions. It  had  been  seized  by  a  most  shameful  panic  at  the 
beginning  of  the  war  in  face  of  a  mere  threat  of  invasion.  There- 
fore the  anxiety  of  Pitt  to  baffle  the  schemes  of  the  French 


decisively  was  great,  and  the  country  looked  on  at  the  develop- 
ment of  the  naval  campaign  with  nervous  attention.  The 
proposed  combination  of  the  French  fleet  was  defeated  by  the 
annihilation  of  the  Toulon  squadron  on  the  coast  of  Portugal  by 
Boscawen  in  May,  but  the  Brest  fleet  was  still  untouched  and 
the  troops  were  still  at  Morbihan.  It  was  the  duty  of  Hawke 
to  prevent  attack  from  this  quarter.  The  manner  in  which  he 
discharged  his  task  marks  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  navy. 
Until  his  time,  or  very  nearly  so,  it  was  still  believed  that  there 
was  rashness  in  keeping  the  great  ships  out  after  September. 
Hawke  maintained  his  blockade  of  Brest  till  far  into  November. 
Long  cruises  had  always  entailed  much  bad  health  on  the  crews, 
but  by  the  care  he  took  to  obtain  fresh  food,  and  the  energy  he 
showed  in  pressing  the  Admiralty  for  stores,  he  was  able  to  keep 
his  men  healthy.  Early  in  November  a  series  of  severe  gales 
forced  him  off  the  French  coast,  and  he  was  compelled  to  anchor 
in  Torbay.  His  absence  was  brief,  but  it  allowed  the  French 
admiral,  M.  de  Conflans  (i69o?-i777),  time  to  put  to  sea, 
and  to  steer  for  the  Morbihan.  Hawke,  who  had  left  Torbay 
on  the  ijth  of  November,  learnt  of  the  departure  of  the  French 
at  sea  on  the  i7th  from  a  look-out  ship,  and  as  the  French 
admiral  could  have  done  nothing  but  steer  for  the  Morbihan,  he 
followed  him  thither.  The  news  that  M.  de  Conflans  had  got  to  sea 
spread  a  panic  through  the  country,  and  for  some  days  Hawke 
was  the  object  of  abuse  of  the  most  irrational  kind.  There  was 
in  fact  no  danger,  for  behind  Hawke's  fleet  there  were  ample 
reserves  in  the  straits  of  Dover,  and  in  the  North  Sea.  Following 
his  enemy  as  fast  as  the  bad  weather,  a  mixture  of  calms  and 
head  winds  would  allow,  the  admiral  sighted  the  French  about 
40  m.  to  the  west  of  Belleisle  on  the  morning  of  the  2oth  of 
November.  The  British  fleet  was  of  twenty-one  sail,  the  French 
of  twenty.  There  was  also  a  small  squadron  of  British  ships 
engaged  in  watching  the  Morbihan  as  an  inshore  squadron, 
which  was  in  danger  of  being  cut  off.  M.  de  Conflans  had  a 
sufficient  force  to  fight  in  the  open  sea  without  rashness,  but 
after  making  a  motion  to  give  battle,  he  changed  his  mind  and 
gave  the  signal  to  his  fleet  to  steer  for  the  anchorage  at  Quiberon. 
He  did  not  believe  that  the  British  admiral  would  dare  to  follow 
him,  for  the  coast  is  one  of  the  most  dangerous  in  the  world, 
and  the  wind  was  blowing  hard  from  the  west  and  rising  to  a 
storm.  Hawke,  however,  pursued  without  hesitation,  though 
it  was  well  on  in  the  afternoon  before  he  caught  up  the  rear  of 
the  French  fleet,  and  dark  by  the  time  the  two  fleets  were  in  the 
bay.  The  action,  which  was  more  a  test  of  seamanship  than  of 
gunnery,  or  capacity  to  manoeuvre  in  order,  ended  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  French.  Five  ships  only  were  taken  or  destroyed, 
but  others  ran  ashore,  and  the  French  navy  as  a  whole  lost  all 
confidence.  Two  British  vessels  were  lost,  but  the  price  was 
little  to  pay  for  such  a  victory.  No  more  fighting  remained  to  be 
done.  The  fleet  in  Quiberon  Bay  suffered  from  want  of  food, 
and  its  distress  is  recorded  in  the  lines: — 

"  Ere  Hawke  did  bang 
Mounseer  Conflang 

You  sent  us  beef  and  beer; 
Now  Mounseer's  beat 
We've  nought  to  eat, 

Since  you  have  nought  to  fear." 

Hawke  returned  to  England  in  January  1760  and  had  no 
further  service  at  sea.  He  was  not  made  a  peer  till  the  2oth  of 
May  1776,  and  then  only  as  Baron  Hawke  of  Towton.  From 
1776  to  1771  he  was  first  lord  of  the  Admiralty.  His  administra- 
tion was  much  criticized,  perhaps  more  from  party  spirit  than 
because  of  its  real  defects.  Whatever  his  relations  with  Lord 
Chatham  may  have  been  he  was  no  favourite  with  Chatham's 
partizans.  It  is  very  credible  that,  having  spent  all  his  life  at 
sea,  his  faculty  did  not  show  in  the  uncongenial  life  of  the  shore. 
As  an  admiral  at  sea  and  on  his  own  element  Hawke  has  had 
no  superior.  It  is  true  that  he  was  not  put  to  the  test  of  having 
to  meet  opponents  of  equal  strength  and  efficiency,  but  then 
neither  has  any  other  British  admiral  since  the  Dutch  wars  of 
the  1 7th  century.  On  his  death  on  the  I7th  of  October  1781 
his  title  passed  to  his  son,  Martin  Bladen  (1744-1805),  and  it  is 


HAWKER— HAWKESWORTH 


97 


still  held  by  his  descendants,  the  7th  Baron  (b.   1860)  being 
best  known  as  a  great  Yorkshire  cricketer. 

There  is  a  portrait  of  Hawke  in  the  Painted  Hall  at  Greenwich. 
His  Life  by  Montagu  Burrows  (1883)  has  superseded  all  other 
authorities;  it  is  supplemented  in  a  few  early  particulars  by  Sir 
J.  K.  Laughton's  article  in  the  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.  (1891). 

HAWKER,  ROBERT  STEPHEN  (1803-1874),  English  anti- 
quary and  poet,  was  born  at  Stoke  Damerel,  Devonshire, 
on  the  3rd  of  December  1803.  His  father,  Jacob  Stephen 
Hawker,  was  at  that  time  a  doctor,  but  afterwards  curate  and 
vicar  of  Stratton,  Cornwall.  Robert  was  sent  to  Liskeard 
grammar  school,  and  when  he  was  about  sixteen  was  apprenticed 
to  a  solicitor.  He  was  soon  removed  to  Cheltenham  grammar 
school,  and  in  April  1823  matriculated  at  Pembroke  College, 
Oxford.  In  the  same  year  he  married  Charlotte  I'Ans,  a  lady 
much  older  than  himself.  On  returning  to  Oxford  he  migrated 
to  Magdalen  Hall,  where  he  graduated  in  1828,  having  already 
won  the  Newdigate  prize  for  poetry  in  1827.  He  became 
vicar  of  Morwenstow,  a  village  on  the  north  Cornish  coast, 
in  1834.  Hawker  described  the  bulk  of  his  parishioners  as  a 
"  mixed  multitude  of  smugglers,  wreckers  and  dissenters  of 
various  hues."  He  was  himself  a  high  churchman,  and  carried 
things  with  a  high  hand  in  his  parish,  but  was  much  beloved 
by  his  people.  He  was  a  man  of  great  originality,  and  numerous 
stories  were  told  of  his  striking  sayings  and  eccentric  conduct. 
He  was  the  original  of  Mortimer  Collins's  Canon  Tremaine  in 
Sweet  and  Twenty.  His  first  wife  died  in  1863,  and  in  1864  he 
married  Pauline  Kuczynski,  daughter  of  a  Polish  exile.  He  died 
in  Plymouth  on  the  ijth  of  August  1875.  Before  his  death 
he  was  formally  received  into  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  a 
proceeding  which  aroused  a  bitter  newspaper  controversy. 
The  best  of  his  poems  is  The  Quest  of  the  Sangraal:  Chant  the 
First  (Exeter,  1864).  Among  his  Cornish  Ballads  (1869)  the 
most  famous  is  on  "  Trelawny,"  the  refrain  of  which,  "  And 
shall  Trelawny  die,"  &c.,  he  declared  to  be  an  old  Cornish  saying. 

See  The  Vicar  of  Morwenstow  (1875;  later  and  corrected  editions, 
1876  and  1886),  by  the  Rev.  S.  Baring-Gould,  which  was  severely 
criticized  by  Hawker's  friend,  W.  Maskell,  in  the  Athenaeum  (March 
26,  1876);  Memorials  of  the  late  Robert  Stephen  Hawker  (1876), 
by  the  late  Dr  F.  G.  Lee.  These  were  superseded  in  1905  by  The 
Life  and  Letters  of  R.  S.  Hawker,  by  his  son-in-law,  C.  E.  Byles, 
which  contains  a  bibliography  of  his  works,  now  very  valuable  to 
collectors.  See  also  Boase  and  Courtney,  Bibliotheca  Cornubiensis. 
His  Poetical  Works  (1879)  and  his  Prose  Works  (1893)  were  edited 
by  J.  G.  Godwin.  Another  edition  of  his  Poetical  Works  (1899)  has 
a  preface  and  bibliography  by  Alfred  Wallis,  and  a  complete  edition 
of  his  poems  by  C.  E.  Byles,  with  the  title  Cornish  Ballads  and  other 
Poems,  appeared  in  1904. 

HAWKERS  and  PEDLARS,  the  designation  of  itinerant 
dealers  who  convey  their  goods  from  place  to  place  to  sell. 
The  word  "  hawker  "  seems  to  have  come  into  English  from  the 
Ger.  Hoker  or  Dutch  heukcr  in  the  early  i6th  century.  In  an 
act  of  1533  (25  Henry  VIII.  c.  9,  §  6)  ve  find  "  Sundry  evill 
disposed  persons  which  commonly  beene  called  haukers  .  .  . 
buying  and  selling  of  Brasse  and  Pewter."  The  earlier  word 
for  :uch  an  itinerant  dealer  is  "  huckster,"  which  is  found  in 
1200,  "  For  that  they  have  turned  God's  house  intill  hucksteress 
bothe  "  (Ormulum,  15,817).  The  base  of  the  two  words  is  the 
same,  and  is  probably  to  be  referred  to  German  hocken,  to  squat, 
crouch;  cf.  "  hucklebone,"  the  hip-bone;  and  the  hawkers  or 
hucksters  were  so  called  either  because  they  stooped  under 
their  packs,  or  squatted  at  booths  in  markets,  &c.  Another 
derivation  finds  the  origin  in  the  Dutch  hock,  a  hole,  corner. 
It  may  be  noticed  that  the  termination  of  "  huckster "  is 
feminine;  though  there  are  examples  of  its  application  to  women 
it  was  always  applied  indiscriminately  to  either  sex. 

"  Pedlar  "  occurs  much  earlier  than  the  verbal  form  "  to 
peddle,"  which  is  therefore  a  derivative  from  the  substantive. 
The  origin  is  to  be  found  in  the  still  older  word  "pedder,"  one 
who  carries  about  goods  for  sale  in  a  "  ped,"  a  basket  or  hamper. 
This  is  now  only  used  dialectically  and  in  Scotland.  In  the 
Ancren  Riwle  (c.  1225),  peoddare  is  found  with  the  meaning  of 
"  pedlar,"  though  the  Promptorium  parvulorum  (c.  1440)  defines 
it  as  calathasius,  i.e.  a  maker  of  panniers  or  baskets, 
xin.  4 


The  French  term  for  a  hawker  or  pedlar  of  books,  colporteur 
(col,  neck,  porter,  to  carry),  has  been  adopted  by  the  Bible 
Society  and  other  English  religious  bodies  as  a  name  for  itinerant 
vendors  and  distributors  of  Bibles  and  other  religious  literature. 

The  occupation  of  hawkers  and  pedlars  has  been  regulated  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  and  the  two  classes  have  also  been  technically 
distinguished.  The  Pedlars  Act  1871  defines  a  pedlar  as  "  any 
hawker,  pedlar,  petty  chapman,  tinker,  caster  of  metals,  mender 
of  chairs,  or  other  person  who,  without  any  horse  or  other  beast 
bearing  or  drawing  burden,  travels  and  trades  on  foot  and  goes 
from  town  to  town  or  to  other  men's  houses,  carrying  to  sell  or 
exposing  for  sale  any  goods,  wares  or  merchandise  ...  or  selling  or 
offering  for  sale  his  skill  in  handicraft."  Any  person  who  acts  as  a 
pedlar  must  have  a  certificate,  which  is  to  be  obtained  from  the  chief 
officer  of  police  of  the  police  district  in  which  the  person  applying 
for  the  certificate  has  resided  during  one  month  previous  to  his 
application.  Hs  must  satisfy  the  officer  that  he  is  above  seventeen 
years  of  age,  is  of  good  character,  and  in  good  faith  intends  to  carry 
on  the  trade  of  a  pedlar.  The  fee  for  a  pedlar's  certificate  is  five 
shillings,  and  the  certificate  remains  in  force  for  a  year  from  the 
date  of  issue.  The  act  requires  a  register  of  certificates  to  be  kept 
in  each  district,  and  imposes  a  penalty  for  the  assigning,  borrowing 
or  forging  of  any  certificate.  It  does  not  exempt  any  one  from 
vagrant  law,  and  requires  the  pedlar  to  show  his  certificate  on 
demand  to  certain  persons.  It  empowers  the  police  to  inspect  a 
pedlar's  pack,  and  provides  for  the  arrest  of  an  uncertificated  pedlar 
or  one  refusing  to  show  his  certificate.  A  pedlar's  certificate  is  not 
required  by  commercial  travellers,  sellers  of  vegetables,  fish,  fruit  or 
victuals,  or  sellers  in  fairs.  The  Hawkers  Act  1888  defines  a 
hawker  as  "  any  one  who  travels  with  a  horse  or  other  beast  of 
burden,  selling  goods,"  &c.  An  excise  licence  (expiring  on  the  3ist 
of  March  in  each  year)  must  be  taken  out  by  every  hawker  in  the 
United  Kingdom.  The  duty  imposed  upon  such  licence  is  £2. 
A  hawker's  licence  is  not  granted,  otherwise  than  by  way  of  licence, 
except  on  production  of  a  certificate  signed  by  a  clergyman  and  two 
householders  of  the  parish  or  place  wherein  the  applicant  resides, 
or  by  a  justice  of  the  county  or  place,  or  a  superintendent  or  inspector 
of  police  for  the  district,  attesting  that  the  person  is  of  good  character 
and  a  proper  person  to  be  licenced  as  a  hawker.  There  are  certain 
exemptions  from  taking  out  a  licence — commercial  travellers, 
sellers  of  fish,  coal,  &c.,  sellers  in  fairs,  and  the  real  worker  or  maker 
of  any  goods.  The  act  also  lays  down  certain  provisions  to  be 
observed  by  hawkers  and  others,  and  imposes  penalties  for  infringe- 
ments. In  the  United  States  hawkers  and  pedlars  must  take  out 
licences  under  State  laws  and  Federal  laws. 

HAWKESWORTH,  JOHN  (c.  1715-1773),  English  miscellaneous 
writer,  was  born  in  London  about  1715.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
clerk  to  an  attorney,  and  was  certainly  self-educated.  In  1744 
he  succeeded  Samuel  Johnson  as  compiler  of  the  parliamentary 
debates  for  the  Gentleman's  Magazine,  and  from  1746  to  1749 
he  contributed  poems  signed  Greville,  or  H.  Greville,  to  that 
journal.  In  company  with  Johnson  and  others  he  started  a 
periodical  called  The  Adventurer,  which  ran  to  140  numbers, 
of  which  70  were  from  the  pen  of  Hawkesworth  himself.  On 
account  of  what  was  regarded  as  its  powerful  defence  of  morality 
and  religion,  Hawkesworth  was  rewarded  by  the  archbishop 
of  Canterbury  with  the  degree  of  LL.D.  In  1754-1755  he  pub- 
lished an  edition  (12  vols.)  of  Swift's  works,  with  a  life  prefixed 
which  Johnson  praised  in  his  Lives  of  the  Poets.  A  larger  edition 
(27  vols.)  appeared  in  1766-1779.  He  adapted  Dryden's 
Amphitryon  for  the  Drury  Lane  stage  in  1756,  and  Southerne's 
Oronooko  in  1759.  He  wrote  the  "libretto  of  an  oratorio  Zimri 
in  1760,  and  the  next  year  Edgar  and  Emmeline:  a  Fairy  Tale, 
was  produced  at  Drury  Lane.  His  Almoran  and  Hamet  (2  vols., 
1761)  was  first  of  all  drafted  as  a  play,  and  a  tragedy  founded 
on  it  by  S.  J.  Pratt,  The  Fair  Circassian  (1781),  met  with  some 
success.  He  was  commissioned  by  the  admiralty  to  edit  Captain 
Cook's  papers  relative  to  his  first  voyage.  For  this  work,  An 
Account  of  the  Voyages  undertaken  .  .  .  for  making  discoveries 
in  the  Southern  Hemisphere  and  performed  by  Commodore  Byrone, 
Captain  Wallis,  Captain  Carlerel  and  Captain  Cook  (from  1764 
to  1771)  drawn  up  from  the  Journals  ...  (3  vols.,  1773), 
Hawkesworth  is  said  to  have  received  from  the  pubb'shers  the 
sum  of  £6000.  His  descriptions  of  the  manners  and  customs 
of  the  South  Seas  were,  however,  regarded  by  many  critics 
as  inexact  and  hurtful  to  the  interests  of  morality,  and  the 
severity  of  their  strictures  is  said  to  have  hastened  his  death, 
which  took  place  on  the  i6th  of  November  1773.  He  was  buried 


98 


HAWKHURST— HAWKINS,  SIR  J. 


at  Bromley,  Kent,  where  he  and  his  wife  had  kept  a  school. 
Hawkesworth  was  a  close  imitator  of  Johnson  both  in  style  and 
thought,  and  was  at  one  time  on  very  friendly  terms  with  him. 
It  is  said  that  he  presumed  on  his  success,  and  lost  Johnson's 
friendship  as  early  as  1756. 

HAWKHURST,  a  town  in  the  southern  parliamentary  divi- 
sion of  Kent,  England,  47  m.  S.E.  of  London,  on  a  branch 
of  the  South -Eastern  &  Chatham  railway.  Pop.  (1901),  3136. 
It  lies  mainly  on  a  ridge  above  the  valley  of  the  Kent  Ditch, 
a  tributary  of  the  Rother.  The  neighbouring  country  is  hilly, 
rich  and  well  wooded,  and  the  pleasant  and  healthy  situation 
has  led  to  the  considerable  extension  of  the  old  village  as  a 
residential  locality.  The  Kent  Sanatorium  and  one  of  the 
Barnardo  homes  are  established  here.  The  church  of  St  Lawrence, 
founded  from  Battle  Abbey  in  Sussex,  is  Decorated  and  Per- 
pendicular and  its  east  window,  of  the  earlier  period,  is  specially 
beautiful. 

HAWKINS,  CAESAR  HENRY  (1798-1884),  British  surgeon, 
son  of  the  Rev.  E.  Hawkins  and  grandson  of  the  Sir  Caesar 
Hawkins  (1711-1786),  who  was  Serjeant-surgeon  to  Kings 
George  II.  and  George  III.,  was  born  at  Bisley,  Gloucestershire, 
on  the  igthof  September  1798,  was  educated  at  Christ's  Hospital, 
and  entered  St  George's  Hospital,  London,  in  1818.  He  was 
surgeon  to  the  hospital  from  1829  to  1861,  and  in  1862  was  made 
Serjeant-surgeon  to  Queen  Victoria.  He  was  president  of 
the  College  of  Surgeons  in  1852,  and  again  in  1861;  and  he 
delivered  the  Hunterian  oration  in  1849.  His  success  in  complex 
surgical  cases  gave  him  a  great  reputation.  For  long  he  was 
noted  as  the  only  surgeon  who  had  succeeded  in  the  operation 
of  ovariotomy  in  a  London  hospital.  This  occurred  in  1846, 
when  anaesthetics  were  unknown.  He  did  much  to  popularize 
colotomy.  A  successful  operator,  he  nevertheless  was  attached 
to  conservative  surgery,  and  was  always  more  anxious  to  teach 
his  pupils  how  to  save  a  limb  than  how  to  remove  it.  He  re- 
printed his  contributions  to  the  medical  journals  in  two  volumes, 
1874,  the  more  valuable  papers  being  on  Tumours,  Excision  of 
the  Ovarium,  Hydrophobia  and  Snake-bites,  Stricture  of  the  Colon, 
and  The  Relative  Claims  of  Sir  Charles  Bell  and  Magendie  to  the 
Discovery  of  the  Functions  of  the  Spinal  Nerves.  He  died  on  the 
20th  of  July  1884.  His  brother,  Edward  Hawkins  (1789-1882), 
was  the  well-known  provost  of  Oriel,  Oxford,  who  played  so 
great  a  part  in  the  Tractarian  movement. 

HAWKINS,  or  HAWKYNS,  SIR  JOHN  (1532-1595),  British 
admiral,  was  born  at  Plymouth  in  1532,  and  belonged  to  a 
family  of  Devonshire  shipowners  and  skippers — occupations 
then  more  closely  connected  than  is  now  usual.  His  father, 
William  Hawkins  (d.  1553),  was  a  prosperous  freeman  of  Ply- 
mouth, who  thrice  represented  that  town  in  parliament,  and  is 
described  by  Hakluyt  as  one  of  the  principal  sea-captains  in  the 
west  parts  of  England;  his  elder  brother,  also  called  William 
(d.  1589),  was  closely  associated  with  him  in  his  Spanish  expedi- 
tions, and  took  an  active  part  in  fitting  out  ships  to  meet  the 
Armada;  and  his  nephew,  the  eldest  son  of  the  last  named  and 
of  the  same  name,  sailed  with  Sir  Francis  Drake  to  the  South 
Sea  in  1577,  and  served  as  lieutenant  under  Edward  Fenton 
(17.?.)  in  the  expedition  which  started  for  the  East  Indies  and 
China  in  1582.  His  son,  Sir  Richard  Hawkins,  is  separately 
noticed. 

Sir  John  Hawkins  was  bred  to  the  sea  in  the  ships  of  his 
family.  When  the  great  epoch  of  Elizabethan  maritime 
adventure  began,  he  took  an  active  part  by  sailing  to  the  Guinea 
coast,  where  he  robbed  the  Portuguese  slavers,  and  then  smuggled 
the  negroes  he  had  captured  into  the  Spanish  possessions  in  the 
New  World.  After  a  first  successful  voyage  in  1562-1563,  two 
vessels  which  he  had  rashly  sent  to  Seville  were  confiscated  by 
the  Spanish  government.  With  the  help  of  friends,  and  the 
open  approval  of  the  queen,  who  hired  one  of  her  vessels  to  him, 
he  sailed  again  in  1564,  and  repeated  his  voyage  with  success, 
trading  with  the  Creoles  by  force  when  the  officials  of  the  king 
endeavoured  to  prevent  him.  These  two  voyages  brought  him 
reputation,  and  he  was  granted  a  coat  of  arms  with  a  demi-Moor, 
or  negro,  chained,  as  his  crest.  The  rivalry  with  Spain  was  now 


becoming  very  acute,  and  when  Hawkins  sailed  for  the  third 
time  in  1567,  he  went  in  fact,  though  not  technically,  on  a 
national  venture.  Again  he  kidnapped  negroes,  and  forced  his 
goods  on  the  Spanish  colonies.  Encouraged  by  his  discovery 
that  these  settlements  were  small  and  unfortified,  he  on  this 
occasion  ventured  to  enter  Vera  Cruz,  the  port  of  Mexico,  after 
capturing  some  Spaniards  at  sea  to  be  held  as  hostages.  He 
alleged  that  he  had  been  driven  in  by  bad  weather.  The  falsity 
of  the  story  was  glaring,  but  the  Spanish  officers  on  the  spot  were 
too  weak  to  offer  resistance.  Hawkins  was  allowed  to  enter 
the  harbour,  and  to  refit  at  the  small  rocky  island  of  San  Juan  de 
Ulloa  by  which  it  is  formed.  Unfortunately  for  him,  and  for  a 
French  corsair  whom  he  had  in  his  company,  a  strong  Spanish 
force  arrived,  bringing  the  new  viceroy.  The  Spaniards,  who 
were  no  more  scrupulous  of  the  truth  than  himself,  pretended 
to  accept  the  arrangement  made  before  their  arrival,  and  then 
when  they  thought  he  was  off  his  guard  attacked  him  on  the 
24th  of  September.  Only  two  vessels  escaped,  his  own,  the 
"  Minion,"  and  the  "  Judith,"  a  small  vessel  belonging  to  his 
cousin  Francis  Drake.  The  voyage  home  was  miserable,  and 
the  sufferings  of  all  were  great. 

For  some  years  Hawkins  did  not  return  to  the  sea,  though  he 
continued  to  be  interested  in  privateering  voyages  as  a  capitalist. 
In  the  course  of  1572  he  recovered  part  of  his  loss  by  pretending 
to  betray  the  queen  for  a  bribe  to  Spain.  He  acted  with  the 
knowledge  of  Lord  Burleigh.  In  1573  he  became  treasurer  of 
the  navy  in  succession  to  his  father-in-law  Benjamin  Gonson. 
The  office  of  comptroller  was  conferred  on  him  soon  after,  and 
for  the  rest  of  his  life  he  remained  the  principal  administrative 
officer  of  the  navy.  Burleigh  noted  that  he  was  suspected  of 
fraud  in  his  office,  but  the  queen's  ships  were  kept  by  him  in 
good  condition.  In  1588  he  served  as  rear-admiral  against  the 
Spanish  Armada  and  was  knighted.  In  1590  he  was  sent  to 
the  coast  of  Portugal  to  intercept  the  Spanish  treasure  fleet,  but 
did  not  meet  it.  In  giving  an  account  of  his  failure  to  the  queen 
he  quoted  the  text  "  Paul  doth  plant,  Apollo  doth  water,  but 
God  giveth  the  increase,"  which  exhibition  of  piety  is  said  to 
have  provoked  the  queen  into  exclaiming,  "  God's  death  ! 
This  fool  went  out  a  soldier,  and  has  come  home  a  divine."  In 
1595  he  accompanied  Drake  on  another  treasure-hunting  voyage 
to  the  West  Indies,  which  was  even  less  successful,  and  he  died 
at  sea  off  Porto  Rico  on  the  I2th  of  November  1595. 

Hawkins  was  twice  married,  first  to  Katharine  Gonson  and 
then  to  Margaret  Vaughan.  He  was  counted  a  puritan  when 
puritanism  meant  little  beyond  hatred  of  Spain  and  popery, 
and  when  these  principles  were  an  ever-ready  excuse  for  voyages 
in  search  of  slaves  and  plunder.  In  the  course  of  one  of  his 
voyages,  when  he  was  becalmed  and  his  negroes  were  dying,  he 
consoled  himself  by  the  reflection  that  God  would  not  suffer 
His  elect  to  perish.  Contemporary  evidence  can  be  produced  to 
show  that  he  was  greedy,  unscrupulous  and  rude.  But  if  he  had 
been  a  more  delicate  man  he  would  not  have  risked  the  gallows 
by  making  piratical  attacks  on  the  Portuguese  and  by  appearing 
in  the  West  Indies  as  an  armed  smuggler;  and  in  that  case  he 
would  not  have  played  an  important  part  in  history  by  setting 
the  example  of  breaking  down  the  pretension  of  the  Spaniards 
to  exclude  all  comers  from  the  New  World.  His  morality  was 
that  of  the  average  stirring  man  of  his  time,  whether  in  England 
or  elsewhere. 

See  R.  A.  J.  Walling,  A  Sea-dog  of  Devon  (1907) ;  and  Southey  in 
his  British  Admirals,  vol.  iii.  The  original  accounts  of. his  voyages 
compiled  by  Hakluyt  have  been  reprinted  by  the  Hakluyt  Society, 
with  a  preface  by  Sir  C.  R.  Markham. 

HAWKINS,  SIR  JOHN  (1719-1789),  English  writer  on  music, 
was  born  on  the  3oth  of  March  1719,  in  London,  the  son  of  an 
architect  who  destined  him  for  his  own  profession.  Ultimately, 
however,  Hawkins  took  to  the  law,  devoting  his  leisure  hours 
to  his  favourite  study  of  music.  A  wealthy  marriage  in  1753 
enabled  him  to  indulge  his  passion  for  acquiring  rare  works  of 
music,  and  he  bought,  for  example,  the  collection  formed  by 
Dr  Pepusch,  and  subsequently  presented  by  Hawkins  to  the 
British  Museum.  It  was  on  such  materials  that  Hawkins 


HAWKINS,  SIR  R.— HAWKSHAW 


99 


founded  his  celebrated  work  on  the  General  History  of  the  Science 
and  Practice  of  Music,  in  5  vols.  (republished  in  2  vols.,  1876). 
It  was  brought  out  in  1776,  the  same  year  which  witnessed  the 
appearance  of  the  first  volume  of  Burney's  work  on  the  same 
subject.  The  relative  merits  of  the  two  works  were  eagerly 
discussed  by  contemporary  critics.  Burney  no  doubt  is  in- 
finitely superior  as  a  literary  man,  and  his  work  accordingly 
comes  much  nearer  the  idea  of  a  systematic  treatise  on  the 
subject  than  Hawkins's,  which  is  essentially  a  collection  of  rare 
and  valuable  pieces  of  music  with  a  more  or  less  continuous 
commentary.  But  by  rescuing  these  from  oblivion  Hawkins  has 
given  a  permanent  value  to  his  work.  Of  Hawkins's  literary 
efforts  apart  from  music  it  will  be  sufficient  to  mention  his 
occasional  contributions  to  the  Gentleman's  Magazine,  his 
edition  (1760)  of  the  Complete  Angler  (1787)  and  his  biography 
of  Dr  Johnson,  with  whom  he  was  intimately  acquainted. 
He  was  one  of  the  original  members  of  the  Ivy  Lane  Club,  and 
ultimately  became  one  of  Dr  Johnson's  executors.  If  there  were 
any  doubt  as  to  his  intimacy  with  Johnson,  it  would  be  settled 
by  the  slighting  way  in  which  Boswell  refers  to  him.  Speaking 
of  the  Ivy  Lane  Club,  he  mentions  amongst  the  members  "  Mr 
John  Hawkins,  an  attorney,"  and  adds  the  following  footnote, 
which  at  the  same  time  may  serve  as  a  summary  of  the  remaining 
facts  of  Hawkins's  life:  "  He  was  for  several  years  chairman 
of  the  Middlesex  justices,  and  upon  presenting  an  address  to 
the  king  accepted  the  usual  offer  of  knighthood  (1772).  He 
is  the  author  of  a  History  of  Music  in  five  volumes  in  quarto. 
By  assiduous  attendance  upon  Johnson  in  his  last  illness  he 
obtained  the  office  of  one  of  his  executors — in  consequence  of 
which  the  booksellers  of  London  employed  him  to  publish  an 
edition  of  Dr  Johnson's  works  and  to  write  his  life."  Sir  John 
Hawkins  died  on  the  2ist  of  May  1789,  and  was  buried  in  the 
cloisters  of  Westminster  Abbey. 

HAWKINS,  or  HAWKYNS,  SIR  RICHARD  (c.  1562-1622), 
British  seaman,  was  the  only  son  of  Admiral  Sir  John  Hawkins 
(q.v.)  by  his  first  marriage.  He  was  from  his  earliest  days 
familiar  with  ships  and  the  sea,  and  in  1582  he  accompanied 
his  uncle,  William  Hawkins,  to  the  West  Indies.  In  1585  he  was 
captain  of  a  galliot  in  Drake's  expedition  to  the  Spanish  main, 
in  1588  he  commanded  a  queen's  ship  against  the  Armada,  and  in 
1590  served  with  his  father's  expedition  to  the  coast  of  Portugal. 
In  1593  he  purchased  the  "  Dainty,"  a  ship  originally  built  for 
his  father  and  used  by  him  in  his  expeditions,  and  sailed  for  the 
West  Indies,  the  Spanish  main  and  the  South  Seas.  It  seems 
clear  that  his  project  was  to  prey  on  the  oversea  possessions  of 
the  king  of  Spain.  Hawkins,  however,  in  an  account  of  the 
voyage  written  thirty  years  afterwards,  maintained,  and  by  that 
time  perhaps  had  really  persuaded  himself,  that  his  expedition 
was  undertaken  purely  for  the  purpose  of  geographical  discovery. 
After  visiting  the  coast  of  Brazil,  the  "  Dainty  "  passed  through 
the  Straits  of  Magellan,  and  in  due  course  reached  Valparaiso. 
Having  plundered  the  town,  Hawkins  pushed  north,  and  in  June 
1594,  a  year  after  leaving  Plymouth,  arrived  in  the  bay  of  San 
Mateo.  Here  the  "  Dainty  "  was  attacked  by  two  Spanish  ships. 
Hawkins  was  hopelessly  outmatched,  but  defended  himself  with 
great  courage.  At  last,  when  he  himself  had  been  severely 
wounded,  many  of  his  men  killed,  and  the  "  Dainty  "  was  nearly 
sinking,  he  surrendered  on  the  promise  of  a  safe-conduct  out  of 
the  country  for  himself  and  his  crew.  Through  no  fault  of  the 
Spanish  commander  this  promise  was  not  kept.  In  1597  Hawkins 
was  sent  to  Spain,  and  imprisoned  first  at  Seville  and  subse- 
quently at  Madrid.  He  was  released  in  1602,  and,  returning  to 
England,  was  knighted  in  1603.  In  1604  he  became  member  of 
parliament  for  Plymouth  and  vice-admiral  of  Devon,  a  post 
which,  as  the  coast  was  swarming  with  pirates,  was  no  sinecure. 
In  1620-1621  he  was  vice-admiral,  under  Sir  Robert  Mansell, 
of  the  fleet  sent  into  the  Mediterranean  to  reduce  the  Algerian 
corsairs.  He  died  in  London  on  the  I7th  of  April  1622. 

See  his  Observations  in  his  Voiage  into  the  South  Sea  (1622),  re- 
published  by  the  Hakluyt  Society. 

HAWKS,  FRANCIS  LISTER  (1798-1866),  American  clergyman, 
was  born  at  Newbern,  North  Carolina,  on  the  loth  of  June  1798, 


and  graduated  at  the  university  of  his  native  state  in  1815. 
After  practising  law  with  some  distinction  he  entered  the 
Episcopalian  ministry  in  1827  and  proved  a  brilliant  and  im- 
pressive preacher,  holding  livings  in  New  Haven,  Philadelphia, 
New  York  and  New  Orleans,  and  declining  several  bishoprics. 
On  his  appointment  as  historiographer  of  his  church  in  1835, 
he  went  to  England,  and  collected  the  abundant  materials 
afterwards  utilized  in  his  Contributions  to  the  Ecclesiastical 
History  of  U.S.A.  (New  York,  1836-1839).  These  two  volumes 
dealt  with  Maryland  and  Virginia,  while  two  later  ones  (1863- 
1864)  were  devoted  to  Connecticut.  He  was  the  first  president 
of  the  university  of  Louisiana  (now  merged  in  Tulane).  He 
died  in  New  York  on  the  26th  of  September  1866. 

HAWKSHAW,  SIR  JOHN  (1811-1891),  English  engineer,  was 
born  in  Yorkshire  in  1811,  and  was  educated  at  Leeds  grammar 
school.  Before  he  was  twenty-one  he  had  been  engaged  for  six  or 
seven  years  in  railway  engineering  and  the  construction  of  roads 
in  his  native  county,  and  in  the  year  of  his  majority  he  obtained 
an  appointment  as  engineer  to  the  Bolivar  Mining  Association 
in  Venezuela.  But  the  climate  there  was  more  than  his  health 
could  stand,  and  in  1834  he  was  obliged  to  return  to  England. 
He  soon  obtained  employment  under  Jesse  Hartley  at  the 
Liverpool  docks,  and  subsequently  was  made  engineer  in  charge 
of  the  railway  and  navigation  works  of  the  Manchester,  Bury 
and  Bolton  Canal  Company.  In  1845  he  became  chief  engineer 
to  the  Manchester  &  Leeds  railway,  and  in  1847  to  its  successor, 
the  Lancashire  &  Yorkshire  railway,  for  which  he  constructed  a 
large  number  of  branch  lines.  In  1850  he  removed  to  London 
and  began  to  practise  as  a  consulting  engineer,  at  first  alone, 
but  subsequently  in  partnership  with  Harrison  Hayter.  'In  that 
capacity  his  work  was  of  an  extremely  varied  nature,  embracing 
almost  every  branch  of  engineering.  He  retained  his  connexion 
with  the  Lancashire  &  Yorkshire  Company  until  his  retirement 
from  professional  work  in  1888,  and  was  consulted  on  all  the 
important  engineering  points  that  affected  it  in  that  long  period. 
In  London  he  was  responsible  for  the  Charing  Cross  and  Cannon 
Street  railways,  together  with  the  two  bridges  which  carried 
them  over  the  Thames;  he  was  engineer  of  the  East  London 
railway,  which  passes  under  the  Thames  through  Sir  M.  I. 
Brunei's  well-known  tunnel;  and  jointly  with  Sir  J.  Wolfe 
Barry  he  constructed  the  section  of  the  Underground  railway 
which  completed  the  "  inner  circle  "  between  the  Aldgate  and 
Mansion  House  stations.  In  addition,  many  railway  works 
claimed  his  attention  in  all  parts  of  the  world — Germany, 
Russia,  India,  Mauritius,  &c.  One  noteworthy  point  in  his 
railway  practice  was  his  advocacy,  in  opposition  to  Robert 
Stephenson,  of  steeper  gradients  than  had  previously  been 
thought  desirable  or  possible,  and  so  far  back  as  1838  he  expressed 
decided  disapproval  of  the  maintenance  of  the  broad  gauge  on 
the  Great  Western,  because  of  the  troubles  he  foresaw  it  would 
lead  to  in  connexion  with  future  railway  extension,  and  because 
he  objected  in  general  to  breaks  of  gauge  in  the  lines  of  a  country. 
The  construction  of  canals  was  another  branch  of  engineering 
in  which  he  was  actively  engaged.  In  1862  he  became  engineer 
of  the  Amsterdam  ship-canal,  and  in  the  succeeding  year  he  may 
fairly  be  said  to  have  been  the  saviour  of  the  Suez  Canal.  About 
that  time  the  scheme  was  in  very  bad  odour,  and  the  khedive 
determined  to  get  the  opinion  of  an  English  engineer  as  to  its 
practicability,  having  made  up  his  mind  to  stop  the  works  if  that 
opinion  was  unfavourable.  Hawkshaw  was  chosen  to  make  the 
inquiry,  and  it  was  because  his  report  was  entirely  favourable  that 
M.  de  Lesseps  was  able  to  say  at  the  opening  ceremony  that  to 
him  he  owed  the  canal.  As  a  member  of  the  International 
Congress  which  considered  the  construction  of  an  interoceanic 
canal  across  central  America,  he  thought  best  of  the  Nicaraguan 
route,  and  privately  he  regarded  the  Panama  scheme  as  im- 
practicable at  a  reasonable  cost,  although  publicly  he  expressed 
no  opinion  on  the  matter  and  left  the  Congress  without  voting. 
Sir  John  Hawkshaw  also  had  a  wide  experience  in  constructing 
harbours  (e.g.  Holyhead)  and  docks  (e.g.  Penarth,  the  Albert 
Dock  at  Hull,  and  the  south  dock  of  the  East  and  West  India 
Docks  in  London),  in  river-engineering,  in  drainage  and  sewerage, 


IOO 


HAWKSLEY— HAWLEY,  H. 


in  water-supply,  &c.  He  was  engineer,  with  Sir  James  Brunlees, 
of  the  original  Channel  Tunnel  Company  from  1872,  but  many 
years  previously  he  had  investigated  for  himsself  the  question  of 
a  tunnel  under  the  Strait  of  Dover  from  an  engineering  point  of 
view,  and  had  come  to  a  belief  in  its  feasibility,  so  far  as  that 
could  be  determined  from  borings  and  surveys.  Subsequently, 
however,  he  became  convinced  that  the  tunnel  would  not  be  to 
the  advantage  of  Great  Britain,  and  thereafter  would  have 
nothing  to  do  with  the  project.  He  was  also  engineer  of  the 
Severn  Tunnel,  which,  from  its  magnitude  and  the  difficulties 
encountered  in  its  construction,  must  rank  as  one  of  the  most 
notable  engineering  undertakings  of  the  igth  century.  He  died 
in  Londojt  on  the  2nd  of  June  1891. 

HAWKSLEY,  THOMAS  (1807-1893),  English  engineer,  was 
born  on  the  i2th  of  July  1807,  at  Arnold,  near  Nottingham. 
He  was  at  Nottingham  grammar  school  till  the  age  of  fifteen,  but 
was  indebted  to  his  private  studies  for  his  knowledge  of  mathe- 
matics, chemistry  and  geology.  In  1822  he  was  articled  to  an 
architect  in  Nottingham,  subsequently  becoming  a  partner  in 
the  firm,  which  also  undertook  engineering  work;  and  in  1852 
he  removed  to  London,  where  he  continued  in  active  practice 
till  he  was  well  past  eighty.  His  work  was  chiefly  concerned  with 
water  and  gas  supply  and  with  main-drainage.  Of  water- 
works he  used  to  say  that  he  had  constructed  150,  and  a  long 
list  might  be  drawn  up  of  important  towns  that  owe  their  water 
to  his  skill,  including  Liverpool,  Sheffield,  Leicester,  Leeds, 
Derby,  Darlington,  Oxford,  Cambridge  and  Northampton  in 
England,  and  Stockholm,  Altona  and  Bridgetown  (Barbados) 
in  other  countries.  To  his  native  town  of  Nottingham  he  was 
water  engineer  for  fifty  years,  and  the  system  he  designed  for 
it  was  noteworthy  from  the  fact  that  the  principle  of  constant 
supply  was  adopted  for  the  first  time.  The  gas-works  at  Notting- 
ham, and  at  many  other  towns  for  which  he  provided  water 
supplies  were  also  constructed  by  him.  He  designed  main- 
drainage  systems  for  Birmingham,  Worcester  and  Windsor  among 
other  places,  and  in  1857  he  was  called  in,  together  with  G.  P. 
Bidder  and  Sir  J.  Bazalgette,  to  report  on  the  best  solution  of  the 
vexed  question  of  a  main-drainage  scheme  for  London.  In  1872 
he  was  president  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers — an  office 
in  which  his  son  Charles  followed  him  in  1901.  He  died  in 
London  on  the  2$rd  of  September  1893. 

HAWKSMOOR,  NICHOLAS  (1661-1736),  English  architect,  of 
Nottinghamshire  birth,  became  a  pupil  of  Sir  Christopher  Wren 
at  the  age  of  eighteen,  and  his  name  is  intimately  associated 
with  those  of  Wren  and  Sir  J.  Vanbrugh  in  the  English  archi- 
tecture of  his  time.  Through  Wren's  influence  he  obtained 
various  official  posts,  as  deputy-surveyor  at  Chelsea  hospital, 
clerk  of  the  works  and  deputy-surveyor  at  Greenwich  hospital, 
clerk  of  the  works  at  Whitehall,  St  James's  and  Westminster, 
and  he  succeeded  Wren  as  surveyor-general  of  Westminster 
Abbey.  He  took  part  in  much  of  the  work  done  by  Wren  and 
Vanbrugh,  and  it  is  difficult  often  to  assign  among  them  the 
credit  for  the  designs  of  various  features.  Hawksmoor  appears, 
however,  to  have  been  responsible  for  the  early  Gothic  designs 
of  the  two  towers  of  All  Souls'  (Oxford)  north  quadrangle,  and 
the  library  and  other  features  at  Queen's  College  (Oxford). 
At  the  close  of  Queen  Anne's  reign  he  had  a  principal  part  in 
the  scheme  for  building  fifty  new  churches  in  London,  and 
himself  designed  five  or  six  of  them, including  St  Mary  Woolnoth 
(1716-1719)  and  St  George's,  Bloomsbury  (1720-1730).  A 
number  of  his  drawings  have  been  preserved.  He  died  in 
London  on  the  2  5th  of  March  1736. 

HAWKWOOD,  SIR  JOHN  (d.  1394),  an  English  adventurer 
who  attained  great  wealth  and  renown  as  a  condottiere  in  the 
Italian  wars  of  the  I4th  century.  His  name  is  variously  spelt 
as  Haccoude,  Aucud,  Aguto,  &c.,  by  contemporaries.  It  is  said 
that  he  was  the  son  of  a  tanner  of  Hedingham  Sibil  in  Essex, 
and  was  apprenticed  in  London,  whence  he  went,  in  the  English 
army,  to  France  under  Edward  III.  and  the  Black  Prince.  It 
is  said  also  that  he  obtained  the  favour  of  the  Black  Prince,  and 
received  knighthood  from  King  Edward  III.,  but  though  it  is 
certain  that  he  was  of  knightly  rank,  there  is  no  evidence  as  to 


the  time  or  place  at  which  he  won  it.  On  the  peace  of  Bretigny 
in  1360,  he  collected  a  band  of  men-at-arms,  and  moved  south- 
ward to  Italy,  where  we  find  the  White  Company,  as  his  men 
were  called,  assisting  the  marquis  of  Monferrato  against  Milan 
in  1362-63,  and  the  Pisans  against  Florence  in  1364.  After 
several  campaigns  in  various  parts  of  central  Italy,  Hawkwood 
in  1368  entered  the  service  of  Bernabo  Visconti.  In  1369  he 
fought  for  Perugia  against  the  pope,  and  in  1370  for  the  Visconti 
against  Pisa,  Florence  and  other  enemies.  In  1372  he  defeated 
the  marquis  of  Monferrato,  but  soon  afterwards,  resenting  the 
interference  of  a  council  of  war  with  his  plans,  Hawkwood 
resigned  his  command,  and  the  White  Company  passed  into  the 
papal  service,  in  which  he  fought  against  the  Visconti  in  1373- 
1375.  In  1375  the  Florentines  entered  into  an  agreement  with 
him,  by  which  they  were  to  pay  him  and  his  companion  130,000 
gold  florins  in  three  months  on  condition  that  he  undertook 
no  engagement  against  them;  and  in  the  same  year  the  priors 
of  the  arts  and  the  gonfalonier  decided  to  give  him  a  pension 
of  1200  florins  per  annum  for  as  long  as  he  should  remain  in 
Italy.  In  1377,  under  the  orders  of  the  cardinal  Robert  of 
Geneva,  legate  of  Bologna,  he  massacred  the  inhabitants  of 
Cesena,  but  in  May  of  the  same  year,  disliking  the  executioner's 
work  put  upon  him  by  the  legate,  he  joined  the  anti-papal  league, 
and  married,  at  Milan,  Donnina,  an  illegitimate  daughter  of 
Bernabo  Visconti.  In  1378  and  1379  Hawkwood  was  constantly 
in  the  field;  he  quarrelled  with  Bernabo  in  1378,  and  entered 
the  service  of  Florence,  receiving,  as  in  1375,  130,000  gold  florins. 
He  rendered  good  service  to  the  republic  up  to  1382,  when  for  a 
time  he  was  one  of  the  English  ambassadors  at  the  papal  court. 
He  engaged  in  a  brief  campaign  in  Naples  in  1383,  fought  for 
the  marquis  of  Padua  against  Verona  in  1386,  and  in  1388  made 
an  unsuccessful  effort  against  Gian  Galeazzo  Visconti,  who  had 
murdered  Bernabo.  In  1390  the  Florentines  took  up  the  war 
against  Gian  Galeazzo  in  earnest,  and  appointed  Hawkwood 
commander-in-chief.  His  campaign  against  the  Milanese  army 
in  the  Veronese  and  the  Bergamask  was  reckoned  a  triumph 
of  generalship,  and  in  1392  Florence  exacted  a  satisfactory 
peace  from  Gian  Galeazzo.  His  latter  years  were  spent  in  a 
villa  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Florence.  On  his  death  in  1394 
the  republic  gave  him  a  public  funeral  of  great  magnificence,  and 
decreed  the  erection  of  a  marble  monument  in  the  cathedral. 
This,  however,  was  never  executed;  but  Paolo  Uccelli  painted 
his  portrait  in  terre-verte  on  the  inner  facade  of  the  building, 
where  it  still  remains,  though  damaged  by  removal  from  the 
plaster  to  canvas.  Richard  II.  of  England,  probably  at  the 
instigation  of  Hawkwood's  sons,  who  returned  to  their  native 
country,  requested  the  Florentines  to  let  him  remove  the  good 
knight's  bones,  and  the  Florentine  government  signified  its 
consent. 

Of  his  children  by  Donnina  Visconti,  who  appears  to  have  been 
his  second  wife,  the  eldest  daughter  married  Count  Brezaglia 
of  Porciglia,  podesta  of  Ferrara,  who  succeeded  him  as  Florentine 
commander-in-chief,  and  another  a  German  condottiere  named 
Conrad  Prospergh.  His  son,  John,  returned  to  England  and 
settled  at  Hedingham  Sibil,  where,  it  is  supposed,  Sir  John 
Hawkwood  was  buried.  The  children  of  the  first  marriage 
were  two  sons  and  three  daughters,  and  of  the  latter  the  youngest 
married  John  Shelley,  an  ancestor  of  the  poet. 

AUTHORITIES. — Muratori,RerumItalicarumscriptores,a.n<l  supple- 
ment by  Tartinius  and  Manni;  Archivio  storico  italio.no;  Temple- 
Leader  and  Marcotti,  Giovanni  Acuto  (Florence,  1889;  Eng.  transl., 
Leader  Scott,  London,  1889);  Nichol,  Bibliotheca  topographica 
Britannica,  vol.  vi.;  J.  G.  Alger  in  Register  and  Magazine  of  Bio- 
graphy, v.  I.;  and  article  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog. 

HAWLEY,  HENRY  (c.  1679-1759),  British  lieut.-general, 
entered  the  army,  it  is  said,  in  1694.  He  saw  service  in  the  War 
of  Spanish  Succession  as  a  captain  of  Erie's  (the  igth)  foot. 
After  Almanza  he  returned  to  England,  and  a  few  years  later 
had  become  lieut.-colonel  of  the  igth.  With  this  regiment  he 
served  at  Sheriff muir  in  1 7 1 5 ,  where  he  was  wounded .  After  this 
for  some  years  he  served  in  the  United  Kingdom,  obtaining  pro- 
motion in  the  usual  course,  and  in  1739  he  arrived  at  the  grade 
of  major  general.  Four  years  later  he  accompanied  Geroge  II. 


HAWLEY,  J.  R.— HAWTHORN 


101 


and  Stair  to  Germany,  and,  as  a  general  officer  of  cavalry 
under  Sir  John  Cope,  was  present  at  Dettingen.  Becoming 
lieut.-general  somewhat  later,  he  was  second-in-command  of 
the  cavalry  at  Fontenoy,  and  on  the  2oth  of  December  1745 
became  commander-in-chief  in  Scotland.  Less  than  a  month 
later  Hawley  suffered  a  severe  defeat  at  Falkirk  at  the  hands  of 
the  Highland  insurgents.  This,  however,  did  not  cost  him  his 
command,  for  the  duke  of  Cumberland,  who  was  soon  afterwards 
sent  north,  was  captain-general.  Under  Cumberland's  orders 
Hawley  led  the  cavalry  in  the  campaign  of  Culloden,  and  at  that 
battle  his  dragoons  distinguished  themselves  by  their  ruthless 
butchery  of  the  fugitive  rebels.  After  the  end  of  the  "  Forty- 
Five  "  he  accompanied  Cumberland  to  the  Low  Countries  and  led 
the  allied  cavalry  at  Lauffeld  (Val).  He  ended  his  career  as 
governor  of  Portsmouth  and  died  at  that  place  in  1759.  James 
Wolfe,  his  brigade-major,  wrote  of  General  Hawley  in  no  flattering 
terms.  "  The  troops  dread  his  severity,  hate  the  man  and  hold 
his  military  knowledge  in  contempt,"  he  wrote.  But,  whether  it 
be  true  or  false  that  he  was  the  natural  son  of  George  II.,  Hawley 
was  always  treated  with  the  greatest  favour  by  that  king  and 
by  his  son  the  duke  of  Cumberland. 

HAWLEY,  JOSEPH  ROSWELL  (1826-1905),  American 
political  leader,  was  born  on  the  3151  of  October  at  Stewartsville, 
Richmond  county,  North  Carolina,  where  his  father,  a  native  of 
Connecticut,  was  pastor  of  a  Baptist  church.  Thefatherreturned 
to  Connecticut  in  1837  and  the  son  graduated  at  Hamilton 
College  (Clinton,  N.Y.)in  1847.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1850,  and  practised  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  for  six  years.  An  ardent 
opponent  of  slavery,  he  became  a  Free  Soiler,  was  a  delegate 
to  the  National  Convention  which  nominated  John  P.  Hale 
for  the  presidency  in  1852,  and  subsequently  served  as  chairman 
of  the  State  Committee,  having  at  the  same  time  editorial  control 
of  the  Charter  Oak,  the  party  organ.  In  1856  he  took  a  leading 
part  in  organizing  the  Republican  party  in  Connecticut,  and 
in  1857  became  editor  of  the  Hartford  Evening  Press,  a  newly 
established  Republican  newspaper.  He  served  in  the  Federal 
army  throughout  the  Civil  War,  rising  from  the  rank  of  captain 
(April  22,  1861)  to  that  of  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  (Sept. 
1864);  took  part  in  the  Port  Royal  Expedition,  in  the  capture 
of  Fort  Pulaski  (April  1862),  in  the  siege  of  Charleston  and  the 
capture  of  Fort  Wagner  (Sept.  1863),  in  the  battle  of  Olustee 
(Feb.  20,  1864),  in  the  siege  operations  about  Petersburg,  and 
in  General  W.  T.  Sherman's  campaign  in  the  Carolinas;  and 
in  September  1865  received  the  brevet  of  major-general  of 
volunteers.  From  April  1866  to  April  1867  he  was  governor 
of  Connecticut,  and  in  1867  he  bought  the  Hartford  Courant, 
with  which  he  combined  the  Press,  and  which  became  under  his 
editorship  the  most  influential  newspaper  in  Connecticut  and 
one  of  the  leading  Republican  papers  in  the  country.  He  was 
the  permanent  chairman  of  the  Republican  National  Convention 
in  1868,  was  a  delegate  to  the  conventions  of  1872,  1876  and 
1880,  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  December  1872  until 
March  1875  and  again  in  1879-1881,  and  was  a  United  States 
senator  from  1881  until  the  3rd  of  March  1905,  being  one  of  the 
Republican  leaders  both  in  the  House  and  the  Senate.  From 
1873  to  1876  he  was  president  of  the  United  States  Centennial 
Commission,  the  great  success  of  the  Centennial  Exhibition 
being  largely  due  to  him.  He  died  at  Washington,  D.C.,  on  the 
t7th  of  March  1905. 

HAWORTH,  an  urban  district  in  the  Keighley  parliamentary 
division  of  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  England,  10  m.  N.W. 
of  Bradford,  on  a  branch  of  the  Midland  railway.  Pop.  (1901), 
7492.  It  is  picturesquely  situated  on  a  steep  slope,  lying  high, 
and  surrounded  by  moorland.  The  Rev.  Patrick  Bronte  (d.i86i) 
was  incumbent  here  for  forty-one  years,  and  a  memorial  near 
the  west  window  of  St  Michael's  church  bears  his  name  and  the 
names  of  his  gifted  daughters  upon  it.  The  grave  of  Charlotte 
and  Emily  Bronte  is  also  marked  by  a  brass.  In  1895  a  museum 
was  opened  by  the  Bronte  society.  There  is  a  large  worsted 
industry. 

HAWSER  (in  sense  and  form  as  if  from  "  hawse,"  which, 
from  the  16th-century  form  liaise,  is  derived  from  Teutonic 


hals,  neck,  of  which  there  is  a  Scandinavian  use  in  the  sense  of 
the  forepart  of  a  ship;  the  two  words  are  not  etymologically 
connected;  "  hawser  "  is  from  an  O.  Fr.  haucier,  hausser,  to 
raise,  tow,  hoist,  from  the  Late  Lat.  altiare,  to  lift,  altus,  high), 
a  small  cable  or  thick  rope  used  at  sea  for  the  purposes  of  mooring 
or  warping,  in  the  case  of  large  vessels  made  of  steel.  When  a 
cable  or  tow  line  is  made  of  three  or  more  small  ropes  it  is  said 
to  be  "  hawser-laid."  The  "  hawse  "  of  a  ship  is  that  part  of  the 
bows  where  the  "  hawse-holes  "  are  made.  These  are  two  holes 
cut  in  the  bows  of  a  vessel  for  the  cables  to  pass  through,  having 
small  cast-iron  pipes,  called  "  hawse-pipes,"  fitted  into  them  to 
prevent  abrasion.  In  bad  weather  at  sea  these  holes  are  plugged 
up  with  "  hawse-plugs  "  to  prevent  the  water  entering.  The 
phrase  to  enter  the  service  by  the  "  hawse-holes  "  is  used  of 
those  who  have  risen  from  before  the  mast  to  commissioned 
rank  in  the  navy.  When  the  ship  is  at  anchor  the  space  between 
her  head  and  the  anchor  is  called  "  hawse,"  as  in  the  phrase 
"  athwart  the  hawse."  The  term  also  applies  to  the  position 
of  the  ship's  anchors  when  moored;  when  they  are  laid  out  in  a 
line  at  right  angles  to  the  wind  it  is  said  to  be  moored  with  an 
"  open  hawse  ";  when  both  cables  are  laid  out  straight  to  their 
anchors  without  crossing,  it  is  a  "  clear  hawse." 

HAWTHORN,  a  city  of  Bourke  county,  Victoria,  Australia, 
45  m.  by  rail  E.  of  and  suburban  to  Melbourne.  Pop.  (1901), 
21,339.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  important  Methodist  Ladies'* 
College.  The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  professional  and 
business  men  engaged  in  Melbourne,  and  their  residences  are 
numerous  at  Hawthorn. 

HAWTHORN  (O.  Eng.  haga-,  hag-,  or  hege-lhorn,  i.e.  "  hedge- 
thorn  "),  the  common  name  for  Cralaegus,  in  botany,  a  genus 
of  shrubs  or  small  trees  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Rosaceae, 
native  of  the  north  temperate  regions,  especially  America.  It 
is  represented  in  the  British  Isles  by  the  hawthorn,  white-thorn 
or  may  (Ger.  Hagedorn  and  Christdorn;  Fr.  aubepine),  C. 
Oxyacantha,  a  small,  round-headed,  much-branched  tree,  10  to 
20  ft.  high,  the  branches  often  ending  in  single  sharp  spines. 
The  leaves,  which  are  deeply  cut,  are  i  to  2  in.  long  and  very 
variable  in  shape.  The  flowers  are  sweet-scented,  in  flat-topped 
clusters,  and  5  to  f  in.  in  diameter,  with  five  spreading  white 
petals  alternating  with  five  persistent  green  sepals,  a  large 
number  of  stamens  with  pinkish-brown  anthers,  and  one  to  three 
carpels  sunk  in  the  cup-shaped  floral  axis.  The  fruit,  or  haw, 
as  in  the  apple,  consists  of  the  swollen  floral  axis,  which  is  usually 
scarlet,  and  forms  a  fleshy  envelope  surrounding  the  hard  stone. 

The  common  hawthorn  is  a  native  of  Europe  as  far  north  as 
6o5°  in  Sweden,  and  of  North  Africa,  western  Asia  and  Siberia, 
and  has  been  naturalized  in  North  America  and  Australia.  It 
thrives  best  in  dry  soils,  and  in  height  varies  from  4  or  5  to  12,  15 
or,  in  exceptional  cases,  as  much  as  between  20  and  30  ft.  It 
may  be  propagated  from  seed  or  from  cuttings.  The  seeds 
must  be  from  ripe  fruit,  and  if  fresh  gathered  should  be  freed 
from  pulp  by  maceration  in  water.  They  germinate  only  in  the 
second  year  after  sowing;  in  the  course  of  their  first  year  the 
seedlings  attain  a  height  of  6  to  12  in.  Hawthorn  has  been  for 
many  centuries  a  favourite  park  and  hedge  plant  in  Europe,  and 
numerous  varieties  have  been  developed  by  cultivation;  these 
differ  in  the  form  of  the  leaf,  the  white,  pink  or  red,  single  or 
double  flowers,  and  the  yellow,  orange  or  red  fruit.  In  England 
the  hawthorn,  owing  to  its  hardiness  and  closeness  of  growth, 
has  been  employed  for  enclosure  of  land  since  the  Roman  occupa- 
tion, but  for  ordinary  field  hedges  it  is  believed  it  was  generally 
in  use  till  about  the  end  of  the  i7th  century.  James  I.  of 
Scotland,  in  his  Quair,  ii.  14  (early  I5th  century),  mentions  the 
"  hawthorn  hedges  knet "  of  Windsor  Castle.  The  first  hawthorn 
hedges  in  Scotland  are  said  to  have  been  planted  by  soldiers 
of  Cromwell  at  Inch  Buckling  Brae  in  East  Lothian  and  Finlarig 
in  Perthshire.  Annual  pruning,  to  which  the  hawthorn  is  par- 
ticularly amenable,  is  necessary  if  the  hedge  is  to  maintain  its 
compactness  and  sturdiness.  When  the  lower  part  shows 
a  tendency  to  go  bare  the  strong  stems  may  be  "  plashed,"  i.e. 
split,  bent  over  and  pegged  to  the  ground  so  that  new  growths 
may  start.  The  wood  of  the  hawthorn  is  white  in  colour,  with 


IO2 


HAWTHORNE,  NATHANIEL 


a  yellowish  tinge.  Fresh  cut  it  weighs  68  Ib  12  oz.  per  cubic  foot, 
and  dry  57  Ib  3  oz.  It  can  seldom  be  obtained  in  large  portions, 
and  has  the  disadvantage  of  being  apt  to  warp;  its  great  hard- 
ness, however,  renders  it  valuable  for  the  manufacture  of  various 
articles,  such  as  the  cogs  of  mill-wheels,  flails  and  mallets,  and 
handles  of  hammers.  Both  green  and  dry  it  forms  excellent 
fuel.  The  bark  possesses  tanning  properties,  and  in  Scotland 
in  past  times  yielded  with  ferrous  sulphate  a  black  dye  for  wool. 
The  leaves  are  eaten  by  cattle,  and  have  been  employed  as  a 
substitute  for  tea.  Birds  and  deer  feed  upon  the  haws,  which  are 
used  in  the  preparation  of  a  fermented  and  highly  intoxicating 
liquor.  The  hawthorn  serves  as  a  stock  for  grafting  other  trees. 
As  an  ornamental  feature  in  landscapes,  it  is  worthy  of  notice; 
and  the  pleasing  shelter  it  affords  and  the  beauty  of  its  blossoms 
have  frequently  been  alluded  to  by  poets.  The  custom  of 
employing  the  flowering  branches  for  decorative  purposes  on 
the  ist  of  May  is  of  very  early  origin;  but  since  the  alteration 
in  the  calendar  the  tree  has  rarely  been  in  full  bloom  in  England 
before  the  second  week  of  that  month.  In  the  Scottish  Highlands 
the  flowers  may  be  seen  as  late  as  the  middle  of  June.  The 
hawthorn  has  been  regarded  as  the  emblem  of  hope,  and  its 
branches  are  stated  to  have  been  carried  by  the  ancient  Greeks 
in  wedding  processions,  and  to  have  been  used  by  them  to  deck 
the  altar  of  Hymen.  The  supposition  that  the  tree  was  the 
source  of  Christ's  crown  of  thorns  gave  rise  doubtless  to  the 
tradition  current  among  the  French  peasantry  that  it  utters 
groans  and  cries  on  Good  Friday,  and  probably  also  to  the  old 
popular  superstition  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  that  ill-luck 
attended  the  uprooting  of  hawthorns.  Branches  of  the  Glaston- 
bury  thorn,  C.  Oxyacantha,  var.  praecox,  which  flowers  both  in 
December  and  in  spring,  were  formerly  highly  valued  in  England, 
on  account  of  the  legend  that  the  tree  was  originally  the  staff  of 
Joseph  of  Arimathea. 

The  number  of  species  in  the  genus  is  from  fifty  to  seventy, 
according  to  the  view  taken  as  to  whether  or  not  some  of  the 
forms,  especially  of  those  occurring  in  the  United  States,  repre- 
sent distinct  species.  C.  coccinea,  a  native  of  Canada  and  the 
eastern  United  States,  with  bright  scarlet  fruits,  was"  introduced 
into  English  gardens  towards  the  end  of  the  i7th  century. 
C.  Crus-Galli,  with  a  somewhat  similar  distribution  and  intro- 
duced about  the  same  time,  is  a  very  decorative  species  with 
showy,  bright  red  fruit,  often  remaining  on  the  branches  till 
spring,  and  leaves  assuming  a  brilliant  scarlet  and  orange  in  the 
autumn;  numerous  varieties  are  in  cultivation.  C.  Pyracantha, 
known  in  gardens  as  pyracantha,  is  evergreen  and  has  white 
flowers,  appearing  in  May,  and  fine  scarlet  fruits  of  the  size  of 
a  pea  which  remain  on  the  tree  nearly  all  the  winter.  It  is  a 
native  of  south  Europe  and  was  introduced  into  Britain  early 
in  the  lyth  century. 

HAWTHORNE,  NATHANIEL  (1804-1864),  American  writer, 
son  of  Nathaniel  Hathorne  (1776-1808),  was  born  at  Salem, 
Massachusetts,  on  the  4th  of  July  1804.  The  head  of  the 
American  branch  of  the  family,  William  Hathorne  of  Wilton, 
Wiltshire,  England,  emigrated  with  Winthrop  and  his  company, 
and  arrived  at  Salem  Bay,  Mass.,  on  the  izth  of  June  1630.  He 
had  grants  of  land  at  Dorchester,  where  he  resided  for  upwards 
of  six  years,  when  he  was  persuaded  to  remove  to  Salem  by  the 
tender  of  further  grants  of  land  there,  it  being  considered  a  public 
benefit  that  he  should  become  an  inhabitant  of  that  town.  He 
represented  his  fellow-townsmen  in  the  legislature,  and  served 
them  in  a  military  capacity  as  a  captain  in  the  first  regular  troop 
organized  in  Salem,  which  he  led  to  victory  through  an  Indian 
campaign  in  Maine.  Originally  a  determined  "  Separatist," 
and  opposed  to  compulsion  for  conscience,  he  signalized  himself 
when  a  magistrate  by  the  active  part  which  he  took  in  the  Quaker 
persecutions  of  the  time  (1657-1662),  going  so  far  on  one  occasion 
as  to  order  the  whipping  of  Anne  Coleman  and  four  other  Friends 
through  Salem,  Boston  and  Dedham.  He  died,  an  old  man,  in 
the  odour  of  sanctity,  and  left  a  good  property  to  his  son  John, 
who  inherited  his  father's  capacity  and  intolerance,  and  was  in 
turn  a  legislator,  a  magistrate,  a  soldier  and  a  bitter  persecutor 
of  witches.  Before  the  death  of  Justice  Hathorne  in  1717,  the 


destiny  of  the  family  suffered  a  sea-change,  and  they  began  to 
be  noted  as  mariners.  One  of  these  seafaring  Hathornes  figured 
in  the  Revolution  as  a  privateer,  who  had  the  good  fortune  to 
escape  from  a  British  prison-ship;  and  another,  Captain  Daniel 
Hathorne,  has  left  his  mark  on  early  American  ballad-lore. 
He  too  was  a  privateer,  commander  of  the  brig  "  Fair  American," 
which,  cruising  off  the  coast  of  Portugal,  fell  in  with  a  British 
scow  laden  with  troops  for  General  Howe,  which  scow  the  bold 
Hathorne  and  his  valiant  crew  at  once  engaged  and  fought  for 
over  an  hour,  until  the  vanquished  enemy  was  glad  to  cut  the 
Yankee  grapplings  and  quickly  bear  away.  The  last  of  the 
Hathornes  with  whom  we  are  concerned  was  a  son  of  this 
sturdy  old  privateer,  Nathaniel  Hathorne.  He  was  born  in 
1776,  and  about  the  beginning  of  the  igth  century  married  Miss 
Elizabeth  Clarke  Manning,  a  daughter  of  Richard  Manning  of 
Salem,  whose  ancestors  emigrated  to  America  about  fifty  years 
after  the  arrival  of  William  Hathorne.  Young  Nathaniel  took 
his  hereditary  place  before  the  mast,  passed  from  the  forecastle 
to  the  cabin,  made  voyages  to  the  East  and  West  Indies,  Brazil 
and  Africa,  and  finally  died  of  fever  at  Surinam,  in  the  spring  of 
1808.  He  was  the  father  of  three  children,  the  second  of  whom 
was  the  subject  of  this  article.  The  form  of  the  family  name  was 
changed  by  the  latter  to  "  Hawthorne  "  in  his  early  manhood. 

After  the  death  of  her  husband  Mrs  Hawthorne  removed  to 
the  house  of  her  father  with  her  little  family  of  children.  Of 
the  boyhood  of  Nathaniel  no  particulars  have  reached  us,  except 
that  he  was  fond  of  taking  long  walks  alone,  and  that  he  used  to 
declare  to  his  mother  that  he  would  go  to  sea  some  time  and 
would  never  return.  Among  the  books  that  he  is  known  to  have 
read  as  a  child  were  Shakespeare,  Milton,  Pope  and  Thomson, 
The  Castle  of  Indolence  being  an  especial  favourite.  In  the 
autumn  of  1818  his  mother  removed  to  Raymond,  a  town  in 
Cumberland  county,  Maine,  where  his  uncle,  Richard  Manning, 
had  built  a  large  and  ambitious  dwelling.  Here  the  lad  resumed 
his  solitary  walks,  exchanging  the  narrow  streets  of  Salem  for 
the  boundless,  primeval  wilderness,  and  its  sluggish  harbour 
for  the  fresh  bright  waters  of  Sebago  lake.  He  roamed  the 
woods  by  day,  with  his  gun  and  rod,  and  in  the  moonlight  nights 
of  winter  skated  upon  the  lake  alone  till  midnight.  When  he 
found  himself  away  from  home,  and  wearied  with  his  exercise, 
he  took  refuge  in  a  log  cabin  where  half  a  tree  would  be  burning 
upon  the  hearth.  He  had  by  this  time  acquired  a  taste  for 
writing,  that  showed  itself  in  a  little  blank-book,  in  which  he 
jotted  down  his  woodland  adventures  and  feelings,  and  which 
was  remarkable  for  minute  observation  and  nice  perception  of 
nature. 

After  a  year's  residence  at  Raymond,  Nathaniel  returned 
to  Salem  in  order  to  prepare  for  college.  He  amused  himself 
by  publishing  a  manuscript  periodical,  which  he  called  the 
Spectator,  and  which  displayed  considerable  vivacity  and  talent. 
He  speculated  upon  the  profession  that  he  would  follow,  with  a 
sort  of  prophetic  insight  into  his  future.  "  I  do  not  want  to  be 
a  doctor  and  live  by  men's  diseases,"  he  wrote  to  his  mother, 
"  nor  a  minister  to  live  by  their  sins,  nor  a  lawyer  and  live  by 
their  quarrels.  So  I  don't  see  that  there  is  anything  left  for  me 
but  to  be  an  author.  How  would  you  like  some  day  to  see  a 
whole  shelf  full  of  books,  written  by  your  son,  with  '  Hawthorne's 
Works'  printed  on  their  backs?" 

Nathaniel  entered  Bowdoin  College,  Brunswick,  Maine,  in 
the  autumn  of  1821,  where  he  became  acquainted  with  two 
students  who  were  destined  to  distinction— Henry  W.Longfellow 
and  Franklin  Pierce.  He  was  an  excellent  classical  scholar, 
his  Latin  compositions,  even  in  his  freshman  year,  being  remark- 
able for  their  elegance,  while  his  Greek  (which  was  less)  was  good. 
He  made  graceful  translations  from  the  Roman  poets,  and 
wrote  several  English  poems  which  were  creditable  to  him. 
After  graduation  three  years  later  (1825)  he  returned  to  Salem, 
and  to  a  life  of  isolation.  He  devoted  his  mornings  to  study, 
his  afternoons  to  writing,  and  his  evenings  to  long  walks  along 
the  rocky  coast.  He  was  scarcely  known  by  sight  to  his  towns- 
men, and  he  held  so  little  communication  with  the  members 
of  his  own  family  that  his  meals  were  frequently  left  at  his 


HAWTHORNE,  NATHANIEL 


103 


locked  door.  He  wrote  largely,  but  destroyed  many  of  his 
manuscripts,  his  taste  was  so  difficult  to  please.  He  thought 
well  enough,  however,  of  one  of  his  compositions  to  print  it 
anonymously  in  1828. /  A  crude  melodramatic  story,  entitled 
Fanshawe,  it  was  unworthy  even  of  his  immature  powers,  and 
should  never  have  been  rescued  from  the  oblivion  which  speedily 
overtook  it.  The  name  of  Nathaniel  Hawthorne  finally  became 
known  to  his  countrymen  as  a  writer  in  The  Token,  a  holiday 
annual  which  was  commenced  in  1828  by  Mr  S.  G.  Goodrich 
(better  known  as  "Peter  Parley  "),  by  whom  it  was  conducted 
for  fourteen  years.  This  forgotten  publication  numbered  among 
its  contributors  most  of  the  prominent  American  writers  of  the 
time,  none  of  whom  appear  to  have  added  to  their  reputation 
in  its  pages,  except  the  least  popular  of  all — Hawthorne,  who 
was  for  years  the  obscurest  man  of  letters  in  America,  though 
he  gradually  made  admirers  in  a  quiet  way.  His  first  public 
recognition  came  from  England,  where  his  genius  was  discovered 
in  1835  by  Henry  F.  Chorley,  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Athenaeum, 
in  which  he  copied  three  of  Hawthorne's  most  characteristic 
papers  from  The  Token.  He  had  but  little  encouragement  to 
continue  in  literature,  for  Mr  Goodrich  was  so  much  more  a 
publisher  than  an  author  that  he  paid  him  wretchedly  for  his 
contributions,  and  still  more  wretchedly  for  his  work  upon  an 
American  Magazine  of  Useful  and  Entertaining  Knowledge,  which 
he  persuaded  him  to  edit.  This  author-publisher  consented, 
however,  at  a  later  period  (1837)  to  bring  out  a  collection  of 
Hawthorne's  writings  under  the  title  of  Twice-told  Tales.  .  A 
moderate  edition  was  got  rid  of,  but  the  great  body  of  the  reading 
public  ignored  the  book  altogether.  It  was  generously  reviewed 
in  the  North  American  Review  by  his  college  friend  Longfellow, 
who  said  it  came  from  the  hand  of  a  man  of  genius,  and  praised 
it  for  the  exceeding  beauty  of  its  style,  which  was  as  clear  as 
running  waters. 

The  want  of  pecuniary  success  which  had  so  far  attended 
his  authorship  led  Hawthorne  to  accept  a  situation  which  was 
tendered  him  by  George  Bancroft,  the  historian,  collector  of 
the  port  of  Boston  under  the  Democratic  rule  of  President 
Van  Buren.  He  was  appointed  a  weigher  in  the  custom-house 
at  a  salary  of  about  $1200  a  year,  and  entered  upon  the  duties 
of  his  office,  which  consisted  for  the  most  part  in  measuring 
coal,  salt  and  other  bulky  commodities  on  foreign  vessels. 
It  was  irksome  employment,  but  faithfully  performed  for  two 
years,  when  he  was  superseded  through  a  change  in  the  national 
administration.  Master  of  himself  once  more,  he  returned  to 
Salem,  where  he  remained  until  the  spring  of  1841,  when  he 
wrote  a  collection  of  children's  stories  entitled  Grandfather's 
Chair,  and  joined  an  industrial  association  at  West  Roxbury, 
Mass.  Brook  Farm,  as  it  was  called,  was  a  social  Utopia, 
composed  of  a  number  of  advanced  thinkers,  whose  object  was 
so  to  distribute  manual  labour  as  to  give  its  members  time  for 
intellectual  culture.  The  scheme  worked  admirably — on  paper; 
but  it  was  suited  neither  to  the  temperament  nor  the  taste  of 
Hawthorne,  and  after  trying  it  patiently  for  nearly  a  year  he 
returned  to  the  everyday  life  of  mankind. 

One  of  Hawthorne's  earliest  admirers  was  Miss  Sophia  Peabody , 
a  lady  of  Salem,  whom  he  married  in  the  summer  of  1842.  He 
made  himself  a  new  home  in  an  old  manse,  at  Concord,  Mass., 
situated  on  historic  ground,  in  sight  of  an  old  revolutionary 
battlefield,  and  devoted  himself  diligently  to  literature.  He 
was  known  to  the  few  by  his  Twice-told  Tale!,  and  to  the  many 
by  his  papers  in  the  Democratic  Review.  He  published  in  1842 
a  further  portion  of  Grandfather's  Chair,  and  also  a  second 
volume  of  Twice-told  Tales.  He  also  edited,  during  1845, 
the  African  Journals  of  Horatio  Bridge,  an  officer  of  the  navy, 
who  had  been  at  college  with  him;  and  in  the  following  year  he 
published  in  two  volumes  a  collection  of  his  later  writings,  under 
the  title  of  Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse.  ' 

After  a  residence  of  nearly  four  years  at  Concord,  Hawthorne 
returned  to  Salem,  having  been  appointed  surveyor  of  the 
custom-house  of  that  port  by  a  new  Democratic  administration. 
He  filled  the  duties  of  this  position  until  the  incoming  of  the 
Whig  administration  again  led  to  his  retirement.  He  seems  to 


have  written  little  during  his  official  term,  but,  as  he  had  leisure 
enough  and  to  spare,  he  read  much,  and  pondered  over  subjects 
for  future  stories.  His  next  work,  The  Scarlet  Letter,  which  was 
begun  after  his  removal  from  the  custom-house,  was  published 
in  1850.  If  there  had  been  any  doubt  of  his  genius  before,  it 
was  settled  for  ever  by  this  powerful  romance. 

Shortly  after  the  publication  of  The  Scarlet  Letter  Hawthorne 
removed  from  Salem  to  Lenox,  Berkshire,  Mass.,  where  he  wrote 
The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables  (1851)  and  The  Wonder-Book 
(1851).  From  Lenox  he  removed  to  West  Newton,  near  Boston, 
Mass.,  where  he  wrote  The  Blithedale  Romance  (1852)  and  The 
Snow  Image  and  other  Twice-told  Tales  (1852).  In  the  spring 
of  1852  he  removed  back  to  Concord,  where  he  purchased  an 
old  house  which  he  called  The  Wayside,  and  where  he  wrote  a 
Life  of  Franklin  Pierce  (1852)  and  Tanglewood  Tales  (1853). 
Mr  Pierce  was  the  Democratic  candidate  for  the  presidency, 
and  it  was  only  at  his  urgent  solicitation  that  Hawthorne 
consented  to  become  his  biographer.  He  declared  that  he 
would  accept  no  office  in  case  he  were  elected,  lest  it  might 
compromise  him ;  but  his  friends  gave  him  such  weighty  reasons 
for  reconsidering  his  decision  that  he  accepted  the  consulate 
at  Liverpool,  which  was  understood  to  be  one  of  the  best  gifts 
at  the  disposal  of  the  president. 

Hawthorne  departed  for  Europe  in  the  summer  of  1853,  and 
returned  to  the  United  States  in  the  summer  of  1860.  Of  the 
seven  years  which  he  passed  in  Europe  five  were  spent  in  attending 
to  the  duties  of  his  consulate  at  Liverpool,  and  in  little  journeys 
to  Scotland,  the  Lakes  and  elsewhere,  and  the  remaining  two 
in  France  and  Italy.  They  were  quiet  and  uneventful,  coloured 
by  observation  and  reflection,  as  his  note-books  show,  but 
productive  of  only  one  elaborate  work,  Transformation,  or  The 
Marble  Faun,  which  he  sketched  out  during  his  residence  in 
Italy,  and  prepared  for  the  press  at  Leamington,  England, 
whence  it  was  despatched  to  America  and  published  in  1860. 

Hawthorne  took  up  his  abode  at  The  Wayside,  not  much  richer 
than  when  he  left  it,  and  sat  down  at  his  desk  once  more  with  a 
heavy  heart.  He  was  surrounded  by  the  throes  of  a  great  civil 
war,  and  the  political  party  with  which  he  had  always  acted 
was  under  a  cloud.  His  friend  ex-President  Pierce  was  stig- 
matized as  a  traitor,  and  when  Hawthorne  dedicated  his  next 
book  to  him — a  volume  of  English  impressions  entitled  Ou*  Old 
Home  (1863) — it  was  at  the  risk  of  his  own  popularity.  His  pen 
was  soon  to  be  laid  aside  for  ever;  for,  with  the  exception  of 
the  unfinished  story  of  Septimius  Felton,  which  was  published 
after  his  death  by  his  daughter  Una  (1872),  and  the  fragment 
of  The  Dolliver  Romance,  the  beginning  of  which  was  published 
in  the  Atlantic  Monthly  in  July  1864,  he  wrote  no  more.  His 
health  gradually  declined,  his  hair  grew  white  as  snow,  and 
the  once  stalwart  figure  that  in  early  manhood  flashed  along  the 
airy  cliffs  and  glittering  sands  sauntered  idly  on  the  little  hill 
behind  his  house.  In  the  beginning  of  April  1864  he  made  a  short 
southern  tour  with  his  publisher  Mr  William  D.Ticknor,  and  was 
benefited  by  the  change  of  scene  until  he  reached  Philadelphia, 
where  he  was  shocked  by  the  sudden  death  of  Mr  Ticknor. 
He  returned  to  The  Wayside,  and  after  a  short  season  of  rest 
joined  his  friend  ex-President  Pierce.  He  died  at  Plymouth, 
New  Hampshire,  on  the  ipth  of  May  1864,  and  five  days  later 
was  buried  at  Sleepy  Hollow,  a  beautiful  cemetery  at  Concord, 
where  he  used  to  walk  under  the  pines  when  he  was  living  at  the 
Old  Manse,  and  where  his  ashes  moulder  under  a  simple  stone, 
inscribed  with  the  single  word  "  Hawthorne." 

The  writings  of  Hawthorne  are  marked  by  subtle  imagination, 
curious  power  of  analysis  and  exquisite  purity  of  diction.  He 
studied  exceptional  developments  of  character,  and  was  fond  of 
exploring  secret  crypts  of  emotion.  His  shorter  stories  are  re- 
markable for  originality  and  suggestiveness,  and  his  larger  ones 
are  as  absolute  creations  as  Hamlet  or  Undine.  Lacking  the 
accomplishment  of  verse,  he  was  in  the  highest  sense  a  poet. 
His  work  is  pervaded  by  a  manly  personality,  and  by  an  almost 
feminine  delicacy  and  gentleness.  He  inherited  the  gravity  of 
his  Puritan  ancestors  without  their  superstition,  and  learned  in 
his  solitary  meditations  a  knowledge  of  the  night-side  of  life 


104 


HAWTREY— HAY,  G. 


which  would  have  filled  them  with  suspicion.  A  profound 
anatomist  of  the  heart,  he  was  singularly  free  from  morbidness, 
and  in  his  darkest  speculations  concerning  evil  was  robustly 
right-minded.  He  worshipped  conscience  with  his  intellectual 
as  well  as  his  moral  nature;  it  is  supreme  in  all  he  wrote.  Besides 
these  mental  traits,  he  possessed  the  literary  quality  of  style — 
a  grace,  a  charm,  a  perfection  of  language  which  no  other 
American  writer  ever  possessed  in  the  same  degree,  and  which 
places  him  among  the  great  masters  of  English  prose. 

His  Complete  Writings  (22  vols.,  Boston,  1901)  were  edited,  with 
introduction,  including  a  bibliography,  by  H.  S.  Scudder.  The 
standard  authority  for  Hawthorne's  biography  is  Nathaniel  Haw- 
thorne and  his  Wife  (2  vols.,  Boston,  1884),  by  his  son  Julian  Haw- 
thorne (b.  1846),  himself  a  novelist  and  critic  of  distinction.  See 
also  Henry  James,  Hawthorne  (London,  1879),  in  the  "  English  Men 
of  Letters  '  series;  Julian  Hawthorne,  Hawthorne  and  his  Circle 
(New  York,  1903);  a  paper  in  R.  H.  Hutton's  Essays  Theological 
and  Literary  (London,  1871);  George  B.  Smith,  Poets  and  Novelists 
(London,  1875) ;  Moncure  D.  Conway,  Life  of  Nathaniel  Hawthorne 
(London,  1890,  in  the  "Great  Writers"  series);  Horatio  Bridge, 
Personal  Recollections  of  Nathaniel  Hawthorne  (New  York,  1893); 
Rose  Hawthorne  Lathrop,  Memories  of  Hawthorne  (Boston,  1897); 
W.  C.  Lawton,  The  New  England  Poets  (New  York,  1898);  Sir  L. 
Stephen,  Hours  in  a  Library  (1874);  Annie  Fields,  Nathaniel 
Hawthorne  (Boston,  1899);  G.  E.  Woodberry,  Life  of  Hawthorne 
(1902) ;  and  bibliography  by  N.  E.  Browne  (1905).  (R.  H.  S.) 

HAWTREY,  CHARLES  HENRY  (1858-  ),  English  actor, 
was  born  at  Eton,  where  his  father  was  master  of  the  lower 
school,  and  educated  at  Rugby  and  Oxford.  He  took  to  the  stage 
in  1 88 1,  and  in  1883  adapted  von  Moser's  Bibliothekar  as  The 
Private  Secretary,  which  had  an  enormous  success.  He  then 
appeared  in  London  in  a  number  of  modern  plays,  in  which  he 
was  conspicuous  as  a  comedian.  He  was  unapproachable  for 
parts  in  which  cool  imperturbable  lying  constituted  the  leading 
characteristic.  Among  his  later  successes  A  Message  from  Mars 
was  particularly  popular  in  London  and  in  America. 

HAWTREY,  EDWARD  CRAVEN  (1789-1862),  English  educa- 
tionalist, was  born  at  Burnham  on  the  7th  of  May  1789,  the  son 
of  the  vicar  of  the  parish.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  King's 
College,  Cambridge,  and  in  1814  was  appointed  assistant  master 
at  Eton  under  Dr  Keate.  In  1834  he  became  headmaster  of  the 
college,  and  his  administration  was  a  vigorous  one.  New 
buildings  were  erected,  including  the  school  library  and  the 
sanatorium,  the  college  chapel  was  restored,  the  Old  Christopher 
Inn  was  closed,  and  the  custom  of  "  Montem,"  the  collection  by 
street  begging  of  funds  for  the  university  expenses  of  the  captain 
of  the  school,  was  suppressed.  He  is  supposed  to  have  suggested 
the  prince  consort's  modern  language  prizes,  while  the  prize  for 
English  essay  he  founded  himself.  In  1852  he  became  provost  of 
Eton,  and  in  1854  vicar  of  Mapledurham.  He  died  on  the  27th 
of  January  1862,  and  was  buried  in  the  Eton  College  chapel. 
On  account  of  his  command  of  languages  ancient  and  modern, 
he  was  known  in  London  as  "  the  English  Mezzofanti,"  and 
he  was  a  book  collector  of  the  finest  taste.  Among  his  own  books 
are  some  excellent  translations  from  the  English  into  Italian, 
German  and  Greek.  He  had  a  considerable  reputation  as 
a  writer  of  English  hexameters  and  as  a  judge  of  Homeric 
translation. 

HAXO,  FRANCOIS  NICOLAS  BENOIT,  BARON  (1774-1838), 
French  general  and  military  engineer,  was  born  at  Luneville 
on  the  24th  of  June  1774,  and  entered  the  Engineers  in  1793. 
He  remained  unknown,  doing  duty  as  a  regimental  officer  for 
many  years,  until,  as  major,  he  had  his  first  chance  of  distinction 
in  the  second  siege  of  Saragossa  in  1809,  after  which  Napoleon 
made  him  a  colonel.  Haxo  took  part  in  the  campaign  of  Wagram, 
and  then  returned  to  the  Peninsula  to  direct  the  siege  operations 
of  Suchet's  army  in  Catalonia  and  Valencia.  In  1810  he  was 
made  general  of  brigade,  in  1811  a  baron,  and  in  the  same  year 
he  was  employed  in  preparing  the  occupied  fortresses  of  Germany 
against  a  possible  Russian  invasion.  In  1812  he  was  chief 
engineer  of  Davout's  I.  corps,  and  after  the  retreat  from  Moscow 
he  was  made  general  of  division.  In  1813  he  constructed  the 
works  around  Hamburg  which  made  possible  the  famous  defence 
of  that  fortress  by  Davout,  and  commanded  the  Guard  Engineers 
until  he  fell  into  the  enemy's  hands  at  Kulm.  After  the  Restora- 


tion Louis  XVIII.  wished  to  give  Haxo  a  command  in  the  Royal 
Guards,  but  the  general  remained  faithful  to  Napoleon,  and  in  the 
Hundred  Days  laid  out  the  provisional  fortifications  of  Paris 
and  fought  at  Waterloo.  It  was,  however,  after  the  second 
Restoration  that  the  best  work  of  his  career  as  a  military  engineer 
was  done.  As  inspector-general  he  managed,  though  not  without 
meeting  considerable  opposition,  to  reconstruct  in  accordance 
with  the  requirements  of  the  time,  and  the  designs  which  he 
had  evolved  to  meet  them,  the  old  Vauban  and  Cormontaigne 
fortresses  which  had  failed  to  check  the  invasions  of  1814  and 
1815.  For  his  services  he  was  made  a  peer  of  France  by  Louis 
Philippe  (1832).  Soon  after  this  came  the  French  intervention  in 
Belgium  and  the  famous  scientific  siege  of  Antwerp  citadel. 
Under  Marshal  Gerard  Haxo  directed  the  besiegers  and  com- 
pletely outmatched  the  opposing  engineers,  the  fortress  being 
reduced  to  surrender  after  a  siege  of  a  little  more  than  three  weeks 
(December  23,  1832).  He  was  after  this  regarded  as  the  first 
engineer  in  Europe,  and  his  latter  years  were  spent  in  urging 
upon  the  government  and  the  French  people  the  fortification  of 
Paris  and  Lyons,  a  project  which  was  partly  realized  in  his  time 
and  after  his  death  fully  carried  out.  General  Haxo  died  at 
Paris  on  the  2Sth  of  June  1838.  He  wrote  Mimoire  sur  le  figure 
du  terrain  dans  les  cartes  topographiques  (Paris,  N.D.),  and  a 
memoir  of  General  Dejean  (1824). 

HAXTHAUSEN,  AUGUST  FRANZ  LUDWIG  MARIA, 
FREIHERR  VON  (1792-1866),  German  political  economist,  was 
born  near  Paderborn  in  Westphalia  on  the  3rd  of  February 
1792.  Having  studied  at  the  school  of  mining  at  Klausthal,  and 
having  servedinthe  Hanoverian  army,  he  entered  the  university 
of  Gottingen  in  1815.  Finishing  his  course  there  in  1818  he  was 
engaged  in  managing  his  estates  and  in  studying  the  land  laws. 
The  result  of  his  studies  appeared  in  1829  when  he  published 
Uber  die  Agraroerfassung  in  den  Fiirstentiimern  Paderborn  und 
Coney,  'a  work  which  attracted  much  attention  and  which 
procured  for  its  author  a  commission  to  investigate  and  report 
upon  the  land  laws  of  the  Prussian  provinces  with  a  view  to  a  new 
code.  After  nine  years  of  labour  he  published  in  1839  an 
exhaustive  treatise,  Die  Idndliche  Vcrfassung  in  der  Provinz 
Preussen,  and  in  1843,  at  the  request  of  the  emperor  Nicholas, 
he  undertook  a  similar  work  for  Russia,  the  fruits  of  his  in- 
vestigations in  that  country  being  contained  in  his  Studicn  iiber 
die  innern  Zustande  des  Volkslebens,  und  insbesondere  die  land- 
lichen  Einrichtungen  Russlands  (Hanover,  1847-1852).  He 
received  various  honours,  was  a  member  of  the  combined  diet 
in  Berlin  in  1847  and  1848,  and  afterwards  of  the  Prussian  upper 
house.  Haxthausen  died  at  Hanover  on  the  3ist  of  December 
1866. 

In  addition  to  the  works  already  mentioned  he  wrote  Die  land- 
liche Verfassung  Russlands  (Leipzig,  1866).  His  Studien  has  been 
translated  into  French  and  into  English  by  R.  Farie  as  The  Russian 
Empire  (1856).  Other  works  of  his  which  have  appeared  in  English 
are :  Transcaucasia ;  Sketches  of  the  Nations  and  Races  between  the 
Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian  (1854),  and  The  Tribes  of  the  Caucasus 
(1855).  Haxthausen  edited  Das  konstitutionelle  Pnnzip  (Leipzig, 
1864),  a  collection  of  political  writings  by  various  authors,  which  has 
been  translated  into  French  (1865). 

HAY,  GEORGE  (1729-1811),  Scottish  Roman  Catholic  divine, 
was  born  at  Edinburgh  on  the  24th  of  August  1729.  He  was 
accused  of  sympathizing  with  the  rebellion  of  1745  and  served 
a  term  of  imprisonment  1746-1747.  He  then  entered  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  studied  in  the  Scots  College  at  Rome, 
and  in  1759  accompanied  John  Geddes  (1735-1799),  afterwards 
bishop  of  Morocco,  on  a  Scottish  mission.  Ten  years  later 
he  was  appointed  bishop  of  Daulis  in  partibus  and  coadjutor 
to  Bishop  James  Grant  (1706-1778).  In  1778  he  became  vicar 
apostolic  of  the  lowland  district.  During  the  Protestant  riots 
in  Edinburgh  in  1779  his  furniture  and  library  were  destroyed 
by  fire.  From  1788  to  1793  he  was  in  charge  of  the  Scalan 
seminary;  in  1802  he  retired  to  that  of  Aquhorties  near  Inverury 
which  he  had  founded  in  1799.  He  died  there  on  the  isth  of 
October  1811. 

His  theological  works,  including  The  Sincere  Christian,  The  Devout 
Christian,  The  Pious  Christian  and  The  Scripture  Doctrine  of  Miracles, 
were  edited  by  Bishop  Strain  in  1871-1873. 


HAY,  GILBERT— HAY 


105 


HAY,  GILBERT,  or  "  SIR  GILBERT  THE  HAVE  "  (fl.  1450), 
Scottish  poet  and  translator,  was  perhaps  a  kinsman  of  the  house 
of  Errol.  If  he  be  the  student  named  in  the  registers  of  the 
university  of  St  Andrews  in  1418-1419,  his  birth  may  be  fixed 
about  1403.  He  was  in  France  in  1432,  perhaps  some  years 
earlier,  for  a  "  Gilbert  de  la  Haye  "  is  mentioned  as  present  at 
Reims,  in  July  1430,  at  the  coronation  of  Charles  VII.  He  has 
left  it  on  record,  in  the  Prologue  to  his  Buke  of  the  Law  of  Armys, 
that  he  was  "  chaumerlayn  umquhyle  to  the  maist  worthy 
King  Charles  of  France."  In  1456  he  was  back  in  Scotland, 
in  the  service  of  the  chancellor,  William,  earl  of  Orkney  and 
Caithness,  "  in  his  castell  of  Rosselyn,"  south  of  Edinburgh. 
The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown. 

Hay  is  named  by  Dunbar  (q.v.)  in  his  Lament  for  the  Makaris, 
and  by  Sir  David  Lyndsay  (q.v.)  in  his  Testament  and  Complaynt 
of  the  Papyngo.  His  only  political  work  is  The  Buik  of  Alexander 
the  Conquer 'our,  of  which  a  portion,  in  copy,  remains  atTaymouth 
Castle.  He  has  left  three  translations,  extant  in  one  volume 
(in  old  binding)  in  the  collection  of  Abbotsford:  (a)  The  Buke 
of  the  Law  of  Armys  or  The  Buke  of  Bataillis,  a  translation  of 
Honore  Bonet's  Arbre  des  balailles;  (b)  The  Buke  of  the  Order 
of  Knichthood  from  the  Livre  de  I'ordre  de  chevalerie;  and  (c) 
The  Buke  of  the  Governaunce  of  Princes,  from  a  French  version 
of  the  pseudo-Aristotelian  Secreta  secretorunt.  The  second  of 
these  precedes  Caxton's  independent  translation  by  at  least 
ten  years. 

For  the  Buik  of  Alexander  see  Albert  Herrmann's  The  Taymouth 
Castle  MS.  of  Sir  Gilbert  Hay's  Buik,  &c.  (Berlin,  1898).  The  com- 
plete Abbotsford  MS.  has  been  reprinted  by  the  Scottish  Text  Society 
(ed.  J.  H.  Stevenson).  The  first  volume,  containing  The  Buke  of 
the  Law  of  Armys,  appeared  in  1901.  The  Order  of  Knichthood  was 

§rinted  by  David  Laing  for  the  Abbotsford  Club  (1847).    See  also 
.T.S.  edition  (u.s.)  "  Introduction,"  and  Gregory  Smith's  Specimens 
of  Middle  Scots,  in  which  annotated  extracts  are  given  from  the 
Abbotsford  MS.,  the  oldest  known  example  of  literary  Scots  prose. 

HAY,  JOHN  (1838-1905),  American  statesman  and  author, 
was  born  at  Salem,  Indiana,  on  the  8th  of  October  1838.  He 
graduated  from  Brown  University  in  1858,  studied  law  in  the 
office  of  Abraham  Lincoln,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Spring- 
field, Illinois,  in  1861,  and  soon  afterwards  was  selected  by 
President  Lincoln  as  assistant  private  secretary,  in  which 
capacity  he  served  till  the  president's  death,  being  associated 
with  John  George  Nicolay  (1832-1901).  Hay  was  secretary  of 
the  U.S.  legation  at  Paris  in  1865-1867,  at  Vienna  in  1867-1869 
and  at  Madrid  in  1869-1870.  After  his  return  he  was  for  five 
years  an  editorial  writer  on  the  New  York  Tribune;  in  1879- 
1881  he  was  first  assistant  secretary  of  state  to  W.  M.  Evarts; 
and  in  1881  was  a  delegate  to  the  International  Sanitary  Con- 
ference, which  met  in  Washington,  D.C.,  and  of  which  he  was 
chosen  president.  Upon  the  inauguration  of  President  McKinley 
in  1897  Hay  was  appointed  ambassador  to  Great  Britain,  from 
which  post  he  was  transferred  in  1898  to  that  of  secretary  of 
state,  succeeding  VV.  R.  Day,  who  was  sent  to  Paris  as  a  member 
of  the  Peace  Conference.  He  remained  in  this  office  until  his 
death  at  Newburg,  New  Hampshire,  on  the  ist  of  July  1905. 
He  directed  the  peace  negotiations  with  Spain  after  the  war  of 
1898,  and  not  only  secured  American  interests  in  the  imbroglio 
caused  by  the  Boxers  in  China,  but  grasped  the  opportunity 
to  insist  on  "  the  administrative  entity  "  of  China;  influenced 
the  powers  to  declare  publicly  for  the  "  open  door  "  in  China; 
challenged  Russia  as  to  her  intentions  in  Manchuria,  securing 
a  promise  to  evacuate  the  country  on  the  8th  of  October  1903; 
and  in  1904  again  urged  "  the  administrative  entity  "  of  China 
and  took  the  initiative  in  inducing  Russia  and  Japan  to  "  localize 
and  limit  "  the  area  of  hostilities.  It  was  largely  due  to  his  tact 
and  good  management,  in  concert  with  Lord  Pauncefote,  the 
British  ambassador,  that  negotiations  for  abrogating  theClayton- 
Bulwer  Treaty  and  for  making  a  new  treaty  with  Great  Britain 
regarding  the  Isthmian  Canal  were  successfully  concluded  at  the 
end  of  1901;  subsequently  he  negotiated  treaties  with  Colombia 
and  with  Panama,  looking  towards  the  construction  by  the 
United  States  of  a  trans-isthmian  canal.  He  also  arranged  the 
settlement  of  difficulties  with  Germany  over  Samoa  in  December 


1899,  and  the  settlement,  by  joint  commission,  of  the  question 
concerning  the  disputed  Alaskan  boundary  in  1903.  John  Hay 
was  a  man  of  quiet  and  unassuming  disposition,  whose  training 
in  diplomacy  gave  a  cool  and  judicious  character  to  his  states- 
manship. As  secretary  of  state  under  Presidents  McKinley 
and  Roosevelt  his  guidance  was  invaluable  during  a  rather  critical 
period  in  foreign  affairs,  and  no  man  of  his  time  did  more  to 
create  confidence  in  the  increased  interest  taken  by  the  United 
States  in  international  matters.  He  also  represented,  in  another 
capacity,  the  best  American  traditions — namely  in  literature. 
He  published  Pike  County  Ballads  (1871) — the  most  famous 
being  "  Little  Breeches  " — a  volume  worthy  to  rank  with  Bret 
Harte,  if  not  with  the  Lowell  of  the  Biglow  Papers;  Castilian 
Days  (1871),  recording  his  observations  in  Spain;  and  a  volume 
of  Poems  (1890);  with  John  G.  Nicolay  he  wrote  Abraham  Lincoln: 
A  History  (10  vols.,  1890),  a  monumental  work  indispensable 
to  the  student  of  the  Civil  War  period  in  America,  and  published 
an  edition  of  Lincoln's  Complete  Works  (2  vols.,  1894).  The 
authorship  of  the  brilliant  novel  The  Breadwinners  (1883)  is  now 
certainly  attributed  to  him.  Hay  was  an  excellent  public  speaker ; 
some  of  his  best  addresses  are  In  Praise  of  Omar;  On  the 
Unveiling  of  the  Bust  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  in  Westminister 
Abbey,  May  21,  1897;  and  a  memorial  address  in  honourof 
President  McKinley. 

The  best  of  his  previously  unpublished  speeches  appeared  in 
Addresses  of  John  Hay  (1906). 

HAY,  a  town  of  Waradgery  county,  New  South  Wales, 
Australia,  on  the  Murrumbidgee  river,  454  m.  by  rail  W.S.W.  of 
Sydney.  Pop.  (1901),  3012.  It  is  the  cathedral  town  of  the 
Anglican  diocese  of  Riverina,  the  terminus  of  the  South  Western 
railway,  and  the  principal  depot  for  the  wool  produced  at  the 
numerous  stations  on  the  banks  of  the  Murrumbidgee  and 
Lachlan  rivers. 

HAY,  a  market  town  and  urban  district  of  Breconshire, 
south  Wales,  on  the  Hereford  and  Brecon  section  of  the  Midland 
railway,  1645  m.  from  London,  20  m.  W.  of  Hereford  and 
17  m.  N.E.  of  Brecon  by  rail.  Pop.  (1901),  1680.  The  Golden 
Valley  railway  to  Pontrilas  (i8f  m.),  now  a  branch  of  the  Great 
Western,  also  starts  from  Hay.  The  town  occupies  rising  ground 
on  the  south  (right)  bank  of  the  Wye,  which  here  separates 
the  counties  of  Brecknock  and  Radnor  but  immediately  below 
enters  Herefordshire,  from  which  the  town  is  separated  on  the 
E.  by  the  river  Dulas. 

Leland  and  Camden  ascribe  a  Roman  origin  to  the  town,  and 
the  former  states  that  quantities  of  Roman  coin  (called  by  the 
country  people  "  Jews'  money  ")  and  some  pottery  had  been 
found  near  by,  but  of  this  no  other  record  is  known.  The 
Wye  valley  in  this  district  served  as  the  gate  between  the  present 
counties  of  Brecknock  and  Hereford,  and,  though  Welsh  con- 
tinued for  two  or  three  centuries  after  the  Norman  Conquest 
to  be  the  spoken  language  of  the  adjoining  part  of  Herefordshire 
south  of  the  Wye  (known  as  Archenfield),  there  must  have  been 
a  "  burh  "  serving  as  a  Mercian  outpost  at  Glasbury,  4  m.  W.  of 
Hay,  which  was  itself  several  miles  west  of  Offa's  Dyke.  But 
the  earliest  settlement  at  Hay  probably  dates  from  the  Norman 
conquest  of  the  district  by  Bernard  Newmarch  about  1088 
(in  which  year  he  granted  Glasbury,  probably  as  the  first  fruits 
of  his  invasion,  to  St  Peter's,  Gloucester).  The  manor  of  Hay, 
which  probably  corresponded  to  some  existing  Welsh  division, 
he  gave  to  Sir  Philip  Walwyn,  but  it  soon  reverted  to  the  donor, 
and  its  subsequent  devolution  down  to  its  forfeiture  to  the 
crown  as  part  of  the  duke  of  Buckingham's  estate  in  1521,  was 
identical  with  that  of  the  lordship  of  Brecknock  (see  BRECON- 
SHIRE).  The  castle,  which  was  probably  built  in  Newmarch's 
time  and  rebuilt  by  his  great-grandson  William  de  Breos,  passed 
on  the  latter's  attainder  to  the  crown,  but  was  again  seized  by 
de  Breos's  second  son,  Giles,  bishop  of  Hereford,  in  1215,  and  re- 
taken by  King  John  in  the  following  year.  In  1231  it  was 
burnt  by  Llewelyn  ab  lorwerth,  and  in  the  Barons'  War  it  was 
taken  in  1263  by  Prince  Edward,  but  in  the  following  year  was 
burnt  by  Simon  Montfort  and  the  last  Llewelyn.  From  the 
1 6th  century  the  castle  has  been  used  as  a  private  residence. 


io6 


HAY 


The  Welsh  name  of  the  town  is  Y  Gelli  ("  the  wood  "),  or 
formerly  in  full  (Y)  Gelli  ganddryll  (literally  "  the  wood  all  to 
pieces  "),  which  roughly  corresponds  to  Sepes  Inscissa,  by  which 
name  Walter  Map  (a  native  of  the  district)  designates  it.  Its 
Norman  name,  La  Haia  (from  the  Fr.  haie,  cf.  English 
"  hedge  "),  was  probably  intended  as  a  translation  of  Gelli. 
The  same  word  is  found  in  Urishay  and  Oldhay,  both  between 
Hay  and  the  Golden  Valley.  The  town  is  still  locally  called  the 
Hay,  as  it  also  is  by  Leland. 

Even  down  to  Leland's  time  Hay  was  surrounded  by  a  "  right 
strong  wall,"  which  had  three  gates  and  a  postern,  but  the  town 
within  the  wall  has  "  wonderfully  decayed,"  its  ruin  being 
ascribed  to  Owen  Glendower,  while  to  the  west  of  it  was  a 
flourishing  suburb  with  the  church  of  St  Mary  on  a  precipitous 
eminence  overlooking  the  river.  This  was  rebuilt  in  1834.  The 
old  parish  church  of  St  John  within  the  walls,  used  as  a  school- 
house  in  the  i7th  century,  has  entirely  disappeared.  The 
Baptists,  Calvinistic  Methodists,  Congregationalists  and  Primitive 
Methodists  have  a  chapel  each.  The  other  public  buildings  are 
the  market  house  (1833);  a  masonic  hall,  formerly  the  town  hall, 
its  basement  still  serving  as  a  cheese  market;  a  clock  tower 
(18^4);  parish  hall  (1890);  and  a  drill  hall.  The  Wye  is  here 
crossed  by  an  iron  bridge  built  in  1864.  There  are  also  eighteen 
almshouses  for  poor  women,  built  and  endowed  by  Miss  Frances 
Harley  in  1832-1836,  and  Gwyn's  almshouses  for  six  aged 
persons,  founded  in  1702  and  rebuilt  in  1878 

Scarcely  anything  but  provisions  are  sold  in  the  weekly  market, 
the  farmers  of  the  district  now  resorting  to  the  markets  of  Brecon 
and  Hereford.  There  are  good  monthly  stock  fairs  and  a  hiring 
fair  in  May.  There  is  rich  agricultural  land  in  the  district. 

Hay  was  reputed  to  be  a  borough  by  prescription,  but  it  never 
had  any  municipal  institutions.  Its  manor,  like  that  of  Talgarth, 
consisted  of  an  Englishry  and  a  Welshery,  the  latter,  known  as 
Haya  Wallensis,  comprising  the  parish  of  Llanigon  with  the 
hamlet  of  Glynfach,  and  in  this  Welsh  tenures  and  customs 
prevailed.  The  manor  is  specially  mentioned  in  the  act  of  Henry 
VIII.  (1535)  as  one  of  those  which  were  then  taken  to  constitute 
the  new  county  of  Brecknock.  (D.  LL.  T.) 

HAY  (a  word  common  in  various  forms  to  Teutonic  languages; 
cf.  Ger.  Heu,  Dutch  hooi;  the  root  from  which  it  is  derived, 
meaning  "  to  cut,"  is  also  seen  in  "  to  hew  ";  cf.  "  hoe  "),  grass 
mown  and  dried  in  the  sun  and  used  as  fodder  for  cattle.  It  is 
properly  applied  only  to  the  grass  when  cut,  but  is  often  also  used 
of  the  standing  crop.  (See  Haymaking  below).  Another  word 
"  hay,"  meaning  a  fence,  must  be  distinguished;  the  root  from 
which  it  is  derived  is  seen  in  its  doublet "  hedge,"  cf .  "  haw-thorn," 
i.e.  "  hedge  thorn."  In  this  sense  it  survives  in  legal  history  in 
"  hay  bote,"  i.e.  hedge-bote,  the  right  of  a  tenant,  copyholder, 
&c.  to  take  wood  to  repair  fences,  hedges,  &c.  (see  ESTOVERS), 
and  also  in  "  hayward,"  an  official  of  a  manor  whose  duty  was 
to  protect  the  enclosed  lands  from  cattle  breaking  out  of  the 
common  land. 

Haymaking. — The  term  "  haymaking  "  signifies  the  process 
of  drying  and  curing  grass  or  other  herbage  so  as  to  fit  it  for 
storage  in  stacks  or  sheds  for  future  use.  As  a  regular  part  of 
farm  work  it  was  unknown  in  ancient  times.  Before  its  introduc- 
tion into  Great  Britain  the  animals  intended  for  beef  and  mutton 
were  slaughtered  in  autumn  and  salted  down;  the  others  were 
turned  out  to  fend  for  themselves,  and  often  lost  all  the  fat  in 
winter  they  had  gained  the  previous  summer.  The  introduction 
of  haymaking  gave  unlimited  scope  for  the  production  of  winter 
food,  and  improved  treatment  of  live  stock  became  possible. 

Though  every  country  has  its  own  methods  of  haymaking, 
the  principal  stages  in  the  process  everywhere  are:  (i)  mowing, 
(2)  drying  or  "  making,"  (3)  "  carrying  "  and  storage  in  stacks 
or  sheds. 

In  a  wet  district  such  as  the  west  of  Ireland  the  "  making  " 
is  a  difficult  affair  and  large  quantities  of  hay  are  often  spoiled, 
while  much  labour  has  to  be  spent  in  cocking  up,  turning  over, 
ricking,  &c.,  before  it  is  fit  to  be  stacked  up.  On  the  other  hand, 
in  the  dry  districts  of  south-eastern  England  it  is  often  possible 
to  cut  and  carry  the  hay  without  any  special  "  making,"  as  the 


sun  and  wind  will  dry  it  quickly  enough  to  fit  it  for  stacking  up 
without  the  expenditure  of  much  labour.  This  rule  also  applies 
to  dry  countries  like  the  United  States  and  several  of  the  British 
colonies,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  most  of  the  modern  imple- 
ments used  for  quickly  handling  a  bulk  of  hay  have  been  invented 
or  improved  in  those  countries.  Forage  of  all  kinds  intended  for 
hay  should  be  cut  at  or  before  the  flowering  stage  if  possible. 
The  full  growth  and  food  value  of  the  plant  are  reached  then,  and 
further  change  consists  in  the  formation  and  ripening  of  the  seed 
at  the  expense  of  the  leaves  and  stems,  leaving  these  hard  and 
woody  and  of  less  feeding  value. 

Grass  or  other  forage,  when  growing,  contains  a  large  pro- 
portion of  water,  and  after  cutting  must  be  left  to  dry  in  the  sun 
and  wind,  a  process  which  may  at  times  be  assisted  by  turning 
over  or  shaking  up.  In  fine  weather  in  the  south  of  England 
grass  is  sufficiently  dried  in  from  two  to  four  days  to  be  stacked 
straight  away.  In  Scotland  or  other  districts  where  the  rainfall 
is  heavy  and  the  air  moist,  it  is  first  put  into  small  field- 
ricks  or  "  pykes  "  of  from  10  to  20  cwt.  each.  In  the  drying 
process  the  75%  of  water  usually  present  in  grass  should  be 
reduced  to  approximately  15%  in  the  hay,  and  in  wet  or  broken 
weather  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  secure  this  reduction.  With 
a  heavy  crop  or  in  damp  weather  grass  may  need  turning  in  the 
swathe,  raking  up  into  "  windrows,"  and  then  making  up  into 
cocks  or  "  quiles,"  i.e.  round  beehive-like  heaps,  before  it  can 
be  "  carried."  A  properly  made  cock  will  stand  bad  weather 
for  a  week,  as  only  the  outside  straws  are  weathered,  and  there- 
fore the  hay  is  kept  fresh  and  green.  Indeed,  it  is  a  good  rule 
always  to  cock  hay,  for  even  in  sunny  weather  undue  exposure 
ends  in  bleaching,  which  is  almost  as  detrimental  to  its  quality 
as  wet-weathering. 

In  the  last  quarter  of  the  igth  century  the  methods  of  hay- 
making were  completely  changed,  and  even  some  of  the  principles 
underlying  its  practice  were  revised.  Generally  speaking,  before 
that  time  the  only  implements  used  were  the  scythe,  the  rake 
and  the  pitchfork;  nowadays — with  the  exception  of  the 
pitchfork — these  implements  are  seldom  used,  except  where 
the  work  is  carried  on  in  a  small  way.  Instead  of  the  scythe,  for 
instance,  the  mowing  machine  is  employed  for  cutting  the  crop, 
and  with  a  modern  improved  machine  taking  a  swathe  as  wide 
as  5  or  6  ft.  some  10  acres  per  day  can  easily  be  mown  by  one 
man  and  a  pair  of  horses  (figs,  i  and  2). 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  figures  that  a  mower  consists  of  three 
principal  parts:  (i)  a  truck  or  carriage  on  two  high  wheels  carrying 
the  driving  gear;  (2)  the  cutting  mechanism,  comprising  a  reciprocat- 
ing knife  or  sickle  operating  through  slots  in  the  guards  or  "  fingers  " 


FlG.  I. — Mower  (viewed  from  above)  with  enlarged  detail  of  Blade. 
(Harrison,  M'Gregor  &  Co.) 

fastened  to  the  cutting  .bar  which  projects  to  either  the  right  or 
left  of  the  truck;  and  (3)  the  pole  with  whippletrees,  by  which  the 
horses  are  attached  to  give  the  motive  power.  The  reciprocating 
knife  has  a  separate  blade  to  correspond  to  each  finger,  and  is  driven 
by  a  connecting  rod  and  crank  on  the  fore  part  of  the  truck.  In 
work  the  pointed  "  fingers  "  pass  in  between  the  stalks  of  grass 
and  the  knives  shear  them  off,  acting  against  the  fingers  as  the  crank 
drives  them  backwards  and  forwards.  In  the  swathe  of  grass  left 


HAY 


10 


7 


behind  by  the  machine,  the  stalks  are,  in  a  manner,  thatched  over 
one  another,  so  that  it  is  in  the  best  position  for  drying  in  the  sun, 
or,  per  contra,  for  shedding  off  the  rain  if  the  weather  is  wet.  This 
is  a  great  point  in  favour  of  the  use  of  the  machine,  because  the 
swathe  left  by  the  scythe  required  to  be  "  tedded  "  out,  i.e.  the  grass 
had  to  be  shaken  out  or  spread  to  allow  it  to  be  more  easily  dried. 

After  the  grass  has  lain  in  the  swathe  a  day  or  two  till  it  is 
partly  dried,  it  is  necessary  to  turn  it  over  to  dry  the  other  side. 
This  used  to  be  done  with  the  hand  rake,  and  a  band  of  men  or 
women  would  advance  in  echelon  across  a  field,  each  turning  the 


FIG.  2. — Mower  (side  view). 

swathe  of  hay  by  regular  strokes  of  the  rake  at  each  step: 
"  driving  the  dusky  wave  along  the  mead  "  as  described  in 
Thomson's  Seasons.  This  part  of  the  work  was  the  act  of 
"  haymaking  "  proper,  and  the  subject  of  much  sentiment  in 
both  prose  and  poetry.  The  swathes  as  laid  by  the  mowing 
machine  lent  themselves  to  this  treatment  in  the  old  days  when 
the  swathe  was  only  some  3  to  4  ft.  wide,  but  with  the  wide  cut 
of  the  present  day  it  becomes  impracticable.  If  the  hay  is 
turned  and  "  made  "  at  all,  the  operation  is  now  generally 
performed  by  a  machine  made  for  the  purpose.  There  is  a  wide 
selection  of  "  tedders  "  or  "  kickers,"  and  "  swathe-turners  " 
on  the  market.  The  one  illustrated  in  fig.  3  is  the  first  prize 
winner  at  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society's  trials  (1907).  It 


upward  and  forward,  then  downward  and  rearward,  in  an 
elliptical  path,  and  kick  the  hay  sharply  to  the  rear,  thus  scatter- 
ing and  turning  it. 

It  is  a  moot  point,  however,  whether  grass  should  be  turned 
at  all,  or  left  to  "  make  "  as  it  falls  from  the  mowing  machine.  In 
a  dry  sunny  season  and  with  a  moderate  crop  it  is  only  a  waste 
of  time  and  labour  to  turn  it,  for  it  will  be  cured  quite  well  as  it 
lies,  especially  if  raked  up  into  loose  "  windrows  "  a  little  before 
carrying  to  the  stack.  On  the  other  hand,  where  the  crop  is  heavy 
(say  over  2  tons  per  acre)  or  the  climate  is  wet,  turning  will  be 
necessary. 

With  heavy  crops  of  clover,  lucerne  and  similar  forage  crops, 
turning  may  be  an  absolute  necessity,  because  a  thick  swathe  of 
a  succulent  crop  will  be  difficult  to  dry  or  "  make  "  excepting  in 
hot  sunny  weather,  but  with  ordinary  meadow  grass  or  with  a 
mixture  of  "  artificial  "  grasses  it  may  often  be  dispensed  with. 
It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  process  of  turning 
breaks  the  stalks  (thus  letting  out  the  albuminoid  and  saccharine 
juices),  and  should  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible  in  order  to  save 
both  labour  and  the  quality  of  the  hay. 

One  of  the  earlier  mechanical  inventions  in  connexion  with  hay- 
making was  that  of  the  horse  rake  (fig.  4).  Before  its  introduction 
the  hay,  after  making,  had  to  be  gathered  up  by  the  hand  rake — 
a  tedious  and  laborious  process — but  the  introduction  of  this  imple- 
ment, whereby  one  horse  and  one  man  can  do  work  before  requiring 
six  or  eight  men,  marked  a  great  advance.  The  horse  rake  is  a 
framework  on  two  wheels  carrying  hinged  steel  teeth  placed  3  in. 
apart,  so  that  their  points  slide  along  the  ground  below  the  hay. 
In  work  it  gathers  up  the  loose  hay,  and  when  full  a  tipping  mechan- 
ism permits  the  emptying  of  the  load. 

The  tipping  is  effected  by  pulling  down  a  handle  which  sets  a 
leverage  device  in  motion,  whereby  the  teeth  are  lifted  up  and  the 
load  of  hay  dropped  below  and  left  behind.  On  some  rakes  a 


FlG.  3.— Swathe-turner.    (Blackstone  &  Co.,  Ltd.). 

takes  two  swathes  at  a  time,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  working 
part  consists  of  a  wheel  or  circle  of  prongs  or  tines,  which  revolves 
across  the  line  of  the  swathe.  Each  prong  in  turn  catches  the 
edge  of  the  swathe  of  grass  and  kicks  it  up  and  over,  thus  turning 
it  and  leaving  it  loose  for  the  wind  to  blow  through. 

The  "  kicker  "  is  mounted  on  two  wheels,  and  carries  in 
bearings  at  the  rear  of  the  frame  a  multiple-cranked  shaft, 
provided  with  a  series  of  forks  sleeved  on  the  cranks  and  having 
their  upper  ends  connected  by  links  to  the  frame.  As  the  crank- 
shaft is  driven  from  the  wheels  by  proper  gearing  the  forks  move 


FIG.  4.— Self-acting  Horse  Rake.    (Ransomes,  Sims 
&  Jefferies.  Ltd.). 

clutch  is  worked  by  the  driver's  foot,  and  this  put  in  action  causes 
the  ordinary  forward  revolving  motion  of  the  driving  wheels  to  do 
the  tipping. 

The  loads  are  tipped  end  to  end  as  the  rake  passes  and  repasses 
at  the  work,  and  thus  the  hay  is  left  loose  in  long  parallel  rows  on 
the  field.  Each  row  is  termed  a  "  windrow,"  the  passage  of  the  wind 
through  the  hay  greatly  aiding  the  drying  and  "  making  "  thereof. 
When  hay  is  in  this  form  it  may  either  be  carried  direct  to  the  stack 
if  sufficiently  "  made,"  or  else  put  into  cocks  to  season  a  little  longer. 
The  original  width  of  horse  rakes  was  about  8  ft.,  but  nowadays 
they  range  up  to  16  and  18  ft.  The  width  should  be  suited  to  that 
of  the  swathes  as  left  by  the  mower,  and  as  the  latter  is  now  made 
to  cut  5  and  6  ft.  wide,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  rake  to  cover  two 
widths.  The  very  wide  rakes  are  only  suitable  for  even,  level  land; 
those  of  less  width  must  be  used  where  the  land  has  been  laid  down 
in  ridge  and  furrow.  As  the  swathes  lie  in  long  parallel  rows,  it  is  a 
great  convenience  in  working  for  two  to  be  taken  in  width  at  a  time, 
so  that  the  horse  can  walk  in  the  space  between. 

The  side-delivery  rake,  a  development  of  the  ordinary  horse  rake, 
is  a  useful  implement,  adapted  for  gathering  and  laying  a  quantity 
of  hay  in  one  continuous  windrow.  It  is  customary  with  this  to 
go  up  the  field  throwing  two  swathes  to  one  side,  and  then  back 
down  on  the  adjacent  swathes,  so  that  thus  four  are  thrown  into  one 
central  windrow.  The  implement  consists  of  a  frame  carried  on  two 
wheels  with  shafts  for  a  horse;  across  the  frame  are  fixed  travelling 
or  revolving  prongs  of  different  varieties  which  pick  up  the  hay  off 
the  ground  and  pass  it  along  sideways  across  the  line  of  travel, 
leaving  it  in  one  continuous  line.  Some  makes  of  swathe-turners 
are  designed  to  do  this  work  as  well  as  the  turning  of  the  hay. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  improvement  of  modern  times  is  the  method 


io8 


HAY 


of  carrying  the  hay  from  the  field  to  the  stack.  An  American  in- 
vention known  as  the  sweep  rake  was  introduced  by  the  writer  into 
England  in  1894,  and  now  in  many  modified  forms  is  in  very  general 
use  in  the  Midlands  and  south  of  England,  where  the  hay  is  carried 
from  the  cock,  windrow  or  swathe  straight  to  the  stack.  This 
implement  consists  of  a  wheeled  framework  fitted  with  long  wooden 
iron-pointed  teeth  which  slide  along  the  ground ;  two  horses  are 
yoked  to  it — one  at  each  side — the  driver  directing  from  a  central 
seat  behind  the  framework.  When  in  use  it  is  taken  to  the  farther 
end  of  a  row  of  cocks,  a  windrow,  or  even  to  a  row  of  untouched 
swathes  on  the  ground,  and  walked  forward.  As  it  advances  it 
scoops  up  a  load,  and  when  full  is  drawn  to  where  the  stack  is  being 
erected  (fig.  5).  In  ordinary  circumstances  the  sweep  rake  will 


FIG.  5. — Sweep  Rake. 

pick  up  at  a  load  two-thirds  of  an  ordinary  cart-load,  but,  where 
the  hay  is  in  good  order  and  it  is  swept  down  hill,  a  whole  one-horse 
cart-load  can  be  carried  each  time.  The  drier  the  hay  the  better 
will  the  sweep  rake  work,  and  if  it  is  not  working  sweetly  but  has  a 
tendency  to  clog  or  make  rolls  of  hay,  it  may  be  inferred  that  the 
latter  is  not  in  a  condition  fit  for  stacking.  Where  the  loads  must 
be  taken  through  a  gateway  or  a  long  distance  to  the  stack,  it  is 
necessary  to  use  carts  or  wagons,  and  the  loading  of  these  in  the  field 
out  of  the  windrow  is  largely  expedited  by  the  use  of  the  "  loader," 
also  an  American  invention  of  which  many  varieties  are  in  the  market. 
Generally  speaking,  it  consists  of  a  frame  carrying  a  revolving  web 
with  tines  or  prongs.  The  implement  is  hitched  on  behind  a  cart 
or  wagon,  and  as  it  moves  forward  the  web  picks  the  loose  hay  off 
the  ground  and  delivers  it  on  the  top,  where  a  man  levels  it  with  a 
pitchfork  and  builds  it  into  a  load  ready  to  move  to  the  stack. 
At  the  stack  the  most  convenient  method  of  transferring  the  hay 
from  a  cart,  wagon  or  sweep  rake  is  the  elevator,  a  tall  structure 
with  a  revolving  web  carrying  teeth  or  spikes  (fig.  6).  The  hay  is 
thrown  in  forkfuls  on  at  the  bottom,  a  pony-gear  causes  the  web  to 
revolve,  and  the  hay  is  carried  in  an  ahnost  continuous  stream  up  the 
elevator  and  dropped  over  the  top  on  to  the  stack.  The  whole  imple- 
ment is  made  to  fold  down,  and  is  provided  with  wheels  so  that  it 
can  be  moved  from  stack  to  stack.  In  the  older  forms  there  is  a 
"  hopper  "  or  box  at  the  bottom  into  which  the  hay  is  thrown  to 
enable  the  teeth  of  the  web  to  catch  it,  but  in  the  modern  forms 
there  is  no  hopper,  the  web  reaching  down  to  the  ground  so  that  hay 
can  be  picked  up  from  the  ground  level.  Where  the  hay  is  brought 
to  the  stack  on  carts  or  wagons  it  can  be  unloaded  by  means  of  the 
horse  fork.  This  is  an  adaptation  of  the  principle  of  the  ordinary 
crane;  a  central  pole  and  jib  are  supported  by  guy  ropes,  and  from 
the  end  of  the  jib  a  rope  runs  over  a  pulley.  At  the  end  of  this 
rope  is  a  "  fork  "  formed  of  two  sets  of  prongs  which  open  and  shut. 
This  is  lowered  on  to  the  load  of  hay,  the  prongs  are  forced  into  it, 
a  horse  pulls  at  the  other  end  of  the  rope,  and  the  prongs  close  and 
"  grab  "  several  cwt.  of  hay  which  are  swung  up  and  dropped  on  the 
stack.  In  this  way  a  large  cart  or  wagon  load  is  hoisted  on  to  the 
stack  in  three  or  four  "  forkfuls."  The  horse  fork  is  not  suited 
for  use  with  the  sweep  rake,  however,  because  the  hay  is  brought 
up  to  the  stack  in  a  loose  flat  heap  without  sufficient  body  for  the 
fork  to  get  hold  of. 

In  northern  and  wet  districts  of  England  it  is  customary  to 
"  make  "  the  hay  as  in  the  south,  but  it  is  then  built  up  into 
little  stacks  in  the  field  where  it  grew  (ricks,  pykes  or  tramp- 
cocks  are  names  used  for  these  in  different  districts),  each  con- 
taining about  10  to  15  cwt.  These  are  made  in  the  same 
way  as  the  ordinary  stack — one  person  on  top  building,  another 
on  the  grouud  pitching  up  the  hay — and  are  carefully  roped  and 
raked  down.  In  these  the  hay  gets  a  preliminary  sweating  or 
tempering  while  at  the  same  time  it  is  rendered  safe  from  the 
weather,  and;  thus  stored,  it  may  remain  for  weeks  before  being 


carried  to  the  big  stacks  at  the  homestead.  The  practice  of 
putting  up  the  hay  into  little  ricks  in  the  field  has  brought  about 
the  introduction  of  another  set  of  implements  for  carrying  these 
to  the  stackyard. 

Various  forms  of  rick-lifters  are  in  use,  the  characteristic  feature 
of  which  is  a  tipping  platform  on  wheels  to  which  a  horse  is  attached 
between  shafts.  The  vehicle  is  backed  against  a  rick,  and  a  chain 
passed  round  the  bottom  of  the  latter,  which  is  then  pulled  up  the 
slant  of  the  tipped  platform  by  means  of  a  small  windlass.  When 
the  centre  of  the  balance  is  passed,  the  platform  carrying  the  rick 
tips  back  to  the  level,  and  the  whole  is  thus  loaded  ready  to  move. 
Another  variety  of  loader  is  formed  of  three  shear-legs  with  block 
and  tackle.  These  are  placed  over  a  rick,  under  which  the  grab- 
irons  are  passed,  and  the  whole  hauled  up  by  a  horse.  When  high 
enough  a  cart  is  backed  in  below,  the  rick  lowered,  and  the  load  is 
ready  to  carry  away. 

When  put  into  a  stack  the  next  stage  in  curing  the  hay  begins — 
the  heating  or  sweating.  In  the  growing  plants  the  tissues  are 
composed  of  living  cells  containing  protoplasm.  This  continues 
its  life  action  as  long  as  it  gets  sufficient  moisture  and  air.  As 
life  action  involves  the  development  of  heat,  the  temperature  in 
a  confined  space  like  a  stack  where  the  heat  is  not  dissipated  may 
rise  to  such  a  point  that  spontaneous  combustion  occurs.  The 
chemical  or  physical  reasons  for  this  are  not  very  well  under- 
stood. The  starch  and  sugar  contents  of  the  tissues  are  changed 
in  part  into  alcohol.  In  the  analogous  process  of  making  silage 
(i.e.  stacking  wet  green  grass  in  a  closed  building)  the  alcohol 
develops  into  acetic  acid,  thus  making  " sour  " silage.  In  a  hay- 
stack the  intermediate  body,  acetaldehyde,  which  is  both  inflam- 
mable and  suffocating,  is  produced — men  having  been  suffocated 
when  sleeping  on  the  top  of  a  heating  stack.  The  production  of 
this  gas  leads  to  slow  combustion  and  ignition.  One  explanation 
of  the  process  is  that  the  protoplasm  of  the  cells  acts  as  a  ferment- 
ing agent  (like  yeast)  until  a  temperature  sufficient  to  kill  germ 
life,  say  150°  F.,  is  reached,  beyond  which  the  action  which  leads 
up  to  the  temperature  of  ignition  must  be  purely  chemical.  If 
the  stack  contains  no  air  at  all  it  does  not  heat,  or  if  it  has  excess 


FIG.  6. — Hay  Elevator.    (Maldon  Iron  Works  Co.). 

of  air  it  is  safe.  The  danger-point  in  a  stack  is  the  centre  at 
about  6  ft.  from  the  ground;  below  this  the  weight  of  the  hay 
itself  squeezes  out  the  air,  ana  at  the  sides  and  top  the  heat  is 
dissipated  outwaids.  If  a  stack  shows  signs  of  overheating 
(a  process  that  may  take  weeks  or  even  months  to  develop)  it 
can  be  saved  by  cutting  a  gap  in  the  side  of  it  with  the  hay  knife, 
thus  letting  out  the  heat  and  fumes,  and  admitting  fresh  air  to 
the  centre.  The  essential  point  in  haymaking  is  that  the  hay 
should  be  dried  sufficiently  to  ensure  the  sweating  process  in  the 
stack  reaching  no  further  than  the  stage  of  the  formation  of 


HAYASHI— HAYDN 


109 


sugar.  Good  hay  should  come  out  green  and  with  the  odour  of 
coumarin — to  which  is  due  the  scent  of  new-mown  hay.  Only 
part  of  a  stack  can  ever  attain  to  a  perfect  state:  the  tops, 
bottom  and  outsides  are  generally  wasted  by  the  weather  after 
stacking,  while  there  may  be  three  or  four  intermediate  qualities 
present.  In  some  markets  hay  that  has  been  sweated  till  it  is 
brown  in  colour  is  desired,  but  for  general  purposes  green  hay  is 
the  best. 

Hay  often  becomes  musty  when  the  weather  during  "  making  " 
has  been  too  wet  to  allow  of  its  getting  sufficiently  dry  for  stack- 
ing. Mustiness  is  caused  by  the  growth  of  various  moulds 
(Penicillium,  Aspergillus,  &c.)  on  the  damp  stems,  with  the 
result  that  the  hay  when  cut  out  for  use  is  dusty  and  shows 
white  streaks  and  spots.  Such  hay  is  inferior  to  that  which 
has  been  overheated,  and  in  practice  it  is  found  that  a  strong 
heating  will  prevent  mouldiness  by  killing  the  fungi. 

Heavy  lush  crops — especially  those  containing  a  large  propor- 
tion of  clover  or  other  leguminous  plants — are  proportionately 
more  difficult  to  "  make  "  than  light  grassy  ones.  Thus,  if  one 
ton  is  taken  as  a  fair  yield  off  one  acre,  a  two-ton  crop  will 
probably  require  four  times  as  much  work  in  curing  as  the 
smaller  crop.  In  the  treacherous  climate  of  Great  Britain  hay 
is  frequently  spoiled  because  the  weather  does  not  hold  good  long 
enough  to  permit  of  its  being  properly  "  made."  Consequently 
many  experienced  haymakers  regard  a  moderate  crop  as  the 
more  profitable  because  it  can  be  stacked  in  first-class  condition, 
whereas  a  heavy  crop  forced  by  "  high  farming  "  is  grown  at  a 
loss,  owing  to  the  weather  waste  and  the  heavier  expenses  in- 
volved in  securing  it. 

In  handling  or  marketing  out  of  the  stack  hay  may  be  transported 
loose  on  a  cart  or  wagon,  but  it  is  more  usual  to  truss  or  bale  it. 
A  truss  is  a  rectangular  block  cut  out  of  the  solid  stack,  usually 
about  3  ft.  long  and  2  ft.  wide,  and  of  a  thickness  sufficient  to  give  a 
weight  of  56  ft  :  thirty-six  of  these  constitute  a  "  load  "  of  18  cwt. — 
the  unit  of  sale  in  many  markets.  A  truss  is  generally  bound  with 
two  bands  of  twisted  straw,  but  if  it  has  to  undergo  much  handling 
it  is  compressed  in  a  hay-press  and  tied  with  two  string  bands. 
In  some  districts  a  baler  is  used  :  a  square  box  with  a  compressible 
lid.  The  hay  is  tumbled  in  loose,  the  lid  forced  down  by  a  leverage 
arrangement  and  the  bale  tied  by  three  strings.  It  is  usually  made 
to  weigh  from  I  to  1 1  cwt.  The  customs  of  different  markets  vary 
very  much  in  their  methods  of  handling  hay,  and  in  the  overseas 
hay  trade  the  size  and  style  of  the  trusses  or  bales  are  adapted  for 
packing  on  ship-board. 

HAYASHI,  TADASU,  COUNT  (1850-  ),  Japanese  states- 
man, was  born  in  Tokyo  (then  Yedo),  and  was  one  of  the  first 
batch  of  students  sent  by  the  Tokugawa  government  to  study 
in  England.  He  returned  on  the  eve  of  the  abolition  of  the 
Shogunate,  and  followed  Enomoto  (q.v.)  when  the  latter,  sailing 
with  the  Tokugawa  fleet  to  Yezo,  attempted  to  establish  a 
republic  there  in  defiance  of  the  newly  organized  government  of 
the  emperor.  Thrown  into  prison  on  account  of  this  affair, 
Hayashi  did  not  obtain  office  until  1871.  Thereafter  he  rose 
rapidly,  until,  after  a  long  period  of  service  as  vice-minister  of 
foreign  affairs,  he  was  appointed  to  represent  his  country  first 
in  Peking,  then  in  St  Petersburg  and  finally  in  London,  where 
he  acted  an  important  part  in  negotiating  the  first  Anglo- 
Japanese  Alliance,  for  which  service  he  received  the  title  of 
viscount.  He  remained  in  London  throughout  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War,  and  was  the  first  Japanese  ambassador  at  the 
court  of  St  James  after  the  war.  Returning  to  Tokyo  in  1906 
to  take  the  portfolio  of  foreign  affairs,  he  remained  in  office 
until  the  resignation  of  the  Saionji  cabinet  in  1908.  He  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  count  for  eminent  services  performed  during  the 
war  between  his  country  and  Russia,  and  in  connexion  with 
the  second  Anglo-Japanese  Alliance  of  1905. 

HAYDEN,  FERDINAND  VANDEVEER  (1820-1887),  American 
geologist,  was  born  at  Westfield,  Massachusetts,  on  the  7th  of 
September  1829.  He  graduated  from  Oberlin  College  in  1850  and 
from  the  Albany  Medical  College  in  1853,  where  he  attracted 
the  notice  of  Professor  James  Hall,  state  geologist  of  New  York, 
through  whose  influence  he  was  induced  to  join  in  an  exploration 
of  Nebraska.  In  1856  he  was  engaged  under  the  United  States 
government,  and  commenced  a  series  of  investigations  of  the 


Western  Territories,  one  result  of  which  was  his  Geological 
Report  of  the  Exploration  of  the  Yellowstone  and  Missouri  Rivers 
in  1859-1860  (1869).  During  the  Civil  War  he  was  actively 
employed  as  an  army  surgeon.  In  1867  he  was  appointed 
geologist-in-charge  of  the  United  States  Geological  and  Geo- 
graphical Survey  of  the  Territories,  and  from  his  twelve  years 
of  labour  there  resulted  a  most  valuable  series  of  volumes  in  all 
branches  of  natural  history  and  economic  science;  and  he  issued 
in  1877  his  Geological  and  Geographical  Atlas  of  Colorado.  Upon 
the  reorganization  and  establishment  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey  in  1879  he  acted  for  seven  years  as  one  of  the 
geologists.  He  died  at  Philadelphia  on  the  22nd  of  December 
1887. 

His  other  publications  were:  Sun  Pictures  of  Rocky  Mountain 
Scenery  (1870);  The  Yellowstone  National  Park,  illustrated  by 
chromolithographic  reproductionsof  water-colour  sketches  by  Thomas 
Moran  (1876) ;  The  Great  West  :  its  Attractions  and  Resources  (1880). 
With  F.  B.  Meek,  he  wrote  (Smithsonian  Institution  Contributions, 
v.  14.  Art.  4)  "  Palaeontology  of  the  Upper  Missouri,  Pt.  I,  Inverte- 
brate." His  valuable  notes  on  Indian  dialects  are  in  The  Transactions 
of  the  American  Philosophical  Society  (1862).  in  The  American  Journal 
of  Science  (1862)  and  in  The  Proceedings  of  the  American  Philosophical 
Society  (1869).  With  A.  R.  C.  Selwyn  he  wrote  North  America  (1883) 
for  Stanford's  Compendium. 

HAYDN,  FRANZ  JOSEPH  (1732-1809),  Austrian  composer, 
was  born  on  the  3ist  of  March  1732  at  Rohrau  (Trstnik),  a  village 
on  the  borders  of  Lower  Austria  and  Hungary.  There  is  sufficient 
evidence  that  his  family  was  of  Croatian  stock:  a  fact  which 
throws  light  upon  the  distinctively  Slavonic  character  of  much 
of  his  music.  He  received  the  first  rudiments  of  education  from 
his  father,  a  wheelwright  with  twelve  children,  and  at  an  early 
age  evinced  a  decided  musical  talent.  This  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  a  distant  relative  named  Johann  Mathias  Frankh,  who 
was  schoolmaster  in  the  neighbouring  town  of  Hainburg,  and 
who,  in  1738,  took  the  child  and  for  the  next  two  years  trained 
him  as  a  chorister.  In  1 740,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  Dean 
of  Hainburg,  Haydn  obtained  a  place  in  the  cathedral  choir  of 
St  Stephen's,  Vienna,  where  he  took  the  solo-part  in  the  services 
and  received,  at  the  choir  school,  some  further  instruction  on 
the  violin  and  the  harpsichord.  In  1 749  his  voice  broke,  and  the 
director,  Georg  von  Reutter,  took  the  occasion  of  a  boyish 
escapade  to  turn  him  into  the  streets.  A  few  friends  lent  him 
money  and  found  him  pupils,  and  in  this  way  he  was  enabled  to 
enter  upon  a  rigorous  course  of  study  (he  is  said  to  have  worked 
for  sixteen  hours  a  day),  partly  devoted  to  Fux's  treatise  on 
counterpoint,  partly  to  the  "  Friedrich  "  and  "  Wiirttemberg  " 
sonatas  of  C.  P.  E.  Bach,  from  which  he  gained  his  earliest 
acquaintance  with  the  principles  of  musical  structure.  The 
first  fruits  of  his  work  were  a  comic  opera,  Der  neue  .krumme 
Teufel,  and  a  Mass  in  F  major  (both  written  in  1751),  the 
former  of  which  was  produced  with  success.  About  the  same 
time  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Metastasio,  who  was  lodging 
in  the  same  house,  and  who  introduced  him  to  one  or  two  patrons; 
among  others  Senor  Martinez,  to  whose  daughter  he  gave  lessons, 
and  Porpora,  who,  in  1753,  took  him  for  the  summer  to  Manners- 
dorf,  and  there  gave  him  instruction  in  singing  and  in  the  Italian 
language. 

The  turning-point  of  his  career  came  in  1755,  when  he  accepted 
an  invitation  to  the  country-house  of  Freiherr  von  Fiirnberg, 
an  accomplished  amateur  who  was  in  the  habit  of  collecting 
parties  of  musicians  for  the  performance  of  chamber-works. 
Here  Haydn  wrote,  in  rapid  succession,  eighteen  divertimenti 
which  include  his  first  symphony  and  his  first  quartet;  the  two 
earliest  examples  of  the  forms  with  which  his  name  is  most 
closely  associated.  Thenceforward  his  prospects  improved. 
On  his  return  to  Vienna  in  1756  he  became  famous  as  teacher 
and  composer,  in  1759  he  was  appointed  conductor  to  the  private 
band  of  Count  Morzin,  for  whom  he  wrote  several  orchestral 
works  (including  a  symphony  in  D  major  erroneously  called 
his  first),  and  in  1760  he  was  promoted  to  the  sub-directorship 
of  Prince  Paul  Esterhazy's  Kapelle,  at  that  time  the  best  in 
Austria.  During  the  tenure  of  his  appointment  with  Count 
Morzin  he  married  the  daughter  of  a  Viennese  hairdresser  named 
Keller,  who  had  befriended  him  in  his  days  of  poverty,  but  the 


I  IO 


HAYDN 


marriage  turned  out  ill  and  he  was  shortly  afterwards  separated 
from  his  wife,  though  he  continued  to  support  her  until  her  death 
in  1800.  From  1760  to  1790  he  remained  with  the  Esterhazys, 
principally  at  their  country-seats  of  Esterhaz  and  Eisenstadt, 
with  occasional  visits  to  Vienna  in  the  winter.  In  1762  Prince 
Paul  Esterhazy  died  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Nicholas, 
surnamed  the  Magnificent,  who  increased  Haydn's  salary, 
showed  him  every  mark  of  favour,  and,  on  the  death  of  Werner 
in  1766,  appointed  him  Oberkapellmeister .  With  the  encourage- 
ment of  a  discriminating  patron,  a  small  but  excellent  orchestra 
and  a  free  hand,  Haydn  made  the  most  of  his  opportunity  and 
produced  a  continuous  stream  of  compositions  in  every  known 
musical  form.  To  this  period  belong  five  Masses,  a  dozen 
operas,  over  thirty  clavier-sonatas,  over  forty  quartets,  over  a 
hundred  orchestral  symphonies  and  overtures,  a  Stabat  Mater, 
a  set  of  interludes  for  the  service  of  the  Seven  Words,  an  Oratorio 
Tobias  written  for  the  Tonkiinstler '-Societal  of  Vienna,  and  a 
vast  number  of  concertos,  divertimenti  and  smaller  pieces,  among 
which  were  no  less  than  175  for  Prince  Nicholas'  favourite 
instrument,  the  baryton. 

Meanwhile  his  reputation  was  spreading  throughout  Europe. 
A  Viennese  notice  of  his  appointment  as  Oberkapellmeister  spoke 
of  him  as  "  the  darling  of  our  nation,"  his  works  were  reprinted 
or  performed  in  every  capital  from  Madrid  to  St  Petersburg. 
He  received  commissions  from  the  cathedral  of  Cadiz,  from  the 
grand  duke  Paul,  from  the  king  of  Prussia,  from  the  directors 
of  the  Concert  Spiriluel  at  Paris;  beside  his  transactions  with 
Breitkopf  and  Hartel,  and  with  La  Chevardiere,  he  sold  to  one 
English  firm  the  copyright  of  no  less  than  129  compositions. 
But  the  most  important  fact  of  biography  during  these  thirty 
years  was  his  friendship  with  Mozart,  whose  acquaintance  he 
made  at  Vienna  in  the  winter  of  1781-1782.  There  can  have  been 
little  personal  intercourse  between  them,  for  Haydn  was  rarely 
in  the  capital,  and  Mozart  seems  never  to  have  visited  Eisenstadt ; 
but  the  cordiality  of  their  relations  and  the  mutual  influence 
which  they  exercised  upon  one  another  are  of  the  highest  moment 
in  the  history  of  18th-century  music.  "  It  was  from  Haydn  that 
I  first  learned  to  write  a  quartet,"  said  Mozart;  it  was  from 
Mozart  that  Haydn  learned  the  richer  style  and  the  fuller 
mastery  of  orchestral  effect  by  which  his  later  symphonies  are 
distinguished. 

In  1790  Prince  Nicholas  Esterhazy  died  and  the  Kapelle  was 
disbanded.  Haydn,  thus  released  from  his  official  duties,  forth- 
with accepted  a  commission  from  Salomon,  the  London  concert- 
director,  to  write  and  conduct  six  symphonies  for  the  concerts  in 
the  Hanover  Square  Rooms.  He  arrived  in  England  at  the 
beginning  of  1791  and  was  welcomed  with  the  greatest  enthusiasm, 
receiving  among  other  honours  the  degree  of  D  Mus.  from  the 
university  of  Oxford.  In  June  1792  he  returned  home,  and, 
breaking  his  journey  at  Bonn,  was  presented  with  a  Cantata  by 
Beethoven,  then  aged  two-and-twenty,  whom  he  invited  to  come 
to  Vienna  as  his  pupil.  The  lessons,  which  were  not  very  success- 
ful, lasted  for  about  a  year,  and  were  then  interrupted  by  Haydn's 
second  visit  to  England  (January  1794  to  July  1795),  where  he 
produced  the  last  six  of  his  "  Salomon  "  symphonies.  From 
1795  onward  he  resided  in  the  Mariahilf  suburb  of  Vienna,  and 
there  wrote  his  last  eight  Masses,  the  last  and  finest  of  his  chamber 
works,  the  Austrian  national  anthem  (1797),  the  Creation  (1799) 
and  the  Seasons  (1801).  His  last  choral  composition  which  can 
be  dated  with  any  certainty  was  the  Mass  in  C  minor,  written 
in  1802  for  the  name-day  of  Princess  Esterhazy.  Thence- 
forward his  health  declined,  and  his  closing  years,  surrounded 
by  the  love  of  friends  and  the  esteem  of  all  musicians,  were  spent 
almost  wholly  in  retirement.  On  the  27th  of  March  1808  he 
was  able  to  attend  a  performance  of  the  Creation,  given  in  his 
honour,  but  it  was  his  last  effort,  and  on  the  3ist  of  May  1809 
he  died,  aged  seventy-seven.  Among  the  mourners  who  followed 
him  to  the  grave  were  many  French  officers  from  Napoleon's 
army,  which  was  then  occupying  Vienna. 

Haydn's  place  in  musical  history  is  best  determined  by  his 
instrumental  compositions.  His  operas,  for  all  their  daintiness 
and  melody,  no  longer  hold  the  stage;  the  Masses  in  which  he 


"  praised  God  with  a  cheerful  heart  "  have  been  condemned 
by  the  severer  decorum  of  our  own  day;  of  his  oratorios  the 
Creation  alone  survives.  In  all  these  his  work  belongs  mainly 
to  the  style  and  idiom  of  a  bygone  generation:  they  are  monu- 
ments, not  landmarks,  and  their  beauty  and  invention  seem 
rather  to  close  an  epoch  than  to  inaugurate  its  successor.  Even 
the  naif  pictorial  suggestion,  of  which  free  use  is  made  in  the 
Creation  and  in  the  Seasons,  is  closer  to  the  manner  of  Handel 
than  to  that  of  the  igth  century:  it  is  less  the  precursor  of 
romance  than  the  descendant  of  an  earlier  realism.  But  as  the 
first  great  master  of  the  quartet  and  the  symphony  his  claim 
is  incontestable.  He  began,  half-consciously,  by  applying 
through  the  fuller  medium  the  lessons  of  design  which  he  had 
learned  from  C.  P.  E.  Bach's  sonatas;  then  the  medium  itself 
began  to  suggest  wider  horizons  and  new  possibilities  of  treat- 
ment; his  position  at  Eisenstadt  enabled  him  to  experiment 
without  reserve;  his  genius,  essentially  symphonic  in  character, 
found  its  true  outlet  in  the  opportunities  of  pure  musical  structure. 
The  quartets  in  particular  exhibit  a  wider  range  and  variety  of 
structural  invention  than  those  of  any  other  composer  except 
Beethoven.  Again  it  is  here  that  we  can  most  readily  trace 
the  important  changes  which  he  wrought  in  melodic  idfbm. 
Before  his  time  instrumental  music  was  chiefly  written  for  the 
Paradiesensaal,  and  its  melody  often  sacrificed  vitality  of  idea 
to  a  ceremonial  courtliness  of  phrase.  Haydn  broke  through  this 
convention  by  frankly  introducing  his  native  folk-music,  and 
by  writing  many  of  his  own  tunes  in  the  same  direct,  vigorous 
and  simple  style.  The  innovation  was  at  first  received  with 
some  disfavour;  critics  accustomed  to  polite  formalism  censured 
it  as  extravagant  and  undignified;  but  the  freshness  and  beauty 
of  its  melody  soon  silenced  all  opposition,  and  did  more  than 
anything  else  throughout  the  i8th  century  to  establish  the 
principle  of  nationalism  in  musical  art.  The  actual  employment 
of  Croatian  folk-tunes  may  be  illustrated  from  the  string 
quartets  Op.  17,  No.  i;  Op.  33.  No.  3;  Op.  50,  No.  i;  Op.  77, 
No.  i,  and  the  Salomon  Symphonies  in  D  and  Eb,  while  there 
is  hardly  an  instrumental  composition  of  Haydn's  in  which  his 
own  melodies  do  not  show  some  traces  of  the  same  influence. 
His  natural  idiom  in  short  was  that  of  a  heightened  and  ennobled 
folk-song,  and  one  of  the  most  remarkable  evidences  of  his  genius 
was  the  power  with  which  he  adapted  all  his  perfection  and 
symmetry  of  style  to  the  requirements  of  popular  speech.  His 
music  is  in  this  way  singularly  expressive;  its  humour  and  pathos 
are  not  only  absolutely  sincere,  but  so  outspoken  that  we  cannot 
fail  to  catch  their  significance. 

In  the  development  of  instrumental  polyphony  Haydn's 
work  was  almost  as  important  as  that  of  Mozart.  Having  at 
his  disposal  a  band  of  picked  virtuosi  he  could  produce  effects 
as  different  from  the  tentative  experiments  of  C.  P.  E.  Bach 
as  these  were  from  the  orchestral  platitudes  of  Reutter  or  Hasse. 
His  symphony  Le  Midi  (written  in  1761)  already  shows  a  remark- 
able freedom  and  independence  in  the  handling  of  orchestral 
forces,  and  further  stages  of  advance  were  reached  in  the  oratorio 
of  Tobias,  in  the  Paris  and  Salomon  symphonies,  and  above  all 
in  the  Creation,  which  turns  to  good  account  some  of  the  debt 
which  he  owed  to  his  younger  contemporary.  The  importance 
of  this  lies  not  only  in  a  greater  richness  of  musical  colour,  but 
in  the  effect  which  it  produced  on  the  actual  substance  and 
texture  of  composition.  The  polyphony  of  Beethoven  was 
unquestionably  influenced  by  it  and,  even  in  his  latest  sonatas 
and  quartets,  may  be  regarded  as  its  logical  outcome. 

The  compositions  of  Haydn  include  104  symphonies,  16  overtures, 
76  quartets,  68  trios,  54  sonatas,  31  concertos  and  a  large  number  of 
divertimentos,  cassations  and  other  instrumental  pieces ;  24  operas  and 
dramatic  pieces,  16  Masses,  a  Stabat  Mater,  interludes  for  the  "  Seven 
Words,"  3  oratorios,  2  Te  Deums  and  many  smaller  pieces  for  the 
church,  over  40  songs,  over  50  canons  and  arrangements  of  Scottish 
and  Welsh  national  melodies. 

His  younger  brother,  JOHANN  MICHAEL  HAYDN  (1737-1806), 
was  also  a  chorister  at  St  Stephen's,  and  shortly  after  leaving 
the  choir-school  was  appointed  Kapellmeister  at  Grosswardein 
(1755)  and  at  Salzburg  (1762).  The  latter  office  he  held  for  forty- 
three  years,  during  which  time  he  wrote  over  360  compositions 


HAYDON,  B.  R. 


in 


for  the  church  and  much  instrumental  music,  which,  though 
unequal,  deserves  more  consideration  than  it  has  received. 
He  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Mozart,  who  had  a  high  opinion 
of  his  genius,  and  the  teacher  of  C.  M.  von  Weber.  His  most 
important  works  were  the  Missa  hispanica,  which  he  exchanged 
for  his  diploma  at  Stockholm,  a  Mass  in  D  minor,  a  Lauda 
Sion,  a  set  of  graduals,  forty-two  of  which  are  reprinted 
in  Diabelli's  Ecclesiasticon,  three  symphonies  (1785),  and  a 
string  quintet  in  C  major  which  has  been  erroneously  attri- 
buted to  Joseph  Haydn.  Another  brother,  JOHANN  EVANGELIST 
HAYDN  (1743-1805),  gained  some  reputation  as  a  tenor  vocalist, 
and  was  for  many  years  a  member  of  Prince  Esterhazy's 
Kapelle. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — S.  Mayr,  Brevi  notizie  storiche  della  vita  e  dette 
opere  di  Giuseppe  Haydn  (1809);  Griesinger,  Biographische  Notizen 
iiber  Joseph  Haydn  (1810);  Carpani,  Le  Haydeni  (1812  and  1823); 
Borabet  (M.  de  Stendhal),  Vies  de  Haydn,  de  Mozart  et  de  Metastase 
(Paris,  1854) ;  Karajan,  Joseph  Haydn  in  London  (1861) ;  C.  F.  Pohl, 
Mozart  und  Haydn  in  London  (1867);  Joseph  Haydn  (vol.  i.  1875, 
vol.  ii.  1882  :  this,  the  standard  biography,  was  left  unfinished  at 
Dr  Pohl's  death  and  needs  a  third  volume  to  complete  it) ;  article 
on  Haydn  in  Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians;  Fr.  S. 
Kuhac,  Josip  Haydn  i  Hravatske  Narodne  Popievke  (Joseph  Haydn 
and  the  Croatian  Folk-songs)  (Agram,  1880);  A.  Niggli,  Joseph 
Haydn,  sein  Leben  und  Werken  (Basel,  1882);  L.  Nohl,  Biographie 
Haydns  (Leipzig,  Reclam) ;  P.  D.  Townsend;  Joseph  Haydn 
(London,  1884),  Biography  in  H.  Reimann's  Beriihmte  Musiker 
(Berlin,  1898) ;  J.  C.  Hadden,  Joseph  Haydn  (Great  Musicians  series) 
(London,  1902).  To  these  should  be  added  the  list  of  Haydn's  sym- 
phonies printed  in  Alfred  Wotquenne's  Catalogue  de  la  Bibliotheque 
du  Conservatoire  Royal  de  Bruxelles,  vol.  ii.  (1902).  (W.  H.  HA.) 

HAYDON,  BENJAMIN  ROBERT  (1786-1846),  English 
historical  painter  and  writer,  was  born  at  Plymouth  on  the 
26th  of  January  1786.  His  mother  was  the  daughter  of  the 
Rev.  Benjamin  Cobley,  rector  of  Dodbrook,  Devon,  whose  son, 
General  Sir  Thomas  Cobley,  signalized  himself  in  the  Russian 
service  at  the  siege  of  Ismail.  His  father,  a  prosperous  printer, 
stationer  and  publisher,  was  a  man  of  literary  taste,  and  was 
well  known  and  esteemed  amongst  all  classes  in  Plymouth. 
Haydon,  an  only  son,  at  an  early  date  gave  evidence  of  his 
taste  for  study,  which  was  carefully  fostered  and  promoted  by 
his  mother.  At  the  age  of  six  he  was  placed  in  Plymouth 
grammar  school,  and  at  twelve  in  Plympton  St  Mary  school. 
He  completed  his  education  in  this  institution,  where  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds  also  had  acquired  all  the  scholastic  training  he  ever 
received.  On  the  ceiling  of  the  school-room  was  a  sketch  by 
Reynolds  in  burnt  cork,  which  it  used  to  be  Haydon's  delight 
to  sit  and  contemplate.  Whilst  at  school  he  had  some  thought 
of  adopting  the  medical  profession,  but  he  was  so  shocked  at 
the  sight  of  an  operation  that  he  gave  up  the  idea.  A  perusal 
of  Albinus,  however,  inspired  him  with  a  love  for  anatomy; 
and  Reynolds's  discourses  revived  within  him  a  smouldering 
taste  for  painting,  which  from  childhood  had  been  the  absorbing 
idea  of  his  mind. 

Sanguine  of  success,  full  of  energy  and  vigour,  he  started  from 
the  parental  roof,  on  the  I4th  of  May  1804,  for  London,  and 
entered  his  name  as  a  student  of  the  Royal  Academy.  He  began 
and  prosecuted  his  studies  with  such  unwearied  ardour  that 
Fuseli  wondered  when  he  ever  found  time  to  eat.  At  the  age 
of  twenty-one  (1807)  Haydon  exhibited,  for  the  first  time,  at 
the  Royal  Academy,  "  The  Repose  in  Egypt,"  which  was  bought 
by  Mr  Thomas  Hope  the  year  after.  This  was  a  good  start  for 
the  young  artist,  who  shortly  received  a  commission  from  Lord 
Mulgrave  and  an  introduction  to  Sir  George  Beaumont.  In 
1809  he  finished  his  well-known  picture  of  "  Dentatus,"  which, 
though  it  brought  him  a  great  increase  of  fame,  involved  him 
in  a  lifelong  quarrel  with  the  Royal  Academy,  whose  committee 
had  hung  the  picture  in  a  small  side-room  instead  of  the  great 
hall.  In  1810  his  difficulties  began  through  the  stoppage  of  an 
allowance  of  £20x3  a  year  he  had  received  from  his  father.  His 
disappointment  was  embittered  by  the  controversies  in  which 
he  now  became  involved  with  Sir  George  Beaumont,  for  whom 
he  had  painted  his  picture  of  "  Macbeth,"  and  Payne  Knight, 
who  had  denied  the  beauties  as  well  as  the  money  value  of  the 
Elgin  Marbles.  "  The  Judgment  of  Solomon,"  his  next  pro- 


duction, gained  him  £700,  besides  £100  voted  to  him  by  the 
directors  of  the  British  Institution,  and  the  freedom  of  the 
borough  of  Plymouth.  To  recruit  his  health  and  escape  for  a 
time  from  the  cares  of  London  life,  Haydon  joined  his  intimate 
friend  Wilkie  in  a  trip  to  Paris;  he  studied  at  the  Louvre; 
and  on  his  return  to  England  produced  his  "  Christ's  Entry  into 
Jerusalem,"  which  afterwards  formed  the  nucleus  of  the 
American  Gallery  of  Painting,  erected  by  his  cousin,  John 
Haviland  of  Philadelphia.  Whilst  painting  another  large  work, 
the  "  Resurrection  of  Lazarus,"  his  pecuniary  difficulties 
increased,  and  for  the  first  time  he  was  arrested  but  not  im- 
prisoned, the  sheriff-officer  taking  his  word  for  his  appearance. 
Amidst  all  these  harassing  cares  he  married  in  October  1821  a 
beautiful  young  widow  who  had  some  children,  Mrs  Hyman,  to 
whom  he  was  devotedly  attached. 

In  1823  Haydon  was  lodged  in  the  King's  Bench,  where  he 
received  consoling  letters  from  the  first  men  of  the  day.  Whilst 
a  prisoner  he  drew  up  a  petition  to  parliament  in  favour  of  the 
appointment  of  "  a  committee  to  inquire  into  the  state  of  en- 
couragement of  historical  painting,"  which  was  presented  by 
Brougham.  He  also,  during  a  second  imprisonment  in  1827, 
produced  the  picture  of  the  "  Mock  Election,"  the  idea  of  which 
had  been  suggested  by  an  incident  that  happened  in  the  prison. 
The  king  (George  IV.)  gave  him  £500  for  this  work.  Among 
Haydon's  other  pictures  were — 1829,  "  Eucles  "  and  "  Punch  "; 
1 83 1, "Napoleon  at  St  Helena,"  for  Sir  Robert  Peel;  "Xeno- 
phon,  on  his  Retreat  with  the  '  Ten  Thousand,'  first  seeing 
the  Sea  ";  and  "  Waiting  for  the  Times,"  purchased  by  the 
marquis  of  Stafford;  1832,  "  Falstaff  "  and  "Achilles  playing 
the  Lyre."  In  1834  he  completed  the  "  Reform  Banquet,"  for 
Lord  Grey — this  painting  contained  197  portraits;  in  1843, 
"  Curtius  Leaping  into  the  Gulf,"  and  "  Uriel  and  Satan." 
There  was  also  the  "  Meeting  of  the  Anti-Slavery  Society," 
energetically  treated,  now  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery. 
When  the  competition  took  place  at  Westminster  Hall,  Haydon 
sent  two  cartoons,  "  The  Curse  of  Adam  "  and  "  Edward  the 
Black  Prince,"  but,  with  some  unfairness,  he  was  not  allowed 
a  prize  for  either.  He  then  painted  "  The  Banishment  of  Aris- 
tides,"  which  was  exhibited  with  other  productions  under  the 
same  roof  where  the  American  dwarf  Tom  Thumb  was  then 
making  his  debut  in  London.  The  exhibition  was  unsuccessful; 
and  the  artist's  difficulties  increased  to  such  an  extent  that, 
whilst  employed  on  his  last  grand  effort,  "  Alfred  and  the  Trial 
by  Jury,"  overcome  by  debt,  disappointment  and  ingratitude, 
he  wrote  "  Stretch  me  no  longer  on  this  rough  world,"  and  put 
an  end  to  his  existence  with  a  pistol-shot,  on  the  22nd  of  June 
1 846,  in  the  sixty-first  year  of  his  age.  He  left  a  widow  and  three 
children  (various  others  had  died),  who,  by  the  generosity  of 
their  father's  friends,  were  rescued  from  their  pecuniary  diffi- 
culties and  comfortably  provided  for;  amongst  the  foremost 
of  these  friends  were  Sir  Robert  Peel,  Count  D'Orsay,  Mr  Justice 
Talfourd  and  Lord  Carlisle. 

Haydon  began  his  first  lecture  on  painting  and  design  in 
1835,  and  afterwards  visited  all  the  principal  towns  in  England 
and  Scotland.  His  delivery  was  energetic  and  imposing,  his 
language  powerful,  flowing  and  apt,  and  replete  with  wit  and 
humour;  and  to  look  at  the  lecturer,  excited  by  his  subject, 
one  could  scarcely  fancy  him  a  man  overwhelmed  with  difficulties 
and  anxieties.  The  height  of  Haydon's  ambition  was  to  behold 
the  chief  buildings  of  his  country  adorned  with  historical  repre- 
sentations of  her  glory.  He  lived  to  see  the  acknowledgment 
of  his  principles  by  government  in  the  establishment  of  schools 
of  design,  and  the  embellishment  of  the  new  houses  of  parliament ; 
but  in  the  competition  of  artists  for  the  carrying  out  of  this 
object,  the  commissioners  (amongst  whom  was  one  of  his  former 
pupils)  considered,  or  affected  to  consider,  that  he  had  failed. 
Haydon  was  well  versed  in  all  points  of  his  profession;  and  his 
Lectures,  which  were  published  shortly  after  their  delivery, 
showed  that  he  was  as  bold  a  writer  as  painter.  It  may  be 
mentioned  in  this  connexion  that  he  was  the  author  of  the  long 
and  elaborate  article,  "  Painting,"  in  the  7th  edition  of  the 
Encyclopaedia  Brilannica. 


112 


HAYES,  R.  B. 


To  form  a  correct  estimate  of  Haydon  it  is  necessary  to  read 
his  autobiography.  This  is  one  of  the  most  natural  books  ever 
written,  full  of  various  and  abundant  power,  and  fascinating 
to  the  reader.  The  author  seems  to  have  daguerreotyped  his 
feelings  and  sentiments  without  restraint  as  they  rose  in  his 
mind,  and  his  portrait  stands  in  these  volumes  limned  to  the 
life  by  his  own  hand.  His  love  for  his  art  was  both  a  passion 
and  a  principle.  He  found  patrons  difficult  to  manage;  and, 
not  having  the  tact  to  lead  them  gently,  he  tried  to  drive  them 
fiercely.  He  failed,  abused  patrons  and  patronage,  and  inter- 
mingled talk  of  the  noblest  independence  with  acts  not  always 
dignified.  He  was  self-willed  to  perversity,  but  his  perseverance 
was  such  as  is  seldom  associated  with  so  much  vehemence  and 
passion.  With  a  large  fund  of  genuine  self-reliance  he  combined 
a  considerable  measure  of  vanity.  To  the  last  he  believed  in  his 
own  powers  and  in  the  ultimate  triumph  of  art.  In  taste  he  was 
deficient,  at  least  as  concerned  himself.  Hence  the  tone  of  self- 
assertion  which  he  assumed  in  his  advertisements,  catalogues 
and  other  appeals  to  the  public.  He  proclaimed  himself  the 
apostle  and  martyr  of  high  art,  and,  not  without  some  justice,  he 
believed  himself  to  have  on  that  account  a  claim  on  the  sympathy 
and  support  of  the  nation.  It  must  be  confessed  that  he  often 
tested  severely  those  whom  he  called  his  friends.  Every  reader  of 
his  autobiography  will  be  struck  at  the  frequency  and  fervour 
of  the  short  prayers  interspersed  throughout  the  work.  Haydon 
had  an  overwhelming  sense  of  a  personal,  overruling  and  merciful 
providence,  which  influenced  his  relations  with  his  family, 
and  to  some  extent  with  the  world.  His  conduct  as  a  husband 
and  father  entitles  him  to  the  utmost  sympathy.  In  art  his  powers 
and  attainments  were  undoubtedly  very  great,  although  his 
actual  performances  mostly  fall  short  of  the  faculty  which  was 
manifestly  within  him;  his  general  range  and  force  of  mind 
were  also  most  remarkable,  and  would  have  qualified  him  to 
shine  in  almost  any  path  of  intellectual  exertion  or  of  practical 
work.  His  eager  and  combative  character  was  partly  his 
enemy;  but  he  had  other  enemies  actuated  by  motives  as 
unworthy  as  his  own  were  always  high-pitched  and  on  abstract 
grounds  laudable.  Of  his  three  great  works — the  "  Solomon," 
the  "  Entry  into  Jerusalem  "  and  the  "  Lazarus  " — the  second 
has  generally  been  regarded  as  the  finest.  The  "  Solomon  "  is 
also  a  very  admirable  production,  showing  his  executive  power 
at  its  loftiest,  and  of  itself  enough  to  place  Haydon  at  the  head 
of  British  historical  painting  in  his  own  time.  The  "  Lazarus  " 
(which  belongs  to  the  National  Gallery,  but  is  not  now  on  view 
there)  is  a  more  unequal  performance,  and  in  various  respects 
open  to  criticism  and  censure;  yet  the  head  of  Lazarus  is  so 
majestic  and  impressive  that,  if  its  author  had  done  nothing 
else,  we  must  still  pronounce  him  a  potent  pictorial  genius. 

The  chief  authorities  for  the  life  of  Haydon  are  Life  of  B.  R. 
Haydon,  from  his  Autobiography  and  Journals,  edited  and  compiled 
by  Tom  Taylor  (3  vols.,  1853) ;  and  B.  R.  Haydon' s  Correspondence 
and  Table  Talk,  with  a  memoir  by  his  son,  F.  W.  Haydon  (2  vols., 
1876).  (W.  M.  R.) 

HAYES,  RUTHERFORD  BIRCHARD  (1822-1893),  nine- 
teenth president  of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Delaware, 
Ohio,  on  the  4th  of  October  1822.  He  received  his  first  education 
in  the  common  schools,  graduated  in  1842  at  Kenyon  College, 
Gambier,  Ohio,  and  was  a  student  at  the  law  school  of  Harvard 
University  from  1843  until  his  graduation  in  1845.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1845,  and  practised  law,  first  at  Lower 
Sandusky  (now  Fremont),  and  then  at  Cincinnati,  where  he  won 
a  very  respectable  standing,  and  in  1858-1861  served  as  city 
solicitor.  In  politics  he  was  at  first  an  anti-slavery  Whig  and 
then  from  the  time  of  its  organization  in  1854  until  his  death 
was  a  member  of  the  Republican  party.  In  December  1852  he 
married  Lucy  Ware  Webb  of  Chillicothe,  Ohio,  who  survived 
him.  After  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War  the  governor  of 
Ohio,  on  the  7th  of  June  1861,  appointed  him  a  major  of  a 
volunteer  regiment,  and  in  July  he  was  sent  to  western  Virginia 
lor  active  service.  He  served  throughout  the  war,  distinguished 
himself  particularly  at  South  Mountain,  Winchester,  Fisher's  Hill 
and  Cedar  Creek,  and  by  successive  promotions  became  a 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  and,  by  brevet,  a  major-general 


of  volunteers.  While  still  in  the  field  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  National  House  of  Representatives,  and  took  his  seat  in 
December  1865.  He  was  re-elected  in  1866,  and  supported  the 
reconstruction  measures  advocated  by  his  party.  From  1868  to 
1872  he  was  governor  of  Ohio.  In  1873  he  removed  from 
Cincinnati  to  Fremont,  his  intention  being  to  withdraw  from 
public  life;  but  in  1875  the  Republican  party  in  Ohio  once  more 
selected  him  as  its  candidate  for  the  governorship.  He  accepted 
the  nomination  with  great  reluctance.  The  Democrats  adopted 
a  platform  declaring  in  favour  of  indefinitely  enlarging  the 
volume  of  the  irredeemable  paper  currency  which  the  Civil  War 
had  left  behind  it.  Hayes  stoutly  advocated  the  speediest 
practicable  resumption  of  specie  payments,  and  carried  the 
election.  The  "  sound-money  campaign "  in  Ohio  having 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  whole  country,  Hayes  was  marked 
out  as  a  candidate  for  the  presidency,  and  he  obtained  the 
nomination  of  the  Republican  National  Convention  of  1876,  his 
chief  competitor  being  James  G.  Elaine.  The  candidate  of  the 
Democratic  party,  Samuel  J.  Tilden,  by  his  reputation  as  a  states- 
man and  a  reformer  of  uncommon  ability,  drew  many  Republican 
votes.  An  excited  controversy  having  arisen  about  the  result  of 
the  balloting  in  the  states  of  South  Carolina,  Florida,  Oregon 
and  Louisiana,  the  two  parties  in  Congress  in  order  to  allay  a 
crisis  dangerous  to  public  peace  agreed  to  pass  an  act  referring 
all  contested  election  returns  to  an  extraordinary  commission, 
called  the  "  Electoral  Commission  "  (q.v.),  which  decided  each 
contest  by  eight  against  seven  votes  in  favour  of  the  Republican 
candidates.  Hayes  was  accordingly  on  the  2nd  of  March  1877 
declared  duly  elected. 

During  his  administration  President  Hayes  devoted  his 
efforts  mainly  to  civil  service  reform,  resumption  of  specie  pay- 
ments and  the  pacification  of  the  Southern  States,  recently  in 
rebellion.  In  order  to  win  the  co-operation  of  the  white  people 
in  the  South  in  maintaining  peace  and  order,  he  put  himself  in 
communication  with  their  leaders.  He  then  withdrew  the 
Federal  troops  which  since  the  Civil  War  had  been  stationed  at 
the  southern  State  capitals.  An  end  was  thus  made  of  the 
"  carpet-bag  governments  "  conducted  by  Republican  politicians 
from  the  North,  some  of  which  were  very  corrupt,  and  had  been 
upheld  mainly  by  the  Federal  forces.  This  policy  found  much 
favour  with  the  people  generally,  but  displeased  many  of  the 
Republican  politicians,  because  it  loosened  the  hold  of  the 
Republican  party  upon  the  Southern  States.  Though  it  did  not 
secure  to  the  negroes  sufficient  protection  in  the  exercise  of  their 
political  rights,  it  did  much  to  extinguish  the  animosities  still 
existing  between  the  two  sections  of  the  Union  and  to  promote 
the  material  prosperity  of  the  South.  President  Hayes  en- 
deavoured in  vain  to  induce  Congress  to  appropriate  money 
for  a  Civil  Service  Commission;  and  whenever  he  made 
an  effort  to  restrict  the  operation  of  the  traditional  "  spoils 
system,"  he  met  the  strenuous  opposition  of  a  majority  of  the 
most  powerful  politicians  of  his  party.  Nevertheless  the 
system  of  competitive  examinations  for  appointments  was 
introduced  in  some  of  the  great  executive  departments  in 
Washington,  and  in  the  custom-house  and  the  post-office  in 
New  York.  Moreover,  he  ordered  that  "  no  officer  should  be 
required  or  permitted  to  take  part  in  the  management  of  political 
organizations,  caucuses,  conventions  or  election  campaigns," 
and  that  "  no  assessment  for  political  purposes  on  officers  or 
subordinates  should  be  allowed  ";  and  he  removed  from  their 
offices  the  heads  of  the  post-office  in  St  Louis  and  of  the  custom- 
house in  New  York — influential  party  managers — on  the  ground 
that  they  had  misused  their  official  positions  for  partisan  ends. 
In  New  York  the  three  men  removed  were  Chester  A.  Arthur, 
the  collector;  Alonzo  B.  Cornell,  the  naval  officer  of  the  Port; 
and  George  H.  Sharpe,  the  surveyor  of  the  customs.  While  these 
measures  were  of  limited  scope  and  effect,  they  served  greatly  to 
facilitate  the  more  extensive  reform  of  the  civil  service  which 
subsequently  took  place,  though  at  the  same  time  they  alienated 
a  powerful  faction  of  the  Republican  party  in  New  York  under 
the  leadership  of  Roscoe  Conkling.  Although  the  resumption 
of  specie  payments  had  been  provided  for,  to  begin  at  a  given 


HAY  FEVER— HAYM 


time  by  the  Resumption  Act  of  January  1875,  opposition  to  it 
did  not  cease.  A  bill  went  through  both  Houses  of  Congress 
providing  that  a  silver  dollar  should  be  coined  of  the  weight  of 
412!  grains,  to  be  full  legal  tender  for  all  debts  and  dues,  public 
and  private,  except  where  otherwise  expressly  stipulated  in  the 
contract.  President  Hayes  returned  this  bill  with  his  veto,  but 
the  veto  was  overruled  in  both  Houses  of  Congress.  Meanwhile, 
however,  the  preparations  for  the  return  to  specie  payments 
were  continued  by  the  Administration  with  unflinching  constancy 
and  on  the  ist  of  January  1879  specie  payments  were  resumed 
without  difficulty.  None  of  the  evils  predicted  appeared.  A 
marked  revival  of  business  and  a  period  of  general  prosperity 
ensued.  In  his  annual  message  of  the  ist  of  December  1879 
President  Hayes  urged  the  suspension  of  the  silver  coinage  and 
also  the  withdrawal  of  the  United  States  legal  tender  notes,  but 
Congress  failed  to  act  upon  the  recommendation.  His  ad- 
ministration also  did  much  to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  the 
Indian  tribes  and  to  arrest  the  spoliation  of  the  public  forest 
lands. 

Although  President  Hayes  was  not  popular  with  the  pro- 
fessional politicians  of  his  own  party,  and  was  exposed  to  bitter 
attacks  on  the  part  of  the  Democratic  opposition  on  account  of 
the  cloud  which  hung  over  his  election,  his  conduct  of  public 
affairs  gave  much  satisfaction  to  the  people  generally.  In  the 
presidential  election  of  1880  the  Republican  party  carried  the 
day  after  an  unusually  quiet  canvass,  a  result  largely  due  to 
popular  contentment  with  the  then  existing  state  of  public 
affairs.  On  the  4th  of  March  1881  President  Hayes  retired  to  his 
home  at  Fremont,  Ohio.  Various  universities  and  colleges  con- 
ferred honorary  degrees  upon  him.  His  remaining  years  he 
devoted  to  active  participation  in  philanthropic  enterprises; 
thus  he  served  as  president  of  the  National  Prison  Association 
and  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  chosen  to  administer  the  John  F. 
Slater  fund  for  the  promotion  of  industrial  education  among  the 
negroes  of  the  South,  and  was  a  member,  also,  of  the  Board  of 
Trustees  of  the  Peabody  Education  fund  for  the  promotion  of 
education  in  the  South.  He  died  at  Fremont,  after  a  short  ill- 
ness, on  the  1 7th  of  January  1893. 

There  is  no  adequate  biography,  but  three  "  campaign  lives  " 
may  be  mentioned:  Life,  Public  Services  and  Select  Speeches  of 
Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  by  James  Quay  Howard  (Cincinnati,  1876) ; 
Life  of  R.  B.  Hayes,  by  William  D.  Howells  (New  York,  1876) ;  and 
a  Life  by  Russell  H.  Conwell  (Boston,  1876).  See  also  Paul  L. 
Haworth,  The  Hayes-Tilden  Disputed  Presidential  Election  of  1876 
(Cleveland,  O.,  1906).  (C.  S.) 

HAY  FEVER,  HAY  ASTHMA,  or  SUMMER  CATARRH,  a  catarrhal 
affection  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  upper  respiratory  tract, 
due  to  the  action  of  the  pollen  of  certain  grasses.  It  is  often 
associated  with  asthmatic  attacks.  The  disease  affects  certain 
families,  and  is  hereditary  in  about  one-third  of  the  cases.  It 
is  more  common  among  women  than  men,  city  than  country 
dwellers,  and  the  educated  and  highly  nervous  than  the  lower 
classes.  It  has  no  connexion  with  the  coryzas  that  are  produced 
in  nervous  people  by  the  odour  of  cats,  &c.  The  complaint  has 
been  investigated  by  Professor  W.  P.  Dunbar  of  Hamburg, 
who  has  shown  that  it  is  due  to  the  pollens  of  certain  grasses 
(notably  rye)  and  plants,  and  that  the  severity  of  the  attack  is 
directly  proportional  to  the  amount  of  pollen  in  the  air.  He  has 
isolated  an  albuminoid  poison  which,  when  applied  to  the  nose 
of  a  susceptible  individual,  causes  an  attack,  while  there  is  no 
result  in  the  case  of  a  normal  person.  By  injecting  the  poison 
into  animals,  he  has  obtained  an  anti-toxin,  which  is  capable  of 
aborting  an  attack  of  hay  fever.  The  symptoms  are  those 
commonly  experienced  in  the  case  of  a  severe  cold,  consisting  of 
headache,  violent  sneezing  and  watery  discharge  from  the  nostrils 
and  eyes,  together  with  a  hard  dry  cough,  and  occasionally  severe 
asthmatic  paroxysms.  The  period  of  liability  to  infection 
naturally  coincides  with  the  pollen  season. 

The  radical  treatment  is  to  avoid  vegetation.  Local  treat- 
ment consisting  of  thorough  destruction  of  the  sensitive  area 
of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  nose  often  produces  good  results. 
There  are  various  drugs,  the  best  of  which  are  cocaine  and  the 
extract  of  the  suprarenal  body,  which,  when  applied  to  the  nose, 


are  sometimes  effectual;  in  practice,  however,  it  is  found  that 
larger  and  larger  doses  are  required,  and  that  sooner  or  later  they 
afford  no  relief.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  a  number  of  patent 
specifics,  of  which  the  principal  constituent  is  one  of  the  above 
drugs.  An  additional  and  stronger  objection  to  the  use  of  cocaine 
is  that  a  "  habit  "  is  often  contracted,  with  the  most  disastrous 
results.  Finally  Dunbar's  serum  may  be  applied  to  the  nose  and 
eyes  on  rising,  and  on  the  slightest  suggestion  of  irritation  during 
the  day;  it  will,  in  the  large  majority  of  cases,  be  found  to  be 
quite  effectual. 

HAYLEY,  WILLIAM  (1745-1820),  English  writer,  the  friend 
and  biographer  of  William  Cowper,  was  born  at  Chichester  on 
the  9th  of  November  1745.  He  was  sent  to  Eton  in  1757,  and 
to  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  in  1763;  his  connexion  with  the 
Middle  Temple,  London,  where  he  was  admitted  in  1766,  was 
merely  nominal.  In  1767  he  left  Cambridge  and  went  to  live  in 
London.  Two  years  later  he  married  Eliza,  daughter  of  Thomas 
Ball,  dean  of  Chichester.  His  private  means  enabled  Hayley  to 
live  on  his  patrimonial  estate  at  Eartham,  Sussex,  and  he  retired 
there  in  1774.  He  had  already  written  many  occasional  poetical 
pieces,  when  in  1771  his  tragedy,  The  Afflicted  Father,  was 
rejected  by  David  Garrick.  In  the  same  year  his  translation  of 
Pierre  Corneille's  Rodogune  as  The  Syrian  Queen  was  also  declined 
by  George  Colman.  Hayley  won  the  fame  he  enjoyed  amongst 
his  contemporaries  by  his  poetical  Essays  and  Epistles;  a 
Poetical  Epistle  to  an  Eminent  Painter  (1780),  addressed  to  his 
friend  George  Romney,  an  Essay  on  History  (1780),  in  three 
epistles,  addressed  to  Edward  Gibbon:  Essay  on  Epic  Poetry 
({782)  addressed  to  William  Mason;  A  Philosophical  Essay  on 
Old  Maids  (1785);  and  the  Triumphs  of  Temper  (1781).  The  last- 
mentioned  work  was  so  popular  as  to  run  to  twelve  or  fourteen 
editions;  together  with  the  Triumphs  of  Music  (Chichester, 
1804)  it  was  ridiculed  by  Byron  in  English  Bards  and  Scotch 
Reviewers.  So  great  was  Hayley 's  fame  that  on  Thomas  Warton's 
death  in  1790  he  was  offered  the  laureateship,  which  he  refused. 
In  1792,  while  writing  the  Life  of  Milton  (1794),  Hayley  made 
Cowper's  acquaintance.  A  warm  friendship  sprang  up  bet //sen 
the  two  which  lasted  till  Cowper's  death  in  1800.  Hayley  indeed 
was  mainly  instrumental  in  getting  Cowper  his  pension.  In 
1800  Hayley  also  lost  his  natural  son,  Thomas  Alphonso  Hayley, 
to  whom  he  was  devotedly  attached.  He  had  been  a  pupil  of 
John  Flaxman's,  to  whom  Hayley's  Essay  on  Sculpture  (1800) 
is  addressed.  Flaxman  introduced  William  Blake  to  Hayley, 
and  after  the  latter  had  moved  in  iSooto  his  "  marine  hermitage  " 
at  Felpham,  Sussex,  Blake  settled  near  him  for  three  years  to 
engrave  the  illustrations  for  the  Life  of  Cowper.  This,  Hayley's 
best  known  work,  was  published  in  1803-1804  (Chichester)  in 
3  vols.  In  1805  he  published  Ballads  founded  on  Anecdotes  of 
Animals  (Chichester),  with  illustrations  by  Blake,  and  in  1809 
The  Life  of  Romney.  For  the  last  twelve  years  of  his  life  Hayley 
received  an  allowance  for  writing  his  Memoirs.  He  died  at 
Felpham  on  the  i2th  of  November  1820.  Hayley's  first  wife 
died  in  1797;  her  mind  had  been  seriously  affected,  and 
since  1789  they  had  been  separated.  He  married  in  1809  Mary 
Welford,  but  they  also  separated  after  three  years.  He  left  no 
children. 

Hayley's  Poetical  Works  were  published  in  3  vols.  (1785);  his 
Poems  and  Plays  in  6  vols.  (1788). 

See  Memoirs  .  .  .  of  William  Hayley  .  .  .  and  Memoirs  of  his 
son  T.  A.  Hayley,  ed.  John  Johnson  (2  vols.,  1823)  (containing 
many  of  Hayley's  letters);  an  article  on  these  memoirs  by  Robert 
Southey  in  the  Quarterly  Review,  vol.  xxxi.,  1825;  William  Blake, 
by  A.  C.  Swinburne  (2nd  ed.,  1868,  pp.  28  et  seq.) ;  Life  of  William 
Blake,  by  Alexander  Gilchrist  (vol.  i.,  1880),  with  some  of  Blake's 
letters  to  Hayley ;  The  Correspondence  of  William  Cowper,  arranged 
by  Thomas  Wright  (vol.  iv.,  1904),  containing  many  letters  to  Hayley. 

HAYM,  RUDOLF  (1821-1901),  German  publicist  and  philo- 
sopher, was  born  at  Grunberg,  in  Silesia,  on  the  sth  of  October 
1821,  and  died  at  St  Anton  (Arlberg)  on  the  27th  of  August  1901. 
He  studied  philosophy  and  theology  at  Halle  and  Berlin,  and 
lived  at  Halle  during  1846  and  1847.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
National  Assembly  at  Frankfort  in  1848,  and  wrote  an  account 
of  the  proceedings  from  the  standpoint  of  the  Right  Centre. 


HAYNAU— HAYTON 


From  1851  he  lectured  in  literature  and  philosophy  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Halle,  and  became  professor  in  1860.  His  writings  are 
biographical  and  critical,  devoted  mainly  to  modern  German 
philosophy  and  literature.  In  1870  he  published  a  masterly 
history  of  the  Romantic  school.  He  also  wrote  biographies  of 
W.  von  Humboldt  (1856),  Hegel  (1857),  Schopenhauer  (1864), 
Herder  (1877-1885),  Max  Duncker  (1890).  In  1901  he  published 
Erinnerungen  aus  meinem  Leben. 

HAYNAU,  JULIUS  JACOB  (1786-1853),  Austrian  general, 
was  the  natural  son  of  the  landgrave — afterwards  elector — of 
Hesse-Cassel,  William  IX.  He  entered  the  Austrian  army  as 
an  infantry  officer  in  1801,  and  saw  much  service  in  the 
Napoleonic  wars.  He  was  wounded  at  Wagram ,  and  distinguished 
during  the  operations  in  Italy  in  1813  and  1814.  Between  1815 
and  1847  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  field  marshal  lieutenant.  A 
violent  temper,  which  he  made  no  attempt  to  control  or  conceal, 
led  him  into  trouble  with  his  superiors.  His  hatred  of  revolu- 
tionary principles  was  fanatical.  When  the  insurrectionary  move- 
ments of  1848  broke  out  in  Italy,  his  known  zeal  for  the  cause 
of  legitimacy,  as  much  as  his  reputation  as  an  officer,  marked 
him  out  for  command.  He  fought  with  success  in  Italy,  but  was 
chiefly  noted  for  the  severity  he  showed  in  suppressing  and 
punishing  a  rising  in  Brescia.  It  ought  to  be  remembered  that 
the  mob  of  Brescia  had  massacred  invalid  Austrian  soldiers  in 
the  hospital,  a  provocation  which  always  leads  to  reprisals. 
In  June  1849  Haynau  was  called  to  Vienna  to  command  first  an 
army  of  reserve,  and  then  in  the  field  against  the  Hungarians. 
His  successes  against  the  declining  revolutionary  cause  were 
numerous  and  rapid.  In  Hungary,  as  in  Italy,  he  was  accused 
of  brutality.  It  was,  for  instance,  asserted  that  he  caused  women 
who  showed  any  sympathy  with  the  insurgents  to  be  whipped. 
His  ostentatious  hatred  of  the  revolutionary  parties  marked  him 
out  as  the  natural  object  for  these  accusations.  On  the  restora- 
tion of  peace  he  was  appointed  to  high  command  in  Hungary. 
His  temper  quickly  led  him  into  quarrels  with  the  minister  of 
war,  and  he  resigned  his  command  in  1850.  He  then  travelled 
abroad.  The  refugees  had  spread  his  evil  reputation.  In  London 
he  was  attacked  and  beaten  by  Messrs  Barclay  &  Perkins'  dray- 
men when  visiting  the  brewery,  and  he  was  saved  from  mob 
violence  in  Brussels  with  some  difficulty.  He  died  on  the  I4th 
of  March  1853.  On  the  nth  of  October  1808  Haynau  had 
married  Therese  von  Weber,  the  daughter  of  Field  Marshal 
Lieutenant  Weber,  who  was  slain  at  Aspern.  She  died,  leaving 
one  daughter,  in  1850. 

See  R.  v.  Schonhals,  Biographic  des  K.  K.  Feldzeugmeisters  Julius 
Freikerrn  von  Haynau  (Vienna,  1875). 

HAYNE,  ROBERT  YOUNG  (1791-1839),  American  political 
leader,  born  in  St  Paul's  parish,  Colleton  district,  South  Carolina, 
on  the  loth  of  November  1791.  He  studied  law  in  the  office  of 
Langdon  Cheves(  1 7  76-1 85  7)in  Charleston,  S.C.,  and  in  November 
1812  was  admitted  to  the  bar  there,  soon  obtaining  a  large 
practice.  For  a  short  time  during  the  War  of  1812  against 
Great  Britain,  he  was  captain  in  the  Third  South  Carolina 
Regiment.  He  was  a  member  of  the  lower  house  of  the  state 
legislature  from  1814  to  1818,  serving  as  speaker  in  the  latter 
year;  was  attorney-general  of  the  state  from  1818  to  1822, 
and  in  1823  was  elected,  as  a  Democrat,  to  the  United  States 
Senate.  Here  he  was  conspicuous  as  an  ardent  free-trader 
and  an  uncompromising  advocate  of  "  States  Rights,"  opposed 
the  protectionist  tariff  bills  of  1824  and  1828,  and  consistently 
upheld  the  doctrine  that  slavery  was  a  domestic  institution  and 
should  be  dealt  with  only  by  the  individual  states.  In  one  of  his 
speeches  opposing  the  sending  by  the  United  States  of  repre- 
sentatives to  the  Panama  Congress,  he  said,  "  The  moment  the 
federal  government  shall  make  the  unhallowed  attempt  to  inter- 
fere with  the  domestic  concerns  of  the  states,  those  states  will 
consider  themselves  driven  from  the  Union."  Hayne  is  best 
remembered,  however,  for  his  great  debate  with  Daniel  Webster 
(q.v.)  in  January  1830.  The  debate  arose  over  the  so-called 
"  Foote's  Resolution,"  introduced  by  Senator  Samuel  A.  Foote 
(1780-1846)  of  Connecticut,  calling  for  the  restriction  of  the  sale 
of  public  lands  to  those  already  in  the  market,  but  was  con- 


cerned primarily  with  the  relation  to  one  another  and  the  respect- 
ive powers  of  the  federal  government  and  the  individual  states, 
Hayne  contending  that  the  constitution  was  essentially  a  com- 
pact between  the  states,  and  the  national  government  and  the 
states,  and  that  any  state  might,  at  will,  nullify  any  federal  law 
which  it  considered  to  be  in  contravention  of  that  compact.  He 
vigorously  opposed  the  tariff  of  1832,  was  a  member  of  the 
South  Carolina  Nullification  Convention  of  November  1832, 
and  reported  the  ordinance  of  nullification  passed  by  that  body 
on  the  24th  of  November.  Resigning  from  the  Senate,  he  was 
governor  of  the  state  from  December  1832  to  December  1834, 
and  as  such  took  a  strong  stand  against  President  Jackson, 
though  he  was  more  conservative  than  many  of  the  nullifica- 
tionists  in  the  state.  He  was  intendant  (mayor)  of  Charleston, 
S.C.,  from  1835  to  1837,  and  was  president  of  the  Louisville, 
Cincinnati  &  Charleston  railway  from  1837  to  1839.  He  died  at 
Asheville,  N.C.,  on  the  24th  of  September  1839.  His  son,  Paul 
Hamilton  Hayne  (1830-1886),  was  a  poet  of  some  distinction,  and 
in  1878  published  a  life  of  his  father. 

See  Theodore  D.  Jervey,  Robert  Y.  Hayne  and  his  Times  (New 
York,  1909). 

HAYTER,  SIR  GEORGE  (1792-1871),  English  painter,  was 
the  son  of  a  popular  drawing-master  and  teacher  of  perspective 
who  published  a  well-known  introduction  to  perspective  and 
other  works.  He  was  born  in  London,  and  in  his  early  youth 
went  to  sea.  He  afterwards  studied  in  the  Royal  Academy, 
became  a  miniature-painter,  and  was  appointed  in  1816 
miniature-painter  to  the  princess  Charlotte.  He  passed  some 
years  in  Italy,  more  especially  in  Rome,  between  1816  and  1831, 
returned  to  London  in  the  last-named  year,  resumed  portrait- 
painting,  now  chiefly  in  oil-colour,  executed  many  likenesses 
of  the  royal  family,  and  attained  such  a  reputation  for  finish 
and  refinement  in  his  work  that  he  received  the  appointment 
of  principal  painter  to  Queen  Victoria  and  teacher  of  drawing 
to  the  princesses.  In  1842  he  was  knighted.  He  painted 
various  works  on  a  large  scale  of  a  public  and  semi-historical 
character,  but  essentially  works  of  portraiture;  such  as  "  The 
Trial  of  Queen  Caroline  "  (189  likenesses),  "  The  Meeting  of  the 
First  Reformed  Parliament,"  now  in  the  National  Portrait 
Gallery,  "  Queen  Victoria  taking  the  Coronation  Oath " 
(accounted  his  finest  production),  "  The  Marriage  of  the  Queen," 
and  the  "  Trial  of  Lord  William  Russell."  The  artistic  merits 
of  Hayter's  works  are  not,  however,  such  as  to  preserve  to  him 
with  posterity  an  amount  of  prestige  corresponding  to  that 
which  court  patronage  procured  him. 

He  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  a  contemporary  artist,  John 
Hayter,  who  produced  illustrations  for  the  Book  of  Beauty,  &c. 

HAYTON  (HAITHON,  HETHUM),  king  of  Little  Armenia  or 
Cilicia  from  1224  to  1269,  traveller  in  western  and  central 
Asia,  Mongolia,  &c.,  was  the  son  of  Constantine  Rupen,  and 
became  heir  to  the  throne  of  Lesser  Armenia  by  his  marriage 
with  Isabella,  daughter  and  only  child  of  Leo  II.  After  a  reign  of 
forty-five  years  he  abdicated  (1269)  in  favour  of  his  son  Leo  III., 
became  a  monk  and  died  in  1271.  Before  his  accession  he  had 
been  "  constable,"  or  head  of  the  Armenian  army,  and  "  bailiff  " 
of  the  realm.  Throughout  his  reign  he  followed  the  policy  of 
friendship  and  alliance  with  the  overwhelming  power  of  the 
Mongols.  In  about  1248  he  sent  his  brother  Sempad,  who  was 
now  constable  in  his  place,  on  a  mission  to  Kuyuk  Khan,  the 
supreme  Mongol  emperor.  Sempad  was  well  received  and 
returned  home  in  1250,  bringing  letters  from  Kuyuk.  After 
Mangu's  accession  in  1251,  Batu  (the  most  powerful  of  the 
Mongol  princes  and  generals,  and  the  conqueror — in  name  at 
least — of  eastern  Europe,  now  commanding  on  the  line  of  the 
Volga)  summoned  Hayton  to  the  court  of  the  new  grand  khan. 
Carefully  disguised,  so  as  to  pass  safely  through  the  Turkish 
states  in  the  interior  of  eastern  Asia  Minor  (where  he  was  hated 
as  an  ally  of  the  Mongols  against  Islam),  Hayton  made  his  way 
to  Kars,  the  central  Mongol  camp  in  Great  Armenia,  where  the 
famous  general  Bachu,  or  Baiju,  commanded.  Here  he  reported 
himself,  and  was  permitted  to  remain  some  time  in  the  Ararat 
region,  at  the  foot  of  Mt  Alagoz,  near  the  metropolitan  church  of 


HAYWARD,  ABRAHAM 


Echmiadzin.  Being  joined  by  his  suite,  especially  the  clerical 
diplomatists  Basil  the  Priest,  and  James  the  Abbot,  Hayton  next 
passed  through  eastern  Caucasia,  threading  the  pass  of  the 
Iron  Gates  of  Derbent,  and  so  reached  the  camp  of  Batu  on  the 
Volga,  where  he  was  cordially  welcomed.  Thence  he  set  out 
(May  I3th,  1254)  on  the  "  very  long  road  beyond  the  Caspian 
Sea  "  to  the  residence  of  Mangu  at  or  near  Karakorum,  south  of 
Lake  Baikal.  After  passing  the  Ural  river,  we  only  hear  of  his 
arrival  at  Or,  probably  the  present  Hi  province,  east  of  Balkhash, 
and  of  his  reaching  the  Irtish,  entering  the  Naiman  country, 
and  passing  through  "  Karakhitai  "  (apparently  the  capital 
of  the  ruined  Karakhitai  empire  is  intended,  a  place  perhaps 
situated  on  the  Chu,  mentioned  out  of  its  proper  place  inHayton's 
record).  On  the  i3th  of  September  the  travellers  entered 
Mongolia,  and  on  the  I4th  (?)  of  September  were  received  by 
Mangu.  Here  the  king  remained  till  the  ist  of  November, 
when  he  left  with  diplomas,  seals  and  letters  of  enfranchisement 
which  promised  great  things  for  the  Armenian  state,  church 
and  people.  His  return  journey  was  by  very  unusual  and 
interesting  routes — through  the  Urumtsi  region,  the  basin  of 
"  the  sea  of  milk,"  Lake  Sairam,  the  valley  of  the  Hi,  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Kulja,  and  so  over  mountains,  which  probably 
answer  to  certain  outliers  of  the  Alexander  range,  to  Talas 
near  the  present  Aulie  Ata,  midway  between  the  Syr  Daria  and 
the  Chu.  Here  he  met  and  conferred  with  Hulagu  Khan, 
Mangu's  brother,  the  future  conqueror  of  Bagdad:  probably 
Hayton  was  expected  to  aid  in  the  coming  forward  movement 
of  the  Mongol  armies  against  the  Moslem  world.  From  Talas 
Hayton  made  a  detour  to  the  north-west  to  meet  another  Mongol 
prince,  Sartach  the  son  of  Batu;  after  which  he  ascended  the 
valley  of  the  Syr  Daria,  crossed  into  Trans-Oxiana,  visited 
Samarkand  and  Bokhara,  and  passed  the  Oxus  apparently 
near  Charjui.  By  way  of  Merv  and  Sarakhs  he  then  entered 
Khorasan  and  traversed  north  Persia,  passing  through  Rai 
near  Tehran,  Kazvin  and  Tabriz,  and  so  returning  to  the  camp 
of  Bachu  in  Armenia,  now  at  Sisian  near  Lake  Gokcha  (July  1255). 
Thanks  to  his  powerful  friends,  Hayton's  journey  was  unusually 
rapid.  Eight  months  after  quitting  Mangu's  horde,  he  was 
back  in  Great  Armenia.  The  narrative  of  this  journey,  which 
was  written  by  a  member  of  the  king's  suite,  one  Kirakos  of 
Gandsak  (the  modern  Eliza vetpol), concludes  with  some  interest- 
ing references  to  Buddhist  tenets,  to  Chinese  habits,  to  various 
monstrous  races  and  to  certain  "  women  endowed  with  reason  " 
dwelling  "  beyond  Cathay."  It  also  gives  some  notes,  com- 
pounded of  truth  and  legend,  on  the  wild  tribes  and  animals  of 
the  Gobi  and  adjoining  regions. 

The  record  drawn  up  by  Kirakos  Gandsaketsi  was  in  Armenian. 
A  MS.  of  his,  dated  1616,  was  found  in  the  Sanahin  monastery  in 
Georgia,  and  translated  into  Russian  by  Prince  Argutinsky  in  the 
Sibirsky  Vyestnik  for  1822,  pp.  69,  &c.  This  Russian  version  was 
again  translated  into  French  by  Klaproth  in  the  Nouveau  Journal 
asiatique  for  1833  (vol.  xii. 'pp.  273,  &c.).  Another  French  trans- 
lation was  made  direct  from  the  Armenian  by  M.  Brosset  in  the 
Memoires  de  I' Academic  des  Sciences  de  St  Petersbourg  for  1870;  a 
fresh  Russian  version  of  the  original,  by  Professor  Patkanov,  appeared 
in  1874.  See  also  E.  Bretschneider,  Medieval  Researches  from 
Eastern  Asiatic  Sources,  i.  164-172  (London,  1888,  "  Triibner's 
Oriental  "  Series);  C.  R.  Beazley,  Dawn  of  Modern  Geography,  ii. 
381-391  (1901).  (C.  R.  B.) 

HAYWARD,  ABRAHAM  (1801-1884),  English  man  of  letters, 
son  of  Joseph  Hay  ward,  of  an  old  Wiltshire  family,  was  born 
at  Wilton,  near  Salisbury,  on  the  22nd  of  November  1801. 
After  education  at  Blundell's  school,  Tiverton,  he  entered  the 
Inner  Temple  in  1824,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  June  1832. 
He  took  part  as  a  conservative  in  the  discussions  of  the  London 
Debating  Society,  where  his  opponents  were  J.  A.  Roebuck 
and  John  Stuart  Mill.  The  editorship  of  the  Law  Magazine; 
or,  Quarterly  Review  of  Jurisprudence,  which  he  held  from  1829 
to  1844,  brought  him  into  connexion  with  John  Austin,  G. 
Cornewall  Lewis,  and  such  foreign  jurists  as  Savigny,  whose 
tractate  on  contemporary  legislation  and  jurisprudence  he 
rendered  into  English.  In  1833  he  travelled  abroad,  and  on  his 
return  printed  privately  a  translation  of  Goethe's  Faust  into 
English  prose  (pronounced  by  Carlyle  to  be  the  best  version 


extant  in  his  time).  A  second  and  revised  edition  was  published 
after  another  visit  to  Germany  in  January  1834,  in  the  course  of 
which  Hayward  met  Tieck,  Chamisso,  De  La  Motte  Fouque, 
Varnhagen  von  Ense  and  Madame  Goethe.  In  1878  he  con- 
tributed the  rather  colourless  volume  on  Goethe  to  Blackwood's 
Foreign  Classics.  A  successful  translation  was  in  those  days 
a  first-rate  credential  for  a  reviewer,  and  Hayward  began  con- 
tributing to  the  New  Monthly,  the  Foreign  Quarterly,  the  Quarterly 
Review  and  the  Edinburgh  Review.  His  first  successes  in  this 
new  field  were  won  in  1835-1836  by  articles  on  Walker's 
"  Original  "  and  on  "  Gastronomy."  The  essays  were  reprinted 
to  form  one  of  his  best  volumes,  The  Art  of  Dining,  in  1852. 
In  February  1835  he  was  elected  to  the  Athenaeum  Club  under 
Rule  II.,  and  he  remained  for  nearly  fifty  years  one  of  its  most 
conspicuous  and  most  influential  members.  He  was  also  a 
subscriber  to  the  Carlton,  but  ceased  to  frequent  it  when  he  be- 
came a  Peelite.  At  the  Temple,  Hayward,  whose  reputation 
was  rapidly  growing  as  a  connoisseur  not  only  of  a  bill  of  fare 
but  also  (as  Swift  would  have  said)  of  a  bill  of  company,  gave 
recherche  dinners,  at  which  ladies  of  rank  and  fashion  appreciated 
the  wit  of  Sydney  Smith  and  Theodore  Hook,  the  dignity  of 
Lockhart  and  Lyndhurst  and  the  oratory  of  Macaulay.  At  the 
Athenaeum  and  in  political  society  he  to  some  extent  succeeded 
to  the  position  of  Croker.  He  and  Macaulay  were  commonly 
said  to  be  the  two  best-read  men  in  town.  Hayward  got  up  every 
important  subject  of  discussion  immediately  it  came  into  pro- 
minence, and  concentrated  his  information  in  such  a  way  that 
he  habitually  had  the  last  word  to  say  on  a  topic.  When  Rogers 
died,  when  Vanity  Fair  was  published,  when  the  Greville  Memoirs 
was  issued  or  a  revolution  occurred  on  the  continent,  Hayward, 
whose  memory  was  as  retentive  as  his  power  of  accumulating 
documentary  evidence  was  exhaustive,  wrote  an  elaborate  essay 
on  the  subject  for  the  Quarterly  or  the  Edinburgh.  He  followed 
up  his  paper  by  giving  his  acquaintances  no  rest  until  they  either 
assimilated  or  undertook  to  combat  his  views.  Political  ladies 
first,  and  statesmen  afterwards,  came  to  recognize  the  advantage 
of  obtaining  Hayward's  good  opinion.  In  this  way  the  "  old 
reviewing  hand  "  became  an  acknowledged  link  between  society, 
letters  and  politics.  As  a  professional  man  he  was  less  successful ; 
his  promotion  to  be  Q.C.  in  1845  excited  a  storm  of  opposition, 
and,  disgusted  at  not  being  elected  a  Bencher  of  his  Inn  in  the 
usual  course,  Hayward  virtually  withdrew  from  legal  practice. 
In  February  1848  he  became  one  of  the  chief  leader-writers  for 
the  Peelite  organ,  the  Morning  Chronicle.  The  morbid  activity 
of  his  memory,  however,  continued  to  make  him  many  enemies. 
He  alienated  Disraeli  by  tracing  a  purple  patch  in  his  official 
eulogy  of  Wellington  to  a  newspaper  translation  from  Thiers's 
funeral  panegyric  on  General  St  Cyr.  His  sharp  tongue  made 
an  enemy  of  Roebuck,  and  he  disgusted  the  friends  of  Mill  by 
the  stories  he  raked  up  for  an  obituary  notice  of  the  great 
economist  (The  Times,  loth  May  1873).  He  broke  with  Henry 
Reeve  in  1874  by  a  venomous  review  of  the  Greville  Memoirs, 
in  which  Reeve  was  compared  to  the  beggarly  Scot  deputed  to  let 
off  the  blunderbuss  which  Bolingbroke  (Greville)  had  charged. 
His  enemies  prevented  him  from  enjoying  a  well-selected  quasi- 
sinecure,  which  both  Palmerston  and  Aberdeen  admitted  to  be 
his  due.  Samuel  Warren  attacked  him  (very  unjustly,  for 
Hayward  was  anything  but  a  parasite)  as  Venom  Tuft  in  Ten 
Thousand  a  Year;  and  Disraeli  aimed  at  him  partially  in  Ste 
Barbe  (in  Endymion),  though  the  satire  here  was  directed 
primarily  against  Thackeray.  After  his  break  with  Reeve, 
Hayward  devoted  himself  more  exclusively  to  the  Quarterly. 
His  essays  on  Chesterfield  and  Selwyn  were  reprinted  in  1854. 
Collective  editionsof  his  articles  appeared  in  volume  form  in  1858, 
1873  and  1874,  and  Selected  Essays  in  two  volumes,  1878.  In 
his  useful  but  far  from  flawless  edition  of  the  Autobiography, 
Letters  and  Literary  Remains  of  Mrs  (Thrale)  Piozzi  (1861), 
he  again  appears  as  a  supplementer  and  continuator  of  J.  W. 
Croker.  His  Eminent  Statesmen  and  Writers  (1880)  commemo- 
rates to  a  large  extent  personal  friendships  with  such  men 
as  Dumas,  Cavour  and  Thiers,  whom  he  knew  intimately.  As 
a  counsellor  of  great  ladies  and  of  politicians,  to  whom  he 


n6 


HAYWARD,  SIR  J.— HAZARA 


held  forth  with  a  sense  of  all-round  responsibility  surpassing 
that  of  a  cabinet  minister,  Hayward  retained  his  influence  to 
the  last  years  of  his  life.  But  he  had  little  sympathy  with  modern 
ideas.  He  used  to  say  that  he  had  outlived  every  one  that  he 
could  really  look  up  to.  He  died,  a  bachelor,  in  his  rooms  at 
8  St  James's  Street  (a  small  museum  of  autograph  portraits  and 
reviewing  trophies)  on  the  2nd  of  February  1884. 

Two  volumes  of  Hayward's  Correspondence  (edited  by  H.  E. 
Carlisle)  were  published  in  1886.  In  Vanity  Fair  (27th  November 
1875)  he  may  be  seen  as  he  appeared  in  later  life.  (T.  SE.) 

HAYWARD,  SIR  JOHN  (c.  1560-1627),  English  historian, 
was  born  at  or  near  Felixstowe,  Suffolk,  where  he  was  educated, 
and  afterwards  proceeded  to  Pembroke  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  took  the  degrees  of  B.A.,  M.A.  and  LL.D.  In  1599  he 
published  The  First  Part  of  the  Life  and  Raigne  of  King  Henrie  I V. 
dedicat  ed  to  Robert  Devereux,  earl  of  Essex.  This  was  reprinted 
in  1642.  Queen  Elizabeth  and  her  advisers  disliked  the  tone 
of  the  book  and  its  dedication,  and  the  queen  ordered  Francis 
Bacon  to  search  it  for  "  places  in  it  that  might  be  drawn  within 
case  of  treason."  Bacon  reported  "  for  treason  surely  I  find 
none,  but  for  felony  very  many,"  explaining  that  many  of  th* 
sentences  were  stolen  from  Tacitus;  but  nevertheless  Hayward 
was  put  in  prison,  where  he  remained  until  about  1601.  On  the 
accession  of  James  I.  in  1603  he  courted  the  new  king's  favour 
by  publishing  two  pamphlets — "  An  Answer  to  the  first  part  of  a 
certaine  conference  concerning  succession,"  and  "  A  Treatise 
of  Union  of  England  and  Scotland."  The  former  pamphlet, 
an  argument  in  favour  of  the  divine  right  of  kings,  was  reprinted 
in  1683  as  "  The  Right  of  Succession  "  by  the  friends  of  the  duke 
of  York  during  the  struggle  over  the  Exclusion  Bill.  In  1610 
Hayward  was  appointed  one  of  the  historiographers  of  the  college 
which  James  founded  at  Chelsea;  in  1613  he  published  his 
Lives  of  the  Three  Norman  Kings  of  England,  written  at  the  re- 
quest of  James's  son,  Prince  Henry;  in  i6i6h_-  became  a  member 
of  the  College  of  Advocates;  and  in  1619  he  was  knighted.  He 
died  in  London  on  the  27th  of  June  1627.  Among  his  manu- 
scripts was  found  The  Life  and  Raigne  of  King  Edward  VI., 
first  published  in  1630,  and  Certain  Yeres  of  Queen  Elizabeth's 
Raigne,  the  beginning  of  which  was  printed  in  an  edition  of  his 
Edward  VI.,  published  in  1636,  but  which  was  first  published  in 
a  complete  form  in  1840  for  the  Camden  Society  under  the  editor- 
ship of  John  Bruce,  who  prefixed  an  introduction  on  the  life  and 
writings  of  the  author.  Hayward  was  conscientious  and  diligent 
in  obtaining  information,  and  although  his  reasoning  on  questions 
of  morality  is  often  childish,  his  descriptions  are  generally 
graphic  and  vigorous.  Notwithstanding  his  imprisonment  under 
Elizabeth,  his  portrait  of  the  qualities  of  the  queen's  mind  and 
person  is  flattering  rather  than  detractive.  He  also  wrote 
several  works  of  a  devotional  character. 

HAYWOOD,  ELIZA  (c.  1693-1756),  English  writer,  daughter 
of  a  London  tradesman  named  Fowler,  was  born  about  1693. 
She  made  an  early  and  unhappy  marriage  with  a  man  named 
Haywood,  and  her  literary  enemies  circulated  scandalous 
stories  about  her,  possibly  founded  on  her  works  rather  than  her 
real  history.  She  appeared  on  the  stage  as  early  as  1715,  and 
in  1721  she  revised  for  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields  The  Fair  Captive, 
by  a  Captain  Hurst.  Two  other  pieces  followed,  but  Eliza 
Haywood  made  her  mark  as  a  follower  of  Mrs  Manley  in  writing 
scandalous  and  voluminous  novels.  To  Memoirs  of  a  certain 
Island  adjacent  to  Utopia,  written  by  a  celebrated  author  of  that 
country.  Now  translated  into  English  (1725),  she  appended 
a  key  in  which  the  characters  were  explained  by  initials  denoting 
living  persons.  The  names  are  supplied  to  these  initials  in  the 
copy  in  the  British  Museum.  The  Secret  History  of  the  Present 
Intrigues  of  the  Court  of  Caramania  (1727)  was  explained  in  a 
similar  manner.  The  style  of  these  productions  is  as  extravagant 
as  their  matter.  Pope  attacked  her  in  a  coarse  passage  in  The 
Dunciad  (bk.  ii.  n.  157  et  seq.),  which  is  aggravated  by  a 
note  alluding  to  the  "  profligate  licentiousness  of  those  shameless 
scribblers  (for  the  most  part  of  that  sex  which  ought  least  to  be 
capable  of  such  malice  or  impudence)  who  in  libellous  Memoirs 
and  Novels  reveal  the  faults  or  misfortunes  of  both  sexes,  to 


the  ruin  of  public  fame,  or  disturbance  of  private  happiness." 
Swift,  writing  to  Lady  Suffolk,  says,  "Mrs  Haywocd  I  have  heard 
of  as  a  stupid,  infamous,  scribbling  woman,  but  have  not  seen 
any  of  her  productions."  She  continued  to  be  a  prolific  writer 
of  novels  until  her  death  on  the  25th  of  February  1756,  but  her 
later  works  are  characterized  by  extreme  propriety,  though  an 
anonymous  story  of  The  Fortunate  Foundlings  (1744),  purporting 
to  be  an  account  of  the  children  of  Lord  Charles  Manners,  is 
generally  ascribed  to  her. 

A  collected  edition  of  her  novels,  plays  and  poems  appeared  in 
1724,  and  her  Secret  Histories,  Novels  and  Poems  in  1725.  See  also 
an  article  by  S.  L.  Lee  in  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 

HAZARA,  a  race  of  Afghanistan.  The  Hazaras  are  of 
Mongolian  origin,  speak  a  dialect  of  Persian,  and  belong  to  the 
Shiah  sect  of  Mahommedans.  They  are  of  middle  size  but 
stoutly  made,  with  small  grey  eyes,  high  cheek  bones  and 
smooth  faces.  They  are  descendants  of  military  colonists 
introduced  by  Jenghiz  Khan,  who  occupy  all  the  highlands  of 
the  upper  Helmund  valley,  spreading  through  the  country 
between  Kabul  and  Herat,  as  well  as  into  a  strip  of  territory 
on  the  frontier  slopes  of  the  Hindu  Kush  north  of  Kabul.  In  the 
western  provinces  they  are  known  as  the  Chahar  Aimak  (Hazaras, 
Jamshidis,  Taimanis  and  Ferozkhois),  and  in  other  districts 
they  are  distinguished  by  the  name  of  the  territory  they  occupy. 
They  are  pure  Mongols,  intermixing  with  no  other  races  (chiefly 
for  the  reason  that  no  other  races  will  intermix  with  them), 
preserving  their  language  and  their  Mongol  characteristics 
uninfluenced  by  their  surroundings,  having  absolutely  displaced 
the  former  occupants  of  the  Hazarajat  and  Ghor.  They  make 
good  soldiers  and  excellent  pioneers.  The  amir's  companies  of 
engineers  are  recruited  from  the  Hazaras,  and  they  form  perhaps 
the  most  effective  corps  in  his  heterogeneous  army.  They  are 
now  recruited  into  the  British  service  in  India. 

HAZARA,  a  district  of  British  India,  in  the  Peshawar 
division  of  the  North-West  Frontier  Province,  with  an  area 
of  3391  sq.  m.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Black  Moun- 
tain, the  Swat  country,  Kohistan  and  Chilas;  on  the  E.  by 
the  native  state  of  Kashmir;  on  the  S.  by  Rawalpindi 
district;  and  on  the  W.  by  the  river  Indus.  On  the  creation 
of  the  North-West  Frontier  Province  in  1901  the  district  was 
reconstituted,theTahsilof  AttockbeingtransferredtoRawalpindi. 
The  district  forms  a  wedge  of  .territory  extending  far  into  the 
heart  of  the  outer  Himalayas,  and  consisting  of  a  long  narrow 
valley,  shut  in  on  both  sides  by  lofty  mountains,  whose  peaks 
rise  to  a  height  of  17,000  ft.  above  sea  level.  Towards  the 
centre  of  the  district  the  vale  of  Kagan  is  bounded  by  mountain 
chains,  which  sweep  southward  still  maintaining  a  general 
parallel  direction,  and  send  off  spurs  on  every  side  which  divide 
the  country  into  numerous  minor  dales.  The  district  is  well 
watered  by  the  tributaries  of  the  Indus,  the  Kunhar,  which 
flows  through  the  Kagan  Valley  into  the  Jhelum,  and  many 
rivulets.  Throughout  the  scenery  is  picturesque.  To  the  north 
rise  the  distant  peaks  of  the  snow-clad  ranges;  midway,  the 
central  mountains  stand  clothed  to  their  rounded  summits  with 
pines  and  other  forest  trees,  while  grass  and  brushwood  spread 
a  green  cloak  over  the  nearer  hills,  and  cultivation  covers  every 
available  slope.  The  chief  frontier  tribes  on  the  border  are 
the  cis-Indus  Swatis,  Hassanzais,  Akazais,  Chagarzais,  Pariari 
Syads,  Madda  Khels,  Amazais  and  Umarzais.  Within  the 
district  Pathans  are  not  numerous. 

The  name  Hazara  possibly  belonged  originally  to  a  Turki 
family  which  entered  India  with  Timur  in  the  i4th  century, 
and  subsequently  settled  in  this  remote  region.  During  the 
prosperous  period  of  the  Mogul  dynasty  the  population  included 
a  number  of  mixed  tribes,  which  each  began  to  assert  its  inde- 
pendence, so  that  the  utmost  anarchy  prevailed  until  Hazara 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  rising  Sikh  monarchy.  Ranjit 
Singh  first  obtained  a  footing  here  in  1818,  and,  after  eight  years 
of  constant  aggression,  became  master  of  the  whole  country. 
During  the  minority  of  the  young  maharaja  Dhuleep  Singh,  the 
Sikh  kingdom  fell  into  a  state  of  complete  disorganization;  the 
people  seized  the  opportunity  for  recovering  their  independence, 


HAZARD— HAZEL 


117 


and  rose  in  1845  in  rebellion.  They  stormed  the  Sikh  forts, 
laid  siege  to  Haripur,  and  drove  the  governor  across  the 
borders.  After  the  first  Sikh  War  it  was  proposed  to  transfer 
Hazara  with  Kashmir  to  Gulab  Singh,  but  it  remained  under 
the  Lahore  government  in  charge  of  James  Abbott,  who  pacified 
it  in  less  than  a  year  and  held  it  single-handed  throughout  the 
troubles  of  the  second  Sikh  War.  It  was  also  undisturbed 
during  the  Mutiny.  The  population  in  1901  was  560,  288,  showing 
an  increase  of  8-52%  in  the  decade.  The  headquarters  are  at 
Abbotabad;  pop.  (1901)  7764.  Through  the  Kagan  valley  and 
over  the  Babusar  pass  at  its  head  lies  the  most  direct  route 
from  the  Punjab  to  Chilas  and  Gilgit. 

HAZARD  (0.  Fr.  hazard,  from  Span,  azar,  unlucky  throw  at 
dice,  misfortune,  from  Arab,  al,  and  zar,  dice),  a  game  of  dice 
(called  Craps  in  America),  once  very  popular  in  England  and 
played  for  large  stakes  at  the  famous  rooms  of  Crockford  (St 
James's  Street,  London)  and  Almack  (Pall  Mall,  London).  The 
player  or  "  caster  "  calls  a  "  main  "  (that  is,  any  number  from 
five  to  nine  inclusive).  He  then  throws  with  two  dice.  If  he 
"  throws  in,"  or  "  nicks,"  he  wins  the  sum  played  for  from  the 
banker  or  "  setter."  Five  is  a  nick  to  five,  six  and  twelve  are 
nicks  to  six,  seven  and  eleven  to  seven,  eight  and  twelve  to  eight 
and  nine  to  nine.  If  the  caster  "  throws  out "  by  throwing 
aces,  or  deuce-ace  (called  crabs  or  craps),  he  loses.  When  the 
main  is  five  or  nine  the  caster  throws  out  with  1 1  or  12;  when 
the  main  is  six  or  eight  he  throws  out  with  1 1 ;  when  the  main 
is  seven  he  throws  out  with  12.  If  the  caster  neither  nicks  nor 
throws  out,  the  number  thrown  is  his  "chance,"  and  he  keeps 
on  throwing  till  either  the  chance  comes  up,  when  he  wins,  or 
till  the  main  comes  up,  when  he  loses.  When  a  chance  is  thrown 
the  "  odds  "  for  or  against  the  chance  are  laid  by  the  setter  to 
the  amount  of  the  original  stake.  Seven  is  the  best  main  for 
the  caster  to  call,  as  it  can  be  thrown  in  six  different  ways  out 
of  the  thirty-six  casts  which  are  possible  with  dice.  Supposing 
seven  to  be  the  main;  then  the  caster  wins  if  he  throws  7  or 
ii ;  he  loses  if  he  throws  crabs  or  12.  If  he  throws  any  other 
number,  4  for  example,  that  is  his  chance.  The  odds  against 
him  are  two  to  one,  as  7  can  be  thrown  in  six  ways,  but  4  only 
in  three;  hence  six  to  three,  or  two  to  one,  are  the  correct  odds, 
and  if  the  original  stake  was  £i,  the  setter  now  lays  £2  to  £i  in 
addition.  It  is  useful  to  remember  that  2  and  1 2  can  be  thrown 
in  one  way;  3  and  n  in  two  ways;  4  and  10  in  three  ways; 
5  and  9  in  four  ways;  6  and  8  in  five  ways.  The  odds  against 
the  caster  are  thus  given  by  Hoyle:  If  7  is  the  main  and  4 
the  chance,  two  to  one;  6  and  4,  five  to  three;  5  and  4,  four 
to  three;  7  and  9,  three  to  two;  7  and  6,  six  and  five;  7  and  5, 
three  to  two;  6  and  5,  five  to  four;  8  and  5,  five  to  four,  &c. 

HAZARIBAGH,  a  town  and  district  of  British  India,  in  the 
Chota  Nagpur  division  of  Bengal.  The  town  is  well  situated  at 
an  elevation  of  2000  ft.  Pop.  (1901)  15,799.  Hazaribagh  has 
ceased  to  be  a  military  cantonment  since  the  European  peni- 
tentiary was  abolished.  There  are  a  central  jail  and  a  reform- 
atory school.  The  Dublin  University  Mission  maintains  a 
First  Arts  college. 

The  DISTRICT  comprises  an  area  of  7021  sq.  m.  In  1901  the 
population  was  1,177,961,  showing  an  increase  of  i%  in  the 
decade.  The  physical  formation  of  Hazaribagh  exhibits  three 
distinct  features:  (i)  a  high  central  plateau  occupying  the 
western  section,  the  surface  of  which  is  undulating  and  cultivated; 
(2)  a  lower  and  more  extensive  plateau  stretching  along  the  north 
and  eastern  portions;  to  the  north,  the  land  is  well  cultivated, 
while  to  the  east  the  country  is  of  a  more  varied  character,  the 
elevation  is  lower,  and  the  character  of  a  plateau  is  gradually 
lost;  (3)  the  central  valley  of  the  Damodar  river  occupying  the 
entire  southern  section.  Indeed,  although  the  characteristics 
of  the  district  are  rock,  hill  and  wide-spreading  jungle,  fine 
patches  of  cultivation  are  met  with  in  all  parts,  and  the  scenery 
is  generally  pleasing  and  often  striking.  The  district  forms  a 
part  of  the  chain  of  high  land  which  extends  across  the  continent 
of  India,  south  of  the  Nerbudda  on  the  west,  and  south  of  the 
Sone  river  on  the  east.  The  most  important  river  is  the  Damodar, 
with  its  many  tributaries,  which  drains  an  area  of  2480  sq.  m. 


The  history  of  the  district  is  involved  in  obscurity  until  1755, 
about  which  time  a  certain  Mukund  Singh  was  chief  of  the 
country.  In  a  few  years  he  was  superseded  by  Tej  Singh,  who 
had  gained  the  assistance  of  the  British.  In  1780  Hazaribagh, 
along  with  the  surrounding  territory,  passed  under  direct  British 
rule. 

The  district  contains  an  important  coal-field  at  Giridih  which 
supplies  the  East  Indian  railway.  There  are  altogether  six 
mines.  There  are  also  mica  mines  which  are  gaining  in  import- 
ance. Rice  and  oilseeds  are  the  principal  crops.  Tea  cultivation 
has  been  tried  but  does  not  flourish,  and  is  almost  extinct.  The 
only  railways  are  the  branch  of  the  East  Indian  to  the  coal- 
field at  Giridih,  where  there  is  a  technical  school  maintained 
by  the  railway  company,  and  the  newly-opened  Gaya-Katrasgarh 
chord  line;  but  the  district  is  traversed  by  the  Grand  Trunk 
road.  Parasnath  hill  is  annually  visited  by  large  numbers  of 
Jain  worshippers. 

HAZEBROUCK,  a  town  of  northern  France,  capital  of  an 
arrondissement  in  the  department  of  Nord,  on  the  canalized 
Bourre,  29  m.  W.N.W.  of  Lille,  on  the  Northern  railway,  between 
that  town  and  St  Omer.  Pop.  (1906),  town,  8798;  commune, 
12,819.  With  the  exception  of  the  church  of  St.  Eloi,  a  building 
of  the  i6th  century  with  a  spire  of  fine  open  work  260  ft.  high, 
and  the  hospice,  occupying  a  convent  built  in  the  i6th  and  i?th 
centuries,  there  is-  little  of  architectural  interest  in  the  town. 
Hazebrouck  is  the  seat  of  a  sub  prefect,  and  has  a  tribunal  of  first 
instance  and  a  board  of  trade  arbitration.  It  is  the  market  for 
a  fertile  agricultural  district,  and  has  trade  in  live-stock,  grain  and 
hops.  Cloth-weaving  is  the  chief  industry.  Hazebrouck  is  an 
important  junction,  and  railway  employes  form  a  large  part  of 
its  population. 

HAZEL  (0.  Eng.  hcesel1;  cf.  Ger.  Hasel,  Swed.  and  Dan. 
hassel,  &c.,;  Fr.  noisetier,  coudrier),  botanically  corylus,  a  genus  of 
shrubs  or  low  trees  of  the  natural  order  Corylaceae.  The  common 
hazel,  Corylus  Avellana  (fig.  i),  occurs  throughout  Europe,  in 
North  Africa  and  in 
central  and  Russian 
Asia,  except  the 
northernmost  parts. 
It  is  commonly  found 
in  hedges  and  coppices, 
and  as  an  undergrowth 
in  woods,  and  reaches 
a  height  of  some  12 

ft.;  occasionally,  as  at       FlG    ^—Hazel  (Corylus  Avellana}.— i, 
Eastwell  Park,  Kent,   Female  catkin  (enlarged) ;  2,  Pair  of  fruits 
it  may  attain  to  30  ft.    (nuts)    each    enclosed    in    its    involucre 
According  to  Evelyn   (reduced). 
(Sylva,  p.   35,   1664), 

hazels  "  above  all  affect  cold,  barren,  dry,  and  sandy  soils;  also 
mountains,  and  even  rockie  ground  produce  them;  but  more 
plentifully  if  somewhat  moist,  dankish,  and  mossie."  In  Kent  they 
flourish  best  in  a  calcareous  soil.  The  bark  of  the  older  stems  is 
of  a  bright  brown,  mottled  with  grey,  that  of  the  young  twigs  is 
ash-coloured,  and  glandular  and  hairy.  The  leaves  are  alternate, 
from  2  to  4  in.  in  length,  downy  below,  roundish  heart-shaped, 
pointed  and  shortly  stalked.  In  the  variety  C.  purpurea,  the 
leaves,  as  also  the  pellicle  of  the  kernel  and  the  husk  of  the  nut, 
are  purple,  and  in  C.  heterophylla  they  are  thickly  clothed  with 
hairs.  In  autumn  the  rich  yellow  tint  acquired  by  the  leaves 
of  the  hazel  adds  greatly  to  the  beauty  of  landscapes.  The 
flowers  are  monoecious,  and  appear  in  Great  Britain  in  February 
and  March,  before  the  leaves.  The  cylindrical  drooping  yellow 
male  catkins  (fig.  2)  are  i  to  z\  in.  long,  and  occur  2  to  4  in  a 
raceme;  when  in  unusual  numbers  they  may  be  terminal  in 
position.  The  female  flowers  are  small,  sub-globose  and  sessile, 

1  It  has  been  supposed  that  the  origin  is  to  be  found  in  O.  Eng. 
has,  a  behest,  connected  with  hatan  =  Ger.  heissen,  to  give  orders: 
the  hazel-wand  was  the  sceptre  of  authority  of  the  shepherd 
chieftain  (iroi.ii.tiv  Xawi-)  of  olden  times,  see  Grimm,  Gesch.  d.  deulsch. 
Sprache,  p.  1016,  1848.  The  root  is  kas-,  cf.  Lat.  corulas,  corylus; 
and  the  original  meaning  is  unknown. 


n8 


HAZLETON 


FIG.  2.— Catkin  of 
Hazel  (Corylus  Avel- 
lana), consisting  of  an 
axis  covered  with  bracts 
in  the  form  of  scales, 
each  of  which  covers 
a  male  flower,  the 
stamens  of  which  are 
seen  projecting  beyond 
the  scale.  The  catkin 
falls  off  entire,  separ- 
ating from  the  branch 
by  an  articulation. 


resembling  leaf -buds,  and  have  protruding  crimson  stigmas; 
the  minute  inner  bracts,  by  their  enlargement,  form  the  palmately 
lobed  and  cut  involucre  or  husk  of  the  nut.  The  ovary  is  not 
visible  till  nearly  midsummer,  and  is  not  fully  developed  before 
autumn.  The  nuts  have  a  length  of  from  5  to  £  in.,  and  grow  in 
clusters.  Double  nuts  are  the  result  of 
the  equal  development  of  the  two  carpels 
of  the  original  flower,  of  which  ordinarily 
one  becomes  abortive;  fusion  of  two  or 
more  nuts  is  not  uncommon.  From  the 
light-brown  or  brown  colour  of  the  nuts 
the  terms  hazel  and  hazelly,  i.e.  "  in  hue 
as  hazel  nuts  "  (Shakespeare,  Taming  of 
the  Shrew,  ii.  i),  derive  their  significance.1 
The  wood  of  the  hazel  is  whitish-red, 
close  in  texture  and  pliant,  and  has 
when  dry  a  weight  of  49  lb  per  cub.  ft.; 
it  has  been  used  in  cabinet-making,  and 
for  toys  and  turned  articles.  Curiously 
veined  veneers  are  obtained  from  the 
roots;  and  the  root-shoots  are  largely 
employed  in  the  making  of  crates,  coal- 
corves  or  baskets,  hurdles,  withs  and 
bands,  whip-handles  and  other  objects. 
The  rods  are  reputed  to  be  most  durable 
when  from  the  driest  ground,  and  to  be 
especially  good  where  the  bottom  is 
chalky.  The  light  charcoal  afforded  by 
the  hazel  serves  well  for  crayons,  and 
is  valued  by  gunpowder  manufacturers. 
An  objection  to  the  construction  of 
hedges  of  hazel  is  the  injury  not  in- 
frequently done  to  them  by  the  nut- 
gatherer,  who  "  with  active  vigour  crushes  down  the  tree  " 
(Thomson's  Seasons,  "  Autumn  "),  and  otherwise  damages  it. 

The  filbert,2  among  the  numerous  varieties  of  Corylus  Avellana, 
is  extensively  cultivated,  especially  in  Kent,  for  the  sake  of  its 
nuts,  which  are  readily  distinguished  from  cob-nuts  by  their 
ample  involucre  and  greater  length.  It  may  be  propagated  by 
suckers  and  layers,  by  grafting  and  by  sowing.  Suckers  afford 
the  strongest  and  earliest-bearing  plants.  Grafted  filberts  are 
less  liable  than  others  to  be  encumbered  by  suckers  at  the  root. 
By  the  Maidstone  growers  the  best  plants  are  considered  to  be 
obtained  from  layers.  These  become  well  rooted  in  about  a 
twelvemonth,  and  then,  after  pruning,  are  bedded  out  in  the 
nursery  for  two  or  three  years.  The  filbert  is  economically  grown 
on  the  borders  of  plantations  or  orchards,  or  in  open  spots  in 
woods.  It  thrives  most  in  a  light  loam  with  a  dry  subsoil;  rich 
and,  in  particular,  wet  soils  are  unsuitable,  conducing  to  the 
formation  of  too  much  wood.  Plantations  of  filberts  are  made 
in  autumn,  in  well-drained  ground,  and  a  space  of  about  10  ft. 
by  8  has  to  be  allowed  for  each  tree.  In  the  third  year  after 
planting  the  trees  may  require  root-pruning;  in  the  fifth  or  sixth 
they  should  bear  well.  The  nuts  grow  in  greatest  abundance  on 
the  extremities  of  second  year's  branches,  where  light  and  air 
have  ready  access.  To  obtain  a  good  tree,  the  practice  in  Kent  is 
to  select  a  stout  upright  shoot  3  ft.  in  length;  this  is  cut  down 
to  about  18  in.  of  which  the  lower  12  are  kept  free  from  out- 
growth. The  head  is  pruned  to  form  six  or  eight  strong  offsets; 
and  by  judicious  use  of  the  knife,  and  by  training,  preferably  on 
a  hoop  placed  within  them,  these  are  caused  to  grow  outwards  and 
upwards  to  a  height  of  about  6  ft.  so  as  to  form  a  bowl-like  shape. 
Excessive  luxuriance  of  the  laterals  may  be  combated  by  root- 
pruning,  or  by  checking  them  early  in  the  season,  and  again  later, 
and  by  cutting  back  to  a  female  blossom  bud,  or  else  spurring 
nearly  down  to  the  main  branch  in  the  following  spring. 

Filbert  nuts  required  for  keeping  must  be  gathered  only  when 
quite  ripe;  they  may  then  be  preserved  in  dry  sand,  or,  after 
drying,  by  packing  with  a  sprinkling  of  salt  in  sound  casks  or  new 


On  the  expression  "  hazel  eyes,"  see  Notes  and  Queries,  2nd  ser. 

337.  ar>d  3rd  ser.  iii.  18,  39. 

For  derivations  of  the  word  see  Latham's  Johnson's  Dictionary. 


flower-pots.  Their  different  forms  include  the  Cosford,  which  are 
thin-shelled  and  oblong;  the  Downton,  or  large  square  nut,  having 
a  lancinatcd  husk;  the  white  or  Wrotham  Park  filbert;  and  the 
red  hazel  or  filbert,  the  kernel  of  which  has  a  red  pellicle.  The  last 
two,  on  account  of  their  elongated  husk,  have  been  distinguished 
as  a  species,  under  the  name  Corylus  tubulosa.  Like  these,  appar- 
ently, were  the  nuts  of  Abella,  or  Avella,  in  the  Campania  (cf.  Fr. 
aveline,  filbert),  said  by  Pliny  to  have  been  originally  designated 
"  Pontic,"  from  their  introduction  into  Asia  and  Greece  from 
Pontus  (see  Nat  Hist.  xv.  2$,  xxiii.  78).  Hazel-nuts,  under  the 
name  of  Barcelona  or  Spanish  nuts,  are  largely  exported  from 
France  and  Portugal,  and  especially  Tarragona  and  other  places  in 
Spain.  They  afford  60%  of  a  colourless  or  pale-yellow,  sweet- 
tasting,  non-drying  oil,  which  has  a  specific  gravity  of  0-92  nearly, 
becomes  solid  at  —19°  C.  (Cloez),  and  consists  approximately  of 
carbon  77,  and  hydrogen  and  oxygen  each  11-5%.  Hazel  nuts 
formed  part  of  the  food  of  the  ancient  lake-dwellers  of  Switzerland 
and  other  countries  of  Europe  (see  Keller,  Lake  Dwellings,  trans. 
Lee,  2nd  ed.,  1878).  By  the  Romans  they  were  sometimes  eaten 
roasted.  Kaltenbach  (Pflanzenfeinde,  pp.  633-638,  1874)  enumerates 
ninety-eight  insects  which  attack  the  hazel.  Among  these  the  beetle 
Balaninus  nucum,  the  nut-weevil,  seen  on  hazel  and  oak  stems 
from  the  end  of  May  till  July,  is  highly  destructive  to  the  nuts. 
The  female  lays  an  egg  in  the  unripe  nut,  on  the  kernel  of  which 
the  larva  subsists  till  September,  when  it  bores  its  way  through  the 
shell,  and  enters  the  earth,  to  undergo  transformation  into  a  chrysalis 
in  the  ensuing  spring.  The  leaves  of  the  hazel  are  frequently 
found  mined  on  the  upper  and  under  side  respectively  by  the  larvae 
of  the  moths  Lithocolletis  coryli  and  L.  Nicelii.  Squirrels  and 
dormice  are  very  destructive  to  the  nut  crop,  as  they  not  only  take 
for  present  consumption  but  for  a  store  for  future  supply.  Parasitic 
on  the  roots  of  the  hazel  is  found  the  curious  leafless  Lathraea 
Squamaria  or  toothwort. 

The  Hebrew  word  luz,  translated  "  hazel  "  in  the  authorized 
version  of  the  English  Bible  (Gen.  xxx.  37),  is  believed  to  signify 
"  almond  "  (see  Kitto,  Cycl.  of  Bill.  Lit.  ii.  869,  and  iii.  811,  1864). 
A  belief  in  the  efficacy  of  divining-rods  of  hazel  for  the  discovery  of 
concealed  objects  is  probably  of  remote  origin  (cf.  Hosea  iv.  12). 
G.  Agricola,  in  his  treatise  Vom  Bergwerck  (pp.  xxix.-xxxi.,  Basel, 
'557)>  gives  an  account,  accompanied  by  a  woodcut,  of  their  em- 
ployment in  searching  for  mineral  veins.  By  certain  persons,  who 
for  different  metals  used  rods  of  various  materials,  rods  of  hazel, 
he  says,  were  held  serviceable  simply  for  silver  lodes,  and  by  the 
skilled  miner,  who  trusted  to  natural  signs  of  mineral  veins,  they 
were  regarded  as  of  no  avail  at  all.  The  virtue  of  the  hazel  wand 
was  supposed  to  be  dependent  on  its  having  two  forks;  these  were 
to  be  grasped  in  the  fists,  with  the  fingers  uppermost,  but  with 
moderate  firmness  only,  lest  the  free  motion  of  the  opposite  end 
downwards  towards  the  looked-for  object  should  be  interfered  with. 
According  to  Cornish  tradition,  the  divining  or  dowsing  rod  is 
guided  to  lodes  by  the  pixies,  the  guardians  of  the  treasures  of  the 
earth.  By  Vallemont,  who  wrote  towards  the  end  of  the  1 7th 
century,  the  divining-rod  of  hazel,  or  "  baguette  divinatoire,"  is 
described  as  instrumental  in  the  pursuit  of  criminals.  The  Jesuit 
Vaniere,  who  flourished  in  the  early  part  of  the  i8th  century,  in 
the  Praedium  rusticum  (pp.  12,  13,  new  ed.,  Toulouse,  1742)  amus- 
ingly relates  the  manner  in  which  he  exposed  the  chicanery  of  one 
who  pretended  by  the  aid  of  a  hazel  divining-rod  to  point  out 
hidden  water-courses  and  gold.  The  burning  of  hazel  nuts  for  the 
magical  investigation  of  the  future  is  alluded  to  by  John  Gay  in 
Thursday,  or  the  Spell,  and  by  Burns  in  Halloween.  The  hazel  is  very 
frequently  mentioned  by  the  old  French  romance  writers.  Corylus 
rostrata  and  C.  americana  of  North  America  have  edible  fruits  like 
those  of  C.  Avellana. 

The  witch  hazel  is  quite  a  distinct  plant,  Hamamelis  virginica,  of 
the  natural  order  Hamamalideae,  the  astringent  bark  of  which  is 
used  in  medicine.  It  is  a  hardy  deciduous  shrub,  native  of  North 
America,  which  bears  a  profusion  of  rich  yellow  flowers  in  autumn 
and  winter  when  the  plant  is  feafless. 

HAZLETON,  a  city  of  Luzerne  county,  Pennsylvania,  U.S.A., 
about  25  m.  S.  of  Wilkes-Barre.  Pop.  (1890)  11,872;  (1900) 
14,230,  of  whom  2732  were  foreign-born;  (1910  census)  25,452. 
It  is  served  by  the  Lehigh  Valley,  the  Pennsylvania  (for  freight), 
and  the  Wilkes-Barre  &  Hazleton  (electric)  railways.  The 
city  is  built  on  a  broad  tableland  on  Nescopeck  or  Buck 
Mountain,  a  spur  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  about  1620  ft.  above 
sea-level.  It  has  a  park  and  a  number  of  handsome  residences; 
and  its  agreeable  climate  and  picturesque  situation  make  it 
attractive  as  a  summer  resort.  The  city  has  a  public  library. 
Hazleton  is  near  the  centre  of  one  of  the  richest  coal  regions  (the 
Lehigh  or  "  Eastern  Middle  Coal  Field  ")  of  the  state,  and  its 
principal  industry  is  the  mining  and  shipping  of  anthracite  coal. 
It  has  silk  mills,  knitting  mills,  shirt  factories,  breweries,  maca- 
roni factories,  lumber  and  planing  mills,  important  iron  works, 
a  casket  factory  and  a  large  electric  power  plant.  The  value  of 


HAZLITT,  WILLIAM 


119 


the  city's  factory  products  increased  from  $998,823  in  1900  to 
$2, 185,876  in  1905,  or  118-8%,  only  three  other  cities  in  the  state 
having  a  population  of  8000  or  more  in  1900  showing  a  greater 
rate  of  increase.  There  is  a  state  hospital  here  for  the  treatment 
of  persons  injured  in  mines.  Hazleton  was  settled  in  1820,  was 
laid  out  in  1836,  was  incorporated  as  a  borough  in  1856  and 
received  a  city  charter  in  1891.  The  local  coal  industry  dates 
from  1837. 

HAZLITT,  WILLIAM  (1778-1830),  British  literary  critic  and 
essayist,  was  born  on  the  loth  of  April  1778  at  Maidstone,  where 
his  father,  William  Hazlitt,  was  minister  of  a  Unitarian  con- 
gregation. The  father  took  the  side  of  the  Americans  in  their 
struggle  with  the  mother-country,  and  during  a  residence  at 
Bandon,  Co.  Cork,  interested  himself  in  the  welfare  of  some 
American  prisoners  at  Kinsale.  In  1783  he  migrated  with  his 
family  to  America,  but  in  the  winter  of  1786-1787  returned  to 
England,  and  settled  at  Wem  in  Shropshire,  where  he  ministered 
to  a  small  congregation.  There  his  son  William  went  to  school, 
till  in  1793  he  was  sent  to  the  Hackney  theological  college  in  the 
hope  that  he  would  become  a  dissenting  minister.  For  this 
career,  however,  he  had  no  inclination,  and  returned,  probably 
in  1794,  to  Wem,  where  he  led  a  desultory  life  until  1802,  and  then 
decided  to  become  a  portrait  painter.  His  elder  brother  John 
was  already  established  as  a  miniature  painter  in  London.  The 
monotony  of  life  at  Wem  was  broken  in  January  1798  by  the 
visit  of  Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge  to  Shrewsbury,  where  young 
Hazlitt  went  to  hear  him  preach.  Coleridge  encouraged  William 
Hazlitt's  interest  in  metaphysics,  and  in  the  spring  of  the  next 
year  Hazlitt  visited  Coleridge  at  Nether  Stowey  and  made  the 
acquaintance  of  William  Wordsworth.  The  circumstances  of 
this  early  intercourse  with  Coleridge  are  related  with  in- 
imitable skill  in  a  paper  in  Hazlitt's  Literary  Remains  (1839). 
On  visits  to  his  brother  in  London  he  made  many  acquaint- 
ances, the  most  important  being  a  friendship  with  Charles 
Lamb,  said  to  have  been  founded  on  a  remark  of  Lamb's 
interpolated  in  a  discussion  between  Coleridge,  Godwin  and 
Holcroft,  "  Give  me  man  as  he  is  not  to  be."  He  also  formed 
an  acquaintance  with  John  Stoddart,  whose  sister  Sarah  he 
married  in  1808.  In  October  1802  he  went  to  Paris  to  copy 
portraits  in  the  Louvre,  and  spent  four  happy  months  in  Paris. 
When  he  returned  to  London  he  undertook  commissions  for 
portraits,  but  soon  found  he  was  not  likely  to  excel  in  his  art; 
his  last  portrait,  one  of  Charles  Lamb  as  a  Venetian  senator 
'(now  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery),  was  executed  in  1805. 
In  that  year  he  published  his  first  book,  An  Essay  on  the 
Principles  of  Human  Action:  being  an  argument  in  favour  of 
the  Natural  Disinterestedness  of  the  Human  Mind,  which  had 
occupied  him  at  intervals  for  six  or  seven  years.  It  attracted 
little  attention,  but  remained  a  favourite  with  its  author.  Other 
works  belonging  to  this  period  are:  Free  Thoughts  on  Public 
Affairs  (1806);  An  Abridgment  of  the  Light  of  Nature  Revealed, 
by  Abraham  Tucker.  .  .  (1807);  The  Eloquence  of  the  British 
Senate  ...  (2  vols.,  1807);  A  Reply  to  Malthus,  on  his  Essay 
on  Population  (1807);  A  New  and  Improved  Grammar  of  the 
English  Tongue  .  .  .  (1810). 

Hazlitt  married  in  1808.  His  domestic  life  was  unhappy. 
His  wife  was  an  unromantic,  business-like  woman,  while  he  him- 
self was  fitful  and  moody,  and  impatient  of  restraint.  The 
dissolution  of  the  ill-assorted  union  was  nevertheless  deferred 
for  fourteen  years,  during  which  much  of  Hazlitt's  best  literary 
work  had  been  produced.  Mrs  Hazlitt  had  inherited  a  small 
estate  at  Winterslow  near  Salisbury,  and  here  the  Hazlitts  lived 
until  1812,  when  they  removed  to  19  York  Street,  Westminster, 
a  house  that  was  once  Milton's.  Hazlitt  delivered  in  1812  a 
course  of  lectures  at  the  Russell  Institution  on  the  Rise  and 
Progress  of  Modern  Philosophy.  He  soon  abandoned  philosophy, 
however,  to  give  his  whole  attention  to  journalism.  He  was 
parliamentary  reporter  and  subsequently  dramatic  critic  for  the 
Morning  Chronicle;  he  also  contributed  to  the  Champion  and 
The  Times;  but  his  closest  connexion  was  with  the  Examiner, 
owned  by  John  and  Leigh  Hunt.  In  conjunction  with  Leigh 
Hunt  he  undertook  the  series  of  articles  called  The  Round  Table, 


a  collection  of  essays  on  literature,  men  and  manners  which 
were  originally  contributed  to  the  Examiner,  To  this  time 
belong  his  View  of  the  English  Stage  (1818),  and  Lectures  on  the 
English  Poets  (1818),  on  the  English  Comic  Writers  (1819),  and  on 
the  Dramatic  Literature  of  the  Age  of  Elizabeth  (1821).  By  these 
works,  together  with  his  Characters  of  Shakespeare's  Plays 
( 1 8 1 7) ,  and  his  Ta ble  Talk;  or  Original  Essays  on  Men  and  Man  ners 
(1821-1822),  his  reputation  as  a  critic  and  essayist  was  established. 
Next  to  Coleridge,  Hazlitt  was  perhaps  the  most  powerful  ex- 
ponent of  the  dawning  perception  that  Shakespeare's  art  was  no 
less  marvellous  than  his  genius;  and  Hazlitt's  criticism  did  not, 
like  Coleridge's,  remain  in  the  condition  of  a  series  of  brilliant 
but  fitful  glimpses  of  insight,  but  was  elaborated  with  steady 
care.  His  lectures  on  the  Elizabethan  dramatists  performed  a 
similar  service  for  the  earlier,  sweeter  and  simpler  among  them, 
such  as  Dekker,  till  then  unduly  eclipsed  by  later  writers  like 
Massinger,  better  playwrights  but  worse  poets.  Treating  of  the 
contemporary  drama,  he  successfully  vindicated  for  Edmund 
Kean,  whose  genius  he  recognized  from  the  first,  the  high  place 
which  he  has  retained  as  an  actor,  and  his  enthusiasm  for  Mrs 
Siddons  knew  no  bounds.  His  criticisms  on  the  English  comic 
writers  and  men  of  letters  in  general  are  masterpieces  of  inge- 
nious and  felicitous  exposition,  though  rarely,  like  Coleridge's, 
penetrating  to  the  inmost  core  of  the  subject.  Moreover,  at 
the  time  when  the  lectures  were  written,  Hazlitt's  views,  orthodox 
as  they  may  seem  now,  were  novel  enough. 

As  an  essayist  Hazlitt  is  even  more  effective  than  as  a  critic. 
Being  enabled  to  select  his  own  subjects,  he  escapes  dependence 
upon  others  either  for  his  matter  or  his  illustrations,  and  presents 
himself  by  turns  as  a  metaphysician,  a  moralist,  a  humorist,  a 
painter  of  manners  and  characteristics,  but  always,  whatever 
his  ostensible  theme,  deriving  the  essence  of  his  commentary 
from  himself.  This  combination  of  intense  subjectivity  with 
strict  adherence  to  his  subject  is  one  of  Hazlitt's  most  distinctive 
and  creditable  traits.  Intellectual  truthfulness  is  a  passion  with 
him.  He  steeps  his  topic  in  the  hues  of  his  own  individuality, 
but  never  uses  it  as  a  means  of  self-display.  The  first  reception 
of  his  admirable  essays  was  by  no  means  in  accordance  with 
their  deserts.  Hazlitt's  political  sympathies  and  antipathies  were 
vehement,  and  he  had  taken  the  unfashionable  side.  The 
Quarterly  Review  attacked  him  with  deliberate  malignity,  stopped 
the  sale  of  his  writings  for  a  time  and  blighted  his  credit  with 
publishers.  Hazlitt  retaliated  by  his  Letter  to  William  Gijford 
(1819),  accusing  the  editor  of  deliberate  misrepresentation. 
In  downright  abuse  and  hard-hitting,  Hazlitt  proved  himself 
more  than  a  match  even  for  Gifford.  By  the  writers  in  Black- 
wood's  Magazine  Hazlitt  was  also  scurrilously  treated.1  He  had 
become  estranged  from  his  early  friends,  the  Lake  poets,  by  what 
he  uncharitably  but  not  unnaturally  regarded  as  their  political 
apostasy;  and  he  had  no  scruples  about  recording  his  often  very 
unfavourable  opinions  of  his  contemporaries.  He  displayed, 
moreover,  an  exasperating  facility  in  grounding  his  criticisms 
on  facts  that  his  victims  were  unabls  to  deny.  His  inequalities 
of  temper  separated  him  for  a  time  even  from  Leigh  Hunt  and 
Charles  Lamb,  and  on  the  whole  the  period  of  his  most  brilliant 
literary  success  was  that  when  he  was  most  soured  and  broken. 
Domestic  troubles  supervened;  he  had  gone  to  live  in  South- 
ampton Buildings  in  September  1819,  and  his  marriage,  long 
little  more  than  nominal,  was  dissolved  in  consequence  of  the 
infatuated  passion  he  had  conceived  for  his  landlord's  daughter, 
Sarah  Walker,  a  most  ordinary  person  in  the  eyes  of  every  one 
else.  It  is  impossible  to  regard  Hazlitt  as  a  responsible  agent 
while  he  continued  subject  to  this  influence.  His  own  record 
of  the  transaction,  published  by  himself  under  the  title  of  Liber 
Amoris,  or  the  New  Pygmalion  (1823),  is  an  unpleasant  but 
remarkable  psychological  document.  It  consists  of  conversations 
between  Hazlitt  and  Sarah  Walker,  drawn  up  in  the  spring  of 
1822,  of  a  correspondence  between  Hazlitt  and  his  friend  P.  G. 
Patmore  between  March  and  July,  and  an  account  of  the  rupture 
of  his  relations  with  Sarah.  The  business-like  dissolution  of 
his  marriage  under  the  law  of  Scotland  is  related  with  amazing 

1  For  some  quotations  see  Alexander  Ireland's  bibliography. 


120 


HEAD,  SIR  E.  W. 


nalvet6  by  the  family  biographer.  Rid  of  his  wife  and  cured 
of  his  mistress,  he  shortly  afterwards  astonished  his  friends  by 
marrying  a  widow.  "  All  I  know,"  says  his  grandson,  "  is  that 
Mrs  Bridgewater  became  Mrs  Hazlitt."  They  travelled  on  the 
continent  for  a  year  and  then  parted  finally.  Hazlitt's  study  of 
the  Italian  masters  during  this  tour,  described  in  a  series  of  letters 
contributed  to  the  Morning  Chronicle,  had  a  deep  effect  upon  him, 
and  perhaps  conduced  to  that  intimacy  with  the  cynical  old 
painter  Northcote  which,  shortly  after  his  return,  engendered 
a  curious  but  eminently  readable  volume  of  The  Conversations 
of  James  Northcote,  R.A.  (1830).  The  respective  shares  of  author 
and  artist  are  not  always  easy  to  determine.  During  the  recent 
agitations  of  his  life  he  had  been  writing  essays,  collected  in  1826 
under  the  title  of  The  Plain  Speaker:  opinions  on  Books,  Men 
and  Things  (1826).  The  Spirit  of  the  Age;  or  Contemporary 
Portraits  (1825),  a  series  of  criticisms  on  the  leading  intellectual 
characters  of  the  day,  is  in  point  of  style  perhaps  the  most 
splendid  and  copious  of  his  compositions.  It  is  eager  and  ani- 
mated to  impetuosity,  though  without  any  trace  of  careless- 
ness or  disorder.  He  now  undertook  a  work  which  was  to  have 
crowned  his  literary  reputation,  but  which  can  hardly  be  said 
to  have  even  enhanced  it — The  Life  of  Napoleon  Buonaparte 
(4  vols.,  1828-1830).  The  undertaking  was  at  best  premature, 
and  was  inevitably  disfigured  by  partiality  to  Napoleon  as 
the  representative  of  the  popular  cause,  excusable  in  a  Liberal 
politician  writing  in  the  days  of  the  Holy  Alliance.  Owing  to 
the  failure  of  his  publishers  Hazlitt  received  no  recompense  for 
this  laborious  work.  Pecuniary  anxieties  and  disappointments 
may  have  contributed  to  hasten  his  death,  which  took  place 
on  the  i8th  of  September  1830.  Charles  Lamb  was  with  him 
to  the  last. 

Hazlitt  had  many  serious  defects  of  temper.  His  consistency 
was  gained  at  the  expense  of  refusing  to  revise  his  early  impres- 
sions and  prejudices.  His  estimate  of  a  man's  work  was  too 
apt  to  be  decided  by  sympathy  or  the  reverse  with  his  politics. 
For  Scott,  however,  he  had  a  great  admiration,  although  they 
were  far  enough  apart  in  politics.  He  was  a  compound  of  in- 
tellect and  passion,  and  the  refinement  of  his  critical  analysis 
is  associated  with  vehement  eloquence  and  glowing  imagery. 
He  was  essentially  a  critic,  a  dissector  and,  as  Bulwer  justly 
remarks,  a  much  better  judge  of  men  of  thought  than  of  men  of 
action.  The  paradoxes  with  which  his  works  abound  never 
spring  from  affectation;  they  are  in  general  the  sallies  of  a  mind 
so  agile  and  ardent  as  to  overrun  its  own  goal.  His  style  is 
perfectly  natural,  and  yet  admirably  calculated  for  effect.  His 
diction,  always  rich  and  masculine,  seems  to  kindle  as  he  pro- 
ceeds; and  when  thoroughly  animated  by  his  subject,  he  advances 
with  a  succession  of  energetic,  hard-hitting  sentences,  each 
carrying  his  argument  a  step  further,  like  a  champion  dealing 
out  blows  as  he  presses  upon  the  enemy.  Although,  however, 
his  grasp  upon  his  subject  is  strenuous,  his  insight  into  it  is 
rarely  profound.  He  can  amply  satisfy  men  of  taste  and  culture ; 
he  cannot,  like  Coleridge  or  Burke,  dissatisfy  them  with  them- 
selves by  showing  them  how  much  they  would  have  missed 
without  him.  He  is  a  critic  who  exhibits,  rather  than  reveals, 
the  beauties  of  an  author.  But  all  shortcomings  are  forgotten 
in  the  genuineness  and  fervour  of  the  writer's  self-portraiture. 
The  intensity  of  his  personal  convictions  causes  all  he  wrote  to 
appear  in  a  manner  autobiographic.  Other  men  have  been  said 
to  speak  like  books,  Hazlitt's  books  speak  like  men.  To  read 
his  works  in  connexion  with  Leigh  Hunt's  and  Charles  Lamb's 
is  to  be  introduced  into  one  of  the  most  attractive  of  English 
literary  circles,  and  this  alone  will  long  preserve  them  from 
oblivion. 

His  son,  WILLIAM  HAZLITT  (1811-1893),  was  born  on  the 
26th  of  September  1811.  The  separation  between  his  parents 
did  not  prevent  him  from  being  on  affectionate  terms  with  both 
of  them.  He  early  began  to  write  for  the  Morning  Chronicle, 
and  in  1833  married  Caroline  Reynell.  He  was  the  author  of 
many  translations,  chiefly  from  the  French,  and  of  some  works 
on  the  law  of  bankruptcy.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the 
Middle  Temple  in  1844,  and  became  registrar  in  the  court  of 


bankruptcy.  He  held  this  position  for  more  than  thirty  years, 
retiring  two  years  before  his  death,  which  took  place  at  Addle- 
stone,  Surrey,  on  the  23rd  of  February  1893. 

Hazlitt's  grandson,  WILLIAM  CARF.W  HAZLITT,  the  biblio- 
grapher, was  born  on  the  2  2nd  of  August  1 834.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Merchant  Taylors'  school  and  was  called  to  the  bar  of  the 
Inner  Temple  in  1861.  Among  his  many  publications  may  be 
noted  his  invaluable  Handbook  to  the  Popular,  Poetical  and 
Dramatic  Literature  of  Great  Britain,  from  the  Invention  of 
Printing  to  the  Restoration  (1867),  supplemented  in  1876,  1882', 
1887  and  1880,  a  General  Index  by  J.  G.  Gray  appearing  in  1893. 
He  published  further  contributions  to  the  subject  in  Biblio- 
graphical Collections  and  Notes  on  Early  English  Literature  made 
during  the  years  1893-1(103  (1903),  and  a  Manual  for  the  Collector 
and  Amateur  of  Old  English  Plays  .  .  .  (1892).  He  was  the  chief 
editor  of  the  useful  1871  edition  of  Warton's  History  of  English 
Poetry,  and  compiled  the  Catalogue  of  the  Huth  Library 
(1880). 

The  list  of  the  first  William  Hazlitt's  works  also  includes:  Political 
Essays,  -with  Sketches  of  Public  Characters  (1819);  Sketches  of  the 
Principal  Picture  Galleries  in  England  .  .  .  (1824);  Characteristics; 
in  the  Manner  of  Rochefoucauld's  Maxims  (1823);  Select  Poets  of 
Great  Britain:  to  -which  are  prefixed  Critical  Notices  of  each  Author 
(1825);  Notes  of  a  Journey  through  France  and  Italy  .  .  .  (1826); 
The  Life  of  Titian;  with  Anecdotes  of  the  Distinguished  Persons  of  his 
Time  (1830),  nominally  by  James  Northcote;  an  article  on  the 

Fine  Arts  "  contributed  to  the  seventh  edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica;  and  posthumous  collections  made  by  his  son. 

A  comprehensive  edition  of  The  Collected  Works  of  William  Hazlitt 
(12  vols.,  1902-1904)  does  not  include  the  life  of  Napoleon.  It 
contains  an  introduction  by  W.  E.  Henley,  and  was  issued  under  the 
superintendence  of  A.  R.  Waller  and  Arnold  Glover,  and  there  are 
many  modern  reprints  of  isolated  works.  The  most  copious  source 
of  information  respecting  Hazlitt  is  the  Memoirs  of  William  Hazlitt, 
with  Portions  of  his  Correspondence  (2  vols.,  1867),  by  his  grandson, 
W.  C.  Hazlitt,  a  medley  rather  than  a  memoir,  yet  full  of  interest. 
A  slight  but  appropriate  sketch  had  previously  been  prefixed  by 
his  son  to  his  Literary  Remains  ...  (2  vols.,  1836),  accompanied 
by  estimates  of  his  intellectual  character  by  Bulwer  and  by  Talfourd, 
who  had  been  his  fast  friend.  There  is  an  excellent  monograph  on 
William  Hazlitt  (1902)  by  Mr  Augustine  Birrell,  in  the  '•'  English 
Men  of  Letters  "  series,  and  one  in  French  by  J.  Donady  (Paris,  1907), 
who  also  published  a  bibliography  of  his  works.  Valuable  bio- 
graphical particulars  have  been  preserved  in.  Barry  Cornwall's 
memoirs  of  Lamb;  in  the  My  Friends  and  Acquaintances  (1854) 
of  Mr  P.  G.  Patmore,  Hazlitt's  most  intimate  associate  in  his  later 
years;  in  Crabb  Robinson's  Diary;  and  in  Lamb's  correspondence. 
A  full  bibliographical  list  of  his  writings,  with  a  collection  of  the 
most  remarkable  critical  judgments  upon  them  from  all  quarters, 
was  prepared  by  Alexander  Ireland  (1868).  Further  information 
on  the  Hazlitt  family  is  to  be  found  in  Mr  W.  C.  Hazlitt's  Four 
Generations  of  a  Literary  Family  (2  vols.,  1897).  The  chief  interest 
of  this  desultory  book  is  the  considerable  extracts  from  the  diary  of 
Margaret  [Peggy]  Hazlitt,  which  describes  the  Hazlitt  experiences 
in  America.  See  also  "  William  Hazlitt  "  in  Sir  L.  Stephen's  Hours 
in  a  Library  (ed.  1892,  vol.  ii.),  and  Lamb  and  Hazlitt,  further  Letters 
and  Records  hitherto  unpublished  (1900),  by  W.  C.  Hazlitt. 

HEAD,  SIR  EDMUND  WALKER,  BART.  (1805-1868),  English 
colonial  governor  and  writer  on  art,  was  the  son  of  the  Rev. 
Sir  John  Head,  Bart., rector  of  Rayleigh,  Essex.  He  was  educated 
at  Winchester  school  and  Orial  College,  Oxford,  and  taking  his 
degree  with  first-class  honours  in  classics,  he  became  fellow  of 
Merton  College.  On  his  father's  death  in  1838,  he  succeeded 
to  the  baronetcy  as  8th  baronet.  His  services  as  poor-law 
commissioner,  to  which  post  he  was  appointed  in  1841  after 
five  years  as  assistant-commissioner,  procured  for  him  in  1847 
the  office  of  lieutenant-governor  of  New  Brunswick,  whence 
he  passed  in  1854  to  the  governor-generalship  of  Canada,  which 
he  retained  till  1861.  The  following  year,  having  returned  to 
England,  Head  was  nominated  a  civil  service  commissioner. 
In  1857  he  was  sworn  of  the  Privy  Council,  and  in  1860  was 
decorated  as  K.C.B., while  in  the  course  of  his  career  he  received 
the  degrees  of  D.C.L.  at  Oxford  and  LL.D.  at  Cambridge.  He 
died  in  London  on  the  28th  of  January  1868,  the  baronetcy 
becoming  extinct,  as  his  only  son  had  died  in  1859. 

Sir  Edmund  Head  wrote  the  article  "  Painting  "  in  the  Penny 
Cyclopaedia;  A  Handbook  of  the  Spanish  and  French  Schools  of 
Painting  (1845) ;  Shall  and  Will,  or  two  Chapters  on  Future  Auxiliary 
Verbs  (1856);  and  Ballads  and  other  Poems,  Original  and  Translated 
(1868).  He  also  edited  F.  T.  Kugler's  Handbook  of  Painting  of  the 


HEAD,  SIR  F.  B.— HEALTH 


121 


German  Flemish,  Dutch,  Spanish,  and  French  Schools  (1854)  and  the 
Essavs  on  the  Administrations  of  Great  Britain  (1864),  written  by 
his  lifelong  friend,  Sir  George  Cornewall  Lewis.  His  translation 
from  the  Icelandic  of  Viga  Glum's  Saga  appeared  in  1866. 

HEAD,  SIR  FRANCIS  BOND,  BART.  (1793-1875),  English 
soldier,  traveller  and  author,  son  of  James  Roper  Head  of  the 
Hermitage,  Higham,  Kent,  was  born  there  on  the  ist  of  January 
1793.  He  was  educated  at  Rochester  grammar  school  and  the 
Royal  Military  Academy,  whence  in  1811  he  was  commissioned 
to  the  Royal  Engineers.  He  was  for  some  years  stationed  in 
the  Mediterranean,  and  he  served  in  the  campaign  of  1815, 
being  present  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  He  went  on  half-pay 
in  1825,  when  he  accepted  the  charge  of  an  association  formed 
to  work  the  gold  and  silver  mines  of  Rio  de  La  Plata.  In 
connexion  with  this  enterprise  he  made  several  rapid  journeys 
across  the  Pampas  and  among  the  Andes,  his  Rough  Notes  of 
which,  published  in  1826,  and  written  in  a  clear  and  spirited 
style,  obtained  for  him  the  name  of  "  Galloping  Head."  On 
his  return  in  1827,  he  became  involved  in  a  controversy  with 
the  directors  of  his  company,  and  in  defence  of  his  conduct  he 
published  Reports  of  the  La  Plata  Mining  Association  (London, 
1827).  He  was  soon  afterwards  restored  to  the  active  list  of 
the  army  as  a  major  unattached,  mainly  owing  to  his  efforts 
to  introduce  the  South  American  lasso  into  the  British  service 
for  auxiliary  draught.  In  1830  he  published  a  life  of  Bruce, 
the  African  traveller,  and  in  1834  Bubbles  from  the  Brunnens 
of  Nassau,  by  an  Old  Man.  In  1835  he  was  knighted,  and  in 
the  following  year  created  a  baronet.  In  1835  he  was  appointed 
lieutenant-governor  of  Upper  Canada,  and  in  this  capacity  he 
had  to  deal  with  a  political  situation  of  great  difficulty,  being 
called  upon  in  1837  to  suppress  a  serious  insurrection.  Shortly 
afterwards,  in  consequence  of  a  dispute  with  the  home  govern- 
ment, he  resigned  his  post  and  returned  to  England,  via  New 
York  (see  Quarterly  Review,  vols.  63-64).  Thereafter  he  devoted 
himself  to  writing,  chiefly  for  the  Quarterly  Review,  and  to  hunting. 
He  rode  to  hounds  until  he  was  seventy-five.  In  1869  Sir  Francis 
Head  was  made  a  privy  councillor.  He  died  on  the  2oth  of  July 
1875,  at  Duppas  Hall,  Croydon. 

Head  was  the  author  of  a  considerable  number  of  works,  chiefly 
of  travel,  written  in  a  clever,  amusing  and  graphic  fashion,  and 
displaying  both  acute  observation  and  genial  humour.  His  principal 
works  beside  those  mentioned  above,  and  a  narrative  of  his  Canadian 
administration  (1839),  were  The  Emigrant  (. 1 846) ;  Highways  and 
Dryways,  the  Britannia  and  Conway  Tubular  Bridges  (1849) ;  Stokers 
and  Pokers,  a  sketch  of  the  working  of  a  railway  line  (1849);  1  he 
Defenceless  Stale  of  Great  Britain  (1850);  A  Faggot  of  French Sticks 
(1852);  A  Fortnight  in  Ireland  (1852);  Descriptive  Essays  (1856).! 
comments  on  Kinglake's  Crimean  War  (1853);  The  Horse  and  his 
Rider  (1860);  The  Royal  Engineer  (1870);  and  a  sketch  ot  the  lite 
of  Sir  John  Burgoyne  (1872). 

His  brother,  SIR  GEORGE  HEAD  (1782-1855),  was  educated 
at  the  Charterhouse.  In  1808  he  received  an  appointment  in 
the  commissariat  of  the  British  army  in  the  Peninsula,  where 
he  was  a  witness  of  many  exciting  scenes  and  important  battles, 
of  which  he  gave  an  interesting  account  in  "  Memoirs  of  an 
Assistant  Commissary-General  "  attached  to  the  second  volume 
of  his  Home  Tour,  published  in  1837.  In  1814  he  was  sent  to 
America  to  take  charge  of  the  commissariat  in  a  naval  establish- 
ment on  the  Canadian  lakes,  and  he  subsequently  held  appoint- 
ments at  Halifax  and  Nova  Scotia.  Some  of  his  Canadian 
experiences  were  narrated  by  him  in  Forest  Scenery  and  Incidents 
in  the  Wilds  of  North  America  (1829).  In  1831  he  was  knighted. 
He  published  in  1835  A  Home  Tour  through  the  Manufacturing 
Districts  of  England,  and  in  1837  a  sequel  to  it,  entitled  A  Home  1  our 
through  various  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Both  works  are 
amusing  and  instructive,  but  his  Rome,  a  Tour  of  many  Days,  pub- 
lished in  1849,  is  somewhat  dull  and  tedious.  He  also  translated 
Historical  Memoirs  of  Cardinal  Pacca  (1850),  and  the  Metamorphoses 
of  Apuleius  (1851). 


HEAD  (in  O.  Eng.  hlafod;  the  word  is  common  to  Teutonic 
languages;  cf.  Dutch  hoofd,  Ger.  Haupt,  generally  taken  to  be 
in  origin  connected  with  Lat.  caput,  Gr.  Ke<£aXi7),  the  upper 
portion  of  the  body  in  man,  consisting  of  the  skull  with  its 
integuments  and  contents,  &c.,  connected  with  the  trunk  by 
the  neck  (see  ANATOMY,  SKULL  and  BRAIN);  also  the  anterior 


or  fore  part  of  other  animals.  The  word  is  used  in  a  large 
number  of  transferred  and  figurative  senses,  generally  with 
reference  to  the  position  of  the  head  as  the  uppermost  part, 
hence  the  leading,  chief  portion  of  anything. 

HEAD-HUNTING,  or  HEAD-SNAPPING,  as  the  Dutch  call  it, 
a  custom  once  prevalent  among  all  Malay  races  and  surviving 
even  to-day  among  the  Dyaks  (q.v.)  of  Borneo  and  elsewhere. 
Martin  de  Rada,  provincial  of  the  Augustinians,  reported  its 
existence  in  Luzon  (Philippine  Islands)  as  early  as  1577.  The 
practice  is  believed  to  have  had  its  origin  in  religious  motives, 
the  worship  of  skulls  being  universal  among  the  Malays.  Severe 
repressive  measures  have  Jed  to  its  decrease.  Among  the 
Igorrotes  all  that  remains  is  the  dance,  accompanied  by  singing, 
around  the  bare  pole  on  which  the  head  was  formerly  fixed. 
With  the  Ilongotes  a  bridegroom  must  bring  his  bride  a  number 
of  heads,  those  of  Christians  being  preferred.  The  chief  examples 
of  head-hunters  are  the  Was,  a  hill-tribe  on  the  north-eastern 
frontier  of  India,  and  the  Nagas  and  Kukis  of  Assam. 

See  Bock,  Headhunters  of  Borneo  (1881);  W.  H.  Furness,  Home 
Life  of  Borneo  Head-hunters  (Philadelphia,  1902);  T.  C.  Hodson, 
"  Head-hunting  in  Assam,"  in  Folk-Lore,  xx,  2.  132. 

HEALTH,  a  condition  of  physical  soundness  or  well-being, 
in  which  an  organism  discharges  its  functions  efficiently;  also 
in  a  transferred  sense  a  state  of  moral  or  intellectual  well-being 
(see  HYGIENE,  THERAPEUTICS  and  PUBLIC  HEALTH)  .      "  Health  " 
represents  the  O.  Eng.  ha&lh,  the  condition  or  state  of  being  hal, 
safe  or  sound.     This  word  took  in  northern  dialects  the  form 
"  hale,"  in  southern  or  midland  English  hole,  hence  "  whole," 
with  the  addition  of  an  initial  w,  as  in  "  whoop,"  and  in  the 
pronunciation  of  "  one."    "  Hail,"  properly  an  exclamation  of 
greeting,  good  health  to  you,  hence,  to  greet,  to  call  out  to, 
is  directly  Scandinavian  in  origin,  from  Old  Norwegian  heill, 
cognate  with  the  O.  Eng.  hdl,  used  also  in  this  sense.     "  To  heal  " 
(O.  Eng.  halari),  to  make  in  sound  health,  to  cure,  is  also  cognate. 
Drinking  of  Healths. — The  custom  of  drinking  "  health  "  to 
the  living  is  most  probably  derived  from  the  ancient  religious 
rite  of  drinking  to  the  gods  and  the  dead.     The  Greeks  and 
Romans  at  meals  poured  out  libations  to  their  gods,  and  at 
ceremonial  banquets  drank  to  them  and  to  the  dead.     The 
Norsemen  drank  the  "  minni  "  of  Thor,  Odin  and  Freya,  and  of 
their  kings  at  their  funeral  feasts.    With  the  advent  of  Christianity 
the  pagan  custom  survived  among  the  Scandinavian  and  Teutonic 
peoples.     Such  festal  formulae  as  "  God's  minne!"  "A  bowl 
to  God  in  Heaven!"  occur,  and  Christ,  the  Virgin  and  the 
Saints  were  invoked,  instead  of  heathen  gods  and  heroes.    The 
Norse  "  minne  "  was  at  once  love,  memory  and  thought  of 
the  absent  one,  and  it  survived  in  medieval  and  later  England 
in  the  "  minnying  "  or  "  mynde  "  days,  on  which  the  memory 
of  the  dead  was  celebrated  by  services  and  feasting.     Intimately 
associated  with  these  quasi-sacrificial  drinking  customs  must 
have  ever  been  the  drinking  to  the  health  of  living  men.     The 
Greeks  drank  to  one  another  and   the  Romans  adopted  the 
custom.     The  Goths  pledged  each  other  with  the  cry  "  Hails  !  " 
a  greeting  which  had  its  counterpart  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  "  waes 
hael  "  (see  WASSAIL).     Most  modern  drinking-usages  have  had 
their  equivalents  in  classic  times.     Thus  the  Greek  practice  of 
drinking  to  the  Nine  Muses  as  three  times  three  survives  to-day 
in  England  and  elsewhere.     The  Roman  gallants  drank  as  many 
glasses  to  their  mistresses  as  there  were  letters  in  each  one's 
name.    Thus  Martial: 

"  Six  cups  to  Naevia's  health  go  quickly  round,^ 

And  be  with  seven  the  fair  Justina's  crown'd. 
The  English  drinking  phrase— a  "toast,"  to  "toast"  anyone- 
net  older  than  the  iyth  century,  had  reference  at  first  to  this 
custom  of  drinking  to  the  ladies.  A  toast  was  at  first  invariably 
a  woman,  and  the  origin  of  the  phrase  is  curious.  In  Stuart 
days  there  appears  to  have  been  a  time-honoured  custom  of 
putting  a  piece  of  toast  in  the  wine-cup  before  drinking,  from 
a  fanciful  notion  that  it  gave  the  liquor  a  better  flavour.  In 
the  Taller  No.  24  the  connexion  between  this  sippet  of  toast  and 
the  fair  one  pledged  is  explained  as  follows:  "  It  happened  that 
on  a  publick  day  "  (speaking  of  Bath  m  Charles  II. 's  reign) 


122 


HEALY— HEARING 


"  a  celebrated  beauty  of  those  times  was  in  the  cross  bath,  and 
one  of  the  crowd  of  her  admirers  took  a  glass  of  the  water  in  which 
the  fair  one  stood,  and  drank  her  health  to  the  company.  There 
was  in  the  place  a  gay  fellow,  half  fuddled,  who  offered  to  jump 
in,  and  swore,  though  he  liked  not  the  liquor,  he  would  have  the 
toast.  He  was  opposed  in  his  resolution;  yet  this  whim  gave 
foundation  to  the  present  honour  which  is  done  to  the  lady  we 
mention  in  our  liquor,  who  has  ever  since  been  called  a  toast." 
Skeat  adds  (Etym.  Diet.,  1908),  "whether  the  story  be  true  or 
not,  it  may  be  seen  that  a  '  toast,'  i.e.  a  health,  easily  took  its 
name  from  being  the  usual  accompaniment  to  liquor,  especially 
in  loving  cups,"  &c. 

Health  drinking  had  by  the  beginning  of  the  iyth  century 
become  a  very  ceremonious  business  in  England.  At  Christmas 
1623  the  members  of  the  Middle  Temple,  according  to  one  of  the 
Harleian  MSS.  quoted  in  The  Life  of  Sir  Simonds  D'Ewes,  drank 
to  the  health  of  the  princess  Elizabeth,  who,  with  her  husband 
the  king  of  Bohemia,  was  then  suffering  great  misfortunes,  and 
stood  up,  one  after  the  other,  cup  in  one  hand,  sword  in  the  other, 
and  pledged  her,  swearing  to  die  in  her  service.  Toasts  were 
often  drunk  solemnly  on  bended  knees;  according  to  one 
authority,  Samuel  Ward  of  Ipswich,  in  his  Woe  to  Drunkards 
(1622),  on  bare  knees.  In  1668  at  Sir  George  Carteret's  at 
Cranbourne  the  health  of  the  duke  of  York  was  drunk  by  all  in 
turn,  each  on  his  knees,  the  king,  who  was  a  guest,  doing  the  like. 
A  Scotch  custom,  still  surviving,  was  to  drink  a  toast  with  one 
foot  on  the  table  and  one  on  the  chair.  Healths,  too,  were  drunk 
in  a  definite  order.  Braithwaite  says:  "  These  cups  proceed 
either  in  order  or  out  of  order.  In  order  when  no  person  trans- 
gresseth  or  drinkes  out  of  course,  but  the  cup  goes  round  according 
to  their  manner  of  sitting:  and  this  we  call  a  health-cup,  because 
incur  wishing  or  confirming  of  any  one's  health,  bare  headed  and 
standing,  it  is  performed  by  all  the  company  "  (Laws  of  Drinking, 
1617).  Francis  Douce's  MSS.  notes  say:  "  It  was  the  custom 
in  Beaumont  and  Fletcher's  time  for  the  young  gallants  to  stab 
themselves  in  the  arms  or  elsewhere,  in  order  to  drink  the  health 
of  their  mistresses."  Pepys,  in  his  Diary  for  the  igth  of  June 
1663,  writes:  "  To  the  Rhenish  wine  house,  where  Mr  Moore 
showed  us  the  French  manner  when  a  health  is  drunk,  to  bow 
to  him  that  drunk  to  you,  and  then  apply  yourself  to  him,  whose 
lady's  health  is  drunk,  and  then  to  the  person  that  you  drink  to, 
which  I  never  knew  before;  but  it  seems  it  is  now  the  fashion." 
A  Frenchman  visiting  England  in  Charles  II. 's  time  speaks  of 
the  custom  of  drinking  but  half  your  cup,  which  is  then  filled 
up  again  and  presented  to  him  or  her  to  whose  health  you  drank. 
England's  divided  loyalty  in  the  i8th  century  bequeathed  to 
modern  times  a  custom  which  possibly  yet  survives.  At  dinners 
to  royalties,  until  the  accession  of  Edward  VII.,  finger-glasses 
were  not  placed  on  the  table,  because  in  early  Georgian  days 
those  who  were  secretly  Jacobites  passed  their  wine-glasses  over 
the  finger-bowls  before  drinking  the  loyal  toasts,  in  allusion  to 
the  royal  exiles  "  over  the  water,"  thus  salving  their  consciences. 
Lord  Cockburn  (1779-1854),  in  his  Memorials  of  his  Time  (1856), 
states  that  in  his  day  the  drinking  of  toasts  had  become  a  perfect 
social  tyranny;  "every  glass  during  dinner  had  to  be  dedicated 
to  some  one.  It  was  thought  sottish  and  rude  to  take  wine 
without  this,  as  if  forsooth  there  was  nobody  present  worth 
drinking  with.  I  was  present  about  1803  when  the  late  duke  of 
Buccleuch  took  a  glass  of  sherry  by  himself  at  the  table  of  Charles 
Hope,  then  lord  advocate,  and  this  was  noticed  afterwards  as  a 
piece  of  direct  contempt."  In  Germany  to-day  it  is  an  insult 
to  refuse  to  drink  with  any  one;  and  at  one  time  in  the  west  of 
America  a  man  took  his  life  in  his  hands  by  declining  to  pledge 
another.  All  this  is  a  survival  of  that  very  early  and  universal 
belief  that  drinking  to  one  another  was  a  proof  of  fair  play, 
whether  it  be  in  a  simple  bargain  or  in  matters  of  life  and  death. 
The  ceremony  surrounding  the  Loving  Cup  to-day  is  reminiscent 
of  the  perils  of  those  times  when  every  man's  hand  was  raised 
against  his  fellow.  This  cup,  known  at  the  universities  as  the 
Grace  Cup,  was  originated,  says  Miss  Strickland  in  her  Lives  of 
the  Queens  of  Scotland,  by  Margaret  Atheling,  wife  of  Malcolm 
Canmore,  who,  in  order  to  induce  the  Scots  to  remain  at  table  for 


grace  had  a  cup  of  the  choicest  wine  handed  round  immediately 
after  it  had  been  said.  The  modern  "loving  cup"  sometimes 
has  a  cover,  and  in  this  case  each  guest  rises  and  bows  to  his 
immediate  neighbour  on  the  right,  who,  also  rising,  removes 
and  holds  the  cover  with  his  right  hand  while  the  other  drinks; 
the  little  comedy  is  a  survival  of  the  days  when  he  who  drank 
was  glad  to  have  the  assurance  that  the  right  or  dagger  hand  of 
his  neighbour  was  occupied  in  holding  the  lid  of  the  chalice. 
When  there  is  no  cover  it  is  a  common  custom  for  both  the  left- 
and  the  right-hand  neighbour  to  rise  while  the  loving  cup  is 
drunk,  with  the  similar  object  of  protecting  the  drinker  from 
attack.  The  Stirrup  Cup  is  probably  the  Roman  poculum  boni 
genii,  the  last  glass  drunk  at  the  banquet  to  a  general  "  good 
night." 

See  Chambers,  Book  of  Days;  Valpy,  History  of  Toasting  (1881) ; 
F.  W.  Hackwood,  Inns,  Ales,  and  Drinking  Customs  (London,  1909). 

HEALY,  GEORGE  PETER  ALEXANDER  (1808-1894), 
American  painter,  was  born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  on  the 
iSth  of  July  1808.  Going  to  Europe  in  1835  Healy  studied 
under  Baron  Gros  in  Paris  and  in  Rome.  He  received  a  third- 
class  medal  in  Paris  in  1840,  and  one  of  the  second  class  in  1855, 
when  he  exhibited  his  "  Franklin  urging  the  claims  of  the 
American  Colonies  before  Louis  XVI."  Among  his  portraits 
of  eminent  men  are  those  of  Webster,  Clay,  Calhoun,  Guyot, 
Seward,  Louis  Philippe,  and  the  presidents  of  the  United  States 
from  John  Quincy  Adams  to  Grant — this  series  being  painted 
for  the  Corcoran  Gallery,  Washington.  His  large  group, 
"  Webster  replying  to  Hayne,"  containing  150  portraits,  is  in 
Faneuil  Hall,  Boston,  Mass.  He  was  one  of  the  most  prolific  and 
popular  painters  of  his  day.  He  died  in  Chicago,  Illinois,  on  the 
24th  of  June  1894. 

HEANOR,  an  urban  district  in  the  Ilkeston  parliamentary 
division  of  Derbyshire,  England,  10  m.  N.W.  of  Nottingham, 
on  the  Great  Northern  and  Midland  railways.  Pop.  (1901) 
16,249.  Large  hosiery  works  employ  many  of  the  inhabitants, 
and  collieries  are  worked  in  the  parish.  The  urban  district 
includes  Codnor-cum-Loscoe.  Shipley  Hall,  to  the  south  of 
Heanor,  is  a  mansion  built  on  a  hill,  amidst  fine  gardens.  The 
ruin  of  the  ancient  moated  castle  of  Codnor  stands,  overlooking 
the  vale  of  the  Erewash,  on  land  which  was  once  Codnor  Park, 
and  is  now  the  site  of  large  ironworks. 

HEARING  (formed  from  the  verb  "  to  hear,"  O.  Eng.  hyran, 
heran,  &c.,  a  common  Teutonic  verb;  cf.  Ger.  hb'ren,  Dutch 
hooren,  &c.;  the  O.  Teut.  form  is  seen  in  Goth,  hausjan;  the 
initial  h  makes  any  connexion  with  "  ear,"  Lat.  audire,  or  Gr. 
a.Kov€u>  very  doubtful),  in  physiology,  the  function  of  the  ear 
(q.v.),  and  the  general  term  for  the  sense  or  special  sensation,  the 
cause  of  which  is  an  excitation  of  the  auditory  nerves  by  the 
vibrations  of  sonorous  bodies.  The  anatomy  of  the  ear  is 
described  in  the  separate  article  on  that  organ.  A  description  of 
sonorous  vibrations  is  given  in  the  article  SOUND;  here  we  shall 
consider  the  transmission  of  such  vibrations  from  the  external 
ear  to  the  auditory  nerve,  and  the  physiological  characters  of 
auditory  sensation. 

i.  Transmission  in  External  Ear. — The  external  ear  consists 
of  the  pinna,  or  auricle,  and  the  external  auditory  mealus,  or 
canal,  at  the  bottom  of  which  we  find  the  membrana  tym- 
pani,  or  drum  head.  In  many  animals  the  auricle  is  trumpet- 
shaped,  and,  being  freely  movable  by  muscles,  serves  to  collect 
sonorous  waves  coming  from  various  directions.  The  auricle 
of  the  human  ear  presents  many  irregularities  of  surface.  If 
these  irregularities  are  abolished  by  filling  them  up  with  a  soft 
material  such  as  wax  or  oil,  leaving  the  entrance  to  the  canal  free, 
experiment  shows  that  the  intensity  of  sounds  is  weakened,  and 
that  there  is  more  difficulty  in  judging  of  their  direction.  When 
waves  of  sound  strike  the  auricle,  they  are  partly  reflected 
outwards,  while  the  remainder,  impinging  at  various  angles, 
undergo  a  number  of  reflections  so  as  to  be  directed  into  the 
auditory  canal.  Vibrations  are  transmitted  along  the  auditory 
canal,  partly  by  the  air  it  contains  and  partly  by  its  walls,  to 
the  membrana  tympani.  The  absence  of  the  auricle,  as  the 
result  of  accident  or  injury,  does  not  cause  diminution  of  hearing. 


HEARING 


123 


In  the  auditory  canal  waves  of  sound  are  reflected  from  side 
to  side  until  they  reach  the  membrana  tympani.  P'rom  the 
obliquity  in  position  and  peculiar  curvature  of  this  membrane, 
most  of  the  waves  strike  it  nearly  perpendicularly,  and  in  the 
most  advantageous  direction. 

2.  Transmission  in  Middle  Ear. — The  middle  ear  is  a  small 
cavity,  the  walls  of  which  are  rigid  with  the  exception  of  the 
portions  consisting  of  the  membrana  tympani,  and  the  membrane 
of  the  round  window  and  of  the  apparatus  filline;  the  oval  window. 
This  cavity  communicates  with  the  pharynx  by  the  Eustachian 
tube,  which  forms  an  air-tube  between  the  pharynx  and  the 
tympanum  for  the  purpose  of  regulating  pressure  on  the  mem- 
brana tympani.  During  rest  the  tube  is  open,  but  it  is  closed 
during  the  act  of  deglutition.  As  this  action  is  frequently 
taking  place,  not  only  when  food  or  drink  is  introduced,  but  when 
saliva  is  swallowed,  it  is  evident  that  the  pressure  of  the  air  in 
the  tympanum  will  be  kept  in  a  state  of  equilibrium  with  that 
of  the  external  air  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  membrana  tym- 
pani, and  that  thus  the  membrana  tympani  will  be  rendered 
independent  of  variations  of  atmospheric  pressure  such  as  occur 
when  we  descend  in  a  diving  bell  or  ascend  in  a  balloon.  By  a 
forcible  expiration,  the  oral  and  nasal  cavities  being  closed,  air 
may  be  driven  into  the  tympanum,  while  a  forcible  inspiration 
(Valsalva's  experiment)  will  draw  air  from  that  cavity.  In  the 
first  case,  the  membrana  tympani  will  bulge  outwards,  in  the 
second  case  inwards,  and  in  both,  from  excessive  stretching  of 
the  membrane,  there  will  be  partial  deafness,  especially  for 
sounds  of  high  pitch.  Permanent  occlusion  of  the  tube  is  one  of 
the  most  common  causes  of  deafness. 

The  membrana  tympani  is  capable  of  being  set  into  vibration 
by  a  sound  of  any  pitch  included  in  the  range  of  perceptible 
sounds.  It  responds  exactly  as  to  number  of  vibrations  (pitch), 
intensity  of  vibrations  (intensity),  and  complexity  of  vibration 
(quality  or  timbre).  Consequently  we  can  hear  a  sound  of  any 
given  pitch,  of  a  certain  intensity,  and  in  its  own  specific  timbre 
or  quality.  Generally  speaking,  very  high  tones  are  heard  more 
easily  than  low  tones  of  the  same  intensity.  As  the  membrana 
tympani  is  not  only  fixed  by  its  margin  to  a  ring  or  tube  of  bone, 
but  is  also  adherent  to  the  handle  of  the  malleus,  which  follows 
its  movements,  its  vibrations  meet  with  considerable  resistance. 
This  diminishes  the  intensity  of  its  vibrations,  and  prevents  also 
the  continued  vibration  of  the  membrane  after  an  external 
pressure  has  ceased,  so  that  a  sound  is  not  heard  much  longer 
than  its  physical  cause  lasts.  The  tension  of  the  membrane 
may  be  affected  (i)  by  differences  of  pressure  on  the  two  surfaces 
of  the  membrana  tympani,  as  may  occur  during  forcible  expira- 
tion or  inspiration,  and  (2)  by  muscular  action,  due  to  con- 
traction of  the  tensor  tympani  muscle.  This  small  muscle  arises 
from  the  apex  of  the  petrous  temporal  and  the  cartilage  of  the 
Eustachian  tube,  enters  the  tympanum  at  its  anterior  wall,  and 
is  inserted  into  the  malleus  near  its  root.  The  handle  of  the 
malleus  is  inserted  between  the  layers  of  the  membrana  tympani, 
and,  as  the  malleus  and  incus  move  round  an  axis  passing 
through  the  neck  of  the  malleus  from  before  backwards,  the 
action  of  the  muscle  is  to  pull  the  membrana  tympani  inwards 
towards  the  tympanic  cavity  in  the  form  of  a  cone,  the  meridians 
of  which  are  not  straight  but  curved,  with  convexity  outwards. 
When  the  muscle  contracts,  the  handle  of  the  malleus  is  drawn 
still  farther  inwards,  and  thus  a  greater  tension  of  the  tympanic 
membrane  is  produced.  On  relaxation  of  the  muscle,  the  mem- 
brane returns  to  its  position  of  equilibrium  by  its  elasticity  and 
by  the  elasticity  of  the  chain  of  bones.  This  power  of  varying 
the  tension  of  the  membrane  is  an  accommodating  mechanism 
for  receiving  and  transmitting  sounds  of  different  pitch.  With 
different  degrees  of  tension  it  will  respond  more  readily  to  sounds 
of  different  pitch.  Thus,  when  the  membrane  is  tense,  it  will 
readily  respond  to  high  sounds,  while  relaxation  will  be  the 
condition  most  adapted  for  low  tones.  In  addition,  'increased 
tension  of  the  membrane,  by  increasing  the  resistance,  will 
diminish  the  intensity  of  vibrations.  This  is  especially  the  case 
for  sounds  of  low  pitch. 

The  vibrations  of  the  membrana  tympani  are  transmitted  to 


the  internal  ear  partly  by  the  air  which  the  middle  ear  or  tyrn- 
panum  contains,  and  partly  by  the  chain  of  bones,  consisting 
of  the  malleus,  incus  and  stapes.  Of  these,  transmission  by  the 
chain  of  bones  is  by  far  the  most  important.  In  birds  and  in  the 
amphibia,  this  chain  is  represented  by  a  single  rod-like  ossicle, 
the  columella,  but  in  man  the  two  membranes — the  membrana 
tympani  and  the  membrane  filling  the  fenestra  ovalis — are  con- 
nected by  a  compound  lever  consisting  of  three  bones,  namely, 
the  malleus,  or  hammer,  inserted  into  the  membrana  tympani, 
the  incus,  or  anvil,  and  the  stapes,  or  stirrup,  the  base  of  which  is 
attached  to  a  membrane  covering  the  oval  window.  It  must 
also  be  noted  that  in  the  transmission  of  vibrations  of  the  mem- 
brana tympani  to  the  fluid  in  the  labyrinth  or  internal  ear, 
through  the  oval  window,  the  chain  of  ossicles  vibrates  as  a  whole 
and  acts  efficiently,  although  its  length  may  be  only  a  fraction 
of  the  wave-length  of  the  sound  transmitted.  The  chain  is  a 
lever  in  which  the  handle  of  the  malleus  forms  the  long  arm, 
the  fulcrum  is  where  the  short  process  of  the  incus  abuts  against 
the  wall  of  the  tympanum,  while  the  long  process  of  the  incus, 
carrying  the  stapes,  forms  the  short  arm.  The  mechanism  is  a 
lever  of  the  second  order.  Measurements  show  that  the  ratio 
of  the  lengths  of  the  two  arms  is  as  1-5:1;  the  ratio  of  the 
resulting  force  at  the  stapes  is  therefore  as  1:1-5;  while  the 
amplitudes  of  the  movements  at  the  tip  of  the  handle  of  the 
malleus  and  the  stapes  is  as  1-5:1.  Hence,  while  there  is  a 
diminution  in  amplitude  there  is  a  gain  in  power,  and  thus  the 
pressures  are  conveyed  with  great  efficiency  from  the  membrana 
tympani  to  the  labyrinth,  while  the  amplitude  of  the  oscillation 
is  diminished  so  as  to  be  adapted  to  the  small  capacity  of  the 
labyrinth.  As  the  drum-head  is  nearly  twenty  times  greater  in 
area  than  the  membrane  covering  the  oval  window,  with  which 
the  base  of  the  stapes  is  connected,  the  energy  of  the  movements 
of  the  membrana  tympani  is  concentrated  on  an  area  twenty 
times  smaller;  hence  the  pressure  is  increased  thirtyfold 
(1-5X20)  when  it  acts  at  the  base  of  the  stapes.  Experiments 
on  the  human  ear  have  shown  that  the  movement  of  greatest 
amplitude  was  at  the  tip  of  the  handle  of  the  malleus,  0-76  mm.; 
the  movement  of  the  tip  of  the  long  arm  process  of  the  incus 
was  0-21  mm.;  while  the  greatest  amplitude  at  the  base  of  the 
stapes  was  only  -07  id  mm.  Other  observations  have  shown, 
the  movements  at  the  stapes  to  have  a  still  smaller  amplitude, 
varying  from  o-coi  to  0-032  mm.  With  tones  of  feeble  intensity 
the  movements  must  be  almost  infinitesimal.  There  may  also 
be  very  minute  transverse  movements  at  the  base  of  the  stapes. 
3.  Transmission  in  the  Internal  Ear. — The  internal  ear  is 
composed  of  the  labyrinth,  formed  of  the  vestibule  or  central 
part,  the  semicircular  canals,  and  the  cochlea,  each  of  which 
consists  of  an  osseous  and  a  membranous  portion.  The  osseous 
labyrinth  may  be  regarded  as  an  osseous  mould  in  the  petrous 
portion  of  the  temporal  bone,  lined  by  tesselated  endothelium, 
and  containing  a  small  quantity  of  fluid  called  the  pcrilymph. 
In  this  mould,  partially  surrounded  by,  and  to  some  extent 
floating  in,  this  fluid,  there  is  the  membranous  labyrinth,  in 
certain  parts  of  which  we  find  the  terminal  apparatus  in  connexion 
with  the  auditory  nerve,  immersed  in  another  fluid  called  the 
endolymph.  The  membranous  labyrinth  consists  of  a  vestibular 
portion  formed  by  two  small  sac-like  dilatations,  called  the 
saccule  and  the  utricle,  the  latter  of  which  communicates  with  the 
semicircular  canals  by  five  openings.  Each  canal  consists  of 
a  tube,  bulging  out  at  each  extremity  so  as  to  form  the  so-called 
ampulla,  in  which,  on  a  projecting  ridge,  called  the  crista  acuslica, 
there  are  cells  bearing  long  auditory  hairs,  which  are  the  peripheral 
end-organs  of  the  vestibular  branches  of  the  auditory  nerve. 
The  cochlear  division  of  the  membranous  labyrinth  consists  of 
the  ductus  cochlearis,  a  tube  of  triangular  form  fitting  in  between 
the  two  cavities  in  the  cochlea,  called  the  scala  vestibuli,  because 
it  commences  in  the  vestibule,  and  the  scala  tympani,  because  it 
ends  in  the  tympanum,  at  the  round  window.  These  two  scalae 
communicate  at  the  apex  of  the  cochlea.  The  roof  of  the  ductus 
cochlearis  is  formed  by  a  thin  membrane  called  the  membrane 
of  Reissner,  while  its  floor  consists  of  the  basilar  membrane, 
on  which  we  find  the  remarkable  organ  ofCorti,  which  constitutes 


124 


HEARING 


the  terminal  organ  of  the  cochlear  division  of  the  auditory 
nerve.  It  is  sufficient  to  state  here  that  this  organ  consists 
essentially  of  an  arrangement  of  epithelial  cells  bearing  hairs 
which  are  in  communication  with  the  terminal  filaments  of  this 
portion  of  the  auditory  nerve,  and  that  groups  of  these  hairs 
pass  through  holes  in  a  closely  investing  membrane,  membrana 
reticidaris,  which  may  act  as  a  damping  apparatus,  so  as  quickly 
to  stop  their  movements.  The  ductus  cochlearis  and  the  two 
scalae  are  filled  with  fluid.  Sonorous  vibrations  may  reach  the 
fluid  in  the  labyrinth  by  three  different  ways — (i)  by  the  osseous 
walls  of  the  labyrinth,  (2)  by  the  air  in  the  tympanum  and  the 
round  window,  and  (3)  by  the  base  of  the  stapes  inserted  into 
the  oval  window. 

When  the  head  is  plunged  into  water,  or  brought  into  direct 
contact  with  any  vibrating  body,  vibrations  must  be  transmitted 
directly.  Vibrations  of  the  air  in  the  mouth  and  in  the  nasal 
passages  are  also  communicated  directly  to  the  walls  of  the 
cranium,  and  thus  pass  to  the  labyrinth.  In  like  manner,  we 
may  experience  auditive  sensations,  such  as  blowing,  rubbing 
and  hissing  sounds,  due  to  muscular  contraction  or  to  the  passage 
of  blood  in  vessels  close  to  the  auditory  organ.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  any  vibrations  are  communicated  to  the  fluid  in  the 
labyrinth  by  the  round  window.  Vibrations  which  cause  hearing 
are  communicated  by  the  chain  of  bones.  When  the  base  of  the 
stirrup  is  pushed  into  the  oval  window,  the  pressure  in  the  laby- 
rinth increases,  and,  as  the  only  mobile  part  of  the  wall  of  the 
labyrinth  is  the  membrane  covering  the  round  window,  this 
membrane  is  forced  outwards;  when  the  base  of  the  stirrup 
moves  outwards  a  reverse  action  takes  place.  Thus  the  fluid 
of  the  labyrinth  receives  a  series  of  pulses  isochronous  with  the 
movements  of  the  base  of  the  stirrup,  and  these  pulses  affect 
the  terminal  apparatus  in  connexion  with  the  auditory  nerve. 

The  sacs  of  the  internal  ear,  known  as  the  utricle  and  saccule, 
receive  the  impulses  of  the  base  of  the  stapes.  They  are  organs 
connected  with  the  perception  of  sounds  as  sounds,  without 
reference  to  pitch  or  quality.  For  the  analysis  of  tone  a  cochlea 
is  necessary.  Even  in  mammals  all  the  parts  of  the  ear  may 
be  destroyed  or  affected  by  disease,  except  these  sacs,  without 
causing  complete  deafness. 

It  has  been  suggested  by  Lee  (Amer.  Jour,  of  Physiol.  vol.  i. 
No.  i,  p.  128)  that  in  fishes  the  sac  has  nothing  to  do  with 
hearing,  but  serves  for  the  perception  of  movements,  such  as 
those  of  rotation  and  translation  through  space,  movements  much 
coarser  than  those  that  form  the  physical  basis  of  sound.  He 
considers,  also,  that  as  fishes,  with  few  exceptions,  are  dumb, 
they  are  also  deaf.  In  the  fish  there  are  peculiar  organs  along  the 
lateral  line  which  are  known  to  be  connected  with  the  perception 
of  movements  of  the  body  as  a  whole,  and  Beard  (Zool.  Anz. 
Leipzig,  1884,  Bd.  vii.  S.  140)  has  attempted  to  trace  a  phylo- 
genetic  connexion  between  the  sacs  of  the  internal  ear  and  the 
organs  in  the  lateral  line.  According  to  this  view,  when  animals 
became  air-breathers,  a  part  of  the  ear  (the  papilla  acustica 
basilaris)  was  gradually  evolved  for  the  perception  of  delicate 
vibrations  of  sound.  (See  EQUILIBRIUM.) 

It  is  by  means  of  the  cochlea  that  we  discriminate  pitch, 
hear  beats,  and  are  affected  by  quality  of  tone. 

Since  the  size  of  the  membranous  labyrinth  is  so  small,  measur- 
ing, in  man,  not  more  than  5  in.  in  length  by  |  in.  in  diameter 
at  its  widest  part,  and  since  it  is  a  chamber  consisting  partly  of 
conduits  of  very  irregular  form,  it  is  impossible  to  state  accurately 
the  course  of  vibrations  transmitted  to  it  by  impulses  com- 
municated from  the  base  of  the  stirrup.  In  the  cochlea  vibrations 
must  pass  from  the  saccule  along  the  scala  vestibuli  to  the  apex, 
thus  affecting  the  membrane  of  Reissner,  which  forms  its  roof; 
then,  passing  through  the  opening  at  the  apex  (the  helicotrema) , 
they  must  descend  by  the  scala  tympani  to  the  round  window, 
and  affect  in  their  passage  the  membrana  basilaris,  on  which  the 
organ  of  Corti  is  situated.  From  the  round  window  impulses 
must  be  reflected  backwards,  but  how  they  affect  the  advancing 
impulses  is  not  known.  But  the  problem  is  even  more  complex 
when  we  take  into  account  the  fact  that  impulses  are  trans- 
mitted simultaneously  to  the  utricle  and  to  the  semicircular 


canals  communicating  with  it  by  five  openings.  The  mode  of 
action  of  these  vibrations  or  impulses  upon  the  nervous  termina- 
tions is  still  unknown ;  but  to  appreciate  critically  the  hypothesis 
which  has  been  advanced  to  explain  it,  it  is  necessary,  in  the  first 
place,  to  refer  to  some  of  the  general  characters  of  auditory 
sensation. 

4.  General  Characters  of  Auditory  Sensations. — Certain  con- 
ditions are  necessary  for  excitation  of  the  auditory  nerve  sufficient 
to  produce  a  sensation.  In  the  first  place,  the  vibrations  must 
have  a  certain  amplitude  and  energy;  if  too  feeble,  no  impression 
will  be  produced. 

Various  physicists  have  attempted  to  measure  the  sensitiveness 
of  the  ear  by  estimating  the  amplitude  of  the  molecular  move- 
ments necessary  to  call  forth  the  feeblest  audible  sound.  Thus 
A.  Topler  and  L.  Boltzmann,  on  data  founded  on  experiments 
with  organ  pipes,  state  that  the  ear  is  affected  by  vibrations 
of  molecules  of  the  air  not  more  in  amplitude  than  -0004  mm. 
at  the  ear,  or  o-i  of  the  wave-length  of  green  light,  and  that  the 
energy  of  such  a  vibration  on  the  drum-head  is  not  more  than 
•5^3  billionth  kilog.,  or  i^th  of  that  produced  upon  an  equal 
surface  of  the  retina  by  a  single  candle  at  the  same  distance 
(Ann.  d.  Phys.  u.  Chem.,  Leipzig.  1870,  Bd.  cxli.  S.  321).  Lord 
Rayleigh,  by  two  other  methods,  arrived  at  the  conclusion 
"  that  the  streams  of  energy  required  to  influence  the  eye  and  ear 
are  of  the  same  order  of  magnitude."  He  estimated  the  ampli- 
tude of  the  movement  of  the  aerial  particles,  with  a  sound  just 
audible,  as  less  than  the  ten-millionth  of  a  centimetre,  and  the 
energy  emitted  when  the  sound  was  first  becoming  audible,  at 
42-1  ergs  per  second.  He  also  states  that  in  considering  the 
amplitude  or  condensation  in  progressive  aerial  waves,  at  a 
distance  of  27-4  metres  from  a  tuning-fork,  the  maximum  con- 
densation was  =  6-oXio~9  cm.,  a  result  showing  "that  the  ear 
is  able  to  recognize  the  addition  or  subtraction  of  densities  far 
less  than  those  to  be  found  in  our  highest  vacua  "  (Proc.  Roy. 
Soc.,  1877,  vol.  xxvi.  p.  248;  Land.  Edin.  and  Dub.  Phil.  Mag., 
1894,  vol.  xxxviii.  p.  366). 

In  the  next  place,  vibrations  must  have  a  certain  duration  to 
be  perceived;  and  lastly,  to  excite  a  sensation  of  a  continuous 
musical  sound,  a  certain  number  of  impulses  must  occur  in  a  given 
interval  of  time.  The  lower  limit  is  about  30,  and  the  upper 
about  30,000  vibrations  per  second.  Below  30,  the  individual 
impulses  may  be  observed,  and  above  30,000  few  ears  can  detect 
any  sound  at  all.  The  extreme  upper  limit  is  not  more  than 
35,000  vibrations  per  second.  Auditory  sensations  are  of  two 
kinds — noises  and  musical  sounds.  Noises  are  caused  by 
impulses  which  are  not  regular  in  intensity  or  duration,  or  are 
not  periodic,  or  they  may  be  caused  by  a  series  of  musical  sounds 
occurring  instantaneously  so  as  to  produce  discords,  as  when  we 
place  our  hand  at  random  on  the  key-board  of  a  piano.  Musical 
tones  are  produced  by  periodic  and  regular  vibrations.  In  musical 
sounds  three  characters  are  prominent — intensity,  pitch  and 
quality.  Intensity  depends  on  the  amplitude  of  the  vibration, 
and  a  greater  or  lesser  amplitude  of  the  vibration  will  cause  a 
corresponding  movement  of  the  transmitting  apparatus,  and  a 
corresponding  intensity  of  excitation  of  the  terminal  apparatus. 
Pitch,  as  a  sensation,  depends  on  the  length  of  time  in  which 
a  single  vibration  is  executed,  or,  in  other  words,  the  number 
of  vibrations  in  a  given  interval  of  time.  The  ear  is  capable  of 
appreciating  the  relative  pitch  or  height  of  a  sound  as  compared 
with  another,  although  it  may  not  ascertain  precisely  the  absolute 
pitch  of  a  sound.  What  we  call  an  acute  or  high  tone  is  produced 
by  a  large  number  of  vibrations,  while  a  grave  or  low  tone  is 
caused  by  few.  The  musical  tones  which  can  be  used  with 
advantage  range  between  40  and  4000  vibrations  per  second, 
extending  thus  from  6  to  7  octaves.  According  to  E.  H.  Weber, 
practised  musicians  can  perceive  a  difference  of  pitch  amounting 
to  only  the  •jVth  of  a  semitone,  but  this  is  far  beyond  average 
attainment.  In  a  few  individuals,  and  especially  in  early  life, 
there  may  be  an  appreciation  of  absolute  pitch.  Quality  or  timbre 
(or  Klang)  is  that  peculiar  characteristic  of  a  musical  sound  by 
which  we  may  identify  it  as  proceeding  from  a  particular  instru- 
ment or  from  a  particular  human  voice.  It  depends  on  the  fact 


HEARING 


125 


Funda- 
mental Tone. 
Notes     ...         do1 
Partial  tones     .  t 

Number      of     ) 
vibrations      $         33 


that  many  waves  of  sound  that  reach  the  ear  are  compound  wave 
systems,  built  up  of  constituent  waves,  each  of  which  is  capable  of 
exciting  a  sensation  of  a  simple  tone  if  it  be  singled  out  and 
reinforced  by  a  resonator  (see  SOUND),  and  which  may  sometimes 
be  heard  without  a  resonator,  after  special  practice  and  tuition. 
Thus  it  appears  that  the  ear  must  have  some  arrangement  by  which 
it  resolves  every  wave  system,  however  complex,  into  simple 
pendular  vibrations.  When  we  listen  to  a  sound  of  any  quality 
we  recognize  that  it  is  of  a  certain  pitch.  This  depends  on  the 
number  of  vibrations  of  one  tone,  predominant  in  intensity  over 
the  others,  called  the  fundamental  or  ground  tone,  or  first  partial 
tone.  The  quality,  or  timbre,  depends  on  the  number  and 
intensity  of  other  tones  added  to  it.  These  are  termed  harmonic 
or  partial  tones,  and  they  are  related  to  the  first  partial  or  funda- 
mental tone  in  a  very  simple  manner,  being  multiples  of  the 
fundamental  tone:  thus — 

Upper  Partials  or  Harmonics. 

do2  sol2  do3  mi3  sol3  sit>3  do4  re4  mi4 
234567        89     10 

66    99  132  165  198  231  264  297  330 

When  a  simple  tone,  or  one  free  from  partials,  is  heard,  it 
gives  rise  to  a  simple,  soft,  somewhat  insipid  sensation,  as  may 
be  obtained  by  blowing  across  the  mouth  of  an  open  bottle  or 
by  a  tuning-fork.  The  lower  partials  added  to  the  fundamental 
tone  give  softness  combined  with  richness;  while  the  higher, 
especially  if  they  be  very  high,  produce  a  brilliant  and  thrilling 
effect,  as  is  caused  by  the  brass  instruments  of  an  orchestra. 
Such  being  the  facts,  how  may  they  be  explained  physiologically  ? 

Little  is  yet  known  regarding  the  mode  of  action  of  the  vibra- 
tions of  the  fluid  in  the  labyrinth  upon  the  terminal  apparatus 
connected  with  the  auditory  nerve.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  it  is  a  mechanical  action,  a  communication  of  impulses  to 
delicate  hair-like  processes,  by  the  movements  of  which  the 
nervous  filaments  are  irritated.  In  the  human  ear  it  has  been 
estimated  that  there  are  about  3000  small  arches  formed  by  the 
rods  of  Corti.  Each  arch  rests  on  the  basilar  membrane,  and 
supports  rows  of  cells  having  minute  hair-like  processes.  It 
would  appear  also  that  the  filaments  of  the  auditory  nerve 
terminate  in  the  basilar  membrane,  and  possibly  they  may  be 
connected  with  the  hair-cells.  At  one  time  it  was  supposed  by 
Helmholtz  that  these  fibres  of  Corti  were  elastic  and  that  they 
were  tuned  for  particular  sounds,  so  as  to  form  a  regular  series 
corresponding  to  all  the  tones  audible  to  the  human  ear.  Thus 
2800  fibres  distributed  over  the  tones  of  seven  octaves  would  give 
400  fibres  for  each  octave,  or  nearly  33  for  a  semitone.  Helmholtz 
put  forward  the  hypothesis  that,  when  a  pendular  vibration 
reaches  the  ear,  it  excites  by  sympathetic  vibration  the  fibre  of 
Corti  which  is  tuned  for  its  proper  number  of  vibrations.  If, 
then,  different  fibres  are  tuned  to  tones  of  different  pitch,  it  is 
evident  that  we  have  here  a  mechanism  which,  by  exciting 
different  nerve  fibres,  will  give  rise  to  sensations  of  pitch.  When 
the  vibration  is  not  simple  but  compound,  in  consequence  of  the 
blending  of  vibrations  corresponding  to  various  harmonics  or 
partial  tones,  the  ear  has  the  power  of  resolving  this  compound 
vibration  into  its  elements.  It  can  orjy  do  so  by  different  fibres 
responding  to  the  constituent  vibrations  of  the  sound — one  for 
the  fundamental  tone  being  stronger,  and  giving  the  sensation 
of  a  particular  pitch  to  the  sound,  and  the  others,  corresponding 
to  the  upper  partial  tones,  being  weaker,  and  causing  undefined 
sensations,  which  are  so  blended  together  in  consciousness  as  to 
terminate  in  a  complex  sensation  of  a  tone  of  a  certain  quality 
or  timbre.  It  would  appear  at  first  sight  that  33  fibres  of  Corti 
for  a  semitone  are  not  sufficient  to  enable  us  to  detect  all  the 
gradations  of  pitch  in  that  interval,  since,  as  has  been  stated 
above,  trained  musicians  may  distinguish  a  difference  of  i^j-th 
of  a  semitone.  To  meet  this  difficulty,  Helmholtz  stated  that  if 
a  sound  is  produced,  the  pitch  of  which  may  be  supposed  to  come 
between  two  adjacent  fibres  of  Corti,  both  of  these  will  be  set 
into  sympathetic  vibration,  but  the  one  which  comes  nearest 
to  the  pitch  of  the  sound  will  vibrate  with  greater  intensity  than 


the  other,  and  that  consequently  the  pitch  of  that  sound  would  be 
thus  appreciated.  These  theoretical  views  of  Helmholtz  have 
derived  much  support  from  experiments  of  V.  Hensen,  who 
observed  that  certain  hairs  on  the  antennae  of  My  sis,  a  Crustacean, 
when  seen  with  a  low  microscopic  power,  vibrated  with  certain 
tones  produced  by  a  keyed  horn.  It  was  seen  that  certain  tones 
of  the  horn  set  some  hairs  into  strong  vibration,  and  other  tones 
other  hairs.  Each  hair  responded  also  to  several  tones  of  the 
horn.  Thus  one  hair  responded  strongly  to  d%  and  d'#,  more 
weakly  to  g,  and  very  weakly  to  G.  It  was  probably  tuned  to 
some  pitch  between  d"  and  d"%.  (Studien  iiber  das  Cehororgan 
der  Dccapoden,  Leipzig,  1863.) 

Histological  researches  have  led  to  a  modification  of  this 
hypothesis.  It  has  been  found  that  the  rods  or  arches  of  Corti 
are  stiff  structures,  not  adapted  for  vibrating,  but  apparently 
constituting  a  support  for  the  hair-cells.  It  is  also  known  that 
there  are  no  rods  of  Corti  in  the  cochlea  of  birds,  which  are 
capable  nevertheless  of  appreciating  pitch.  Hensen  and  Helm- 
holtz suggested  the  view  that  not  only  may  the  segments  of  the 
membrana  basilaris  be  stretched  more  in  the  radial  than  in  the 
longitudinal  direction,  but  different  segments  may  be  stretched 
radially  with  different  degrees  of  tension  so  as  to  resemble  a 
series  of  tense  strings  of  gradually  increasing  length.  Each 
string  would  then  respond  to  a  vibration  of  a  particular  pitch 
communicated  to  it  by  the  hair-cells.  The  exact  mechanism 
of  the  hair-cells  and  of  the  membrana  reticularis,  which  looks 
like  a  damping  apparatus,  is  unknown. 

5.  Physiological   Characters   of   Auditory   Sensation. — Under 
ordinary  circumstances  auditory  sensations  are  referred  to  the 
outer  world.     When  we  hear  a  sound,  we  associate  it  with  some 
external  cause,  and  it  appears  to  originate  in  a  particular  place 
or  to  come  in  a  particular  direction.     This  feeling  of  exteriority 
of  sound  seems  to  require  transmission  through  the  membrana 
tympani.     Sounds  which  are  sent  through  the  walls  of  the 
cranium,  as  when  the  head  is  immersed  in,  and  the  external 
auditory  canals  are  filled  with,  water,  appear  to  originate  in 
the  body  itself. 

An  auditory  sensation  lasts  a  short  time  after  the  cessation 
of  the  exciting  cause,  so  that  a  number  of  separate  vibrations, 
each  capable  of  exciting  a  distinct  sensation  if  heard  alone, 
may  succeed  each  other  so  rapidly  that  they  are  fused  into  a 
single  sensation.  If  we  listen  to  the  puffs  of  a  syren,  or  to 
vibrating  tongues  of  low  pitch,  the  single  sensation  is  usually 
produced  by  about  30  or  35  vibrations  per  second;  but  when 
we  listen  to  beats  of  considerable  intensity,  produced  by  two 
adjacent  tones  of  sufficiently  high  pitch,  the  ear  may  follow 
as  many  as  132  intermissions  per  second. 

The  sensibility  of  the  ear  for  sounds  of  different  pitch  is  not 
the  same.  It  is  more  sensitive  for  acute  than  for  grave  sounds, 
and  it  is  probable  that  the  maximum  degree  of  acuteness  is  for 
sounds  produced  by  about  3000  vibrations  per  second,  that 
is  near  /a5^.  Sensibility  as  to  pitch  varies  much  with  the 
individual.  Thus  some  musicians  may  detect  a  difference  of 
roVffth  of  the  total  number  of  vibrations,  while  other  persons 
may  have  difficulty  in  appreciating  a  semitone. 

6.  Analytical  Power  of  the  Ear. — When  we  listen  to  a  compound 
tone,  we  have  the  power  of  picking  out  these  partials  from  the 
general  mass  of  sound.     It  is  known  that  the  frequencies  of  the 
partials  as  compared  with  that  of  the  fundamental  tone  are  simple 
multiples  of  the  frequency  of  the  fundamental,  and  also  that  physic- 
ally the  waves  of  the  partials  so  blend  with  each  other  as  to  produce 
waves  of  very  complicated  forms.     Yet  the  ear,  or  the  ear  and  the 
brain  together,   can   resolve  this  complicated  wave-form  into  its 
constituents,  and  this  is  done  more  easily  if  we  listen  to  the  sound 
with  resonators,  the  pitch  of  which  corresponds,  or  nearly  corre- 
sponds, to  the  frequencies  of  the  partials.    Much  discussion  has  taken 
place  as  to  how  the  ear  accomplishes  this  analysis.     All  are  agreed 
that  there  is  a  complicated  apparatus  in  the  cochlea  which  may 
serve  this  purpose;  but  while  some  arc  of  opinion  that  this  structure 
is  sufficient,  others  hold  that  the  analysis  takes  place  in  the  brain. 
When  a  complicated  wave  falls  on  the  drum-head,  it  must  move  out 
and  in  in  a  way  corresponding  to  the  variations  of  pressure,  and  these 
variations  will,  in  a  single  vibration,  depend  on  the  greater  or  less 
degree  of  complexity  of  the  wave.     Thus  a  single  tone  will  cause  a 
movement  like  that  of  a  pendulum,  a  simple  pendular  vibration, 


126 


HEARING 


while  a  complex  tone,  although  occurring  in  the  same  duration  of 
time,  will  cause  the  drum-head  to  move  out  and  in  in  a  much  more 
complicated  manner.  The  complex  movement  will  be  conveyed  to 
the  base  of  the  stapes,  thence  to  the  vestibule,  and  thence  to  the 
cochlea,  in  which  we  find  the  ductus  cochlearis  containing  the  organ 
of  Cord.  It  is  to  be  noted  also  that  the  parts  in  the  cochlea  are  so 
small  as  to  constitute  only  a  fraction  of  the  wave-length  of  most 
tones  audible  to  the  human  ear.  Now  it  is  evident  that  the  cochlea 
must  act  either  as  a  whole,  all  the  nerve  fibres  being  affected  by  any 
variations  of  pressure,  or  the  nerve  fibres  may  have  a  selective  action, 
each  fibre  being  excited  by  a  wave  of  a  definite  period,  or  there  may 
exist  small  vibratile  bodies  between  the  nerve  filaments  and  the 
pressures  sent  into  the  organ.  The  last  hypothesis  gives  the  most 
rational  explanation  of  the  phenomena,  and  on  it  is  founded  a  theory 
generally  accepted  and  associated  with  the  names  of  Thomas 
Young  and  Hermann  Helmholtz.  It  may  be  shortly  stated  as 
follows : — 

"  (i)  In  the  cochlea  there  are  vibrators,  tuned  to  frequencies 
within  the  limits  of  hearing,  say  from  30  to  40,000  or  50,000  vibs. 
per  second.  (2)  Each  vibrator  is  capable  of  exciting  its  appropriate 
nerve  filament  or  filaments,  so  that  a  nervous  impulse,  correspond- 
ing to  the  frequency  of  the  vibrator,  is  transmitted  to  the  brain — 
not  corresponding  necessarily,  as  regards  the  number  of  nervous 
impulses,  but  in  such  a  way  that  when  the  impulses  along  a  particular 
nerve  filament  reach  the  brain,  a  state  of  consciousness  is  aroused 
which  does  correspond  with  the  number  of  the  physical  stimuli 
and  with  the  period  of  the  auditory  vibrator.  (3)  The  mass  of 
each  vibrator  is  such  that  it  will  be  easily  set  in  motion,  and  after 
the  stimulus  has  ceased  it  will  readily  come  to  rest.  (4)  Damping 
arrangements  exist  in  the  ear,  so  as  quickly  to  extinguish  movements 
of  the  vibrators.  (5)  If  a  simple  tone  falls  on  the  ear,  there  is  a 
pendular  movement  of  the  base  of  the  stapes,  which  will  affect 
all  the  parts,  causing  them  to  move;  but  any  part  whose  natural 
period  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  sound  will  respond  on  the 
principle  of  sympathetic  resonance,  a  particular  nerve  filament  or 
nerve  filaments  will  be  affected,  and  a  sensation  of  a  tone  of  definite 
pitch  will  be  experienced,  thus  accounting  for  discrimination  in 
pitch.  (6)  Intensity  or  loudness  will  depend  on  the  amplitude  of 
movement  of  the  vibrating  body,  and  consequently  on  the  intensity 
of  nerve  stimulation.  (7)  If  a  compound  wave  of  pressure  be  com- 
municated by  the  base  of  the  stapes,  it  will  be  resolved  into  its 
constituents  by  the  vibrators  corresponding  to  tones  existing  in  it, 
each  picking  out  its  appropriate  portion  of  the  wave,  and  thus 
irritating  corresponding  nerve  filaments,  so  that  nervous  impulses 
are  transmitted  to  the  brain,  where  they  are  fused  in  such  a  way  as 
to  give  rise  to  a  sensation  of  a  particular  quality  or  character, 
but  still  so  imperfectly  fused  that  each  constituent,  by  a  strong  effort 
of  attention,  may  be  specially  recognized  "  (article  "  Ear,"  by 
M'Kendrick,  Schafer's  Text-Book,  he.  cit.). 

The  structure  of  the  ductus  cochlearis  meets  the  demands  of  this 
theory,  it  is  highly  differentiated,  and  it  can  be  shown  that  in  it 
there  are  a  sufficient  number  of  elements  to  account  for  the  delicate 
appreciation  of  pitch  possessed  by  the  human  ear,  and  on  the  basis 
that  the  highly  trained  ear  of  a  violinist  can  detect  a  difference  of 
s^th  of  a  semitone  (M'Kendrick,  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Ed.,  1896,  vol. 
xxxviii.  p.  780;  also  Schafer's  Text-Book,  loc.  cit.).  Measurements 
of  the  cochlea  have  also  shown  such  differentiation  as  to  make  it 
difficult  to  imagine  that  it  can  act  as  a  whole.  A  much  less  complex 
organ  might  have  served  this  purpose  (M'Kendrick,  op.  cit.).  The 
following  table,  given  by  Retzius  (Das  Gehororgan  der  Wirbelthiere, 
Bd.  ii.  S.  356),  shows  differentiations  in  the  cochlea  of  man,  the  cat 
and  the  rabbit,  all  of  which  no  doubt  hear  tones,  although  in  all 
probability  they  have  very  different  powers  of  discrimination: — 

Man.       Cat.       Rabbit. 
Ear-teeth      .... 
Holes  in  habenula  for  nerves 
Inner  rods  of  Corti's  organ 
Outer  rods  of  Corti's  organ 
Inner  hair-cells  (one  row) 
Outer  hair-cells  (several  rows) 
Fibres  in  basilar  membrane 

7.  Dissonance. — The  theory  can  also  be  used  to  explain  dissonance. 
When  two  tones  sufficiently  near  in  pitch  are  simultaneously  sounded, 
beats  are  produced.  If  the  beats  are  few  in  number  they  can  be 
counted,  because  they  give  rise  to  separate  and  distinct  sensations; 
but  if  they  are  numerous  they  blend  so  as  to  give  roughness  or  dis- 
sonance to  the  interval.  The  roughness  or  dissonance  is  most  dis- 
agreeable with  about  33  beats  falling  on  the  ear  per  second.  When 
two  compound  tones  are  sounded,  say  a  minor  third  on  a  harmonium 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  keyboard,  then  we  have  beats  not  only 
between  the  primaries,  but  also  between  the  upper  partials  of  each 
of  the  primaries.  The  beating  distance  may,  for  tones  of  medium 
pitch,  be  fixed  at  about  a  nvnor  third,  but  this  interval  will  expand 
for  intervals  on  low  tones  and  contract  for  intervals  on  high  ones. 
This  explains  why  the  same  interval  in  the  lower  part  of  the  scale 
may  give  slow  beats  that  are  not  disagreeable,  while  in  the  higher 
part  it  may  cause  harsh  and  unpleasant  dissonance.  The  partials 
up  to  the  seventh  are  beyond  beating  distance,  but  above  this  they 


2,490 

2,430 

1,550 

3,985 

2,780 

1,650 

5,590 

4,700 

2,800 

3,848 

3,300 

1,900 

3,487 

2,600 

1,  600 

11,750 

9,900 

6,100 

23,750 

15,700 

.10,500 

come  close  together.  Consequently  instruments  (such  as  tongues, 
or  reeds)  that  abound  in  upper  partials  cause  an  intolerable  dissonance 
if  one  of  the  primaries  is  slightly  out  of  tune.  Some  intervals  are 
pleasant  and  satisfying  when  produced  on  instruments  having  few 
partials  in  their  tones.  These  are  concords.  Others  are  less  so, 
and  they  may  give  rise  to  an  uncomfortable  sensation.  These  are 
discords.  In  this  way  unison,  {,  minor  third  f,  major  third  !j, 
fourth  J,  fifth  I,  minor  sixth  g,  major  sixth  £  and  octave  f ,  are  all 
concords;  while  a  second  §,  minor  seventh  *f  and  major  seventh  >/, 
are  discords.  Helmholtz  compares  the  sensation  of  dissonance  to 
that  of  a  flickering  light  on  the  eye.  "  Something  similar  I  have 
found  to  be  produced  by  simultaneously  stimulating  the  skin,  or 
margin  of  the  lips,  by  bristles  attached  to  tuning-forks  giving  forth 
beats.  If  the  frequency  of  the  forks  is  great,  the  sensation  is  that 
of  a  most  disagreeable  tickling.  It  may  be  that  the  instinctive  effort 
at  analysis  of  tones  close  in  pitch  causes  the  disagreeable  sensation  " 
(Schafer's  Text-Book,  op.  cit.  p.  1187). 

8.  Other  Theories. — In  1865  Rennie  objected  to  the  analysis 
theory,  and  urged  that  the  cochlea  acted  as  a  whole  (Ztschr.  f.  rat. 
Med.,  Dritte  Reihe,  Bd.  xxiv.  Heft  I,  S.  12-64).  This  view  was 
revived  by  Voltolini  (Virchow's  Archiv,  Bd.  c.  S.  27)  some  years 
later,  and  in  1886  it  was  urged  by  E.  Rutherford  (Rep.  Brit.  Assoc. 
Ad.  Sc.,  1886),  who  compared  the  action  of  the  cochlea  to  that  of 
a  telephone  plate.  According  to  this  theory,  all  the  hairs  of  the 
auditory  cells  vibrate  to  every  note,  and  the  hair-cells  transform 
sound  vibrations  into  nerve  vibrations  or  impulses,  similar  in  fre- 
quency, amplitude  and  character  to  the  sound  vibrations.  There 
is  no  analysis  in  the  peripheral  organ.  A.  D.  Waller,  in  1891  (Proc. 
Physiol.  Soc.,  Jan.  20,  1891)  suggested  that  the  basilar  membrane 
as  a  whole  vibrates  to  every  note,  thus  repeating  the  vibrations  of 
the  membrana  tympani;  and  since  the  hair-cells  move  with  the 
basilar  membrane,  they  produce  what  may  be  called  pressure  patterns 
against  the  tectorial  membranes,  and  filaments  of  the  auditory  nerve 
are  stimulated  by  these  pressures.  Waller  admits  a  certain  degree 
of  peripheral  analysis,  but  he  relegates  ultimate  analysis  to  the  brain. 
These  theories,  dispensing  with  peripheral  analysis,  leave  out  of 
account  the  highly  complex  structure  of  the  cochlea,  or,  in  other 
words,  they  assign  to  that  structure  a  comparatively  simple  function 
which  could  be  performed  by  a  simple  membrane  capable  of  vibrating. 
We  find  that  the  cochlea  becomes  more  elaborate  as  we  ascend  the 
scale  of  animals,  until  in  man,  who  possesses  greater  powers  of 
analysis  than  any  other  being,  the  number  of  hair-cells,  fibres  of  the 
basilar  membrane  and  arches  of  Corti  are  all  much  increased  in 
number  (see  Retzius's  table,  supra).  The  principle  of  sympathetic 
resonance  appears,  therefore,  to  offer  the  most  likely  solution  of  the 
problem.  Hurst's  view  is  that  with  each  movement  of  the  stapes 
a  wave  is  generated  which  travels  up  the  scala  vestibuli,  through 
the  helicotrema  into  the  scala  tympani  and  down  the  latter  to  the 
fenestra  rotunda.  The  wave,  however,  is  not  merely  a  movement 
of  the  basilar  membrane,  but  an  actual  movement  of  fluid  or  a 
transmission  of  pressure.  As  the  one  wave  ascends  while  the  other 
descends,  a  pressure  of  the  basilar  membrane  occurs  at  the  point 
where  they  meet;  this  causes  the  basilar  membrane  to  move  to- 
wards the  tectorial  membrane,  forcing  this  membrane  suddenly 
against  the  apices  of  the  hair-cells,  thus  irritating  the  nerves.  The 
point  at  which  the  waves  meet  will  depend  on  the  time  interval 
between  the  waves  (Hurst,  "  A  New  Theory  of  Hearing,"  Trans. 
Biol.  Soc.  Liverpool,  1895,  vol.  ix.  p.  321).  More  recently  Max  Mayer 
has  advanced  a  theory  somewhat  similar.  He  supposes  that  with 
each  movement  of  the  stapes  corresponding  to  a  vibration,  a  wave 
travels  up  the  scala  vestibuli,  pressing  the  basilar  membrane  down- 
wards. As  it  meets  with  resistance  in  passing  upwards,  its  amplitude 
therefore  diminishes,  and  in  this  way  the  distance  up  the  scala 
through  which  the  wave  progresses  will  be  determined  by  its  ampli- 
tude. The  wave  in  its  progress  irritates  a  certain  number  of  nerve 
terminations,  consequently  feeble  tones  will  irritate  only  those  nerve 
fibres  that  are  near  the  fenestra  ovalis,  while  stronger  tones  will  pass 
farther  up  and  irritate  a  larger  number  of  nerve  fibres  the  same 
number  of  times  per  unit  of  time.  Pitch,  according  to  this  view, 
depends  on  the  number  of  stimuli  per  second,  while  loudness  depends 
on  the  number  of  nerve  fibres  irritated.  Mayer  also  applies  the 
theory  to  the  explanation  of  the  powers  of  the  cochlea  as  an  analyser, 
by  supposing  that  with  a  compound  tone  these  are  at  maxima  and 
minima  of  stimulation.  As  the  compound  wave  travels  up  the  scala, 
portions  of  the  wave  corresponding  to  maxima  and  minima  die  away 
in  consecutive  series,  until  only  a  maximum  and  minimum  are  left ; 
and,  finally,  as  the  wave  travels  farther,  these  also  disappear.  With 
each  maximum  and  minimum  different  parts  of  the  basilar  membrane 
are  affected,  and  affected  a  different  number  of  times  per  second, 
according  to  the  frequencies  of  the  partials  existing  in  the  compound 
tone.  Thus  with  a  fifth,  2  :  3,  there  are  three  maxima  and  three 
minima ;  but  the  compound  tone  is  resolved  into  three  tones  having 
vibration  frequencies  in  the  ratio  of  3  :  2  :  I.  According  to  Mayer, 
we  actually  hear  when  a  fifth  is  sounded  tones  of  the  relationship  of 
3:2:1,  the  last  (l)  being  the  differential  tone.  He  holds,  also,  that 
combinational  tones  are  entirely  subjective  (Max  Mayer,  Ztschr.  f. 
Psych,  und  Phys.  d.  Sinnesorgane,  Leipzig,  Bd.  xvi.  and  xvii. ;  also 
Verhandl.  d.  physiolog.  Gesellsch.  zu  Berlin,  Feb.  18,  1898,  S.  49). 
Two  fatal  objections  can  be  urged  to  these  theories,  namely,  first,  it 
is  impossible  to  conceive  of  minute  waves  following  each  other  in 


HEARING 


127 


rapid  succession  in  the  minute  tubes  forming  the  scalae — the  length 
of  the  scala  being  only  a  very  small  part  of  the  wave-length  of  the 
sound;  and,  secondly,  neither  theory  takes  into  account  the  differ- 
entiation of  structure  found  in  the  epithelium  of  the  organ  of  Corti. 
Each  push  in  and  out  of  the  base  of  the  stapes  must  cause  a  move- 
ment of  the  fluid,  or  a  pressure,  in  the  scalae  as  a  whole. 

There  are  difficulties  in  the  way  of  applying  the  resonance  theory 
to  the  perception  of  noises.  Noises  have  pitch,  and  also  each  noise 
has  a  special  character;  if  so,  if  the  noise  is  analysed  into  its  con- 
stituents, why  is  it  that  it  seems  impossible  to  analyse  a  noise, 
or  to  perceive  any  musical  element  in  it  ?  Helmholtz  assumed  that 
a  sound  is  noisy  when  the  wave  is  irregular  in  rhythm,  and  he 
suggested  that  the  crista  and  macula  acustica,  structures  that  exist 
.not  in  the  cochlea  but  in  the  vestibule,  have  to  do  with  the  per- 
ception of  noise.  These  structures,  however,  are  concerned  rather 
in  the  sense  of  the  perception  of  equilibrium  than  of  sound  (see 
EQUILIBRIUM). 

9.  Hitherto  we  have  considered  only  the  audition  of  a  single 
sound,  but  it  is  possible  also  to  have  simultaneous  auditive  sensa- 
tions, as  in  musical  harmony.  It  is' difficult  to  ascertain  what  is  the 
limit  beyond  which  distinct  auditory  sensations  may  be  perceiyed. 
We  have  in  listening  to  an  orchestra  a  multiplicity  of  sensations 
which  produces  a  total  effect,  while,  at  the  same  time,  we  can  with 
ease  single  out  and  notice  attentively  the  tones  of  one  or  two  special 
instruments.  Thus  the  pleasure  of  music  may  arise  partly 
from  listening  to  simultaneous,  and  partly  from  tha  effect  of 
contrast  or  suggestion  in  passing  through  successive,  auditory 
sensations. 

The '  principles  of  harmony  belong  to  the  subject  of  music  (see 
HARMONY),  but  it  is  necessary  here  briefly  to  refer  to  these  from  the 
physiological  point  of  view.  If  two  musical  sounds  reach  the  ear 
at  the  same  moment,  an  agreeable  or  disagreeable  sensation  is 
experienced,  which  may  be  termed  a  concord  or  a  discord,  and  it  can 
be  shown  by  experiment  with  the  syren  that  this  depends  upon  the 
vibrational  numbers  of  the  two  tones.  The  octave  (i  :  2),  the 
twelfth  (l  :  3)  and  double  octave  (i  :  4)  are  absolutely  consonant 
sounds;  the  fifth  (2  :  3)  is  said  to  be  perfectly  consonant;  then 
follow,  in  the  direction  of  dissonance,  the  fourth  (3  : 4),  major  sixth 
(3  :  5).  major  third  (4  :  5),  minor  sixth  (5  :  8)  and  the  minor  third 
(5  : 6).  Helmholtz  has  attempted  to  account  for  this  by  the  appli- 
cation of  his  theory  of  beats. 

Beats  are  observed  when  two  sounds  of  nearly  the  same  pitch  are 
produced  together,  and  the  number  of  beats  per  second  is  equal  to 
the  difference  of  the  number  of  vibrations  of  the  two  sounds.  Beats 
give  rise  to  a  peculiarly  disagreeable  intermittent  sensation.  The 
maximum  roughness  of  beats  is  attained  by  33  per  second;  beyond 
132  per  second,  the  individual  impulses  are  blended  into  one  uniform 
auditory  sensation.  When  two  notes  are  sounded,  say  on  a  piano, 
not  only  may  the  first,  fundamental  or  prime  tones  beat,  but  partial 
tones  of  each  of  the  primaries  may  beat  also,  and  as  the  difference 
of  pitch  of  two  simultaneous  sounds  augments,  the  number  of  beats, 
both  of  prime  tones  and  of  harmonics,  augments  also.  The  physio- 
logical effect  of  beats,  though  these  may  not  be  individually  dis- 
tinguishable, is  to  give  roughness  to  the  ear.  If  harmonics  or  partial 
tones  of  prime  tones  coincide,  there  are  no  beats;  if  they  do  not 
coincide,  the  beats  produced  will  give  a  character  of  roughness  to 
the  interval.  Thus  in  the  octave  and  twelfth,  all  the  partial  tones 
of  the  acute  sound  coincide  with  the  partial  tones  of  the  grave 
sound;  in  the  fourth,  major  sixth  and  major  third,  only  two  pairs 
of  the  partial  tones  coincide,  while  in  the  minor  sixth,  minor  third 
and  minor  seventh  only  one  pair  of  the  harmonics  coincide. 

It  is  possible  by  means  of  beats  to  measure  the  sensitiveness  of 
the  ear  by  determining  the  smallest  difference  in  pitch  that  may 
give  rise  to  a  beat.  In  no  part  of  the  scale  can  a  difference  smaller 
than  O'2  vibration  per  second  be  distinguished.  The  sensitiveness 
varies  with  pitch.  Thus  at  120  vibs.  per  second  0-4  vib.  per  second, 
at  500  about  0-3  vib.  per  second,  and  at  1000,  0-5  vib.  per  second 
can  be  distinguished.  This  is  a  remarkable  illustration  of  the 
sensitiveness  of  the  ear.  When  tones  of  low  pitch  are  produced 
that  do  not  rapidly  die  away,  as  by  sounding  heavy  tuning-forks, 
not  only  may  the  beats  be  perceived  corresponding  to  the  difference 
between  the  frequencies  of  the  forks,  but  also  other  sets  of  beats. 
Thus,  if  the  two  tones  have  frequencies  of  40  and  74,  a  two-order 
beat  may  be  heard,  one  haying  a  frequency  of  34  and  the  other 
of  6,  as  74 -1-40  =  i +a  positive  remainder  of  34,  and  74-1-40  =  2-6, 
or  80-74,  a  negative  remainder  of  6.  The  lower  beat  is  heard  most 
distinctly  when  the  number  is  less  than  half  the  frequency  of  the 
lower  primary,  and  the  upper  when  the  number  is  greater.  The  beats 
we  have  been  considering  are  produced  when  two  notes  are  sounded 
slightly  differing  in  frequency,  or  at  all  events  their  frequencies  are 
not  so  great  as  those  of  two  notes  separated  by  a  musical  interval, 
such  as  an  octave  or  a  fifth.  But  Lord  Kelvin  has  shown  that  beats 
may  also  be  produced  on  slightly  inharmonious  musical  intervals 
(Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Ed.  1878,  vol.  ix.  p.  602).  Thus,  take  two  tuning- 
forks,  w<2  =  256  and  M/3  =  5I2;  slightly  flatten  ut3  so  as  to  make  its 
frequency  510,  and  we  hear,  not  a  roughness  corresponding  to  254 
beats,  but  a  slow  beat  of  2  per  second.  The  sensation  also  passes 
through  a  cycle,  the  beats  now  sounding  loudly  and  fading  away  in 
intensity,  again  sounding  loudly,  and  so  on.  One  might  suppose  that 
the  beat  occurred  between  510  (the  frequency  of  ut3  flattened)  and 


512,  the  first  partial  of  utt,  namely  uta,  but  this  is  not  so,  as  the  beat 
is  most  audible  when  utt  is  sounded  feebly.  In  a  similar  way,  beats 
may  be  produced  on  the  approximate  harmonies  2:3,  3:4,  4:5, 
5  :  6,  6  :  7,  7  :  8,  I  :  3,  3  :  5,  and  beats  may  even  be  produced  on  the 
major  chord  4:5:6  by  sounding  uta,  mis,  sol3,  with  soli  or  mis 
slightly  flattened,  "  when  a  peculiar  beat  will  be  heard  as  if  a  wheel 
were  being  turned  against  a  surface,  one  small  part  of  which  was 
rougher  than  the  rest."  These  beats  on  imperfect  harmonies 
appear  to  indicate  that  the  ear  does  distinguish  between  an  increase 
of  pressure  on  the  drum-head  and  a  diminution,  or  between  a  push 
and  a  pull,  or,  in  other  words,  that  it  is  affected  by  phase.  This 
was  denied  by  Helmholtz. 

10.  Beat  Tones. — Considerable  difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to 
whether  beats  can  blend  so  as  to  give  a  sensation  of  tone;  but 
R.  Konig,  by  using  pure  tones  of  high  pitch,  has  settled  the  question. 
These  tones  were  produced  by  large  tuning-forks.    Thus  M/6  =  2O48 
and  ^6  =  2304.     Then  the  beat  tone  is  ^3  =  256  (2304-2048).     If 
we  strike  the  two  forks,  ut3  sounds  as  a  grave  or  lower  beat  tone. 
Again,    «26  =  2O48    and    $16=3840.      Then     (2048)2-3840=256,    a 
negative  remainder,  ut3,  as  before,  and  when  both  forks  are  sounded 
ut3  will  be  heard.    Again,  ute  =  2048  and  sol,  =  3072,  and  3072-2048  = 
1024,  or  utt,,  which  will  be  distinctly  heard  when  ute   and  sole,  are 
sounded    (Konig,    Quelques   experiences   d'acoustique,    Paris,    1882, 
p.  87). 

11.  Combination  Tones. — Frequently,  when  two  tones  are  sounded, 
not  only  do  we  hear  the  compound  sound,  from  which  we  can  pick 
out  the  constituent  tones,  but  we  may  hear  other  tones,  one  of 
which  is  lower  in  pitch  than  the  lowest  primary,  and  the  other 
is   higher  in   pitch   than   the   higher  primary.     These,   known   as 
combination  tones,  are  of  two  classes:  differential  tones,  in  which 
the  frequency  is  the  difference  of  the  frequencies  of  the  generating 
tones,   and  summational  tones,   having  a  frequency   which  is  the 
sum  of  the  frequencies  of  the  tones  producing  them.     Differential 
tones,  first  noticed  by  Sorge  about  1740,  are  easily  heard.     Thus 
an  interval  of  a  fifth,  2:3,  gives  a  differential  tone  I ,  that  is,  an  octave 
below  2;  a  fourth,  3:4,  gives  I,  a  twelfth  below  3;  a  major  third, 
4  :  5i  gives  i,  two  octaves  below  4;  a  minor  third,  5:6,  gives  I,  two 
octaves  and  a  major  third  below  5;   a  major  sixth,  3:5,  gives  2, 
that  is,  a  fifth  below  3 ;  and  a  minor  sixth,  5  :  8,  gives  3,  that  is, 
a  major  sixth  below  5.    Summational  tones,  first  noticed  by  Helm- 
holtz, are  so  difficult  to  hear  that  much  controversy  has  taken 
place  as  to  their  very  existence.     Some  have  contended  that  they 
are  produced  by  beats.     It  appears  to  be  proved  physically  that 
they  may  exist  in  the  air  outside  of  the  ear.     Further  differential 
tones  may  be  generated  in  the, middle  ear.     Helmholtz  also  demon- 
strated their  independent  existence,  and  he  states  that  "  whenever 
the  vibrations  of  the  air  or  of  other  elastic  bodies,  which  are  set  in 
motion  at  the  same  time  by  two  generating  simple  tones,  are  so 
powerful  that  they  can  no  longer  be  considered  infinitely  small, 
mathematical  theory  shows  that  vibrations  of  the  air  must  arise 
which  have  the  same  vibrational  numbers  as  the  combination  tones  " 
(Helmholtz,  Sensations  of  Tone,  p.  235).     The  importance  of  these 
combinational  tones  in  the  theory  of  hearing  is  obvious.     If  the  ear 
can  only  analyse  compound  waves  into  simple  pendular  vibrations 
of  a  certain  order  (simple  multiples  of  the  prime  tone),  how  can  it 
detect  combinational  tones,  which  dp  not  belong  to  that  order  ? 
Again,  if   such  tones  are  purely  subjective  and  only  exist  in  the 
mind  of  the  listener,  the  fact  would  be  fatal  to  the  resonance  theory. 
There  can  be  no  doubt,  however,  that  the  ear,  in  dealing  with 
them,  vibrates  in  some  part  of  its  mechanism  with  each  generator, 
while  it  also  is  affected  by  the  combinational  tone  itself,  according  to 
its  frequency. 

12.  Hearing  with  two  ears  does  not  appear  materially  to  influence 
auditive  sensation,  but  probably  the  two  organs  are  enabled,  not 
only  to  correct  each  other's  errors,  but  also  to  aid  us  in  determin- 
ing the  locality  in  which  a  sound  originates.     It  is  asserted  by 
G.  T.  Fechner  that  one  ear  may  perceive  the  same  tone  at  a  slightly 
higher  pitch  than  the  other,  but  this  may  probably  be  due  to  some 
slight  pathological  condition  in  one  ear.     If  two  tones,  produced  by 
two  tuning-forks,  of  equal  pitch,  are  produced  one  near  each  ear, 
there  is  a  uniform  single  sensation;  if  one  of  the  tuning-forks  be 
made  to  revolve  round  its  axis  in  such  a  way  that  its  tone  increases 
and  diminishes  in  intensity,  neither  fork  is  heard  continuously,  but 
both  sound  alternately,  the  fixed  one  being  only  audible  when  the 
revolving  one  is  not.     It  is  difficult  to  decide  whether  excitations 
of  corresponding  elements  in  the  two  ears  can  be  distinguished  from 
each  other.     It  is  probable  that  the  resulting  sensations  may  be 
distinguished,  provided  one  of  the  generating  tones  differs  from  the 
other  in  intensity  or  quality,  although  it  may  be  the  same  in  pitch. 
Our  judgment  as  to  the  direction  of  sounds  is  formed  mainly  from 
the  different  degrees  of  intensity  with  which  they  are  heard  by  two 
ears.     Lord   Rayleigh  states  that  diffraction  of  the  sound-waves 
will  occur  as  they  pass  round  the  head  to  the  ear  farthest  from  the 
source  of  sound;  thus  partial  tones  will  reach  the  two  ears  with 
different   intensities,    and    thus   quality  of   tone    may   be   affected 
(Trans.  Music.  Soc.,  London,  1876).    Silvanus  P.  Thompson  advo- 
cates   a    similar    view,    and     he    shows    that    the    direction    of   a 
complex    tone    can    be    more    accurately    determined    than     the 
direction  of  a  simple  tone,  especially  if  it  be  of  low  pitch  (Phil. 
Mag.,  1882).  (J-  G.  M.) 


128 


HEARN— HEARSE 


HEARN,  LAFCADIO  (1850-1904),  author  of  books  about 
Japan,  was  born  on  the  27th  of  June  1850  in  Leucadia  (pro- 
nounced Lefcadia,  whence  his  name,  which  was  one  adopted 
by  himself),  one  of  the  Greek  Ionian  Islands.  He  was  the  son 
of  Surgeon-major  Charles  Hearn,  of  King's  County,  Ireland, 
who,  during  the  English  occupation  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  was 
stationed  there,  and  who  married  a  Greek  wife.  Artistic  and 
rather  bohemian  tastes  were  in  Lafcadio  Hearn's  blood.  His 
father's  brother  Richard  was  at  one  time  a  well-known  member 
of  the  Barbizon  set  of  artists,  though  he  made  no  mark  as  a 
painter  through  his  lack  of  energy.  Young  Hearn  had  rather  a 
casual  education,  but  was  for  a  time  (1865)  at  Ushaw  Roman 
Catholic  College,  Durham.  The  religious  faith  in  which  he  was 
brought  up  was,  however,  soon  lost;  and  at  nineteen,  being 
thrown  on  his  own  resources,  he  went  to  America  and  at  first 
picked  up  a  living  in  the  lower  grades  of  newspaper  work.  The 
details  are  obscure,  but  he  continued  to  occupy  himself  with 
journalism  and  with  out-of-the-way  observation  and  reading, 
and  meanwhile  his  erratic,  romantic  and  rather  morbid  idio- 
syncrasies developed.  He  was  for  some  time  in  New  Orleans, 
writing  for  the  Times  Democrat,  and  was  sent  by  that  paper 
for  two  years  as  correspondent  to  the  West  Indies,  where  he  gath- 
ered material  for  his  Two  Years  in  the  French  West  Indies  (1890). 
At  last,  in  1891,  he  went  to  Japan  with  a  commission  as  a  news- 
paper correspondent,  which  was  quickly  broken  off.  But  here 
he  found  his  true  sphere.  The  list  of  his  books  on  Japanese 
subjects  tells  its  own  tale:  Glimpses  of  Unfamiliar  Japan 
(1894);  Out  of  the  East  (1895);  Kokoro  (1896);  Gleanings  in 
Buddha  Fields  (1897);  Exotics  and  Retrospections  (1898);  In 
Ghostly  Japan  (1899);  Shadowings  (1900);  A  Japanese 
Miscellany  (1901);  Kotto  (1902);  Japanese  Fairy  Tales  and 
Kwaidan  (1903),  and  (published  just  after  his  death)  Japan, 
an  Attempt  at  Interpretation  (1904),  a  study  full  of  knowledge 
and  insight.  He  became  a  teacher  of  English  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Tokyo,  and  soon  fell  completely  under  the  spell 
of  Japanese  ideas.  He  married  a  Japanese  wife,  became  a 
naturalized  Japanese  under  the  name  of  Yakumo  Koizumi,  and 
adopted  the  Buddhist  religion.  For  the  last  two  years  of  his  life 
(he  died  on  the  26th  of  September  1904)  his  health  was  failing, 
and  he  was  deprived  of  his  lecturership  at  the  University.  But 
he  had  gradually  become  known  to  the  world  at  large  by  the 
originality,  power  and  literary  charm  of  his  writings.  This 
wayward  bohemian  genius,  who  had  seen  life  in  so  many  climes, 
and  turned  from  Roman  Catholic  to  atheist  and  then  to  Buddhist, 
was  curiously  qualified,  among  all  those  who  were  "  interpreting  " 
the  new  and  the  old  Japan  to  the  Western  world,  to  see  it  with 
unfettered  understanding,  and  to  express  its  life  and  thought 
with  most  intimate  and  most  artistic  sincerity.  Lafcadio  Hearn's 
books  were  indeed  unique  for  their  day  in  the  literature  about 
Japan,  in  their  combination  of  real  knowledge  with  a  literary 
art  which  is  often  exquisite. 

See  Elizabeth  Bisland,  The  Life  and  Letters  of  Lafcadio  Hearn 
(2  vols.,  1906);  G.  M.  Gould,  Concerning  Lafcadio  Hearn  (1908). 

HEARNE,  SAMUEL  (1745-1792),  English  explorer,  was  born 
in  London.  In  1756  he  entered  the  navy,  and  was  some  time 
with  Lord  Hood;  at  the  end  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  (1763) 
he  took  service  with  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  In  1768  he 
examined  portions  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  coasts  with  a  view  to 
improving  the  cod  fishery,  and  in  1760-1772  he  was  employed 
in  north-western  discovery,  searching  especially  for  certain 
copper  mines  described  by  Indians.  His  first  attempt  (from 
the  6th  of  November  1769)  failed  through  the  desertion  of  his 
Indians;  his  second  (from  the  23rd  of  February  1770)  through 
the  breaking  of  his  quadrant;  but  in  his  third  (December  1770 
to  June  1772)  he  was  successful,  not  only  discovering  the  copper 
of  the  Coppermine  river  basin,  but  tracing  this  river  to  the 
Arctic  Ocean.  He  reappeared  at  Fort  Prince  of  Wales  on  the 
30th  of  June  1772.  Becoming  governor  of  this  fort  in  1775, 
he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  French  under  La  Perouse  in  1782. 
He  returned  to  England  in  1787  and  died  there  in  1792. 

See  his  posthumous  Journey  from  Prince  of  Wales  Fort  in  Hudson's 
'Bay  to  the  Northern  Ocean  (London,  1795). 


HEARNE,  THOMAS  (1678-1735),  English  antiquary,  was 
born  in  July  1678  at  Littlefield  Green  in  the  parish  of  White 
Waltham,  Berkshire.  Having  received  his  early  education  from 
his  father,  George  Hearne,  the  parish  clerk,  he  showed  such  taste 
for  study  that  a  wealthy  neighbour,  Francis  Cherry  of  Shottes- 
brooke  (c.  1665-1713),  a  celebrated  nonjuror,  interested  himself 
in  the  boy,  and  sent  him  to  the  school  at  Bray  "  on  purpose  to 
learn  the  Latin  tongue."'  Soon  Cherry  took  him  into  his  own 
house,  and  his  education  was  continued  at  Bray  until  Easter 
1696,  when  he  matriculated  at  St  Edmund  Hall,  Oxford.  At 
the  university  he  attracted  the  attention  of  Dr  John  Mill  (1645- 
1707),  the  principal  of  St  Edmund  Hall,  who  employed  him  to 
compare  manuscripts  and  in  other  ways.  Having  taken  the 
degree  of  B.A.  in  1699  he  was  made  assistant  keeper  of  the 
Bodleian  Library,  where  he  worked  on  the  catalogue  of  books, 
and  in  1712  he  was  appointed  second  keeper.  In  1715  Hearne 
was  elected  architypographus  and  esquire  bedell  in  civil  law 
in  the  university,  but  objection  having  been  made  to  his  holding 
this  office  together  with  that  of  second  librarian,  he  resigned 
it  in  the  same  year.  As  a  nonjuror  he  refused  to  take  the  oaths 
of  allegiance  to  King  George  I.,  and  early  in  1716  he  was  deprived 
of  his  librarianship.  However  he  continued  to  reside  in  Oxford, 
and  occupied  himself  in  editing  the  English  chroniclers.  Having 
refused  several  important  academical  positions,  including  the 
librarianship  of  the  Bodleian  and  the  Camden  professorship  of 
ancient  history,  rather  than  take  the  oaths,  he  died  on  the  roth 
of  June  1735. 

Hearne's  most  important  work  was  done  as  editor  of  many  of 
the  English  chroniclers,  and  until  the  appearance  of  the  "  Rolls  "scries 
his  editions  were  in  many  cases  the  only  ones  extant.  Very  carefully 
prepared,  they  were,  and  indeed  are  still,  of  the  greatest  value  to 
historical  students.  Perhaps  the  most  important  of  a  long  list  are: 
Benedict  of  Peterborough's  (Benedictus  Abbas)  De  vita  et  gestis 
Henrici  II.  et  Ricardi  I.  (1735);  John  of  Fordun's  Scotichronicon 
(1722);  the  monk  of  Evesham's  Historia  vitae  et  regni  Ricardi  II. 
(1729);  Robert  Mannyng's  translation  of  Peter  Langtoft's  Chronicle 
(1725);  the  work  of  Thomas  Otterbourne  and  John  Whethamstede 
as  Duo  rerum  Anglicarum  scriptores  veleres  (1732);  Robert  of 
Gloucester's  Chronicle  (1724);  J.  Sprptt's  Chronica  (1719);  the 
Vita  et  gesta  Henrici  V.,  wrongly  attributed  to  Thomas  Elmham 
(1727);  Titus  Livy's  Vita  Henrici  V.  (1716);  Walter  of  Heming- 
burgh's  Chronicon  (1731);  and  William  of  Newburgh's  Histcria 
rerum  Anglicarum  (1719).  He  also  edited  John  Leland's  Itinerary 
(1710-1712)  and  the  same  author's  Collectanea  (1715);  W.  Camden's 
A  nnales  rerum  A  nglicarum  et  Hibernicarum  regnante  Elizabetha  (1717); 
Sir  John  Spelman's  Life  of  Alfred  (1709);  and  W.  Roper's  Life  of 
Sir  Thomas  More  (1716).  He  brought  out  an  edition  of  Livy  (1708) ; 
one  of  Pliny's  Epistolae  et  panegyricus  (1703);  and  one  of  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles  (1715).  Among  his  other  compilations  may  be 
mentioned:  Ductor  historicus,  a  Short  System  of  Universal  History 
(1704,  1705,  1714,  1724);  A  Collection  of  Curious  Discourses  by 
Eminent  Antiquaries  (1720);  and  Reliquiae  Bodleianae  (1703). 

Hearne  left  his  manuscripts  to  William  Bedford,  who  sold  them  to 
Dr  Richard  Rawlinson,  who  in  his  turn  bequeathed  them  to  the 
Bodleian.  Two  volumes  of  extracts  from  his  voluminous  diary 
were  published  by  Philip  Bliss  (Oxford,  1857),  and  afterwards  an 
enlarged  edition  in  three  volumes  appeared  (London,  1869).  A  large 
part  of  his  diary  entitled  Remarks  and  Collections,  1705—1714,  edited 
by  C.  E.  Doble  and  D.  W.  Rannie,  has  been  published  by  the  Oxford 
Historical  Society  (1885-1898).  Bibliotheca  Hearniana,  excerpts 
from  the  catalogue  of  Hearne's  library,  has  been  edited  by  B. 
Botfield  (1848). 

See  Impartial  Memorials  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Thomas  Hearne 
by  several  hands  (1736) ;  and  W.  D.  Macray,  Annals  of  the  Bodleian 
Library  (1890).  Hearne's  autobiography  is  published  in  W.  Huddes- 
ford's  Lives  of  Leland,  Hearne  and  Wood  (Oxford,  1772).  T.  Ouvry's 
Letters  addressed  to  Thomas  Hearne  has  been  privately  printed 
(London,  1874). 

HEARSE  (an  adaptation  of  Fr.  herse,  a  harrow,  from  Lat. 
hirpex,  hirpicem,  rake  or  harrow,  Greek  apira£),  a  vehicle  for 
the  conveyance  of  a  dead  body  at  a  funeral.  The  most  usual 
shape  is  a  four-wheeled  car,  with  a  roofed  and  enclosed  body, 
sometimes  with  glass  panels,  which  contains  the  coffin.  This  is 
the  only  current  use  of  the  word.  In  its  earlier  forms  it  is  usually 
found  as  "  herse,"  and  meant,  as  the  French  word  did,  a  harrow 
(q.v.).  It  was  then  applied  to  other  objects  resembling  a  harrow, 
following  the  French.  It  was  then  used  of  a  portcullis,  and  thus 
becomes  a  heraldic  term,  the  "  herse  "  being  frequently  borne 
as  a  "  charge,  "  as  in  the  arms  of  the  City  of  Westminster.  The 


ANATOMY] 


HEART 


129 


chief  application  of  the  word  is,  however,  -to  various  objects 
used  in  funeral  ceremonies.  A  "  herse  "  or  "  hearse  "  seems 
first  to  have  been  a  barrow-shaped  framework  of  wood,  to  hold 
lighted  tapers  and  decorations  placed  on  a  bier  or  coffin;  this 
later  developed  into  an  elaborate  pagoda-shaped  erection  of 
woodwork  or  metal  for  the  funerals  of  royal  or  other  distinguished 
persons.  This  held  banners,  candles,  armorial  bearings  and 
other  heraldic  devices.  Complimentary  verses  or  epitaphs 
were  often  attached  to  the  "  hearse."  An  elaborate  "  hearse  " 
was  designed  by  Inigo  Jones  for  the  funeral  of  James  I.  The 
"  hearse  "  is  also  found  as  a  permanent  erection  over  tombs. 
It  is  generally  made  of  iron  or  other  metal,  and  was  used, 
not  only  to  carry  lighted  candles,  but  also  for  the  support 
of  a  pall  during  the  funeral  ceremony.  There  is  a  brass 
"  hearse  "  in  the  Beauchamp  Chapel  at  Warwick  Castle,  and 
one  over  the  tomb  of  Robert  Marmion  and  his  wife  at  Tanfield 
Church  near  Ripon. 

HEART,  in  anatomy. — The  heart1  is  a  four-chambered 
muscular  bag,  which  lies  in  the  cavity  of  the  thorax  between 
the  two  lungs.  It  is  surrounded  by  another  bag,  the  pericardium, 
for  protective  and  lubricating  purposes  (see  COELOM  AND  SEROUS 
MEMBRANES).  Externally  the  heart  is  somewhat  conical,  its 
base  being  directed  upward,  backward  and  to  the  right,  its 
apex  downward,  forward  and  to  the  left.  In  transverse  section 
the  cone  is  flattened,  so  that  there  is  an  anterior  and  a  posterior 
surface  and  a  superior  and  inferior  border.  The  superior  border, 
running  obliquely  downward  and  to  the  left,  is  very  thick,  and 
so  gains  the  name  of  margo  obtusus,  while  the  inferior  border  is 
horizontal  and  sharp  and  is  called  margo  acutus  (see  fig.  i). 
The  divisions  between  the  four  chambers  of  the  heart  (namely, 
the  two  auricles  and  two  ventricles)  are  indicated  on  the  surface 
by  grooves,  and  when  these  are  followed  it  will  be  seen  that  the 


FIG.  I.  The  Thoracic  Viscera. — In  this  diagram  the  lungs  are 
turned  to  the  side,  and  the  pericardium  removed  to  display  the 
heart,  o,  upper,  a',  lower  lobe  of  left  lung;  b,  upper,  b',  middle, 
6',  lower  lobe  of  right  lung;  c,  trachea;  d,  arch  of  aorta;  e, 
superior  vena  cava;  /,  pulmonary  artery;  g,  left,  and  ft,  right 
auricle;  k,  right,  and  /,  left  ventricle;  m,  inferior  vena  cava;  n, 
descending  aorta;  I,  innominate  artery;  2,  right,  and  4,  left 
common  carotid  artery;  3,  right,  and  5,  left  subclayian  artery; 
6,  6,  right  and  left  innominate  vein;  7  and  9,  left  and  right  internal 
jugular  veins;  8  and  10,  left  and  right  subclavian  veins;  II,  12,  13, 
left  pulmonary  crtery,  bronchus  and  vein;  14, 15, 16,  right  pulmonary 
bronchus,  artery  and  vein ;  17  and  18,  left  and  right  coronary  arteries. 

right  auricle  and  ventricle  lie  on  the  front  and  right  side,  while 
the  left  auricle  and  ventricle  are  behind  and  on  the  left. 

The  right  auricle  is  situated  at  the  base  of  the  heart,  and  its 
outline  is  seen  on  looking  at  the  organ  from  in  front.  Into  the 

'In  O.  Eng.  heorte;  this  is  a  common  Teut.  word,  cf.  Dut.  hart, 
(j-er.  Herz,  Goth,  hairto;  related  by  root  are  Lat.  cor  and  Gr.  KapSla: 
ie  ultimate  root  i;  hard-,  to  quiver,  shake. 

xiii.  5 


posterior  part  of  it  open  the  two  venae  cavae  (see  fig.  2),  the 
superior  (a)  above  and  the  inferior  (b)  below.  In  front  and  to  the 
left  of  the  superior  vena  cava  is  the  right  auricular  appendage  (e) 
which  overlaps  the 
front  of  the  root  of  the 
aorta,  while  running 
obliquely  from  the 
front  of  one  vena  cava 
to  the  other  is  a  shal- 
low groove  called  the 
sulcus  terminalis,  which 
indicates  the  original 
separation  between  the 
true  auricle  in  front 
and  the  sinus  venosus 
behind.  When  the 
auricle  is  opened  by 
turning  the  front  wall 
to  the  right  as  a  flap 
the  following  structures 
are  exposed: 

1.  A  muscular  ridge, 
called  the  crista  termin- 
alis,   corresponding   to 
the    sulcus    terminalis 
on    the   exterior. 

2.  A  series  of  ridges 

on  the  anterior  wall  FIG.  2.  Cavities  of  the  Right  Side  of  the 
Heart. — a,  superior,  and  b,  inferior  vena 
cava;  c,  arch  of  aorta;  d,  pulmonary 
artery ;  e,  right,  and/,  left  auricular  append- 
age; g,  fossa  ovalis;  h,  Eustachian  valve; 
k,  mouth  of  coronary  vein;  /,  m,  n,  cusps 
of  the  tricuspid  valve;  o,  o,  papillary 
muscles;  p,  semilunar  valve;  g,  corpus 
Arantii;  r,  lunula. 


and  in  the  appendage, 
running  downward 
from  the  last  and  at 
right  angles  to  it,  like 
the  teeth  of  a  comb; 
these  are  known  as 
musculi  pectinati. 

3.  The  orifice  of  the  superior  vena  cava  (fig.  2,  a)  at  the  upper 
and  back  part  of  the  chamber. 

4.  The  orifice  of  the  inferior  vena  cava  (fig.  2,  b)  at  the  lower 
and  back  part. 

5.  Attached  to  the  right  and  lower  margins  of  this  opening 
are  the  remains  of  the  Eustachian  valve  (fig.  2,  h),  which  in  the 
foetus  directs  the  blood  from  the  inferior  vena  cava,  through  the 
joramen  ovale,  into  the  left  auricle. 

6.  Below  and  to  the  left  of  this  is  the  opening  of  the  coronary 
sinus  (fig.  2,  k),  which  collects  most  of  the  veins  returning  blood 
from  the  substance  of  the  heart. 

7.  Guarding  this  opening  is  the  coronary  valve  or  valve  of 
Thebesius. 

8.  On  the  posterior  or  septal  wall,  between  the  two  auricles, 
is  an  oval  depression,  called  the  fossa  ovalis  (fig.  2,  g),  the  remains 
of  the  original  communication  between  the  two  auricles.     In 
about  a  quarter  of  all  normal  hearts  there  is  a  small  valvular 
communication  between  the  two  auricles  in  the  left  margin  of 
this  depression  (see  "  7th  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Collective 
Investigation,"  /.  Anal,  and  Phys.  vol.  xxxii.  p.  164). 

9.  The  annulus  ovalis  is  the  raised  margin  surrounding  this 
depression. 

10.  On  the  left  side,  opening  into  the  right  ventricle,  is  the 
right   auricula-ventricular   opening. 

n.  On  the  right  wall,  between  the  two  caval  openings,  may 
occasionally  be  seen  a  slight  eminence,  the  tubercle  of  Lower, 
which  is  supposed  to  separate  the  two  streams  of  blood  in  the 
embryo. 

12.  Scattered  all  over  the  auricular  wall  are  minute  depres- 
sions, the  foramina  Thebesii,  some  of  which  receive  small  veins 
from  the  substance  of  the  heart. 

The  right  ventricle  is  a  triangular  cavity  (see  fig.  2)  the  base  of 
which  is  largely  formed  by  the  auriculo-ventricular  orifice.  To 
the  left  cf  this  it  is  continued  up  into  the  root  of  the  pulmonary 
artery,  and  this  part  is  known  as  the  infundibulum.  Its  anterior 
wall  forms  part  of  the  anterior  surface  of  the  heart,  while  its 
posterior  wall  is  chiefly  formed  by  the  septum  ventriculorum, 

S 


130 


HEART 


[ANATOMY 


between  it  and  the  left  ventricle.  Its  lower  border  is  the  margo 
acutus  already  mentioned.  In  transverse  section  it  is  crescentic, 
since  the  septal  wall  bulges  into  its  cavity.  In  its  interior  the 
following  structures  are  seen: 

1.  The  tricuspid  valve  (fig.  2,  /,  m,  n)  guarding  against  reflux 
of  blood  into  the  right  auricle.     This  consists  of  a  short  cylindrical 
curtain  of  fibrous  tissue,  which  projects  into  the  ventricle  from 
the  margin  of  the  auriculo-ventricular  aperture,  while  from  its 
free  edge  three  triangular  flaps  hang  down,  the  bases  of  which 
touch  one  another.    These  cusps  are  spoken  of  as  septal,  marginal 
and  infundibular,  from  their  position. 

2.  The  chordae  tendineae  are  fine  fibrous  cords  which  fasten 
the  cusps  to  the  musculi  papillares  and  ventricular  wall,  and 
prevent  the  valve  being  turned  inside  out  when  the  ventricle 
contracts. 

3.  The  columnae  carneae  are  fleshy  columns,  and  are  of  three 
kinds.     The  first  are  attached  to  the  wall  of  the  ventricle  in 
their  whole  length  and  are  merely  sculptured  in  relief,  as  it  were; 
the  second  are  attached  by  both  ends  and  are  free  in  the  middle; 
while  the  third  are  known  as  the  musculi  papillares  and  are 
attached  by  one  end  to  the  ventricular  wall,  the  other  end  giving 
attachment  to  the  chordae  tendineae.     These  musculi  papillares 
are  grouped  into  three  bundles  (fig.  2,  0). 

4.  The  moderator  band  is  really  one  of  the  second  kind  of 
columnae  carneae  which  stretches  from  the  septal  to  the  anterior 
wall  of  the  ventricle. 

5.  The  pulmonary  valve   (fig.  2,  p)   at  the  opening  of  the 
pulmonary  artery  has  three  crescentiCj  pocket-like  cusps,  which, 
when  the  ventricle  is  filling,  completely  close  the  aperture,  but 
during  the  contraction  of  the  ventricle  fit  into  three  small  niches 
known  as  the  sinuses  of  Valsalva,  and  so  are  quite  out  of  the  way 
of  the  escaping  blood.     In  the  middle  of  the  free  margin  of  each 
is  a  small  knob  called  the  corpus  Arantii  (fig.  2, 17),  and  on  each 
side  of  this  a  thin  crescent-shaped  flap,  thelunula  (fig.  2,  r),  which 
is  only  made  of  two  layers  of  endocardium,  whereas  in  the  rest 
of  the  cusp  there  is  a  fibrous  backing  between  these  two  layers. 

The  left  auricle  is  situated  at  the  back  of  the  base  of  the  heart, 
behind  and  to  the  left  of  the  right  auricle.  Running  down  behind 
it  are  the  oesophagus  and  the  thoracic  aorta.  When  it  is  opened  it 
is  seen  to  have  a  much  lighter  colour  than  the  other  cavities, 
owing  to  the  greater  thickness  of  its  endocardium  obscuring  the 
red  muscle  beneath.  There  are  no  musculi  pectinati  except  in 
the  auricular  appendage.  The  openings  of  the  four  pulmonary, 
veins  are  placed  two  on  each  side  of  the  posterior  wall,  but 
sometimes  there  may  be  three  on  the  right  side,  and  only  one 
on  the  left.  On  the  septal  wall  is  a  small  depression  like  the 
mark  of  a  finger-nail,  which  corresponds  to  the  anterior  part  of 
the  fossa  ovalis  and  often  forms  a  valvular  communication  with 
the  right  auricle.  The  auriculo-ventricular  orifice  is  large  and 
oval,  and  is  directed  downward  and  to  the  left.  Foramina 
Thebesii  and  venae  minimae  cordis  are  found  in  this  auricle, 
as  in  the  right,  although  the  chamber  is  one  for  arterial  or 
oxidized  blood. 

At  the  lower  part  of  the  posterior  surface  of  the  unopened 
auricle,  lying  in  the  left  auriculo-ventricular  furrow,  is  the 
coronary  sinus,  which  receives  most  of  the  veins  returning  the 
blood  from  the  heart  substance;  these  are  the  right  and  left 
coronary  veins  at  each  extremity  and  the  posterior  and  left 
cardiac  veins  from  below.  One  small  vein,  called  the  oblique 
vein  of  Marshall,  runs  down  into  it  across  the  posterior  surface 
of  the  auricle,  from  below  the  left  lower  pulmonary  vein,  and 
is  of  morphological  interest. 

The  left  ventricle  is  conical,  the  base  being  above,  behind  and 
to  the  right,  while  the  apex  corresponds  to  the  apex  of  the  heart 
and  lies  opposite  the  fifth  intercostal  space,  33  in.  from  the  mid 
line.  The  following  structures  are  seen  inside  it: — 

1.  The  mitral  valve  guarding  the  auriculo-ventricular  opening 
has  the  same  arrangement  as  the  tricuspid,  already  described, 
save  that  there  are  only  two  cusps,  named  marginal  and  aortic, 
the  latter  of  which  is  the  larger. 

2.  The  chordae  tendineae  and  columnae  carneae  resemble 
those  of  the  right  ventricle,  though  there  are  only  two  bundles 


of  musculi  papillares  instead  of  three.  These  are  very  large. 
A  moderator  band  has  been  found  as  an  abnormality  (see 
/.  Anal,  and  Phys.  vol.  xxx.  p.  568). 

3.  The  aortic  valve  has  the  same  structure  as  the  pulmonary, 
though  the  cusps  are  more  massive.  From  the  anterior  and  left 
posterior  sinuses  of  Valsalva  the  coronary  arteries  arise.  That 
part  of  the  ventricle  just  below  the  aortic  valve,  corresponding 
to  the  infundibulum  on  the  right,  is  known  as  the  aortic  vestibule. 

The  walls  of  the  left  ventricle  are  three  times  as  thick  as  those 
of  the  right,  except  at  the  apex,  where  they  are  thinner.  The 
septum  ventriculorum  is  concave  towards  the  left  ventricle,  so 
that  a  transverse  section  of  that  cavity  is  nearly  circular.  The 
greater  part  of  it  has  nsarly  the  same  thickness  as  the  rest  of  the 
left  ventricular  wall  and  is  muscular,  but  a  small  portion  of  the 
upper  part  is  membranous  and  thin,  and  is  called  the  pars 
membranacea,  septi;  it  lies  between  the  aortic  and  pulmonary 
orifices. 

Structure  of  the  Heart. — The  arrangement  of  the  muscular 
fibres  of  the  heart  is  very  complicated  and  only  imperfectly 
known.  For  details  one  of  the  larger  manuals,  such  as  Cunning- 
ham's Anatomy  (London,  1910),  or  Gray's  Anatomy  (London, 
1 909) ,  should  be  consulted.  The  general  scheme  is  that  there  are 
superficial  fibres  common  to  the  two  auricles  and  two  ventricles 
and  deeper  fibres  for  each  cavity.  Until  recently  no  fibres  had 
been  traced  from  the  auricles  to  the  ventricles,  though  Gaskell 
predicted  that  these  would  ba  found,  and  the  credit  for  first 
demonstrating  them  is  due  to  Stanley  Kent,  their  details  having 
subsequently  been  worked  out  by  W.  His,  Junr.,  and  S.  Tawara. 
The  fibres  of  this  auriculo-ventricular  bundle  begin,  in  the  right 
auricle,  below  the  opening  of  the  coronary  sinus,  and  run  forward 
on  the  right  side  of  the  auricular  septum,  below  the  fossa  ovalis, 
and  close  to  the  auriculo-ventricular  septum.  Above  the  septal 
flap  of  the  tricuspid  valve  they  thicken  and  divide  into  two  main 
branches,  one  on  either  sid-e  of  the  ventricular  septum,  which  run 
down  to  the  bases  of  the  anterior  and  posterior  papillary  muscles, 
and  so  reach  the  walls  of  the  ventricle,  where  their  secondary 
branches  form  the  fibres  of  Purkinje.  The  bundle  is  best  seen 
in  the  hearts  of  young  Ruminants,  and  it  is  presumably  through 
it  that  the  wave  of  contraction  passes  from  the  auricles  to  the 
ventricles  (see  article  by  A.  Keith  and  M.  Flack,  Lancet,  nth  of 
August  1906,  p.  359). 

The  central  fibrous  body  is  a  triangular  mass  of  fibre-cartilage, 
situated  between  the  two  auriculo-ventricular  and  the  aortic 
orifices.  The  upper  part  of  the  septum  ventriculorum  blends 
with  it.  The  endocardium  is  a  delicate  layer  of  endothelial  cells 
backed  by  a  very  thin  layer  of  fibro-elastic  tissue ;  it  is  continuous 
with  the  endothelium  of  the  great  vessels  and  lines  the  whole  of 
the  cavities  of  the  heart. 

The  heart  is  roughly  about  the  size  of  the  closed  fist  and  weighs 
from  8  to  12  oz.;  it  continues  to  increase  in  size  up  to  about 
fifty  years  of  age,  but  the  increase  is  more  marked  in  the  male 
than  in  the  female.  Each  ventricle  holds  about  4  f.  oz.  of  blood, 
and  each  auricle  rather  less.  The  nerves  of  the  heart  are  derived 
from  the  vagus,  spinal  accessory  and  sympathetic,  through  the 
superficial  and  deep  cardiac  plexuses. 

Embryology. 

In  the  article  on  the  arteries  (q.v.)  the  formation  and  coal- 
escence of  the  two  primitive  ventral  aortas  to  form  the  heart  are 
noticed,  so  that  we  may  here  start  with  a  straight  median  tube 
lying  ventral  to  the  pharynx  and  being  prolonged  cephalad  into 
the  ventral  aortae  and  caudad  into  the  vitelline  veins.  This 
soon  shows  four  dilatations,  which,  from  the  tiil  towards  the 
head  end,  are  called  the  sinus  venosus,  ths  auricle,  the  ventricle 
and  the  truncus  1  arteriosus.  As  the  tubular  heart  grows  more 
rapidly  than  the  pericardium  which  contains  it,  ic  becomes  bent 
into  the  form  of  an  S  laid  on  its  side  (OT),  the  ventral  convexity 
being  the  ventricle  and  the  dorsal  the  auricle.  The  passage 
from  the  auricle  to  the  ventricle  is  known  as  the  auricular  canal, 
and  in  the  dorsal  and  ventral  parts  of  this  appear  two  thickenings 

1  This  is  often  called  bulbus  arteriosus,  but  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  term  is  used  rather  differently  in  comparative  anatomy. 


ANATOMY] 


HEART 


known  as  endocardial  cushions,  which  approach  one  another  and 
leave  a  transverse  slit  between  them  (fig.  3,  E.G.).  Eventually 
these  two  cushions  fuse  in  the  middle  line,  obliterating  the 
central  part  of  the  slit,  while  the  lateral  parts  remain  as  the  two 
auriculo-ventricular  orifices;  this  fusion  is  known  as  the  septum 
intermedium.  From  the  bottom  (ventral  convexity)  of  the 
ventricle  an  antero-posterior  median  septum  grows  up,  which  is 

the    septum    inferius    or 
septum    ventriculorum 
(fig.   3,   V).     Posteriorly 
(caudally)     this    septum 
fuses   with    the    septum 
intermedium,    but    ante- 
riorly  it   is   free   at   the 
lower  part  of  the  truncus 
arteriosus.     On  referring 
to  the  development  of  the 
arteries  (see  ARTERIES)  it 
will  be  seen  that  another 
FIG.  3. — Formation  of  Septa.  Diagram     septum    starts     between 
of  the  formation  of  some  of  thi  septa  of    tne    [ast    two     pairs   of 
the  heart  (viewed  from  the  right  side). 
S.V.     Sinus  venosus. 
Au.      Auricle. 


aortic  arches  and  grows 
downward  (caudad)  until 


B.C.     Endocardial    cushions    forming  it  reaches  and  joins  with 

septum  intermedium.  the  septum  inferius  just 

V.        Septum  ventriculorum.  mentioned.     This  septum 

T.Ar.  Septum^aorticum  mtruncus  ar-  agrticum  (formed  by  two 

V.A.     Ventral  aorta.  ingrowths  from   the  wall 

of  the  vessel  which  fuse 

later)  becomes  twisted  in  such  a  way  that  the  right  ventricle 
is  continuous  with  the  last  pair  of  aortic  arches  (pulmonary 
artery),  while  the  left  ventricle  communicates  with  the  other 
arches  (the  permanent  ventral  aorta  and  its  branches);  it 
joins  the  septum  ventriculorum  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
ventricular  cavity  and  so  forms  the  pars  membranacea  septi 
(fig.  3,  T.  Ar). 

The  fate  of  the  sinus  venosus  and  auricle  must  now  be  followed. 
Into  the  former,  at  first,  only  the  two  vitelline  veins  open,  but 
later,  as  they  develop,  the  ducts  of  Cuvier  and  the  umbilical 
veins  join  in  (see  VEINS).  As  the  ducts  of  Cuvier  come  from 
each  side  the  sinus  spreads  out  to  meet  them  and  becomes 
transversely  elongated.  The  slight  constriction,  which  at  first 
is  the  only  separation  between  the  sinus  and  the  auricle,  becomes 
more  marked,  and  later  the  opening  is  into  the  right  part  of 
the  auricle,  and  is  guarded  by  two  valvular  folds  of  endocardium 
(the  venous  valves)  which  project  into  that  cavity,  and  are 
continuous  above  with  a  temporary  downgrowth  from  the 
roof,  known  as  the  septum  spurium.  Later  the  right  side  of  the 
sinus  enlarges,  and  so  does  the  right  part  of  the  aperture,  until 
the  back  part  of  the  right  side  of  the  auricle  and  the  right  part 
of  the  sinus  venosus  are  thrown  into  one,  and  the  only  remnants 
of  the  partition  are  the  crista  terminalis  and  the  Eustachian 
and  Thebesian  valves.  The  left  part  of  the  sinus  venosus, 
which  does  not  enlarge  at  the  same  rate  as  the  right  part,  remains 
as  the  coronary  sinus.  It  will  now  be  seen  why,  in  the  adult 
heart,  all  the  veins  which  open  into  the  right  auricle  open  into 
its  posterior  part,  behind  the  crista  terminalis.  The  septum 
spurium  has  been  referred  to  as  a  temporary  structure;  the 
real  division  between  the  two  auricles  occurs  at  a  later  date 
than  that  between  the  ventricles  and  to  the  left  of  the  septum 
spurium.  It  is  formed  by  two  partitions,  the  first  of  which, 
called  the  septum  primum,  grows  down  from  the  auricular  roof. 
At  first  it  does  not  quite  reach  the  endocardial  cushions  in  the 
auricular  canal,  already  mentioned,  but  leaves  a  gap,  called 
the  ostium  primum,  between.  This  has  nothing  to  do  with  the 
foramen  oiiale,  which  occurs  as  an  independent  perforation  higher 
up,  and  at  first  is  known  as  the  ostium  secundum.  When  it  is 
established  the  septum  primum  grows  down  and  meets  the 
endocardial  cushions,  and  so  the  ostium  primum  is  obliterated. 
The  septum  secundum  grows  down  on  the  right  of  the  septum 
primum  and  is  never  complete;  it  grows  round  and  largely 
overlaps  the  foramen  ovale  and  its  edges  form  the  annulus 


ovalis,  so  that,  in  the  later  months  of  foetal  life,  the  foramen 
ovale  is  a  valvular  opening,  the  floor  of  which  is  formed  by  the 
septum  primum  and  the  margins  by  the  septum  secundum. 
The  closure  of  the  foramen  is  brought  about  by  adhesion  of  the 
two  septa. 

The  pulmonary  veins  of  the  two  sides  at  first  join  one  another, 
dorsal  to  the  left  auricle,  and  open  into  that  cavity  by  a  single 
median  trunk,  but,  as  the  auricle  grows,  this  trunk  and  part  of 
the  right  and  left  veins  are  absorbed  into  its  cavity. 

The  mitral  and  tricuspid  valves  are  formed  by  the  shortening 
of  the  auricular  canal  which  becomes  telescoped  into  the  ventricle, 
and  the  cusps  are  the  remnants  of  this  telescoping  process. 

The  columnae  carneae  and  chordae  tendineae  are  the  remains 
of  a  spongy  network  which  originally  filled  the  cavity  of  the 
primary  ventricle. 

The  aortic  and  pulmonary  valves  are  laid  down  in  the  ventral 
aorta,  before  it  is  divided  into  aorta  and  pulmonary  artery, 
as  four  endocardial  cushions;  anterior,  posterior  and  two 
lateral.  The  septum  aorticum  cuts  the  latter  two  into  two,  so 
that  each  artery  has  the  rudiments  of  three  cusps. 

Abnormalities  of  the  heart  are  very  numerous,  and  can 
usually  be  explained  by  a  knowledge  of  its  development.  They 
often  cause  grave  clinical  symptoms.  A  clear  and  well-illustrated 
review  of  the  most  important  of  them  will  be  found  in  the  chapter 
on  congenital  disease  of  the  heart  in  Clinical  Applied  Anatomy, 
by  C.  R.  Box  and  W.  McAdam  Eccles,  London,  1906. 

For  further  details  of  the  embryology  of  the  heart  see  Oscar 
Hertwijj's  Entwickelungslehre  der  Wirbeltiere  (Jena,  1902) ;  G.  Born, 
"  Entwicklung  des  Saugetierherzens,"  Archiv  f.  mik.  Anal.  Bd.  33 
(1889);  W.  His,  Anatomic  mensMicher  Embryonen  (Leipzig,  1881- 
l88s);  Quain's  Anatomy,  vol.  i.  (1908);  C.  S.  Minot,  Human 
Embryology  (New  York,  1892);  and  A.  Keith,  Human  Embryology 
and  Morphology  (London,  1905). 

Comparative   A  natomy. 

In  the  Acrania  (e.g.  lancelet)  there  is  no  heart,  though  the 
vessels  are  specially  contractile  in  the  ventral  part  of  the  pharynx. 

In  the  Cyclostomata  (lamprey  and  hag),  and  Fishes,  the 
heart  has  the  same  arrangement  which  has  been  noticed  in  the 
human  embryo.  There  is  a  smooth,  thin-walled  sinus  venosus, 
a  thin  reticulate-walled  auricle,  produced  laterally  into  two 
appendages,  a  thick-walled  ventricle,  and  a  conus  arteriosus 
containing  valves.  In  addition  to  these  the  beginning  of  the 
ventral  aorta  is  often  thickened  and  expanded  to  form  a  bulbus 
arteriosus,  which  is  non-contractile,  and,  strictly  speaking, 
should  rather  be  described  with  the  arteries  than  with  the  heart. 
In  relation  to  human  embryology  the  smooth  sinus  venosus 
and  reticulated  auricle  are  interesting.  Between  the  auricle 
and  ventricle  is  the  auriculo-ventricular  valve,  which  primarily 
consists  of  two  cusps,  comparable  to  the  two  endocardial  cushions 
of  the  human  embryo,  though  in  some  forms  they  may  be  sub- 
divided. In  the  interior  of  the  ventricle  is  a  network  of  muscular 
trabeculae.  The  conus  arteriosus  in  the  Elasmobranchs  (sharks 
and  rays)  and  Ganoids  (sturgeon)  is  large  and  provided  with 
several  rows  of  semilunar  valves,  but  in  the  Cyclostomes  (lamprey) 
and  Teleosts  (bony  fishes)  the  conus  is  reduced  and  only  the 
anterior  (cephalic)  row  of  valves  retained.  With  the  reduction  of 
the  conus  the  bulbus  arteriosus  is  enlarged.  So  far  the  heart  is 
a  single  tubular  organ  expanded  into  various  cavities  and  having 
the  characteristic  C/3-shaped  form  seen  in  the  human  embryo; 
it  contains  only  venous  blood  which  is  forced  through  the  gills 
to  be  oxidized  on  its  way  to  the  tissues.  In  the  Dipnoi  (mud 
fish),  in  which  rudimentary  lungs,  as  well  as  gills,  are  developed, 
the  auricle  is  divided  into  two,  and  the  sinus  venosus  opens 
into  the  right  auricle.  The  conus  arteriosus  too  begins  to  be 
divided  into  two  chambers,  and  in  Protopterus  this  division 
is  complete.  This  division  of  the  heart  is  one  instance  in  which 
mammalian  ontogeny  does  not  repeat  the  processes  of  phylogeny, 
because,  in  the  human  embryo,  it  has  been  shown  that  the 
ventricular  septum  appears  before  the  auricular.  This  want 
of  harmony  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  "  falsification  of  the 
embryological  record." 

In  the  Amphibia  there  are  also  two  auricles  and  one  ventricle, 


132 


HEART 


[DISEASE 


though  in  the  Urodela  (tailed  amphibians)  the  auricular  septum 
is  often  fenestrated.  The  sinus  venosus  is  still  a  separate 
chamber,  and  the  conus  arteriosus,  which  may  contain  many 
or  few  valves,  is  usually  divided  into  two  by  a  spiral  fold. 
Structurally  the  amphibian  heart  closely  resembles  the  dipnoan, 
though  the  increased  size  of  the  left  auricle  is  an  advance.  In 
the  Anura  (frogs  and  toads)  the  whole  ventricle  is  filled  with  a 
spongy  network  which  prevents  the  arterial  and  venous  blood 
from  the  two  auricles  mixing  to  any  great  extent.  (For  the 
anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  frog's  heart,  see  The  Frog, 
by  Milnes  Marshall.) 

In  the  Reptiles  the  ventricular  septum  begins  to  appear; 
this  in  the  lizards  is  quite  incomplete,  but  in  the  crocodiles, 
which  are  usually  regarded  as  the  highest  order  of  living  reptiles, 
the  partition  has  nearly  reached  the  top  of  the  ventricle,  and  the 
condition  resembles  that  of  the  human  embryo  before  the  pars 
membranacea  septi  is  formed.  The  conus  arteriosus  becomes 
included  in  the  ventricular  cavity,  but  the  sinus  venosus  still 
remains  distinct,  and  its  opening  into  the  right  ventricle  is 
guarded  by  two  valves  which  closely  resemble  the  two  venous 
valves  in  the  auricle  of  the  human  embryo  already  referred  to. 

In  the  Birds  the  auricular  and  ventricular  septa  are  complete; 
the  right  ventricle  is  thin-walled  and  crescentic  in  section,  as  in 
Man,  and  the  musculi  papillares  are  developed.  The  left  auriculo- 
ventricular  valve  has  three  membranous  cusps  with  chordae 
tendineae  attached  to  them,  but  the  right  auriculo-ventricular 
valve  has  a  large  fleshy  cusp  without  chordae  tendineae.  The 
sinus  venosus  is  largely  included  in  the  right  auricle,  but  remains 
of  the  two  venous  valves  are  seen  on  each  side  of  the  orifice  of  the 
inferior  vena  cava. 

In  the  Mammals  the  structure  of  the  heart  corresponds  closely 
with  the  description  of  that  of  Man  already  given.  In  the 
Ornithorynchus,  among  the  Monotremes,  the  right  auriculo- 
ventricular  valve  has  two  fleshy  and  two  membranous  cusps, 
thus  showing  a  resemblance  to  that  of  the  bird.  In  the  Echidna, 
the  other  member  of  the  order,  however,  both  auriculo-ventricular 
valves  are  membranous.  In  the  Edentates  the  remains  of  the 
venous  valves  at  the  opening  of  the  inferior  vena  cava  are  better 
marked  than  in  other  orders.  In  the  Ungulates  the  moderator 
band  in  the  right  ventricle  is  especially  well  developed,  and  the 
central  fibrous  body  at  the  base  of  the  heart  is  often  ossified, 
forming  the  os  cordis  so  well  known  in  the  heart  of  the  ox. 

The  position  of  the  heart  in  the  lower  mammals  is  not  so 
oblique  as  it  is  in  Man. 

For  further  details,  see  C.  Rose,  Beitr.  z.  vergl.  Anat.  des  Herzens 
der  Wirbelthiere  Morph.  Jahrb.,  Bd.  xvi.  (1890);  R.  Wiedersheim, 
Vergleichende  Anatomie  der  Wirbelthiere  (Jena,  1902)  (for  literature) ; 
also  Parker  and  Haswell's  Zoology  (London,  1897).  (F.  G.  P.) 

HEART  DJSEASE. — In  the  early  ages  of  medicine,  the  absence 
of  correct  anatomical,  physiological  and  pathological  knowledge 
prevented  diseases  of  the  heart  from  being  recognized  with  any 
certainty  during  life,  and  almost  entirely  precluded  them  from 
becoming  the  object  of  medical  treatment.  But  no  sooner  did 
Harvey  (1628)  publish  his  discovery  of  the  circulation  of  the 
blood,  and  its  dependence  on  the  heart  as  its  central  organ,  than 
derangements  of  the  circulation  began  to  be  recognized  as  signs 
of  disease  of  that  central  organ.  (See  also  under  VASCULAR 
SYSTEM.) 

Among  the  earliest  to  profit  by  this  discovery  and  to  make 
important  contributions  to  the  literature  of  diseases  of  the  heart 
and  circulation  were,  R.  Lower  (1631-1691),  R.  Vieussens 
(1641-1716),  H.  Boerhave  (1668-1738)  and  the  great  patho- 
logists  at  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century,  G.  M.  Lancisi 
(1654-1720),  G.  B.  Morgagni  (1682-1771)  and  J.  B.  Senac 
(1693-1770).  The  works  of  these  writers  form  very  interesting 
reading,  and  it  is  remarkable  how  careful  were  the  observations 
made,  and  how  sound  the  conclusions  drawn,  by  these  pioneers 
of  scientific  medicine.  J.  N.  Corvisart  (1755-1821)  was  one  of  the 
earliest  to  make  practical  use  of  R.  T.  Auenbrugger's  (1722- 
1809)  invention  of  percussion  to  determine  the  size  of  the  heart. 
R.  T.  H.  Laennec  (1781-1826)  was  the  first  to  make  a  scientific 
application  of  mediate  auscultation  to  the  diagnosis  of  disease  of 


the  chest,  by  the  invention  of  the  stethoscope.  J.  Bouillaud 
(1796-1881)  extended  its  use  to  the  diagnosis  of  disease  of  the 
heart.  ToJamesHope  (1801-1841)  we  owe  much  of  the  precision 
we  have  now  attained  in  diagnosis  of  valvular  disease  from 
abnormalities  in  the  sounds  produced  during  cardiac  movements. 
This  short  list  by  no  means  exhausts  the  earlier  literature  on  the 
subject,  but  each  of  these  names  marks  an  era  in  the  progress  of 
the  diagnosis  of  cardiac  disease.  In  later  years  the  literature  on 
this  subject  has  become  very  copious. 

The  heart  and  great  vessels  occupy  a  position  immediately  to 
the  left  of  the  centre  of  the  thoracic  cavity.  The  anterior  surface 
of  the  heart  is  projected  against  the  chest  wall  and  is  surrounded 
on  either  side  by  the  lungs,  which  are  resonant  organs,  so  that 
any  increase  in  the  size  of  the  heart,  "  dilatation,"  can  be  de- 
tected by  percussion.  By  placing  the  hand  on  the  chest,  palpa- 
tion, the  impulse  of  the  left  ventricle,  or  apex  beat,  can  normally 
be  felt  just  below  and  internal  to  the  nipple.  Deviations  from 
the  normal  in  the  position  or  force  of  the  apex  beat  will  afford 
important  information  as  to  the  nature  of  the  pathological 
changes  in  the  heart.  Thus,  displacement  downwards  and  out- 
wards of  the  apex  beat,  with  a  forcible  thrusting  impulse, 
will  indicate  hypertrophy,  or  increase  of  the  muscular  wall 
and  increased  driving  power  of  the  left  ventricle,  whereas  a 
similar  displacement  with  a  feeble  diffuse  impulse  will  indicate 
dilatation,  or  over-distension  of  its  cavity  from  stretching  of 
the  walls. 

By  auscultation,  or  listening  with  a  suitable  instrument  named 
a  stethoscope  over  appropriate  areas,  we  can  detect  any  abnor- 
mality in  the  sounds  of  the  heart,  and  the  presence  of  murmurs 
indicative  of  disease  of  one  or  other  of  the  valves  of  the  heart. 

The  pericardium  is  a  fibro-serous  sac  which  loosely  envelops  the 
heart  and  the  origin  of  the  great  vessels.  Inflammation  of  this 
sac,  or  pericarditis,  is  apt  to  occur  as  a  result  of  rheumatism, 
more  especially  in  children.  It  may  also  occur  as  a  complication  of 
pneumonia.  It  is  a  serious  affection  associated  with  pain  over 
the  heart,  fever,  shortness  of  breath,  rapid  pulse  and  dilatation 
of  the  heart.  As  a  result  of  the  inflammation,  fluid  may  accu- 
mulate in  the  pericardial  sac,  or  the  walls  of  the  sac  may  become 
adherent  to  the  heart  and  tend  to  embarrass  its  action.  In 
favourable  cases,  however,  recovery  may  take  place  without  any 
untoward  sequelae. 

Diseases  of  the  heart  may  be  classified  in  two  main  groups, 
(i)  Disease  of  the  valves,  and  (2)  Disease  of  the  walls  of  the 
heart. 

i.  Valvular  Disease. — Inflammation  of  the  valves  of  the  heart, 
or  endocarditis,  is  one  of  the  most  common  complications  of 
rheumatism  in  children  and  young  adults.  More  severe  types, 
which  are  apt  to  prove  fatal  from  a  form  of  blood  poisoning,  may 
result  when  the  valves  of  the  heart  are  attacked  by  certain 
micro-organisms,  such  as  the  pneumccoccus,  which  is  responsible 
for  pneumonia,  the  streptococcus  and  the  staphylococcus 
pyogenes,  the  gonococcus  and  the  influenza  bacillus. 

As  a  result  of  endocarditis,  one  or  more  of  the  valves  may  be 
seriously  damaged,  so  that  it  leaks  or  becomes  incompetent. 
The  valves  of  the  left  side  of  the  heart,  the  aortic  and  mitral 
valves,  are  affected  far  more  commonly  than  those  of  the  right 
side.  It  is  indeed  comparatively  rarely  that  the  latter  are 
attacked.  In  the  process  of  healing  of  a  damaged  valve,  scar 
tissue  is  formed  which  has  a  tendency  to  contract,  so  that  in  some 
cases  the  orifice  of  the  valve  becomes  narrowed,  and  the  resulting 
stenosis  or  narrowing  gives  rise  to  obstruction  of  the  blood 
stream.  We  may  thus  have  incompetence  or  stenosis  of  a  valve 
or  both  combined. 

Valvular  lesions  are  detected  on  auscultation  over  appropriate 
areas  by  the  blowing  sounds  or  murmurs  to  which  they  give  rise, 
which  modify  or  replace  the  normal  heart  sounds.  Thus,  lesions 
of  the  mitral  valve  give  rise  to  murmurs  which  are  heard  at  the 
apex  beat  of  the  heart,  and  lesions  of  the  aortic  valves  to  murmurs 
which  are  heard  over  the  aortic  area,  in  the  second  right  inter- 
costal space.  Accurate  timing  of  the  murmurs  in  relation  to  the 
heart  sounds  enables  us  to  judge  whether  the  murmur  is  due  to 
stenosis  or  incompetence  of  the  valve  affected. 


DISEASE] 


HEART 


133 


If  the  valvular  lesion  is  severe,  it  is  essential  for  the  proper 
maintenance  of  the  circulation  that  certain  changes  should  take 
place  in  the  heart  to  compensate  for  or  neutralize  the  effects  of 
the  regurgitation  or  obstruction,  as  the  case  may  be.  In  affec- 
tions of  the  aortic  valve,  the  extra  work  falls  on  the  left  ventricle, 
which  enlarges  proportionately  and  undergoes  hypertrophy.  In 
affections  of  the  mitral  valve  the  effect  is  felt  primarily  by  the 
left  auricle,  which  is  a  thin  walled  structure  incapable  of  under- 
going the  requisite  increase  in  power  to  resist  the  backward  flow 
through  the  mitral  orifice  in  case  of  leakage,  or  to  overcome  the 
effects  of  obstruction  in  case  of  stenosis.  The  back  pressure  is 
therefore  transmitted  to  the  pulmonary  circulation,  and  as  the 
right  ventricle  is  responsible  for  maintaining  the  flow  of  blood 
through  the  lungs,  the  strain  and  extra  work  fall  on  the  right 
ventricle,  which  in  turn  enlarges  and  undergoes  hypertrophy. 
The  degree  of  hypertrophy  of  the  left  or  right  ventricle  is  thus, 
up  to  a  certain  point,  a  measure  of  the  extent  of  the  lesion  of  the 
aortic  or  mitral  valve  respectively.  When  the  effects  of  the 
valvular  lesion  are  so  neutralized  by  these  structural  changes  in 
the  heart  that  the  circulation  is  equably  maintained,  "  com- 
pensation "  is  said  to  be  efficient. 

When  the  heart  gives  way  under  the  strain,  compensation 
is  said  to  break  down,  and  dropsy,  shortness  of  breath,  cough 
and  cyanosis,  are  among  the  distressing  symptoms  which  may 
set  in.  The  mere  existence  of  a  valvular  lesion  does  not  call 
for  any  special  treatment  so  long  as  compensation  is  efficient, 
and  a  large  number  of  people  with  slight  valvular  lesions  are 
living  lives  indistinguishable  from  those  of  their  neighbours. 
It  will,  however,  be  readily  understood  that  in  the  case  of  the 
more  serious  lesions  certain  precautions  should  be  observed 
in  regard  to  over-exertion,  excitement,  over-indulgence  in 
tobacco  or  alcohol,  &c.,  as  the  balance  is  more  readily  upset 
and  any  undue  strain  on  the  heart  may  cause  a  breakdown  of 
compensation.  When  this  occurs  treatment  is  required.  A 
period  of  rest  in  bed  is  often  sufficient  to  enable  'the  heart  to 
recover,  and  this  may  be  supplemented  as  required  by  the 
administration  of  mercurial  and  saline  purgatives  to  relieve 
the  embarrassed  circulation,  and  of  suitable  cardiac  tonics, 
such  as  digitalis  and  strychnin,  to  reinforce  and  strengthen 
the  heart's  action. 

2.  Affections  of  the  Muscular  Wall  of  the  Heart. — Dilatation  of 
the  heart,  or  stretching  of  the  walls  of  the  heart,  is  an  incident, 
as  has  already  been  stated,  in  pericarditis  and  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  valvular  disease  antecedent  to  hypertrophy.  Temporary 
over-distension  or  dilatation  of  the  cavities  of  the  heart  occurs 
in  violent  and  protracted  exertion,  but  rapidly  subsides  and  is 
in  no  wise  harmful  to  the  sound  and  vigorous  heart  of  the  young. 
It  is  otherwise  if  the  heart  is  weak  and  flabby  from  a  too  sedentary 
life  or  degenerative  changes  in  its  walls  or  during  convalescence 
from  a  severe  illness,  when  the  same  circumstances  which  will 
not  injure  a  healthy  heart,  may  give  rise  to  serious  dilatation 
from  which  recovery  may  be  very  protracted. 

Influenza  is  a  common  cause  of  cardiac  dilatation,  and  is 
liable  to  be  a  source  of  trouble  after  the  acute  illness  has  subsided, 
if  the  patient  goes  about  and  resumes  his  ordinary  avocations 
too  soon. 

Fatty  or  fibroid  degeneration  of  the  heart  wall  may  occur  in 
later  life  from  impaired  nutrition  of  the  muscle,  due  to  partial 
obstruction  of  the  blood-vessels  supplying  it,  when  they  are 
the  seat  of  the  degenerative  changes  known  as  arteriosclerosis 
or  atheroma.  The  affection  known  as  angina  pectoris  (q.v.)  may 
be  a  further  consequence  of  this  defective  blood-supply. 

The  treatment  will  vary  according  to  the  nature  of  the  case. 
In  serious  cases  of  dilatation,  rest  in  bed,  purgatives  and  cardiac 
tonics  may  be  required. 

In  commencing  degenerative  change  the  Oertel  treatment, 
consisting  of  graduated  exercise  up  a  gentle  slope,  limitation 
of  fluids  and  a  special  diet,  may  be  indicated. 

In  cases  of  slight  dilatation  after  influenza  or  recent  illness, 
the  Schott  treatment  by  baths  and  exercises  as  carried  out  at 
Nauheim  mav  be  sometimes  beneficial.  The  change  of  air  and 
scene,  the  enforced  rest,  the  placid  life,  together  with  freedom 


from  excitement  and  worry,  are  among  the  most  important 
factors  which  contribute  to  success  in  this  class  of  case. 

Disorders  of  Rhythm  of  the  Heart's  Action. — Under  this  heading 
may  be  grouped  a  number  of  conditions  to  which  the  name 
"  functional  affections  of  the  heart  "  has  sometimes  been  applied, 
inasmuch  as  the  disturbances  in  question  cannot  usually  be 
attributed  to  definite  organic  disease  of  the  heart.  We  must, 
of  course,  exclude  from  this  category  the  irregularity  in  the 
force  and  frequency  of  the  pulse,  which  is  commonly  associated 
with  incompetence  of  the  mitral  valve. 

The  heart  is  a  muscular  organ  possessing  certain  properties, 
rhythmicity,  excitability,  contractility,  conductivity  and  ton- 
icity,  as  pointed  out  by  Gaskell,  in  virtue  of  which  it  is  able 
to  maintain  a  regular  automatic  beat  independently  of  nerve 
stimulation.  It  is,  however,  intimately  connected  with  the  brain, 
blood-vessels  and  the  abdominal  and  thoracic  viscera,  by 
innumerable  nerves,  through  which  impulses  or  messages  are 
being  constantly  sent  to  and  received  from  these  various  portions 
of  the  body.  Such  messages  may  give  rise  to  disturbances  of 
rhythm  with  which  we  are  all  familiar.  For  instance,  sudden 
fright  or  emotion  may  cause  a  momentary  arrest  of  the  heart's 
action,  and  excitement  or  apprehension  may  set  up  a  rapid 
action  of  the  heart  or  palpitation.  Palpitation,  again,  is  often 
the  result  of  digestive  disorders,  the  message  in  this  case  being 
received  from  the  stomach,  instead  of  the  brain  as  in  emotional 
disturbances.  It  may  also  result  from  over-indulgence  in  tobacco 
and  alcohol. 

Tachycardia  is  the  name  applied  to  a  more  or  less  permanent 
increase  in  the  rate  of  the  heart-beat.  It  is  usually  a  prominent 
feature  in  the  affection  known  as  Graves'  disease  or  exophthalmic 
goitre.  It  may  also  result  from  chronic  alcoholism.  In  the 
condition  known  as  paroxysmal  tachycardia  there  appears  to 
be  no  adequate  explanation  for  its  onset. 

Bradycardia  or  abnormal  slowness  of  the  heart-beat,  is  the 
converse  of  tachycardia.  An  abnormally  slow  pulse  is  met 
with  in  melancholia,  cerebral  tumour,  jaundice  and  certain 
toxic  conditions,  or  may  follow  an  attack  of  influenza.  There 
is,  however,  a  peculiar  affection  characterized  by  abnormal 
slowness  of  pulse  (often  ranging  as  low  as  30),  and  the  onset, 
from  time  to  time,  of  epileptiform  or  syncopal  attacks.  To 
this  the  name  "  Stokes-Adams  disease  "  has  been  applied,  as  it 
was  first  called  attention  to  by  Adams  in  1827,  and  subsequently 
fully  described  by  Stokes  in  1836.  It  is  usually  associated 
with  senile  degenerative  change  of  the  heart  and  vascular  system, 
and  is  held  to  be  due  to  impairment  of  conductivity  in  the 
muscular  fibres  (bundle  of  His)  which  transmit  the  wave  of 
contraction  from  the  auricle  to  the  ventricle.  It  is  of  serious 
significance  in  view  of  the  symptoms  associated  with  it. 

Intermittency  of  the  Pulse. — By  this  is  understood  a  pulse  in 
which  a  beat  is  dropped  from  time  to  time.  The  dropping  of 
a  beat  may  occur  at  regular  intervals  every  two,  four  or  six 
beats,  &c.,  or  occasionally  at  irregular  intervals  after  a  series 
of  normal  beats.  On  examining  the  heart,  it  is  found,  as  a  rule, 
that  the  cause  of  the  intermission  at  the  wrist  is  not  actual 
omission  of  a  heart-beat,  but  the  occurrence  of  a  hurried  imperfect 
cardiac  contraction  which  does  not  transmit  a  pulse-wave  to 
the  wrist.  It  is' not  characteristic  of  any  special  form  of  heart 
affection,  and  is  rarely  of  serious  import.  It  may  be  due  to 
reflex  digestive  disturbances,  or  be  associated  with  conditions 
of  nervous  breakdown  and  irritability,  or  with  an  atonic 
and  relaxed  condition  of  the  heart  muscle.  The  treatment  of 
these  disorders  of  rhythm  of  the  heart  will  vary  greatly 
according  to  the  cause  and  is  often  a  matter  of  considerable 
difficulty.  (J.  F.  H.  B.) 

Surgery  of  Heart  and  Pericardium. — As  the  result  of  acute  or 
chronic  inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  fibrous 
sac  which  surrounds  the  heart  and  the  neighbouring  parts  of 
the  large  blood-vessels,  a  dropsical  or  a  purulent  collection  may 
form  in  it,  or  the  sac  may  be  quietly  distended  by  a  thin 
watery  fluid.  In.  either  case,  but  especially  in  the  latter,  the 
heart  may  be  so  embarrassed  in  its  work  that  death  seems 
imminent.  The  condition  is  generally  due  to  the  cultivation 


HEART-BURIAL—HEARTS 


in  the  pericardium  of  the  germs  of  rheumatism,  influenza 
or  gonorrhoea,  or  of  those  of  ordinary  suppuration.  Respiration 
as  well  as  circulation  is  embarrassed,  and  there  is  a  marked 
fulness  and  dulness  of  the  front  wall  of  the  chest  to  the  left  of 
the  breast-bone.  In  that  region  also  pain  and  tenderness  are 
complained  of.  By  using  the  slender,  hollow  needle  of  an 
aspirator  great  relief  may  be  afforded,  but  the  tapping  may  have 
to  be  repeated  from  time  to  time.  If  the  fluid  drawn  off  is  found 
to  be  purulent,  it  may  be  necessary  to  make  a  trap-door  opening 
into  the  chest  by  cutting  across  the  4th  and  5th  ribs,  incising 
and  evacuating  the  pericardium  and  providing  for  drainage. 
In  short,  an  abscess  in  the  pericardium  must  be  treated  like  an 
abscess  in  the  pleura. 

Wounds  of  the  heart  are  apt  to  be  quickly  fatal.  If  the 
probability  is  that  the  enfeebled  action  of  the  heart  is  due  to 
pressure  from  blood  which  is  leaking  into,  and  is  locked  up 
in  the  pericardium,  the  proper  treatment  will  be  to  open 
the  pericardium,  as  described  above,  and,  if  possible,  to 
close  the  opening  in  the  auricle,  ventricle  or  large  vessel,  by 
sutures.  (E.  O.*). 

HEART-BURIAL,  the  burial  of  the  heart  apart  from  the  body. 
This  is  a  very  ancient  practice,  the  special  reverence  shown 
towards  the  heart  being  doubtless  due  to  its  early  association 
with  the  soul  of  man,  His  affections,  courage  arid  conscience. 
In  medieval  Europe  heart-burial  was  fairly  common.  Some 
of  the  more  notable  cases  are  those  of  Richard  I.,  whose  heart, 
preserved  in  a  casket,  was  placed  in  Rouen  cathedral;  Henry  III., 
buried  in  Normandy;  Eleanor,  queen  of  Edward  I.,  at  Lincoln; 
Edward  I.,  at  Jerusalem;  Louis  IX.,  Philip  III.,  Louis  XIII. 
and  Louis  XIV.,  in  Paris.  Since  the  lyth  century  the  hearts 
of  deceased  members  of  the  house  of  Habsburg  have  been  buried 
apart  from  the  body  in  the  Loretto  chapel  in  the  Augustiner 
Kirche,  Vienna.  The  most  romantic  story  of  heart-burial  is 
that  of  Robert  Bruce.  He  wished  his  heart  to  rest  at  Jerusalem  in 
the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  on  his  deathbed  entrusted 
the  fulfilment  of  his  wish  to  Douglas.  The  latter  broke  his 
journey  to  join  the  Spaniards  in  their  war  with  the  Moorish  king 
of  Granada,  and  was  killed  in  battle,  the  heart  of  Bruce  enclosed 
in  a  silver  casket  hanging  round'his  neck.  Subsequently  the 
heart  was  buried  at  Melrose  Abbey.  The  heart  of  James, 
marquess  of  Montrose,  executed  by  the  Scottish  Covenanters  in 
1650,  was  recovered  from  his  body,  which  had  been  buried  by 
the  roadside  outside  Edinburgh,  and,  enclosed  in  a  steel  box, 
was  sent  to  the  duke  of  Montrose,  then  in  exile.  It  was  lost  on 
its  journey,  and  years  afterwards  was  discovered  in  a  curiosity 
shop  in  Flanders.  Taken  by  a  member  of  the  Montrose  family 
to  India,  it  was  stolen  as  an  amulet  by  a  native  chief,  was  once 
more  regained,  and  finally  lost  in  France  during  the  Revolution. 
Of  notable  17th-century  cases  there  is  that  of  James  II.,  whose 
heart  was  buried  in  the  church  of  the  convent  of  the  Visitation 
at  Chaillot  near  Paris,  and  that  of  Sir  William  Temple,  at  Moor 
Park,  Farnham.  The  last  ceremonial  burial  of  a  heart  in  England 
was  that  of  Paul  Whitehead,  secretary  to  the  Monks  of  Med- 
menham  club,  in  1775,  the  interment  taking  place  in  the  Le 
Despenser  mausoleum  at  High  Wycombe,  Bucks.  Of  later  cases 
the  most  notable  are  those  of  Daniel  O'Connell,  whose  heart  is 
at  Rome,  Shelley  at  Bournemouth,  Louis  XVII.  at  Venice, 
Kosciusko  at  the  Polish  museum  at  Rapperschwyll,  Lake  Zurich, 
and  the  marquess  of  Bute,  taken  by  his  widow  to  Jerusalem  for 
burial  in  1900.  Sometimes  other  parts  of  the  body,  removed  in 
the  process  of  embalming,  are  given  separate  and  solemn  burial. 
Thus  the  viscera  of  the  popes  from  Sixtus  V.  (1590)  onward  have 
been  preserved  in  the  parish  church  of  the  Quirinal.  The  custom 
of  heart-burial  was  forbidden  by  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  (1294- 
1303),  but  Benedict  XI.  withdrew  the  prohibition. 

See  Pettigrew,  Chronicles  of  the  Tombs  (1857). 

HEARTH  (a  word  which  appears  in  various  forms  in  several 
Teutonic  languages,  cf.  Dutch  haard,  German  Herd,  in  the  sense 
of  "  floor  "),  the  part  of  a  room  where  a  fire  is  made,  usually 
constructed  of  stone,  bricks,  tiles  or  earth,  beaten  hard  and 
having  a  chimney  above;  the  fire  being  lighted  either  on  the 
hearth  itself,  or  in  a  receptacle  placed  there  for  the  purpose. 


Like  the  Latin  focus,  especially  in  the  phrase  for  "  hearth  and 
home  "  answering  to  pro  aris  etfocis,  the  word  is  used  as  equiva- 
lent to  the  home  or  household.  The  word  is  also  applied  to  the 
fire  and  cooking  apparatus  on  board  ship;  the  floor  of  a  smith's 
forge;  the  floor  of  a  reverberatory  furnace  on  which  the  ore  is 
exposed  to  the  flame;  the  lower  part  of  a  blast  furnace  through 
which  the  metal  goes  down  into  the  crucible;  in  soldering,  a 
portable  brazier  or  chafing  dish,  and  an  iron  box  sunk  in  the 
middle  of  a  flat  iron  plate  or  table.  An  "  open-hearth  furnace  " 
is  a  regenerative  furnace  of  the  reverberatory  type  used  in  making 
steel,  hence  "open-hearth  steel"  (see  IRON  AND  STEEL). 

Hearth-money,  hearth  tax  or  chimney-money,  was  a  tax  im- 
posed in  England  on  all  houses  except  cottages  at  a  rate  of 
two  shillings  for  every  hearth.  It  was  first  levied  in  1662,  but 
owing  to  its  unpopularity,  chiefly  caused  by  the  domiciliary  visits 
of  the  collectors,  it  was  repealed  in  1689,  although  it  was  pro- 
ducing £170,000  a  year.  The  principle  of  the  tax  was  not  new 
in  the  history  of  taxation,  for  in  Anglo-Saxon  times  the  king 
derived  a  part  of  his  revenue  from  a  fumage  or  tax  of  smoke 
farthings  levied  on  all  hearths  except  those  of  the  poor.  It 
appears  also  in  the  hearth-penny  or  tax  of  a  penny  on  every 
hearth,  which  as  early  as  the  loth  century  was  paid  annually 
to  the  pope  (see  PETER'S  PENCE). 

HEARTS,  a  game  of  cards  of  recent  origin,  though  founded 
upon  the  same  principle  as  many  old  games,  such  as  Slobber- 
hannes,  Four  Jacks  and  Enfle,  namely,  that  of  losing  instead  of 
winning  as  many  tricks  as  possible.  Hearts  is  played  with  a  full 
pack,  ace  counting  highest  and  deuce  lowest.  In  the  fourhanded 
game,  which  is  usually  played,  the  entire  pack  is  dealt  out  as  at 
whist  (but  without  turning  up  the  last  card,  since  there  are  no 
trumps),  and  the  player  at  the  dealer's  left  begins  by  leading  any 
card  he  chooses,  the  trick  being  taken  by  the  highest  card  of  the 
suit  led.  Each  player  must  follow  suit  if  he  can;  if  he  has  no 
cards  of  the  suit  led  he  is  privileged  to  throw  away  any  card  he 
likes,  thus  having  an  opportunity  of  getting  rid  of  his  hearts,  which 
is  the  object  of  the  game.  When  all  thirteen  tricks  have  been 
played  each  player  counts  the  hearts  he  has  taken  in  and  pays 
into  the  pool  a  certain  number  of  counters  for  them,  according 
to  an  arrangement  made  before  beginning  play.  In  the  four- 
handed,  or  sweepstake,  game  the  method  of  settling  called 
"  Howell's,"  from  the  name  of  the  inventor,  has  been  generally 
adopted,  according  to  which  each  player  begins  with  an  equal 
number  of  chips,  say  100,  and,  after  the  hand  has  been  played, 
pays  into  the  pool  as  many  chips  for  each  heart  he  had  taken  as 
there  are  players  besides  himself.  Then  each  player  takes  out 
of  the  pool  one  chip  for  every  heart  he  did  not  win.  The  pool 
is  thus  exhausted  with  every  deal.  Hearts  may  be  played  by 
two,  three,  four  or  even  more  players,  each  playing  for  himself. 

Spot  Hearts. — In  this  variation  the  hearts  count  according  to  the 
number  of  spots  on  the  cards,  excepting  that  the  ace  counts  14, 
the  king  13,  queen  12  and  knave  n,  the  combined  score  of  the 
thirteen  hearts  being  thus  104. 

Auction  Hearts.- — In  this  the  eldest  hand  examines  his  hand 
and  bids  a  certain  number  of  counters  for  the  privilege  of  naming 
the  suit  to  be  got  rid  of,  but  without  naming  the  suit.  The  other 
players  in  succession  have  the  privilege  of  outbidding  him,  and 
whoever  bids  most  declares  the  suit  and  pays  the  amount  of  his  bid 
into  the  pool,  the  winner  taking  it. 

Joker  Hearts. — Here  the  deuce  of  hearts  is  discarded,  and  an  extra 
card,  called  the  joker,  takes  its  place,  ranking  in  value  between  ten 
and  knave.  It  cannot  be  thrown  away,  excepting  when  hearts 
are  led  and  an  ace  or  court  card  is  played,  though  if  an  opponent 
discards  the  ace  or  a  court  card  of  hearts,  then  the  holder  of  the  joker 
may  discard  it.  The  joker  is  usually  considered  worth  five  chips, 
which  are  either  paid  into  the  pool  or  to  the  player  who  succeeds 
in  discarding  the  joker. 

Heartsette. — In  this  variation  the  deuce  of  spades  is  deleted  and 
the  three  cards  left  after  dealing  twelve  cards  to  each  player  are 
called  the  widow  (or  kitty),  and  are  left  face  downward  on  the  table. 
The  winner  of  the  first  trick  must  take  the  widow  without  showing  it 
to  his  opponents. 

Slobberhannes. — The  object  of  this  older  form  of  Hearts  is  to  avoid 
taking  either  the  first  or  last  trick  or  a  trick  containing  the  queen  of 
clubs.  A  euchre  pack  (thirty  two-cards,  lacking  all  below  the  7)  is 
used,  and  each  player  is  given  10  counters,  one  being  forfeited  to  the 
pool  if  a  player  takes  the  first  or  last  trick,  or  that  containing  the 
club  queen.  If  he  takes  all  three  he  forfeits  four  points. 


HEAT 


Four  Jacks  (Polignac  or  Quatre -Valets)  is  usually  played  with  a 
piquet  pack,  the  cards  ranking  in  France  as  at  ecarte,  but  in  Great 
Britain  and  America  as  at  piquet.  There  is  no  trump  suit.  Counters 
are  used,  and  the  object  of  the  game  is  to  avoid  taking  any  trick 
containing  a  knave,  especially  the  knave  of  spades,  called  Polignac. 
The  player  taking  such  a  trick  forfeits  one  counter  to  the  pool. 

Enfle  (or  Schwellen)  is  usually  played  by  four  persons  with  a  piquet 
pack  and  for  a  pool.  The  cards  rank  as  at  Hearts,  and  there  is  no 
trump  suit.  A  player  must  follow  suit  if  he  can,  but  if  he  cannot 
he  may  not  discard,  but  must  take  up  all  tricks  already  won  and  add 
them  to  his  hand.  Play  is  continued  until  one  player  gets  rid  of  all 
his  cards  and  thus  wins. 

HEAT  (O.E.  hatlu,  which  like  "  hot,"  Old  Eng.  hdt,  is  from  the 
Teutonic  type  haita,  hit,  to  be  hot;  cf.  Ger.  hitze,  heiss;  Dutch, 
hitte,  heet,  &c.),  a  general  term  applied  to  that  branch  of  physical 
science  which  deals  with  the  effects  produced  by  heat  on  material 
bodies,  with  the  laws  of  transference  of  heat,  and  with  the 
transformations  of  heat  into  other  kinds  of  energy.  The  object 
of  the  present  article  is  to  give  a  brief  sketch  of  the  historical 
development  of  the  science  of  heat,  and  to  indicate  the  relation 
of  the  different  branches  of  the  subject,  which  are  discussed  in 
greater  detail  with  reference  to  the  latest  progress  in  separate 
articles. 

1.  Meanings -of  the  Term  Heat. — The  term  heat  is  employed  in 
ordinary  language  in  a  number  of  different  senses.    This  makes  it 
a  convenient  term  to  employ  for  the  general  title  of  the  science, 
but  the  different  meanings  must  be  carefully  distinguished  in 
scientific  reasoning.     For  the  present  purpose,  omitting  meta- 
phorical significations,  we  may  distinguish  four  principal  uses 
of  the  term:     (a)    Sensation    of    heat;    (b)    Temperature,    or 
degree  of  hotness;  (c)  Quantity  of  thermal  energy;  (d)  Radiant 
heat,  or  energy  of  radiation. 

(a)  From  the  sense  of  heat,  aided  in  the  case  of  very  hot  bodies 
by  the  sense  of  sight,  we  obtain  our  first  rough  notions  of  heat  as 
a  physical  entity,  which  alters  the  state  of  a  body  and  its  condition 
in  respect  of  warmth,  and  is  capable  of  passing  from  one  body  to 
another.  By  touching  a  body  we  can  tell  whether  it  is  warmer  or 
colder  than  the  hand,  and,  by  touching  two  similar  bodies  in  suc- 
cession, we  can  form  a  rough  estimate,  by  the  acuteness  of  the 
sensation  experienced,  of  their  difference  in  hotness  or  coldness 
over  a  limited  range.  If  a  hot  iron  is  placed  on  a  cold  iron  plate, 
we  may  observe  that  the  plate  is  heated  and  the  iron  cooled  until 
both  attain  appreciably  the  same  degree  of  warmth;  and  we  infer 
from  similar  cases  that  something  which  we  call  "  heat  "  tends  to 
pass  from  hot  to  cold  bodies,  and  to  attain  finally  a  state  of  equable 
diffusion  when  all  the  bodies  concerned  are  equally  warm  or  cold. 
Ideas  such  as  these  derived  entirely  from  the  sense  of  heat,  are, 
so  to  speak,  embedded  in  the  language  of  every  nation  from  the 
earliest  times. 

(6)  From  the  sense  of  heat,  again,  we  naturally  derive  the  idea 
of  a  continuous  scale  or  order,  expressed  by  such  terms  as  summer 
heat,  blood  heat,  fever  heat,  red  heat,  white  heat,  in  which  all  bodies 
may  be  placed  with  regard  to  their  degrees  of  hotness,  and  we  speak 
of  the  temperature  of  a  body  as  denoting  its  place  in  the  scale,  in 
contradistinction  to  the  quantity  of  heat  it  may  contain. 

(c)  The  quantity  of  heat  contained  in  a  body  obviously  depends 
on  the  size  of  the  body  considered.    Thus  a  large  kettleful  of  boiling 
water  will  evidently  contain  more  heat  than  a  teacupful,  though  both 
may  be  at  the  same  temperature.    The  temperature  does  not  depend 
on  the  size  of  the  body,  but  on  the  degree  of  concentration  of  the 
heat  in  it,  i.e.  on  the  quantity  of  heat  per  unit  mass,  other  things 
being  equal.     We  may  regard  it  as  axiomatic  that  a  given  body  (say 
a  pound  of  water)  in  a  given  state   (say  boiling   under  a  given 
pressure)   must  always  contain   the  same  quantity  of   heat,   and 
conversely  that,  if  it  contains  a  given  quantity  of  heat,  and  if  it 
is  under  conditions  in  other  respects,  it  must  be  at  a  definite  tempera- 
ture, which  will  always  be  the  same  for  the  same  given  conditions. 

(d)  It  is  a  matter  of  common  observation  that  rays  of  the  sun 
or  of  a  fire  falling  on  a  body  warm  it,  and  it  was  in  the  first  instance 
natural  to  suppose  that  heat  itself  somehow  travelled  across  the 
intervening  space  from  the  sun  or  fire  to  the  body  warmed,  in 
much  the  same  way  as  heat  may  be  carried  by  a  current  of  hot  air 
or  water.     But  we  now  know  that  energy  of  radiation  is  not  the 
same  thing  as  heat,  though  it  is  converted  into  heat  when  the  rays 
strike  an  absorbing  substance.    The  term  "  radiant  heat,"  however, 
is   generally   retained,    because   radiation   is   commonly   measured 
in  terms  of  the  heat  it  produces,  and  because  the  transference  of 
energy  by  radiation  and  absorption  is  the  most  important  agency  in 
the  diffusion  of  heat. 

2.  Evolution  of  the  Thermometer. — The  first  step  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  science  of  heat  was  necessarily  the  invention  of  a 
thermometer,   an  instrument   for  indicating  temperature  and 
measuring  its  changes.    The  first  requisite  in  the  case  of  such  an 


FIG.  i. 


FIG.  2. 


instrument  is  that  it  should  always  give,  at  least  approximately, 
the  same  indication  at  the  same  temperature.  The  air-thermo- 
scope  of  Galileo,  illustrated  in  fig.  i,  which  consisted  of  a 
glass  bulb  containing  air,  connected  to  a  glass  tube  of 
small  bore  dipping  into  a  coloured  liquid,  though  very  sensi- 
tive to  variations  of  temperature,  was  not  satisfactory  as 
a  measuring  instrument,  because  it  was  also  affected  by  varia- 
tions of  atmospheric  pressure.  The  invention  of  the  type  of 
thermometer  familiar  at  the  present  day,  containing  a  liquid 
hermetically  sealed  in  a  glass  bulb  with  a  fine  tube  attached, 
is  also  generally  attributed  to  Galileo  at 
a  slightly  later  date,  about  1612.  Alcohol 
was  the  liquid  first  employed,  and 
the  degrees,  intended  to  represent 
thousandths  of  the  volume  of  the  bulb, 
were  marked  with  small  beads  of  enamel 
fused  on  the  stem,  as  shown  in  fig.  2. 
In  order  to  render  the  readings  of  such 
instruments  comparable  with  each  other, 
it  was  necessary  to  select  a  fixed  point 
or  standard  temperature  as  the  zero  or 
starting-point  of  the  graduations.  In- 
stead of  making  each  degree  a  given 
fraction  of  the  volume  of  the  bulb,  which 
would  be  difficult  in  practice,  and  would 
give  different  values  for  the  degree  with 
different  liquids,  it  was  soon  found  to 
be  preferable  to  take  two  fixed  points, 
and  to  divide  the  interval  between 
them  into  the  same  number  of  degrees.  It  was  natural  in  the 
first  instance  to  take  the  temperature  of  the  human  body  as  one 
of  the  fixed  points.  In  1701  Sir  Isaac  Newton  proposed  a  scale 
in  which  the  freezing-point  of  water  was  taken  as  zero,  and  the 
temperature  of  the  human  body  as  12°.  About  the  same  date 
(1714)  Gabriel  Daniel  Fahrenheit  proposed  to  take  as  zero  the 
lowest  temperature  obtainable  with  a  freezing  mixture  of  ice 
and  salt,  and  to  divide  the  interval  between  this  temperature  and 
that  of  the  human  body  into  12°.  To  obtain  finer  graduations 
the  number  was  subsequently  increased  to  06°.  The  freezing- 
point  of  water  was  at  that  time  supposed  to  be  somewhat  variable, 
because  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  possible  to  cool  water  several 
degrees  below  its  freezing-point  in  the  absence  of  ice.  Fahrenheit 
showed,  however,  that  as  soon  as  ice  began  to  form  the  tempera- 
ture always  rose  to  the  same  point,  and  that  a  mixture  of  ice 
or  snow  with  pure  water  always  gave  the  same  temperature. 
At  a  later  period  he  also  showed  that  the  temperature  of  boiling 
water  varied  with  the  barometric  pressure,  but  that  it  was  always 
the  same  at  the  same  pressure,  and  might  therefore  be  used 
as  the  second  fixed  point  (as  Edmund  Halley  and  others  had 
suggested)  provided  that  a  definite  pressure,  such  as  the  average 
atmospheric  pressure,  were  specified.  The  freezing  and  boiling- 
points  on  one  of  his  thermometers,  graduated  as  already  ex- 
plained, with  the  temperature  of  the  body  as  96°,  came  out  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  32°  and  212°  respectively,  giving  an  interval 
of  1 80°  between  these  points.  Shortly  after  Fahrenheit's  death 
(1736)  the  freezing  and  boiling-points  of  water  were  generally 
recognized  as  the  most  convenient  fixed  points  to  adopt,  but 
different  systems  of  subdivision  were  employed.  Fahrenheit's 
scale,  with  its  small  degrees  and  its  zero  below  the  freezing-point, 
possesses  undoubted  advantages  for  meteorological  work,  and 
is  still  retained  in  most  English-speaking  countries.  But  for 
general  scientific  purposes,  the  centigrade  system,  in  which  the 
freezing-point  is  marked  o°  and  the  boiling-point  100°,  is  now 
almost  universally  employed,  on  account  of  its  greater  simplicity 
from  an  arithmetical  point  of  view.  For  work  of  precision  the 
fixed  points  have  been  more  exactly  defined  (see  THERMOMETRY)  , 
but  no  change  has  been  made  in  the  fundamental  principle  of 
graduation. 

3.  Comparison  of  Scales  based  on  Expansion. — Thermometers 
constructed  in  the  manner  already  described  will  give  strictly 
comparable  readings,  provided  that  the  tubes  be  of  uniform 
bore,  and  that  the  same  liquid  and  glass  be  employed  in  their 


136 


HEAT 


[CALORIMETRY 


construction.  But  they  possess  one  obvious  defect  from  a  theo- 
retical point  of  view,  namely,  that  the  subdivision  of  the  tem- 
perature scale  depends  on  the  expansion  of  the  particular  liquid 
selected  as  the  standard.  A  liquid  such  as  water,  which,  when  con- 
tinuously heated  at  a  uniform  rate  from  its  freezing-pcint,  first 
contracts  and  then  expands,  at  a  rapidly  increasing  rate,  would 
obviously  be  unsuitable.  But  there  is  no  a  priori  reason  why  other 
liquids  should  not  behave  to  some  extent  in  a  similar  way.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  it  was  soon  observed  that  thermometers  care- 
fully constructed  with  different  liquids,  such  as  alcohol,  oil  and 
mercury,  did  not  agree  precisely  in  their  indications  at  points  of 
the  scale  intermediate  between  the  fixed  points,  and  diverged 
even  more  widely  outside  these  limits.  Another  possible  method, 
proposed  in  1694  by  Carlo  Renaldeni  (1615-1698),  professor 
of  mathematics  and  philosophy  at  Pisa,  would  be  to  determine 
the  intermediate  points  of  the  scale  by  observing  the  temperatures 
of  mixtures  of  ice-cold  and  boiling  water  in  varying  proportions. 
On  this  method,  the  temperature  of  50°  C.  would  be  defined 
as  that  obtained  by  mixing  equal  weights  of  water  at  o°  C.  and 
100°  C.;  20°  C.,  that  obtained  by  mixing  80  parts  of  water  at 
o°  C.  with  20  parts  of  water  at  100°  C.  and  so  on.  Each  degree 
rise  of  temperature  in  a  mass  of  water  would  then  represent 
the  addition  of  the  same  quantity  of  heat.  The  scale  thus 
obtained  would,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  agree  very  closely  with  that 
of  a  mercury  thermometer,  but  the  method  would  be  very 
difficult  to  put  in  practice,  and  would  still  have  the  disadvantage 
of  depending  on  the  properties  of  a  particular  liquid,  namely, 
water,  which  is  known  to  behave  in  an  anomalous  manner  in 
other  respects.  At  a  later  date,  the  researches  of  Gay-Lussac 
(1802)  and  Regnault  (1847)  showed  that  the  laws  of  the  expansion 
of  gases  are  much  simpler  than  those  of  liquids.  Whereas  the 
expansion  of  alcohol  between  o°  C.  and  100°  C.  is  nearly  seven 
times  as  great  as  that  of  mercury,  all  gases  (excluding  easily 
condensible  vapours)  expand  equally,  or  so  nearly  equally  that 
the  differences  between  them  cannot  be  detected  without  the 
most  refined  observations.  This  equality  of  expansion  affords 
a  strong  a  priori  argument  for  selecting  the  scale  given  by  the 
expansion  of  a  gas  as  the  standard  scale  of  temperature,  but  there 
are  still  stronger  theoretical  grounds  for  this  choice,  which  will 
be  indicated  in  discussing  the  absolute  scale  (§  21).  Among 
liquids  mercury  is  found  to  agree  most  nearly  with  the  gas  scale, 
and  is  generally  employed  in  thermometers  for  scientific  purposes 
on  account  of  its  high  boiling-point  and  for  other  reasons. 
The  differences  of  the  mercurial  scale  from  the  gas  scale  having 
been  carefully  determined,  the  mercury  thermometer  can  be 
used  as  a  secondary  standard  to  replace  the  gas  thermometer 
within  certain  limits,  as  the  gas  thermometer  would  be  very 
troublesome  to  employ  directly  in  ordinary  investigations. 
For  certain  purposes,  and  especially  at  temperatures  beyond 
the  range  of  mercury  thermometers,  electrical  thermometers, 
also  standardized  by  reference  to  the  gas  thermometer,  have 
been  very  generally  employed  in  recent  years,  while  for  still 
higher  temperatures  beyond  the  range  of  the  gas  thermometer, 
thermometers  based  on  the  recently  established  laws  ofiradiation 
are  the  only  instruments  available.  For  a  further  discussion  of 
the  theory  and  practice  of  the  measurement  of  temperature, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article  THERMOMETRY. 

4.  Change  of  State. — Among  the  most  important  effects  of 
heat  is  that  of  changing  the  state  of  a  substance  from  solid  to 
liquid,  or  from  liquid  to  vapour.  With  very  few  exceptions,  all 
substances,  whether  simple  or  compound,  are  known  to  be  capable 
of  existing  in  each  of  the  three  states  under  suitable  conditions 
of  temperature  and  pressure.  The  transition  of  any  substance, 
from  the  state  of  liquid  to  that  of  solid  or  vapour  under  the 
ordinary  atmospheric  pressure,  takes  place  at  fixed  temperatures, 
the  freezing  and  boiling-points,  which  are  very  sharply  defined 
for  pure  crystalline  substances,  and  serve  in  fact  as  fixed  points 
of  the  ther mometric  scale.  A  change  of  state  cannot,  however, 
be  effected  in  any  case  without  the  addition  or  subtraction  of  a 
certain  definite  quantity  of  heat.  If  a  piece  of  ice  below  the 
freezing-point  is  gradually  heated  at  a  uniform  rate,  its  tem- 
perature may  be  observed  to  rise  regularly  till  the  freezing-point 


is  reached.  At  this  point  it  begins  to  melt,  and  its  temperature 
ceases  to  rise.  The  melting  takes  a  considerable  time,  during  the 
whole  of  which  heat  is  being  continuously  supplied  without 
producing  any  rise  of  temperature,  although  if  the  same  quantity 
of  heat  were  supplied  to  an  equal  mass  of  water,  the  temperature 
of  the  water  would  be  raised  nearly  80°  C.  Heat  thus  absorbed 
in  producing  a  change  of  state  without  rise  of  temperature  is 
called  "Latent  Heat,"  a  term  introduced  by  Joseph  Black,  who 
was  one  of  the  first  to  study  the  subject  of  change  of  state  from 
the  point  of  view  of  heat  absorbed,  and  who  in  many  cases 
actually  adopted  the  comparatively  rough  method  described 
above  of  estimating  quantities  of  heat  by  observing  the  time 
required  to  produce  a  given  change  when  the  substance  was 
receiving  heat  at  a  steady  rate  from  its  surroundings.  For 
every  change  of  state  a  definite  quantity  of  heat  is  required, 
without  which  the  change  cannot  take  place.  Heat  must  be 
added  to  melt  a  solid,  or  to  vaporize  a  solid  or  a  liquid,  and 
conversely,  heat  must  be  subtracted  to  reverse  the  change,  i.e. 
to  condense  a  vapour  or  freeze  a  liquid.  The  quantity  required 
for  any  given  change  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  substance 
and  the  change  considered,  and  varies  to  some  extent  with  the 
conditions  (as  to  pressure,  &c.)  under  which  the  change  is  made, 
but  is  always  the  same  for  the  same  change  under  the  same 
conditions.  A  rough  measurement  of  the  latent  heat  of  steam 
was  made  as  early  as  1 764  by  James  Watt,  who  found  that  steam 
at  212°  F.,  when  passed  from  a  kettle  into  a  jar  of  cold  water, 
was  capable  of  raising  nearly  six  times  its  weight  of  water  to 
the  boiling  point.  He  gives  the  volume  of  the  steam  as  about 
1800  times  that  of  an  equal  weight  of  water. 

The  phenomena  which  accompany  change  of  state,  and  the 
physical  laws  by  which  such  changes  are  governed,  are  discussed 
in  a  series  of  special  articles  dealing  with  particular  cases.  The 
articles  on  FUSION  and  ALLOYS  deal  with  the  change  from  the 
solid  to  the  liquid  state,  and  the  analogous  case  of  solution  is  dis- 
cussed in  the  article  on  SOLUTION.  The  articles  on  CONDENSATION 
OF  GASES,  LIQUID  GASES  and  VAPORIZATION  deal  with  the  theory 
of  the  change  of  state  from  liquid  to  vapour,  and  with  the  important 
applications  of  liquid  gases  to  other  researches.  The  methods  of 
measuring  the  latent  heat  of  fusion  or  vaporization  are  described  in 
the  article  CALORIMETRY,  and  need  not  be  further  discussed  here 
except  as  an  introduction  to  the  history  of  the  evolution  of  knowledge 
with  regard  to  the  nature  of  heat. 

5.  Calorimetry  by  Latent  Heat. — In  principle,  the  simplest 
and  most  direct  method  of  measuring  quantities  of  heat  consists 
in  observing  the  effects  produced  in  melting  a  solid  or  vaporizing 
a  liquid.  It  was,  in  fact,  by  the  fusion  of  ice  that  quantities 
of  heat  were  first  measured.  If  a  hot  body  is  placed  in  a  cavity 
in  a  block  of  ice  at  o°  C.,  and  is  covered  by  a  closely  fitting  slab 
of  ice,  the  quantity  of  ice  melted  will  be  directly  proportional  to 
the  quantity  of  heat  lost  by  the  body  in  cooling  to  o°  C.  None 
of  the  heat  can  possibly  escape  through  the  ice,  and  conversely 
no  heat  can  possibly  get  in  from  outside.  The  body  must  cool 
exactly  to  o°  C.,  and  every  fraction  of  the  heat  it  loses  must  melt 
an  equivalent  quantity  of  ice.  Apart  from  heat  lost  in  trans- 
ferring the  heated  body  to  the  ice  block,  the  method  is  theoretic- 
ally perfect.  The  only  difficulty  consists  in  the  practical 
measurement  of  the  quantity  of  ice  melted.  Black  estimated  this 
quantity  by  mopping  out  the  cavity  with  a  sponge  before  and 
after  the  operation.  But  there  is  a  variable  film  of  water  adhering 
to  the  walls  of  the  cavity,  which  gives  trouble  in  accurate  work. 
In  1780  Laplace  and  Lavoisier  used  a  double-walled  metallic 
vessel  containing  broken  ice,  which  was  in  many  respects  more 
convenient  than  the  block,  but  aggravated  the  difficulty  of  the 
film  of  water  adhering  to  the  ice.  In  spite  of  this  practical 
difficulty,  the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  melt  unit  weight  of 
ice  was  for  a  long  time  taken  as  the  unit  of  heat.  This  unit 
possesses  the  great  advantage  that  it  is  independent  of  the  scale 
of  temperature  adopted.  At  a  much  later  date  R.  Bunsen 
(Phil.  Mag.,  1871),  adopting  a  suggestion  of  Sir  John  Herschel's, 
devised  an  ice-calorimeter  suitable  for  measuring  small  quan- 
tities of  heat,  in  which  the  difficulty  of  the  water  film  was  over- 
come by  measuring  the  change  in  volume  due  to  the  melting  of 
the  ice.  The  volume  of  unit  mass  of  ice  is  approximately  1-0920 
times  that  of  unit  mass  of  water,  so  that  the  diminution  of  volume 


WATT'S  INDICATOR  DIAGRAM] 


HEAT 


137 


is  0-092  of  a  cubic  centimetre  for  each  gramme  of  ice  melted. 
The  method  requires  careful  attention  to  details  of  manipulation, 
which  are  more  fully  discussed  in  the  article  on  CALORIMETRY. 

For  measuring  large  quantities  of  heat,  such  as  those  produced 
by  the  combustion  of  fuel  in  a  boiler,  the  most  convenient  method 
is  the  evaporation  of  water,  which  is  commonly  employed  by 
engineers  for  the  purpose.  The  natural  unit  in  this  case  is  the 
quantity  of  heat  required  to  evaporate  unit  mass  of  water  at  the 
boiling  point  under  atmospheric  pressure.  In  boilers  working  at 
a  higher  pressure,  or  supplied  with  water  at  a  lower  temperature, 
appropriate  corrections  are  applied  to  deduce  the  quantity 
evaporated  in  terms  of  this  unit. 

For  laboratory  work  on  a  small  scale  the  converse  method  of 
condensation  has  been  successfully  applied  by  John  Joly,  in 
whose  steam-calorimeter  the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise 
the  temperature  of  a  body  from  the  atmospheric  temperature 
to  that  of  steam  condensing  at  atmospheric  pressure  is  observed 
by  weighing  the  mass  of  steam  condensed  on  it.  (See  CALORI- 
METRY.) 

6.  Thermometric  Calorimetry.—FoT  the  majority  of  purposes 
the  most  convenient  and  the  most  readily  applicable  method 
of  measuring  quantities  of  heat,  is  to  observe  the  rise  of  tem- 
perature produced  in  a  known  mass  of  water  contained  in  a 
suitable  vessel  or  calorimeter.     This  method  was  employed  from 
a  very  early  date  by  Count  Rumford  and  other  investigators, 
and  was  brought  to  a  high  pitch  of  perfection  by  Regnault  in  his 
extensive  calorimetric  researches  (M6moires  de  I'lnstitut  de  Paris, 
1847);  but  it  is  only  within  comparatively  recent  years  that  it 
has  really  been  placed  on  a  satisfactory  basis  by  the  accurate 
definition  of  the  units  involved.     The  theoretical  objections  to 
the  method,  as  compared  with  latent  heat  calorimetry,  are  that 
some  heat  is  necessarily  lost  by  the  calorimeter  when  its  tem- 
perature is  raised  above  that  of  the  surroundings,  and  that  some 
heat  is  used  in  heating  the  vessel  containing  the  water.    These  are 
small  corrections,  which  can  be  estimated  with  considerable 
accuracy  in   practice.     A  more  serious  difficulty,   which  has 
impaired  the  value  of  much  careful  work  by  this  method,  is  that 
the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  a  given 
mass  of  water  i°  C.  depends  on  the  temperature  at  which  the 
water  is  taken,  and  also  on  the  scale  of  the  thermometer  employed. 
It  is  for  this  reason,  in  many  cases,  impossible  to  say,  at  the 
present  time,  what  was  the  precise  value,  within  %  or  even  i  % 
of  the  heat  unit,  in  terms  of  which  many  of  the  older  results, 
such  as  those  of  Regnault,  were  expressed.     For  many  purposes 
this  would  not  be  a  serious  matter,  but  for  work  of  scientific 
precision  such  a  limitation  of  accuracy  would  constitute  a  very 
serious  bar  to  progress.     The  unit  generally  adopted  for  scientific 
purposes  is  the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  i  gram  (or 
kilogram)  of  water  i°  C.,  and  is  called  the  calorie  (or  kilo-calorie). 
English  engineers  usually  state  results  in  terms  of  the  British 
Thermal  Unit  (B.Th.U.),  which  is  the  quantity  of  heat  required 
to  raise  i  Ib  of  water  i°  F. 

7.  Watt's    Indicator    Diagram;    Work    of    Expansion. — The 
rapid  development  of  the  steam-engine  (q.v.)  in  England  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  i8th  century  had  a  marked  effect  on  the 
progress  of  the  science  of  heat.     In  the  first  steam-engines  the 
working  cylinder  served  both  as  boiler  and  condenser,  a  very 
wasteful  method,  as  most  of  the  heat  was  transferred  directly 
from  the  fire  to  the  condensing  water  without  useful  effect. 
The  first  improvement  (about  1700)  was  to  use  a  separate  boiler, 
but  the  greater  part  of  the  steam  supplied  was  still  wasted  in 
reheating  the  cylinder,  which  had  been  cooled  by  the  injection 
of  cold  water  to  condense  the  steam  after  the  previous  stroke. 
In  1769  James  Watt  showed  how  to  avoid  this  waste  by  using 
a  separate  condenser  and  keeping  the  cylinder  as  hot  as  possible. 
In  his  earlier  engines  the  steam  at  full  boiler  pressure  was 
allowed  to  raise  the  piston  through  nearly  the  whole  of  its  stroke. 
Connexion  with  the  boiler  was  then  cut  off,  and  the  steam  at 
full  pressure  was  discharged  into  the  condenser.     Here  again 
there  was  unnecessary  waste,  as  the  steam  was  still  capable  of 
doing  useful  work.     He  subsequently  introduced  "  expansive 
working,"  which  effected  still  further  economy.     The  connexion 


with  the  boiler  was  cut  off  when  a  fraction  only,  say  },  of  the 
stroke  had  been  completed,  the  remainder  of  'the  stroke  being 
effected  by  the  expansion  of  the  steam  already  in  the  cylinder 
with  continually  diminishing  pressure.  By  the  end  of  the  stroke, 
when  connexion  was  made  to  the  condenser,  the  pressure  was 
so  reduced  that  there  was  comparatively  little  waste  from  this 
cause.  Watt  also  devised  an  instrument  called  an  indicator 
(see  STEAM  ENGINE),  in  which  a  pencil,  moved  up  and  down 
vertically  by  the  steam  pressure,  recorded  the  pressure  in  the 
cylinder  at  every  point  of  the  stroke  on  a  sheet  of  paper  moving 
horizontally  in  time  with  the  stroke  of  the  piston.  The  diagram 
thus  obtained  made  it  possible  to  study  what  was  happening 
inside  the  cylinder,  and  to  deduce  the  work  done  by  the  steam 
in  each  stroke.  The  method  of  the  indicator  diagram  has  since 
proved  of  great  utility  in  physics  in  studying  the  properties  of 
gases  and  vapours.  The  work  done,  or  the  useful  effect  obtained 
from  an  engine  or  any  kind  of  machine,  is  measured  by  the 
product  of  the  resistance  overcome  and  the  distance  through 
which  it  is  overcome.  The  result  is  generally  expressed  in  terms 
of  the  equivalent  weight  raised  through  a  certain  height  against 
the  force  of  gravity.1  If,  for  instance,  the  pressure  on  a  piston 

1  Units  of  Work,  Energy  and  Power. — In  English-speaking  countries 
work  is  generally  measured  in  foot-pounds.  Elsewhere  it  is  generally 
measured  in  kilogrammetres,  or  in  terms  of  the  work  done  in  raising 
I  kilogramme  weight  through  the  height  of  I  metre.  In  the  middle 
of  the  i  gth  century  the  terms  "  force  "  and  "  motive  power  "  were 
commonly  employed  in  the  sense  of  "  power  of  doing  work."  The 
term  "  energy  "  is  now  employed  in  this  sense.  A  quantity  of 
energy  is  measured  by  the  work  it  is  capable  of  performing.  A 
body  may  possess  energy  in  virtue  of  its  state  (gas  or  steam  under 
pressure),  or  in  virtue  of  its  position  (a  raised  weight),  or  in  various 
other  ways,  when  at  rest.  In  these  cases  it  is  said  to  possess  potential 
energy.  It  may  also  possess  energy  in  virtue  of  its  motion  or  rotation 
(as  a  fly-wheel  or  a  cannon-ball).  In  this  case  it  is  said  to  possess 
kinetic  energy,  or  energy  of  motion.  In  many  cases  the  energy  (as 
in  the  case  of  a  vibrating  body,  like  a  pendulum)  is  partly  kinetic 
and  partly  potential,  and  changes  continually  from  one  to  the  other 
throughout  the  motion.  For  instance,  the  energy  of  a  pendulum 
is  wholly  potential  when  it  is  momentarily  at  rest  at  the  top  of  its 
swing,  but  is  wholly  kinetic  when  the  pendulum  is  moving  with  its 
maximum  velocity  at  the  lowest  point  of  its  swing.  The  whole 
energy  at  any  moment  is  the  sum  of  the  potential  and  kinetic  energy, 
and  this  sum  remains  constant  so  long  as  the  amplitude  of  the 
vibration  remains  the  same.  The  potential  energy  of  a  weight  W  Ib 
raised  to  a  height  h  ft.  above  the  earth,  is  ~Wh  foot-pounds.  If 
allowed  to  fall  freely,  without  doing  work,  its  kinetic  energy  on 
reaching  the  earth  would  be  W/f  foot-pounds,  and  its  velocity  of 
motion  would  be  such  that  if  projected  upwards  with  the  same 
velocity  it  would  rise  to  the  height  h  from  which  it  fell.  We  have 
here  a  simple  and  familiar  case  of  the  conversion  of  one  kind  of  energy 
into  a  different  kind.  But  the  two  kinds  of  energy  are  mechanically 
equivalent,  and  they  can  both  be  measured  in  terms  of  the  same 
units.  The  units  already  considered,  namely  foot-pounds  or  kilo- 
grammetres, are  gravitational  units,  depending  on  the  force  of  gravity. 
This  is  the  most  obvious  and  natural  method  of  measuring  the 
potential  energy  of  a  raised  weight,  but  it  has  the  disadvantage  of 
varying  with  the  force  of  gravity  at  different  places.  The  natural 
measure  of  the  kinetic  energy  of  a  moving  body  is  the  product  of 
its  mass  by  half  the  square  of  its  velocity,  which  gives  a  measure 
in  kinetic  or  absolute  units  independent  of  the  force  of  gravity. 
Kinetic  and  gravitational  units  are  merely  different  ways  of  measur- 
ing the  same  thing.  Just  as  foot-pounds  may  be  reduced  to  kilo- 
grammetres by  dividing  by  the  number  of  foot-pounds  in  one  kilo- 
grammetre,  so  kinetic  may  be  reduced  to  gravitational  units  by 
dividing  by  the  kinetic  measure  of  the  intensity  of  gravity,  namely, 
the  work  in  kinetic  units  done  by  the  weight  of  unit  mass  acting 
through  unit  distance.  For  scientific  purposes,  it  is  necessary  to 
take  account  of  the  variation  of  gravity.  The  scientific  unit  of 
energy  is  called  the  erg.  The  erg  is  the  kinetic  energy  of  a  mass 
of  2  gm.  moving  with  a  velocity  of  I  cm.  per  sec.  The  work  in 
ergs  done  by  a  force  acting  through  a  distance  of  I  cm.  is  the  absolute 
measure  of  the  force.  A  force  equal  to  the  weight  of  I  gm.  (in 
England)  acting  through  a  distance  of  I  cm.  does  981  ergs  of  work. 
A  force  equal  to  the  weight  of  1000  gm.  (i  kilogramme)  acting 
through  a  distance  of  I  metre  (too  cm.)  does  98' I  million  ergs  of 
work.  As  the  erg  is  a  very  small  unit,  for  many  purposes,  a  unit 
equal  to  10  million  ergs,  called  a  joule,  is  employed.  In  England, 
where  the  weight  of  I  gm.  is  981  ergs  per  cm.,  a  foot-pound  is  equal 
to  1-356  joules,  and  a  kilogrammetre  is  equal  to  9-81  joules. 

The  term  power  is  now  generally  restricted  to  mean  "  rate  of  work- 
ing." Watt  estimated  that  an  average  horse  was  capable  of  raising 
550  Ib  I  ft.  in  each  second,  or  doing  work  at  the  rate  of  550  foot- 
pounds per  second,  or  33,000  foot-pounds  per  minute.  This  con- 
ventional horse-power  is  the  unit  commonly  employed  for  estimating 


i38 


HEAT 


[NATURE  OF  HEAT 


is  50  ft  per  sq.  in.,  and  the  area  of  the  piston  is  100  sq.  in.,  the 
force  on  the  piston  is  5000  Ib  weight.  If  the  stroke  of  the  piston 
is  i  ft.,  the  work  done  per  stroke  is  capable  of  raising  a 
weight  of  5000  Ib  through  a  height  of  i  ft.,  or  50  Ib  through  a 
height  of  100  ft.  and  so  on. 

Fig.  3  represents  an  imaginary  indicator  diagram  for  a  steam- 
engine,  taken  from  one  of  Watt  s  patents.  Steam  is  admitted  to 
the  cylinder  when  the  piston  is  at  the  beginning  of  its  stroke,  at  S. 
ST  represents  the  length  of  the  stroke  or  the  limit  of  horizontal 
movement  of  the  paper  on  which  the  diagram  is  drawn.  The  indicat- 
ing pencil  rises  to  the  point  A,  representing  the  absolute  pressure  of 
60  ft  per  sq.  in.  As  the  piston  moves  outwards  the  pencil  traces 


Ul 

i 

(0 


V) 


70 

fl60 
.50 
~40 
in  30 

£20 

o. 


Line 


3 
"SI        2  F  3       4       5       6       7       8  T 

FIG.  3. — Watt's  Indicator  Diagram.    Patent  of  1782. 


the  horizontal  line  AB,  the  pressure  remaining  constant  till  the  point 
B  is  reached,  at  which  connexion  to  the  boiler  is  cut  off.  The  work 
done  so  far  is  represented  by  the  area  of  the  rectangle  ABSF,  namely 
AS  X  SF,  multiplied  by  the  area  of  the  piston  in  sq.  in.  The 
result  is  in  foot-pounds  if  the  fraction  of  the  stroke  SF  is  taken  in 
feet.  After  cut-off  at  B  the  steam  expands  under  diminishing 
pressure,  and  the  pencil  falls  gradually  from  B  to  C,  following  the 
steam  pressure  until  the  exhaust  valve  opens  at  the  end  of  the  stroke. 
The  pressure  then  falls  rapidly  to  that  of  the  condenser,  which  for 
an  ideal  case  may  be  taken  as  zero,  following  Watt.  The  work 
done  during  expansion  is  found  by  dividing  the  remainder  of  the 
stroke  FT  into  a  number  of  equal  parts  (say  8,  Watt  takes  20)  and 
measuring  the  pressure  at  the  points  i,  2,  3,  4,  &c.,  corresponding 
to  the  middle  of  each.  We  thus  obtain  a  number  of  small  rectangles, 
the  sum  of  which  is  evidently  very  nearly  equal  to  the  whole  area 
BCTF  under  the  expansion  curve,  or  to  the  remainder  of  the  stroke 
FT  multiplied  by  the  average  or  mean  value  of  the  pressure.  The 
whole  work  done  in  the  forward  stroke  is  represented  by  the  area 
ABCTSA,  or  by  the  average  value  of  the  pressure  P  over  the  whole 
stroke  multiplied  by  the  stroke  L.  This  area  must  be  multiplied 
by  the  area  of  the  piston  A  in  sq.  in.  as  before,  to  get  the 
work  done  per  stroke  in  foot-pounds,  which  is  PLA.  If  the  engine 
repeats  this  cycle  N  times  per  minute,  the  work  done  per  minute  is 
PLAN  foot-pounds,  which  is  reduced  to  horse-power  by  dividing 
by  33,000.  If  the  steam  is  ejected  by  the  piston  at  atmospheric 
pressure  (15  ft  per  sq.  in.)  instead  of  being  condensed  at  zero  pressure, 
the  area  COST  under  the  atmospheric  line  CD,  representing  work 
done  against  back-pressure  on  the  return  stroke  must  be  subtracted. 
If  the  engine  repeats  the  same  cycle  or  series  of  operations  continu- 
ously, the  indicator  diagram  will  be  a  closed  curve,  and  the  nett 
work  done  per  cycle  will  be  represented  by  the  included  area,  what- 
ever the  form  of  the  curve. 

8.  Thermal  Efficiency. — The  thermal  efficiency  of  an  engine 
is  the  ratio  of  the  work  done  by  the  engine  to  the  heat  supplied 
to  it.  According  to  Watt's  observations,  confirmed  later  by 
Clement  and  Desormes,  the  total  heat  required  to  produce 
i  Ib  of  saturated  steam  at  any  temperature  from  water  at 
o°  C.  was  approximately  650  times  the  quantity  of  heat  required 
to  raise  i  Ib  of  water  i°  C.  Since  i  Ib  of  steam  represented 
on  this  assumption  a  certain  quantity  of  heat,  the  efficiency 
could  be  measured  naturally  in  foot-pounds  of  work  obtainable 
per  Ib  of  steam,  or  conversely  in  pounds  of  steam  consumed 
per  horse-power-hour. 

In  his  patent  of  1782  Watt  gives  the  following  example  of  the 
improvement  in  thermal  efficiency  obtained  by  expansive  work- 

the  power  of  engines.  The  horse-power-hour,  or  the  work  done  by  one 
horse-power  in  one  hour,  is  nearly  2  million  foot-pounds.  For  electrical 
and  scientific  purposes  the  unit  of  power  employed  is  called  the  watt. 
The  watt  is  the  work  per  second  done  by  an  electromotive  force  of 
i  volt  in  driving  a  current  of  I  ampere,  and  is  equal  to  10  million 
ergs  or  I  joule  per  second.  One  horse-power  is  746  watts  or  nearly 
f  of  a  kilowatt.  The  kilowatt-hour,  which  is  the  unit  by  which 
electrical  energy  is  sold,  is  3-6  million  joules  or  2-65  million  foot- 
pounds, or  366,000  kilogrammetres,  and  is  capable  of  raising  nearly 
19  ft  of  water  from  the  freezing  to  the  boiling  point. 


ing.  Taking  the  diagram  already  given,  if  the  quantity  of  steam 
represented  by  AB,  or  300  cub.  in.  at  60  Ib  pressure,  were  em- 
ployed without  expansion,  the  work  realized,  represented  by  the 
area  ABSF,  would  be  6000/4  =  1 500  foot-pounds.  With  expansion 
to  4  times  its  original  volume,  as  shown  in  the  diagram  by  the 
whole  area  ABCTSA,  the  mean  pressure  (as  calculated  by  Watt, 
assuming  Boyle's  law)  would  be  0-58  of  the  original  pressure, 
and  the  work  done  would  be  6000X0-58  =  3480  foot-pounds  for 
the  same  quantity  of  steam,  or  the  thermal  efficiency  would  be 
2-32  times  greater.  The  advantage  actually  obtained  would  not 
be  so  great  as  this,  on  account  of  losses  by  condensation,  back- 
pressure, &c.,  which  are  neglected  in  Watt's  calculation,  but  the 
margin  would  still  be  very  considerable.  Three  hundred  cub. 
in.  of  steam  at  60  Ib  pressure  would  represent  about  -0245  of 
i  Ib  of  steam,  or  28-7  B.Th.U.,  so  that,  neglecting  all  losses, 
the  possible  thermal  efficiency  attainable  with  steam  at  this 
pressure  and  four  expansions  ( j  cut-off)  would  be  3480/28  •  7 ,  or  121 
foot-pounds  per  B.Th.U.  At  a  later  date,  about  i82o,it  was  usual 
to  include  the  efficiency  of  the  boiler  with  that  of  the  engine, 
and  to  reckon  the  efficiency  or  "  duty  "  in  foot-pounds  per  bushel 
or  cwt.  of  coal.  The  best  Cornish  pumping-engines  of  that  date 
achieved  about  70  million  foot-pounds  per  cwt.,  or  consumed 
about  3-2  Ib  per  horse-power-hour,  which  is  roughly  equivalent  to 
43  foot-pounds  per  B.Th.U.  The  efficiency  gradually  increased 
as  higher  pressures  were  used,  with  more  complete  expansion, 
but  the  conditions  upon  which  the  efficiency  depended  were 
not  fully  worked  out  till  a  much  later  date.  Much  additional 
knowledge  with  regard  to  the  nature  of  heat,  and  the  properties 
of  gases  and  vapours,  was  required  before  the  problem  could 
be  attacked  theoretically. 

9.  Of  the  Nature  of  Heat. — In  the  early  days  of  the  science  it 
was  natural  to  ascribe  the  manifestations  of  heat  to  the  action 
of  a  subtle  imponderable  fluid  called  "  caloric,"  with  the  power 
of  penetrating,  expanding  and  dissolving  bodies,  or  dissipating 
them  in  vapour.  The  fluid  was  imponderable,  because  the  most 
careful  experiments  failed  to  show  that  heat  produced  any  in- 
crease in  weight.  The  opposite  property  of  levitation  was  often 
ascribed  to  heat,  but  it  was  shown  by  more  cautious  investigators 
that  the  apparent  loss  of  weight  due  to  heating  was  to  be  attri- 
buted to  evaporation  or  to  upward  air  currents.  The  funda- 
mental idea  of  an  imaginary  fluid  to  represent  heat  was  useful 
as  helping  the  mind  to  a  conception  of  something  remaining 
invariable  in  quantity  through  many  transformations,  but  in 
some  respects  the  analogy  was  misleading,  and  tended  greatly 
to  retard  the  progress  of  science.  The  caloric  theory  was  very 
simple  in  its  application  to  the  majority  of  calorimetric  ex- 
periments, and  gave  a  fair  account  of  the  elementary  phenomena 
of  change  of  state,  but  it  encountered  serious  difficulties  in 
explaining  the  production  of  heat  by  friction,  or  the  changes 
of  temperature  accompanying  the  compression  or  expansion 
of  a  gas.  The  explanation  which  the  calorists  offered  of  the 
production  of  heat  by  friction  or  compression  was  that  some 
of  the  latent  caloric  was  squeezed  or  ground  out  of  the  bodies 
concerned  and  became  "  sensible."  In  the  case  of  heat  developed 
by  friction,  they  supposed  that  the  abraded  portions  of  the 
material  were  capable  of  holding  a  smaller  quantity  of  heat, 
or  had  less  "  capacity  for  heat,"  than  the  original  material. 
From  a  logical  point  of  view,  this  was  a  perfectly  tenable 
hypothesis,  and  one  difficult  to  refute.  It  was  easy  to  account 
in  this  way  for  the  heat  produced  in  boring  cannon  and  similar 
operations,  where  the  amount  of  abraded  material  was  large. 
To  refute  this  explanation,  Rumford  (Phil.  Trans.,  1798)  made 
his  celebrated  experiments  with  a  blunt  borer,  in  one  of 
which  he  succeeded  in  boiling  by  friction  26-5  ft  of  cold 
water  in  2\  hours,  with  the  production  of  only  4145  grains 
of  metallic  powder.  He  then  showed  by  experiment  that  the 
metallic  powder  required  the  same  amount  of  heat  to  raise  its 
temperature  i°,  as  an  equal  weight  of  the  original  metal,  or  that 
its  "  capacity  for  heat  "  (in  this  sense)  was  unaltered  by  reducing 
it  to  powder;  and  he  argued  that  "  in  any  case  so  small  a 
quantity  of  powder  could  not  possibly  account  for  all  the  heat 
generated,  that  the  supply  of  heat  appeared  to  be  inexhaustible. 


THERMAL  PROPERTIES  OF  GASES] 


HEAT 


and  that  heat  could  not  be  a  material  substance,  but  must  be 
something  of  the  nature  of  motion."  Unfortunately  Rumford's 
argument  was  not  quite  conclusive.  The  supporters  of  the 
caloric  theory  appear,  whether  consciously  or  unconsciously, 
to  have  used  the  phrase  "  capacity  for  heat"  in  two  entirely 
distinct  senses  without  any  clear  definition  of  the  difference. 
The  phrase  "  capacity  for  heat  "  might  very  naturally  denote 
the  total  quantity  of  heat  contained  in  a  body,  which  we  have 
no  means  of  measuring,  but  it  was  generally  used  to  signify  the 
quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  a  body 
one  degree,  which  is  quite  a  different  thing,  and  has  no  necessary 
relation  to  the  total  heat.  In  proving  that  the  powder  and  the 
solid  metal  required  the  same  quantity  of  heat  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  equal  masses  of  either  one  degree,  Rumford 
did  not  prove  that  they  contained  equal  quantities  of  heat, 
which  was  the  real  point  at  issue  in  this  instance.  The  metal 
tin  actually  changes  into  powder  below  a  certain  temperature, 
and  in  so  doing  evolves  a  measurable  quantity  of  heat.  A 
mixture  of  the  gases  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  in  the  proportions 
in  which  they  combine  to  form  water,  evolves  when  burnt 
sufficient  heat  to  raise  more  than  thirty  times  its  weight  of  water 
from  the  freezing  to  the  boiling  point;  and  the  mixture  of  gases 
may,  in  this  sense,  be  said  to  contain  so  much  more  heat  than 
the  water,  although  its  capacity  for  heat  in  the  ordinary  sense 
is  only  about  half  that  of  the  water  produced.  To  complete 
the  refutation  of  the  calorists'  explanation  of  the  heat  produced 
by  friction,  it  would  have  been  necessary  for  Rumford  to  show 
that  the  powder  when  reconverted  into  ths  same  state  as  the 
solid  metal  did  not  absorb  a  quantity  of  heat  equivalent  to  that 
evolved  in  the  grinding;  in  other  words  that  the  heat  produced 
by  friction  was  not  simply  that  due  to  the  change  of  state  of 
the  metal  from  solid  to  powder. 

Shortly  afterwards,  in  1799,  Davy1  described  an  experiment 
in  which  he  melted  ice  by  rubbing  two  blocks  together.  This 
experiment  afforded  a  very  direct  refutation  of  the  calorists' 
view,  because  it  was  a  well-known  fact  that  ice  required  to  have 
a  quantity  of  heat  added  to  it  to  convert  it  into  water,  so  that 
the  water  produced  by  the  friction  contained  more  heat  than  the 
ice.  In  stating  as  the  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  this  experi- 
ment that  "  friction  consequently  does  not  diminish  the  capacity 
of  bodies  for  heat,"  Davy  apparently  uses  the  phrase  capacity 
for  heat  in  the  sense  of  total  heat  contained  in  a  body,  because 
in  a  later  section  of  the  same  essay  he  definitely  gives  the  phrase 
this  meaning,  and  uses  the  term  "  capability  of  temperature  "  to 
denote  what  we  now  term  capacity  for  heat. 

The  delay  in  the  overthrow  of  the  caloric  theory,  and  in  the 
acceptance  of  the  view  that  heat  is  a  mode  of  motion,  was  no 
doubt  partly  due  to  some  fundamental  confusion  of  ideas  in  the 
use  of  the  term  "  capacity  for  heat  "  and  similar  phrases.  A 
still  greater  obstacle  lay  in  the  comparative  vagueness  of  the 
motion  or  vibration  theory.  Davy  speaks  of  heat  as  being 
"  repulsive  motion,"  and  distinguishes  it  from  light,  which  is 
"  projective  motion  ";  though  heat  is  certainly  not  a  substance — 
according  to  Davy  in  the  essay  under  discussion — and  may  not 
even  be  treated  as  an  imponderable  fluid,  light  as  certainly-w  a 
material  substance,  and  is  capable  of  forming  chemical  com- 
pounds with  ordinary  matter,  such  as  oxygen  gas,  which  is  not  a 
simple  substance,  but  a  compound,  termed  phosoxygen,  of  light 
and  oxygen.  Accepting  the  conclusions  of  Davy  and  Rumford 
that  heat  is  not  a  material  substance  but  a  mode  of  motion, 
there  still  remains  the  question,  what  definite  conception  is  to  be 
attached  to  a  quantity  of  heat?  What  do  we  mean  by  a  quantity 
of  vibratory  motion,  how  is  the  quantity  of  motion  to  be  esti- 
mated, and  why  should  it  remain  invariable  in  many  trans- 
formations? The  idea  that  heat  was  a  "  mode  of  motion  " 
was  applicable  as  a  qualitative  explanation  of  many  of  the 
effects  of  heat,  but  it  lacked  the  quantitative  precision  of  a 
scientific  statement,  and  could  not  be  applied  to  the  calculation 
and  prediction  of  definite  results.  The  state  of  science  at  the 
time  of  Rumford's  and  Davy's  experiments  did  not  admit  of  a 

1  In  an  essay  on  "  Heat,  Light,  and  Combinations  of  Light," 
republished  in  Sir  H.  Davy's  Collected  Works,  ii.  (London,  1836). 


more  exact  generalization.  The  way  was  paved  in  the  first 
instance  by  a  more  complete  study  of  the  laws  of  gases,  to  which 
Laplace,  Dalton,  Gay-Lussac,  Dulong  and  many  others  contri- 
buted both  on  the  experimental  and  theoretical  side.  Although 
the  development  proceeded  simultaneously  along  many  parallel 
lines,  it  is  interesting  and  instructive  to  take  the  investigation 
of  the  properties  of  gases,  and  to  endeavour  to  trace  the  steps 
by  which  the  true  theory  was  finally  attained. 

10.  Thermal  Properties  of  Cases. — The  most  characteristic 
property  of  a  gaseous  or  elastic  fluid,  namely,  the  elasticity,  or 
resistance  to  compression,  was  first  investigated  scientifically 
by  Robert  Boyle  (1662),  who  showed  that  the  pressure  p  of  a 
given  mass  of  gas  varied  inversely  as  the  volume  v,  provided  that 
the  temperature  remained  constant.  This  is  generally  expressed 
by  the  formula  pv=C,  where  C  is  a  constant  for  any  given 
temperature,  and  v  is  taken  to  represent  the  specific  volume,  or 
the  volume  of  unit  mass,  of  the  gas  at  the  given  pressure 
and  temperature.  Boyle  was  well  aware  of  the  effect  of  heat 
in  expanding  a  gas,  but  he  was  unable  to  investigate  this  properly 
as  no  thermometric  scale  had  been  defined  at  that  date.  Accord- 
ing to  Boyle's  law,  when  a  mass  of  gas  is  compressed  by  a  small 
amount  at  constant  temperature,  the  percentage  increase  of 
pressure  is  equal  to  the  percentage  diminution  of  volume  (if  the 
compression  is  v/ioo,  the  increase  of  pressure  is  very  nearly 
/>/ioo).  Adopting  this  law,  Newton  showed,  by  a  most  ingenious 
piece  of  reasoning  (Principia,  ii.,  sect.  8),  that  the  velocity  of 
sound  in  air  should  be  equal  to  the  velocity  acquired  by  a  body 
falling  under  gravity  through  a  distance  equal  to  half  the  height 
of  the  atmosphere,  considered  as  being  of  uniform  density  equal 
to  that  at  the  surface  of  the  earth.  This  gave  the  result  918  ft. 
per  sec.  (280  metres  per  sec.)  for  the  velocity  at  the  freezing 
point.  Newton  was  aware  that  the  actual  velocity  of  sound  was 
somewhat  greater  than  this,  but  supposed  that  the  difference 
might  be  due  in  some  way  to  the  size  of  the  air  particles,  of  which 
no  account  could  be  taken  in  the  calculation.  The  first  accurate 
measurement  of  the  velocity  of  sound  by  the  French  Academic 
des  Sciences  in  1738  gave  the  value  332  metres  per  sec.  as  the 
velocity  at  o°  C.  The  true  explanation  of  the  discrepancy  was 
not  discovered  till  nearly  100  years  later. 

The  law  of  expansion  of  gases  with  change  of  temperature  was 
investigated  by  Dalton  and  Gay-Lussac  (1802),  who  found  that 
the  volume  of  a  gas  under  constant  pressure  increased  by  1/2671!! 
part  of  its  volume  at  o°  C.  for  each  i°  C.  rise  in  temperature. 
This  value  was  generally  assumed  in  all  calculations  for  nearly 
50  years.  More  exact  researches,  especially  those  of  Regnault, 
at  a  later  date,  showed  that  the  law  was  very  nearly  correct  for 
all  permanent  gases,  but  that  the  value  of  the  coefficient  should 
be  T7~srd-  According  to  this  law  the  volume  of  a  gas  at  any 
temperature  f  C.  should  be  proportional  to  273+^,  i.e.  to  the 
temperature  reckoned  from  a  zero  273°  below  that  of  the 
Centigrade  scale,  which  was  called  the  absolute  zero  of  the  gas 
thermometer.  If  T=  273+^,  denotes  the  temperature  measured 
from  this  zero,  the  law  of  expansion  of  a  gas  may  be  combined 
with  Boyle's  law  in  the  simple  formula 


which  is  generally  taken  as  the  expression  of  the  gaseous  laws. 
If  equal  volumes  of  different  gases  are  taken  at  the  same  tempera- 
ture and  pressure,  it  follows  that  the  constant  R  is  the  same  for 
all  gases.  If  equal  masses  are  taken,  the  value  of  the  constant  R 
for  different  gases  varies  inversely  as  the  molecular  weight  or  as 
the  density  relative  to  hydrogen. 

Dalton  also  investigated  the  laws  of  vapours,  and  of  mixtures 
of  gases  and  vapours.  He  found  that  condensible  vapours 
approximately  followed  Boyle's  law  when  compressed,  until  the 
condensation  pressure  was  reached,  at  which  the  vapour  lique- 
fied without  further  increase  of  pressure.  He  found  that  when  a 
liquid  was  introduced  into  a  closed  space,  and  allowed  to  evaporate 
until  the  space  was  saturated  with  the  vapour  and  evaporation 
ceased,  the  increase  of  pressure  in  the  space  was  equal  to  the 
condensation  pressure  of  the  vapour,  and  did  not  depend  on  the 
volume  of  the  space  or  the  presence  of  any  other  gas  or  vapour 


140 


HEAT 


[SPECIFIC  HEAT  OF  GASES 


provided  that  there  was  no  solution  or  chemical  action.  He 
showed  that  the  condensation  or  saturation-pressure  of  a  vapour 
depended  only  on  the  temperature,  and  increased  by  nearly  the 
same  fraction  of  itself  per  degree  rise  of  temperature,  and  that 
the  pressures  of  different  vapours  were  nearly  the  same  at  equal 
distances  from  their  boiling  points.  The  increase  of  pressure 
per  degree  C.  at  the  boiling  point  was  about  -j^th  of  760  mm.  or 
27-2  mm.,  but  increased  in  geometrical  progression  with  rise  of 
temperature.  These  results  of  Dalton's  were  confirmed,  and  in 
part  corrected,  as  regards  increase  of  vapour-pressure,  by  Gay- 
Lussac,  Dulong,  Regnault  and  other  investigators,  but  were  found 
to  be  as  close  an  approximation  to  the  truth  as  could  be  obtained 
with  such  simple  expressions.  More  accurate  empirical  ex- 
pressions for  the  increase  of  vapour-pressure  of  a  liquid  with 
temperature  were  soon  obtained  by  Thomas  Young,  J.  P.  L.  A. 
Roche  and  others,  but  the  explanation  of  the  relation  was  not 
arrived  at  until  a  much  later  date  (see  VAPORIZATION). 

1 1 .  Specific  Heats  of  Gases. — In  order  to  estimate  the  quantities 
of  heat  concerned  in  experiments  with  gases,  it  was  necessary 
in  the  first  instance  to  measure  their  specific  heats,  which  pre- 
sented formidable  difficulties.  The  earlier  attempts  by  Lavoisier 
and  others,  employing  the  ordinary  methods  of  calorimetry, 
gave  very  uncertain  and  discordant  results,  which  were  not 
regarded  with  any  confidence  even  by  the  experimentalists 
themselves.  Gay-Lussac  (Memoires  d'Arcueil,  1807)  devised 
an  ingenious  experiment,  which,  though  misinterpreted  at  the 
time,  is  very  interesting  and  instructive.  With  the  object  of 
comparing  the  specific  heats  of  different  gases,  he  took  two  equal 
globes  A  and  B  connected  by  a  tube  with  a  stop-cock.  The  globe 
B  was  exhausted,  the  other  A  being  filled  with  gas.  On  opening 
the  tap  between  the  vessels,  the  gas  flowed  from  A  to  B  and  the 
pressure  was  rapidly  equalized.  He  observed  that  the  fall  of 
temperature  in  A  was  nearly  equal  to  the  rise  of  temperature  in 
B,  and  that  for  the  same  initial  pressure  the  change  of  tempera- 
ture was  very  nearly  the  same  for  all  the  gases  he  tried,  except 
hydrogen,  which  showed  greater  changes  of  temperature  than 
other  gases.  He  concluded  from  this  experiment  that  equal 
volumes  of  gases  had  the  same  capacity  for  heat,  except  hydrogen, 
which  he  supposed  to  have  a  Jarger  capacity,  because  it  showed 
a  greater  effect.  The  method  does  not  in  reality  afford  any 
direct  information  with  regard  to  the  specific  heats,  and  the 
conclusion  with  regard  to  hydrogen  is  evidently  wrong.  At 
a  later  date  (Ann.  de  Chim.,  1812,  81,  p.  98)  Gay-Lussac  adopted 
A.  Crawford's  method  of  mixture,  allowing  two  equal  streams 
of  different  gases,  one  heated  and  the  other  cooled  about  20°  C., 
to  mix  in  a  tube  containing  a  thermometer.  The  resulting 
temperature  was  in  all  cases  nearly  the  mean  of  the  two,  from 
which  he  concluded  that  equal  volumes  of  all  the  gases  tried, 
namely,  hydrogen,  carbon  dioxide,  air,  oxygen  and  nitrogen, 
had  the  same  thermal  capacity.  This  was  correct,  except  as 
regards  carbon  dioxide,  but  did  not  give  any  information  as  to 
the  actual  specific  heats  referred  to  water  or  any  known  substance. 
About  the  same  time,  F.  Delaroche  and  J.  E.  Berard  (Ann.  de 
chim.,  1813,  85,  p.  72)  made  direct  determinations  of  the  specific 
heats  of  air,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon  monoxide,  carbon  dioxide, 
nitrous  oxide  and  ethylene,  by  passing  a  stream  of  gas  heated 
to  nearly  100°  C.  through  a  spiral  tube  in  a  calorimeter  containing 
water.  Their  work  was  a  great  advance  on  previous  attempts, 
and  gave  the  first  trustworthy  results.  With  the  exception  of 
hydrogen,  which  presents  peculiar  difficulties,  they  found  that 
equal  volumes  of  the  permanent  gases,  air,  oxygen  and  carbon 
monoxide,  had  nearly  the  same  thermal  capacity,  but  that  the 
compound  condensible  gases,  carbon  dioxide,  nitrous  oxide 
and  ethylene,  had  larger  thermal  capacities  in  the  order  given. 
They  were  unable  to  state  whether  the  specific  heats  of  the  gases 
increased  or  diminished  with  temperature,  but  from  experiments 
on  air  at  pressures  of  740  mm.  and  1000  mm.,  they  found  the 
specific  heats  to  be  -269  and  -245  respectively,  and  concluded 
that  the  specific  heat  diminished  with  increase  of  pressure. 
The  difference  they  observed  was  really  due  to  errors  of  experi- 
ment, but  they  regarded  it  as  proving  beyond  doubt  the  truth 
of  the  calorists'  contention  that  the  heat  disengaged  on  the 


compression  of  a  gas  was  due  to  the  diminution  of  its  thermal 
capacity. 

Dalton  and  others  had  endeavoured  to  measure  directly  the 
rise  of  temperature  produced  by  the  compression  of  a  gas. 
Dalton  had  observed  a  rise  of  50°  F.  in  a  gas  when  suddenly  com- 
pressed to  half  its  volume,  but  no  thermometers  at  that  time 
were  sufficiently  sensitive  to  indicate  more  than  a  fraction  of 
the  change  of  temperature.  Laplace  was  the  first  to  see  in  this 
phenomenon  the  probable  explanation  of  the  discrepancy  between 
Newton's  calculation  of  the  velocity  of  sound  and  the  observed 
value.  The  increase  of  pressure  due  to  a  sudden  compression, 
in  which  no  heat  was  allowed  to  escape,  or  as  we  now  call  it  an 
"  adiabatic  "  compression,  would  necessarily  be  greater  than  the 
increase  of  pressure  in  a  slow  isothermal  compression,  on  account 
of  the  rise  of  temperature.  As  the  rapid  compressions  and 
rarefactions  occurring  in  the  propagation  of  a  sound  wave  were 
perfectly  adiabatic,  it  was  necessary  to  take  account  of  the  rise 
of  temperature  due  to  compression  in  calculating  the  velocity. 
To  reconcile  the  observed  and  calculated  values  of  the  velocity, 
the  increase  of  pressure  in  adiabatic  compression  must  be  1-410 
times  greater  than  in  isothermal  compression.  This  is  the  ratio 
of  the  adiabatic  elasticity  of  air  to  the  isothermal  elasticity. 
It  was  a  long  time,  however,  before  Laplace  saw  his  way  to  any 
direct  experimental  verification  of  the  value  of  this  ratio.  At 
a  later  date  (Ann.  de  chim.,  1816,  3,  p.  238)  he  stated  that  he 
had  succeeded  in  proving  that  the  ratio  in  question  must  be  the 
same  as  the  ratio  of  the  specific  heat  of  air  at  constant  pressure 
to  the  specific  heat  at  constant  volume. 

In  the  method  of  measuring  the  specific  heat  adopted  by  Delaroche 
and  Berard,  the  gas  under  experiment,,  while  passing  through  a  tube 
at  practically  constant  pressure,  contracts  in  cooling,  as  it  gives  up 
its  heat  to  the  calorimeter.  Part  of  the  heat  surrendered  to  the 
calorimeter  is  due  to  the  contraction  of  volume.  If  a  gramme  of 
gas  at  pressure  p,  volume  v  and  temperature  T  abs.  is  heated  I  °  C. 
at  constant  pressure  p,  it  absorbs  a  quantity  of  heat  S  =  -238  calorie 
(according  to  Regnault)  the  specific  heat  at  constant  pressure.  At 
the  same  time  the  gas  expands  by  a  fraction  I/T  of  v,  which  is  the 
same  as  1/273  °f  its  volume  at  o°  C.  If  now  the  air  is  suddenly 
compressed  by  an  amount  ti/T,  it  will  be  restored  to  its  original 
volume,  and  its  temperature  will  be  raised  by  the  liberation  of  a 
quantity  of  heat  R',  the  latent  heat  of  expansion  for  an  increase  of 
volume  zi/T.  If  no  heat  has  been  allowed  to  escape,  the  air  will  now 
be  in  the  same  state  as  if  a  quantity  of  heat  S  had  been  communicated 
to  it  at  its  original  volume  v  without  expansion.  The  rise  of  tempera- 
ture above  the  original  temperature  T  will  be  S/j  degrees,  where  s 
is  the  specific  heat  at  constant  volume,  which  is  obviously  equal  to 
S-R'.  Since  p/T  is  the  increase  of  pressure  for  i°C.  rise  of  tempera- 
ture at  constant  volume,  the  increase  of  pressure  for  a  rise  of  S/j 
degrees  will  be  •yp/T,  where  7  is  the  ratio  S/s.  But  this  is  the  rise 
of  pressure  produced  by  a  sudden  compression  ti/T,  and  is  seen  to  be 
y  times  the  rise  of  pressure  p/T  produced  by  the  same  compression 
at  constant  temperature.  The  ratio  of  the  adiabatic  to  the  iso- 
thermal elasticity,  required  for  calculating  the  velocity  of  sound,  is 
therefore  the  same  as  the  ratio  of  the  specific  heat  at  constant  pressure 
to  that  at  constant  volume. 

12.  Experimental  Verification  of  the  Ratio  of  Specific  Heats. — This 
was  a  most  interesting  and-  important  theoretical  relation  to  dis- 
cover, but  unfortunately  it  did  not  help  much  in  the  determination 
of  the  ratio  required,  because  it  was  not  practically  possible  at  that 
time  to  measure  the  specific  heat  of  air  at  constant  volume  in  a 
closed  vessel.  Attempts  had  been  made  to  do  this,  but  they  had 
signally  failed,  on  account  of  the  small  heat  capacity  of  the  gas  as 
compared  with  the  containing  vessel.  Laplace  endeavoured  to 
extract  some  confirmation  of  his  views  from  the  values  given  by 
Delaroche  and  Beiard  for  the  specific  heat  of  air  at  1000  and  740 
mm.  pressure.  On  the  assumption  that  the  quantities  of  heat  con- 
tained in  a  given  mass  of  air  increased  in  direct  proportion  to  its 
volume  when  heated  at  constant  pressure,  he  deduced,  by  some  rather 
obscure  reasoning,  that  the  ratio  of  the  specific  heats  S  and  J  should 
be  about  1-5  to  I,  which  he  regarded  as  a  fairly  satisfactory  agree- 
ment with  the  value  7  =  1-41  deduced  from  the  velocity  of  sound. 

The  ratio  of  the  specific  heats  could  not  be  directly  measured, 
but  a  few  years  later,  Clement  and  DSsormes  (Journ.  de  Phys.,  Nov. 
1819)  succeeded  in  making  a  direct  measurement  of  the  ratio  of 
the  elasticities  in  a  very  simple  manner.  They  took  a  large  globe 
containing  air  at  atmospheric  pressure  and  temperature,  and  re- 
moved a  small  quantity  of  air.  They  then  observed  the  defect  of 
pressure  pt>  when  the  air  had  regained  its  original  temperature. 
By  suddenly  opening  the  globe,  and  immediately  closing  it,  the 
pressure  was  restored  almost  instantaneously  to  the  atmospheric, 
the  rise  of  pressure  pa  corresponding  to  the  sudden  compression 
produced.  The  air,  having  been  heated  by  the  compression,  was 


CARNOT'S  AXIOM] 


HEAT 


141 


allowed  to  regain  its  original  temperature,  the  tap  remaining  closed, 
and  the  final  defect  of  pressure  pl  was  noted.  The  change  of  pressure 
for  the  same  compression  performed  isothermally  is  then  p<,—pl. 
The  ratio  poKpo  —  p1)  is  the  ratio  of  the  adiabatic  and  isothermal 
elasticities,  provided  that  p,  is  small  compared  with  the  whole  atmo- 
spheric pressure.  In  this  way  they  found  the  ratio  1-354,  which  is 
not  much  smaller  than  the  value  1-410  required  to  reconcile  the 
observed  and  calculated  values  of  the  velocity  of  sound.  Gay- 
Lussac  and  J.  J.  Welter  (Ann.  de  Mm.,  1822)  repeated  the  experi- 
ment with  slight  improvements,  using  expansion  instead  of  com- 
pression, and  found  the  ratio  1-375.  The  experiment  has  often  been 
repeated  since  that  time,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  value  of  the 
ratio  deduced  from  the  velocity  of  sound  is  correct,  the  defect  of  the 
value  obtained  by  direct  experiment  being  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
compression  or  expansion  is  not  perfectly  adiabatic.  Gay-Lussac 
and  Welter  found  the  ratio  practically  constant  for  a  range  of  pressure 
144  to  1460  mm.,  and  for  a  range  of  temperature  from  —20°  to 
+40°  C.  The  velocity  of  sound  at  Quito,  at  a  pressure  of  544  mm. 
was  found  to  be  the  same  as  at  Paris  at  760  mm.  at  the  same  tempera- 
ture. Assuming  on  this  evidence  the  constancy  of  the  ratio  of  the 
specific  heats  of. air,  Laplace  (Mecanigue  celeste,  v.  143)  showed 
that,  if  the  specific  heat  at  constant  pressure  was  independent  of 
the  temperature,  the  specific  heat  per  unit  volume  at  a  pressure  p 

must  vary  as  pi,  according  to  the  caloric  theory.     The  specific 

i 

heat  per  unit  mass  must  then  vary  as  pi  IF  which  he  found  agreed 
precisely  with  the  experiment  of  Delaroche  and  Berard  already  cited. 
This  was  undoubtedly  a  strong  confirmation  of  the  caloric  theory. 
Poisson  by  the  same  assumptions  (Ann.  de  Mm.,  1823,  23,  p.  337) 
obtained  the  same  results,  and  also  showed  that  the  relation  between 
the  pressure  and  the  volume  of  a  gas  in  adiabatic  compression  or 
expansion  must  be  of  the  form  pa1  =  constant. 

P.  L.  Dulong  (Ann.  de  Mm.,  1829,  41,  p.  156),  adopting  a  method 
due  to  E.  F.  F.  Chladni,  compared  the  velocities  of  sound  in  different 
gases  by  observing  the  pitch  of  the  note  given  by  the  same  tube 
when  filled  with  the  gases  in  question.  He  thus  obtained  the  values 
of  the  ratios  of  the  elasticities  or  of  the  specific  heats  for  the  gases 
employed.  For  oxygen,  hydrogen  and  carbonic  oxide,  these  ratios 
were  the  same  as  for  air.  But  for  carbonic  acid,  nitrous  oxide  and 
olefiant  gas,  the  values  were  much  smaller,  showing  that  these  gases 
experienced  a  smaller  change  of  temperature  in  compression.  On 
comparing  his  results  with  the  values  of  the  specific  heats  for  the 
same  gases  found  by  Delaroche  and  Berard,  Dulong  observed  that 
the  changes  of  temperature  for  the  same  compression  were  in  the 
inverse  ratio  of  the  specific  heats  at  constant  volume,  and  deduced 
the  important  conclusion  that  "  Equal  volumes  of  all  gases  under 
the  same  conditions  evolve  on  compression  the  same  quantity  of  heat." 
This  is  equivalent  to  the  statement  that  the  difference  of  the  specific 
heats,  or  the  latent  heat  of  expansion  R'  per  I  °,  is  the  same  for  all 
gases  if  equal  volumes  are  taken.  Assuming  the  ratio  y  =  1-410, 
and  taking  Delaroche  and  BeVard's  value  for  the  specific  heat  of  air 
at  constant  pressure  S  =  -267,  we  have  $  =  8/1-41  =-189,  and  the 
difference  of  the  specific  heats  per  unit  mass  of  air  S— i  =  R'  =  -O78. 
Adopting  Regnauit's  value  of  the  specific  heat  of  air,  namely,  S  =  -238, 
we  should  have  S— ^  =  -069.  This  quantity  represents  the  heat 
absorbed  by  unit  mass  of  air  in  expanding  at  constant  temperature 
T  b y  a  fraction  i/T  of  its  volume  v,  or  by  ^srd  of  its  volume  o°  C. 

If,  instead  of  taking  unit  mass,  we  take  a  volume  »„  =  22-30  litres 
at  o°  C.  and  760  mm.  being  the  volume  of  the  molecular  weight  of 
the  gas  in  grammes,  the  quantity  of  heat  evolved  by  a  compression 
equal  to  v/T  will  be  approximately  2  calories,  and  is  the  same  for 
all  gases.  The  work  done  in  this  compression  is  pv/T  =  R,  and  is  also 
the  same  for  all  gases,  namely,  8-3  joules.  Dulong's  experimental 
result,  therefore,  shows  that  the  heat  evolved  in  the  compression  of 
a  gas  is  proportional  to  the  work  done.  This  result  had  previously 
been  deduced  theoretically  by  Carnot  (1824).  At  a  later  date  it 
was  assumed  by  Mayer,  Clausius  and  others,  on  the  evidence  of  these 
experiments,  that  the  heat  evolved  was  not  merely  proportional 
to  the  work  done,  but  was  equivalent  to  it.  The  further  experimental 
evidence  required  to  justify  this  assumption  was  first  supplied  by 
Joule. 

Latent  heat  of  expansion  R'  = -069    calorie    per   gramme   of    air, 

peri'C. 
=  2-0    calories    per   gramme-molecule 

of  any  gas. 
Work  done  in  expansion  R  = -287  joule  per   gramme  of  air  per 

i°C. 

=  8-3     joules    per    gramme-molecule 
of  any  gas. 

13.  Carnal:  On  the  Motive  Power  of  Heat— A.  practical  and 
theoretical  question  of  the  greatest  importance  was  first  answered 
by  Sadi  Carnot  about  this  time  in  his  Reflections  on  the  Motive 
Power  of  Heat  (1824).  How  much  motive  power  (defined  by 
Carnot  as  weight  lifted  through  a  certain  height)  can  be  obtained 
from  heat  alone  by  means  of  an  engine  repeating  a  regular  succes- 


sion or  "  cycle  "  of  operations  continuously  ?  Is  the  efficiency 
limited,  and,  if  so,  how  is  it  limited  ?  Are  other  agents  preferable 
to  steam  for  developing  motive  power  from  heat  ?  In  discussing 
this  problem,  we  cannot  do  better  than  follow  Carnot's  reasoning 
which,  in  its  main  features,  could  hardly  be  improved  at  the 
present  day. 

Carnot  points  out  that  in  order  to  obtain  an  answer  to  this 
question,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  essential  conditions  of 
the  process,  apart  from  the  mechanism  of  the  engine  and  the 
working  substance  or  agent  employed.  Work  cannot  be  said 
to  be  produced  from  heat  alone  unless  nothing  but  heat  is  supplied, 
and  the  working  substance  and  all  parts  of  the  engine  are  at 
the  end  of  the  process  in  precisely  the  same  state  as  at  the 
beginning.1 

Carnot's  Axiom. — Carnot  here,  and  throughout  his  reasoning, 
makes  a  fundamental  assumption,  which  he  states  as  follows: 
"  When  a  body  has  undergone  any  changes  and  after  a  certain 
number  of  transformations  is  brought  back  identically  to  its 
original  state,  considered  relatively  to  density,  temperature 
and  mode  of  aggregation,  it  must  contain  the  same  quantity 
of  heat  as  it  contained  originally."2 

Heat,  according  to  Carnot,  in  the  type  of  engine  we  are  con- 
sidering, can  evidently  be  a  cause  of  motive  power  only  by  virtue 
of  changes  of  volume  or  form  produced  by  alternate  heating  and 
cooling.  This  involves  the  existence  of  cold  and  hot  bodies  to 
act  as  boiler  and  condenser,  or  source  and  sink  of  heat,  respec- 
tively. Wherever  there  exists  a  difference  of  temperature,  it 
is  possible  to  have  the  production  of  motive  power  from  heat; 
and  conversely,  production  of  motive  power,  from  heat  alone, 
is  impossible  without  difference  of  temperature.  In  other  words 
the  production  of  motive  power  from  heat  is  not  merely  a  question 
of  the  consumption  of  heat,  but  always  requires  transference 
of  heat  from  hot  to  cold.  What  then  are  the  conditions  which 
enable  the  difference  of  temperature  to  be  most  advantageously 
employed  in  the  production  of  motive  power,  and  how  much 
motive  power  can  be  obtained  with  a  given  difference  of  tempera- 
ture from  a  given  quantity  of  heat? 

Carnot's  Rule  for  Maximum  Effect. — In  order  to  realize  the 
.maximum  effect,  it  is  necessary  that,  in  the  process  employed, 
there  should  not  be  any  direct  interchange  of  heat  between 
bodies  at  different  temperatures.  Direct  transference  of  heat 
by  conduction  or  radiation  between  bodies  at  different  tempera- 
tures is  equivalent  to  wasting  a  difference  of  temperature  which 
might  have  been  utilized  to  produce  motive  power.  The  working 
substance  must  throughout  every  stage  of  the  process  be  in 
equilibrium  with  itself  (i.e.  at  uniform  temperature  and  pressure) 
and  also  with  external  bodies,  such  as  the  boiler  and  condenser, 
at  such  times  as  it  is  put  in  communication  with  them.  In  the 
actual  engine  there  is  always  some  interchange  of  heat  between 
the  steam  and  the  cylinder,  and  some  loss  of  heat  to  external 
bodies.  There  may  also  be  some  difference  of  temperature 
between  the  boiler  steam  and  the  cylinder  on  admission,  or 
between  the  waste  steam  and  the  condenser  at  release.  These 
differences  represent  losses  of  efficiency  which  may  be  reduced 
indefinitely,  at  least  in  imagination,  by  suitable  means,  and 
designers  had  even  at  that  date  been  very  successful  in  reducing 

1  For  instance  a  mass  of  compressed  air,  if  allowed  to  expand  in  a 
cylinder  at  the  ordinary  temperature,  will  do  work,  and  will  at  the 
same  time  absorb  a  quantity  of  heat  which,  as  we  now  know,  is  the 
thermal  equivalent  of  the  work  done.  But  this  work  cannot  be  said 
to  have  been  produced  solely  from  the  heat  absorbed  in  the  process, 
because  the  air  at  the  end  of  the  process  is  in  a  changed  condition, 
and  could  not  be  restored  to  its  original  state  at  the  same  temperature 
without  having  work  done  upon  it  precisely  equal  to  that  obtained 
by  its  expansion.  The  process  could  not  be  repeated  indefinitely 
without  a  continual  supply  of  compressed  air.  The  source  of  the 
work  in  this  case  is  work  previously  done  in  compressing  the  air, 
and  no  part  of  the  work  is  really  generated  at  the  expense  of  heat 
alone,  unless  the  compression  is  effected  at  a  lower  temperature  than 
the  expansion. 

1  Clausius  (Pogg.  Ann.  79,  p.  369)  and  others  have  misinterpreted 
this  assumption,  and  have  taken  it  to  mean  that  the  quantity  of  heat 
required  to  produce  any  given  change  of  state  is  independent  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  change  is  effected,  which  Carnot  does  not  here 
assume. 


142 


HEAT 


ICARNOT'S  PRINCIPLE 


them.  All  such  losses  are  supposed  to  be  absent  in  deducing  the 
ideal  limit  of  efficiency,  beyond  which  it  would  be  impossible 
to  go. 

14.  Garnet's  Description  of  his  Ideal  Cycle. — Carnot  first  gives 
a  rough  illustration  of  an  incomplete  cycle,  using  steam  much  in 
the  same  way  as  it  is  employed  in  an  ordinary  steam-engine. 
After  expansion  down  to  condenser  pressure  the  steam  is 
completely  condensed  to  water,  and  is  then  returned  as  cold  water 
to  the  hot  boiler.  He  points  out  that  the  last  step  does  not 
conform  exactly  to  the  condition  he  laid  down,  because  although 
the  water  is  restored  to  its  initial  state,  there  is  direct  passage  of 
heat  from  a  hot  body  to  a  cold  body  in  the  last  process.  He 
points  out  that  this  difficulty  might  be  overcome  by  supposing 
the  difference  of  temperature  small,  and  by  employing  a  series 
of  engines,  each  working  through  a  small  range,  to  cover  a  finite 
interval  of  temperature.  Having  established  the  general  notions 
of  a  perfect  cycle,  he  proceeds  to  give  a  more  exact  illustration, 
employing  a  gas  as  the  working  substance.  He  takes  as  the 
basis  of  his  demonstration  the  well-established  experimental 
fact  that  a  gas  is  heated  by  rapid  compression  and  cooled  by 
rapid  expansion,  and  that  if  compressed  or  expanded  slowly  in 
contact  with  conducting  bodies,  the  gas  will  give  out  heat  in 
compression  or  absorb  heat  in  expansion  while  its  temperature 
remains  constant.  He  then  goes  on  to  say: — 

"  This  preliminary  notion  being  settled,  let  us  imagine  an  elastic 
fluid,  atmospheric  air  for  example,  enclosed  in  a  cylinder  abed,  fig.  4, 
fitted  with  a  movaWe  diaphragm  or  piston  cd.    Let  there  also  be 
two   bodies   A,    B,   each    maintained   at   a 
constant    temperature,    that    of    A    being 
more  elevated  than  that  of  B.     Let  us  now 
suppose  the  following  series  of  operations 
to  be  performed: 

"  I.  Contact  of  the  body  A  with  the  air 
contained  in  the  space  abed,  or  with  the 
bottom  of  the  cylinder,  which  we  will 
suppose  to  transmit  heat  easily.  The  air  is 
now  at  the  temperature  of  the  body  A,  and 
cd  is  the  actual  position  of  the  piston. 

"  2.  The  piston  is  gradually  raised,  and 
takes  the  position  ef.  The  air  remains  in 
contact  with  the  body  A,  and  is  thereby 
maintained  at  a  constant  temperature  during 
the  expansion.  The  body  A  furnishes  the 
heat  necessary  to  maintain  the  constancy 
of  temperature. 

"  3.  The  body  A  is  removed,  and  the  air 
no  longer  being  in  contact  with  any  body 
capable  of  giving  it  heat,  the  piston  con- 
tinues nevertheless  to  rise,  and  passes  from 
the  position  ef  to  gh.  The  air  expands 
without  receiving  heat  and  its  temperature 
falls.  Let  us  imagine  that  it  falls  until  it 
is  just  equal  to  that  of  the  body  B.  At 
this  moment  the  piston  is  stopped  and 
occupies  the  position  gh. 

"  4.  The  air  is  placed  in  contact  with  the 
body  B;  it  is  compressed  by  the  return  of 


e 


FIG.  4. 
Carnot's  Cylinder. 


the  piston,  which  is  brought  from  the  position  gh  to  the  position  cd. 
The  air  remains  meanwhile  at  a  constant  temperature,  because  of  its 
contact  with  the  body  B  to  which  it  gives  up  its  heat. 

"  5.  The  body  B  is  removed,  and  the  compression  of  the  air  is 
continued.  The  air  being  now  isolated,  rises  in  temperature.  The 
compression  is  continued  until  the  air  has  acquired  the  temperature 
of  the  body  A.  The  piston  passes  meanwhile  from  the  position  cd 
to  the  position  ik. 

"  6.  The  air  is  replaced  in  contact  with  the  body  A,  and  the 
piston  returns  from  the  position  ik  to  the  position  ef,  the  temperature 
remaining  invariable. 

"  7.  The  period  described  under  (3)  is  repeated,  then  successively 
the  periods  (4),  (5),  (6) ;  (3),  (4),  (5),  (6) ;  (3),  (4),  (5),  (6) ;  and  so  on. 

"  During  these  operations  the  air  enclosed  in  the  cylinder  exerts 
an  effort  more  or  less  great  on  the  piston.  The  pressure  of  the  air 
varies  both  on  account  of  changes  of  volume  and  on  account  of  changes 
of  temperature;  but  it  should  be  observed  that  for  equal  volumes, 
that  is  to  say,  for  like  positions  of  the  piston,  the  temperature  is 
higher  during  the  dilatation  than  during  the  compression..  Since  the 
pressure  is  greater  during  the  expansion,  the  quantity  of  motive 
power  produced  by  the  dilatation  is  greater  than  that  consumed  by 
the  compression.  We  shall  thus  obtain  a  balance  of  motive  power, 
which  may  be  employed  for  any  purpose.  The  air  has  served  as 
working  substance  in  a  heat-engine;  it  has  also  been  employed  in 
the  most  advantageous  manner  possible,  since  no  useless  re-establish- 
ment of  the  equilibrium  of  heat  has  been  allowed  to  occur. 


"  All  the  operations  above  described  may  be  executed  in  the 
reverse  order  and  direction.  Let  us  imagine  that  after  the  sixth 
period,  that  is  to  say,  when  the  piston  has  reached  the  position  ef, 
we  make  it  return  to  the  position  ik,  and  that  at  the  same  time  we 
keep  the  air  in  contact  with  the  hot  body  A;  the  heat  furnished 
by  this  body  during  the  sixth  period  will  return  to  its  source,  that 
is,  to  the  body  A,  and  everything  will  be  as  it  was  at  the  end  of  the 
fifth  period.  If  now  we  remove  the  body  A,  and  if  we  make  the  piston 
move  from  ik  to  cd,  the  temperature  of  the  air  will  decrease  by  just 
as  many  degrees  as  it  increased  during  the  fifth  period,  and  will 
become  that  of  the  body  B.  We  can  evidently  continue  in  this  way 
a  series  of  operations  the  exact  reverse  of  those  which  were  previously 
described ;  it  suffices  to  place  oneself  in  the  same  circumstances  and 
to  execute  for  each  period  a  movement  of  expansion  in  place  of  a 
movement  of  compression,  and  vice  versa. 

"  The  result  of  the  first  series  of  operations  was  the  production 
of  a  certain  quantity  of  motive  power,  and  the  transport  of  heat  from 
the  body  A  to  the  body  B ;  the  result  of  the  reverse  operations  is  the 
consumption  of  the  motive  power  produced  in  the  first  case,  and  the 
return  of  heat  from  the  body  B  to  the  body  A,  in  such  sort  that  these 
two  series  of  operations  annul  and  neutralize  each  other. 

"  The  impossibility  of  producing  by  the  agency  of  heat  alone  a 
quantity  of  motive  power  greater  than  that  which  we  have  obtained 
in  our  first  series  of  operations  is  now  easy  to  prove.  It  is  demon- 
strated by  reasoning  exactly  similar  to  that  which  we  have  already 
given.  The  reasoning  will  have  in  this  case  a  greater  degree  of 
exactitude;  the  air  of  which  we  made  use  to  develop  the  motive 
power  is  brought  back  at  the  end  of  each  cycle  of  operations  precisely 
to  its  initial  state,  whereas  this  was  not  quite  exactly  the  case  for  the 
vapour  of  water,  as  we  have  already  remarked." 

15.  Proof  of  Carnot's  /Vzn«'/>/e.— Carnot  considered  the  proof 
too  obvious  to  be  worth  repeating,  but,  unfortunately,  his 
previous  demonstration,  referring  to  an  incomplete  cycle,  is  not 
so  exactly  worded  that  exception  cannot  be  taken  to  it.  We 
will  therefore  repeat  his  proof  in  a  slightly  more  definite  and 
exact  form.  Suppose  that  a  reversible  engine  R,  working  in 
the  cycle  above  described,  takes  a  quantity  of  heat  H  from  the 
source  in  each  cycle,  and  performs  a  quantity  of  useful  work  Wr. 
If  it  were  possible  for  any  other  engine  S,  working  with  the  same 
two  bodies  A  and  B  as  source  and  refrigerator,  to  perform  a 
greater  amount  of  useful  work  W,  per  cycle  for  the  same  quantity 
of  heat  H  taken  from  the  source,  it  would  suffice  to  take  a  portion 
Wr  of  this  motive  power  (since  W,  is  by  hypothesis  greater  than 
Wr)  to  drive  the  engine  R  backwards,  and  return  a  quantity  of 
heat  H  to  the  source  in  each  cycle.  The  process  might  be  re- 
peated indefinitely,  and  we  should  obtain  at  each  repetition  a 
balance  of  useful  work  W,-Wr,  without  taking  any  heal  from  the 
source,  which  is  contrary  to  experience.  Whether  the  quantity 
of  heat  taken  from  the  condenser  by  R  is  equal  to  that  given  to 
the  condenser  by  S  is  immaterial.  The  hot  body  A  might  be  a 
comparatively  small  boiler,  since  no  heat  is  taken  from  it.  The 
cold  body  B  might  be  the  ocean,  or  the  whole  earth.  We  might 
thus  obtain  without  any  consumption  of  fuel  a  practically 
unlimited  supply  of  motive  power.  Which  is  absurd. 

Carnot's  Statement  of  his  Principle.1 — If  the  above  reasoning 
be  admitted,  we  must  conclude  with  Carnot  that  the  motive 
power  obtainable  from  heat  is  independent  of  the  agents  employed 
to  realize  it.  The  efficiency  is  fixed  solely  by  the  temperatures  of  the 
bodies  between  -which,  in  the  last  resort,  the  transfer  oj  heat  is 
effected.  "  We  must  understand  here  that  each  of  the  methods 
of  developing  motive  power  attains  the  perfection  of  which  it 
is  susceptible.  This  condition  is  fulfilled  if,  according  to  our  rule, 
there  is  produced  in  the  body  no  change  of  temperature  that  is 
not  due  to  change  of  volume,  or  in  other  words,  if  there  is  no 
direct  interchange  of  heat  between  bodies  of  sensibly  different 
temperatures." 

It  is  characteristic  of  a  state  of  frictionless  mechanical  equili- 
brium that  an  indefinitely  small  difference  of  pressure  suffices 
to  upset  the  equilibrium  and  reverse  the  motion.  Similarly  in 
thermal  equilibrium  between  bodies  at  the  same  temperature, 
an  indefinitely  small  difference  of  temperature  suffices  to  reverse 
the  transfer  of  heat.  Carnot's  rule  is  therefore  the  criterion  of 
the  reversibility  of  a  cycle  of  operations  as  regards  transfer 
of  heat.  It  is  assumed  that  the  ideal  engine  is  mechanically 

1  Carnot's  description  of  his  cycle  and  statement  of  his  principle 
have  been  given  as  nearly  as  possible  in  his  own  words,  because  some 
injustice  has  been  done  him  by  erroneous  descriptions  and  statements. 


CARNOT'S  FUNCTION] 


HEAT 


reversible,  thdt  there  is  not,  for  instance,  any  communication 
between  reservoirs  of  gas  or  vapour  at  sensibly  different  pressures, 
and  that  there  is  no  waste  of  power  in  friction.  If  there  is 
equilibrium  both  mechanical  and  thermal  at  every  stage  of  the 
cycle,  the  ideal  engine  will  be  perfectly  reversible.  That  is  to  say, 
all  its  operations  will  be  exactly  reversed  as  regards  transfer  of 
heat  and  work,  when  the  operations  are  performed  in  the  reverse 
order  and  direction.  On  this  understanding  Carnot's  principle 
may  be  put  in  a  different  way,  which  is  often  adopted,  but  is  really 
only  the  same  thing  put  in  different  words:  The  efficiency  of,  a 
perfectly  reversible  engine  is  the  maximum  possible,  and  is  a 
function  solely  of  the  limits  of  temperature  between  which  it  works. 
This  result  depends  essentially  on  the  existence  of  a  state  of 
thermal  equilibrium  denned  by  equality  of  temperature,  and 
independent,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  of  the  state  of  a  body  in 
other  respects.  In  order  to  apply  the  principle  to  the  calculation 
and  prediction  of  results,  it  is  sufficient  to  determine  the  manner 
in  which  the  efficiency  depends  on  the  temperature  for  one 
particular  case,  since  the  efficiency  must  be  the  same  for  all 
reversible  engines. 

16.  Experimental  Verification  of  Carnot's  Principle. — Carnot  en- 
deavoured to  test  his  result  by  the  following  simple  calculations. 
Suppose  that  we  have  a  cylinder  fitted  with  a  frictionless  piston, 
containing  I  gram  of  water  at  100°  C.,  and  that  the  pressure  of  the 
steam,  namely  760  mm.,  is  in  equilibrium  with  the  external  pressure 
on  the  piston  at  this  temperature.  Place  the  cylinder  in  connexion 
with  a  boiler  or  hot  body  at  101°  C.  The  water  will  then  acquire 
the  temperature  of  101°  C.,  and  will  absorb  I  gram-calorie  of  heat. 
Some  waste  of  motive  power  occurs  here  because  heat  is  allowed  to 
pass  from  one  body  to  another  at  a  different  temperature,  but  the 
waste  in  this  case  is  so  small  as  to  be  immaterial.  Keep  the  cylinder 
in  contact  with  the  hot  body  at  101°  C.  and  allow  the  piston  to  rise. 
It  may  be  made  to  perform  useful  work  as  the  pressure  is  now  27-7 
mm.  (or  37-7  grams  per  sq.  cm.)  in  excess  of  the  external  pressure. 
Continue  the  process  till  all  the  water  is  converted  into  steam. 
The  heat  absorbed  from  the  hot  body  will  be  nearly  540  gram- 
calories,  the  latent  heat  of  steam  at  this  temperature.  The  increase 
of  volume  will  be  approximately  1620  c.c.,  the  volume  of  I  gram  of 
steam  at  this  pressure  and  temperature.  The  work  done  by  the 
excess  pressure  will  be  37-7X1620  =  61,000  gram-centimetres  or 
0-61  of  a  kilogrammetre.  Remove  the  hot  body,  and  allow  the 
steam  to  expand  further  till  its  pressure  is  760  mm.  and  its  tempera- 
ture has  fallen  to  100°  C.  The  work  which  might  be  done  in  this 
expansion  is  less  than  jVooth  part  of  a  kilogrammetre,  and  may  be 
neglected  for  the  present  purpose.  Place  the  cylinder  in  contact 
with  the  cold  body  at  100  C.,  and  allow  the  steam  to  condense  at 
this  temperature.  No  work  is  done  on  the  piston,  because  there  is 
equilibrium  of  pressure,  but  a  quantity  of  heat  equal  to  the  latent 
heat  of  steam  at  100°  C.  is  given  to  the  cold  body.  The  water  is 
now  in  its  initial  condition,  and  the  result  of  the  process  has  been  to 
gain  0-61  of  a  kilogrammetre  of  work  by  allowing  540  gram-calories 
of  heat  to  pass  from  a  body  at  101°  C.  to  a  body  at  100°  C.  by  means 
of  an  ideally  simple  steam-engine.  The  work  obtainable  in  this 
way  from  1000  gram-calories  of  heat,  or  I  kilo-calorie,  would  evidently 
be  1-13  kilogrammetre  (=0-61  XV&°)- 

Taking  the  same  range  of  temperature,  namely  101  to  lop  C., 
we  may  perform  a  similar  series  of  operations  with  air  in  the  cylinder, 
instead  of  water  and  steam.  Suppose  the  cylinder  to  contain  I 
gramme  of  air  at  100°  C.  and  760  mm.  pressure  instead  of  water. 
Compress  it  without  loss  of  heat  (adiabatically),  so  as  to  raise  its 
temperature  to  101°  C.  Place  it  in  contact  with  the  hot  body  at 
ioi°C.,  and  allow  it  to  expand  at  this  temperature,  absorbing  heat 
from  the  hot  body,  until  its  volume  is  increased  by  f^fth  part  (the 
expansion  per  degree  at  constant  pressure).  The  quantity  of  heat 
absorbed  in  this  expansion,  as  explained  in  §  14,  will  be  the  difference 
of  the  specific  heats  or  the  latent  heat  of  expansion  R'  =  -069  calorie. 
Remove  the  hot  body,  and  allow  the  gas  to  expand  further  without 
gain  of  heat  till  its  temperature  falls  to  100°  C.  Compress  it  at 
100°  C.  to  its  original  volume,  abstracting  the  heat  of  compression  by 
contact  with  the  cold  body  at  1 00°  C.  The  air  is  now  in  its  original 
state,  and  the  process  has  been  carried  out  in  strict  accordance  with 
Carnot's  rule.  The  quantity  of  external  work  done  in  the  cycle 
is  easily  obtained  by  the  aid  of  the  indicator  diagram  ABCD  (fig.  5), 
which  is  approximately  a  parallelogram  in  this  instance.  The  area 
of  the  diagram  is  equal  to  that  of  the  rectangle  BEHG,  being  the 
product  of  the  vertical  height  BE,  namely,  the  increase  of  pressure 
per  i°  at  constant  volume,  by  the  increase  of  volume  BG,  which  is 
5 JBrd  of  the  volume  at  o°  C.  and  760  mm.,  or  2-83  c.c.  The  increase 
of  pressure  BE  is  £?!J,  or  2-03  mm.,  which  is  equivalent  to  2-76 
gm.  per  sq.  cm.  The  work  done  in  the  cycle  is  2-76X2-83  =  7-82 
gm.  cm.,  or  -0782  gram-metre.  The  heat  absorbed  at  101°  C.  was 
•069  gram-calorie,  so  that  the  work  obtained  is  -O782/-O69  or  1-13 
gram-metre  per  gram-calorie,  or  1-13  kilogrammetre  per  kilogram- 
calorie.  This  result  is  precisely  the  same  as  that  obtained  by  using 


steam  with  the  same  range  of  temperature,  but  a  very  different  kind 
of  cycle.  Carnot  in  making  the  same  calculation  did  not  obtain  quite 
so  good  an  agreement,  because  the  experimental  data  at  that  time 
available  were  not  so  accurate.  He  used  the  value  ffa  for  the 
coefficient  of  expansion,  and  -267  for  the  specific  heat  of  air.  More- 
over, he  did  not  feel  justified  in  assuming,  as  above,  that  the  difference 
of  the  specific  heats  was  the 
same  at  100°  C.  as  at  the 
ordinary  temperature  of 
I5°to  20°C., at  which  ithad 
been  experimentally  deter- 
mined. He  made  similar 
calculations  for  the  vapour 
of  alcohol  which  differed 
slightly  from  the  vapour  of 
water.  But  the  agreement 
he  found  was  close  enough 
to  satisfy  him  that  his  theor- 
etical deductions  were  cor- 
rect, and  that  the  resulting 
ratio  of  work  to  heat  should 
be  the  same  for  all  substances 
at  the  same  temperature. 

17.  Carnot's  Function. 
Variation  of  Efficiency  with 
Temperature. — By  means  of 

those  given  above,   Carnot  endeavoured 


AXIS  OF  VOLUME 
F  IG.  5. — Elementary  Carnot  Cycle 
for  Gas. 


calculations,   similar  to   0 _._„ 

to  find  the  amount  of  motive  power  obtainable  from  one  unit  of 
heat  per  degree  fall  at  various  temperatures  with  various  sub- 
stances. The  value  found  above,  namely  1-13  kilogrammetre 
per  kilo-calorie  per  I  °  fall,  is  the  value  of  the  efficiency  per  I  fall  at 
100°  C.  He  was  able  to  show  that  the  efficiency  per  degree  fall 
probably  diminished  with  rise  of  temperature,  but  the  experimental 
data  at  that  time  were  too  inconsistent  to  suggest  the  true  relation. 
He  took  as  the  analytical  expression  of  his  principle  that  the  efficiency 
W/H  of  a  perfect  engine  taking  in  heat  H  at  a  temperature  t  C., 
and  rejecting  heat  at  the  temperature  o°  C.,  must  be  some  function 
Ft  of  the  temperature  t,  which  would  be  the  same  for  all  substances. 
The  efficiency  per  degree  fall  at  a  temperature  /  he  represented  by 
F't,  the  derived  function  of  Ft.  The  function  F't  would  be  the  same 
for  all  substances  at  the  same  temperature,  but  would  have  different 
values  at  different  temperatures.  In  terms  of  this  function,  which 
is  generally  known  as  Carnot's  function,  the  results  obtained  in  the 
previous  section  might  be  expressed  as  follows : — 

"  The  increase  of  volume  of  a  mixture  of  liquid  and  vapour  per 
unit-mass  vaporized  at  any  temperature,  multiplied  by  the  increase 
of  vapour-pressure  per  degree,  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  function 
F't  by  the  latent  heat  of  vaporization. 

"  The  difference  of  the  specific  heats,  or  the  latent  heat  of  ex- 
pansion for  any  substance  multiplied  by  the  function  F  /,  is  equal 
to  the  product  of  the  expansion  per  degree  at  constant  pressure  by 
the  increase  of  pressure  per  degree  at  constant  volume." 

Since  the  last  two  coefficients  are  the  same  for  all  gases  it  equal 
volumes  are  taken,  Carnot  concluded  that:  "  The  difference  of  the 
specific  heats  at  constant  pressure  and  volume  is  the  same  for  equal 
volumes  of  all  gases  at  the  same  temperature  and  pressure. 

Taking  the  expression  W  =  RT  log  «r  for  the  whole  work  done  by  a 

¥is  obeying  the  gaseous  laws  pv  =  RT  in  expanding  at  a  temperature 
from  a  volume  I  (unity)  to  a  volume  r,  or  for  a  ratio  of  expansion 
r,  and  putting  W  =  R  log  ,r  for  the  work  done  in  a  cycle  of  range  I  , 
Carnot  obtained  the  expression  for  the  heat  absorbed  by  a  gas  in 
isothermal  expansion 

H  =  Rlog«r/F'/     .  .     (2) 

He  gives  several  important  deductions  which  follow  from  this  formula, 
which  is  the  analytical  expression  of  the  experimental  result  already 
quoted  as  having  been  discovered  subsequently  by  Dulong.  Employ- 
ing the  above  expression  for  the  latent  heat  of  expansion,  Carnot 
deduced  a  general  expression  for  the  specific  heat  of  a  gas  at  constant 
volume  on  the  basis  of  the  caloric  theory.  He  showed  that  if  the 
specific  heat  was  independent  of  the  temperature  (the  hypothesis 
already  adopted  by  Laplace  and  Poisson)  the  function  F  t  must  be 
of  the  form 

F'/  =  R/C(/+fc)      -  •     (3) 

where  C  and  fc  are  unknown  constants.  A  similar  result  follows 
from  his  expression  for  the  difference  of  the  specific  heats.  If  this  is 
assumed  to  be  constant  and  equal  to  C,  the  expression  for  F't  becomes 
R/CT,  which  is  the  same  as  the  above  if  fc  =  273.  Assuming  the 
specific  heat  to  be  also  independent  of  the  volume,  he  shows  that  the 
function  F't  should  be  constant.  But  this  assumption  is  inconsistent 
with  the  caloric  theory  of  latent  heat  of  expansion,  which  requires 
the  specific  heat  to  be  a  function  of  the  volume.  It  appears  in  fact 
impossible  to  reconcile  Carnot's  principle  with  the  caloric  theory 
on  any  simple  assumptions.  As  Carnot  remarks:  The  mam  prin- 
ciples on  which  the  theory  of  heat  rests  require  most  careful  examina- 
tion. Many  experimental  facts  appear  almost  inexplicable  in  the 
present  state  of  this  theory." 

Carnot's  work  was  subsequently  put  in  a  more  complete 
analytical  form  by  B.  P.  E.  Clapeyron  (Journ.  del'ec.  polytechn., 


144 


HEAT 


[MECHANICAL  THEORY  OF  HEAT 


Paris,  1832,  14,  p.  153),  who  also  made  use  of  Watt's  indicator 
diagram  for  the  first  time  in  discussing  physical  problems. 
Clapeyron  gave  the  general  expressions  for  the  latent  heat  of  a 
vapour,  and  for  the  latent  heat  of  isothermal  expansion  of  any 
substance,  in  terms  of  Carnot's  function,  employing  the  notation 
of  the  calculus.  The  expressions  he  gave  are  the  same  in  form  as 
those  in  use  at  the  present  day.  He  also  gave  the  general 
expression  for  Carnot's  function,  and  endeavoured  to  find  its 
variation  with  temperature;  but  having  no  better  data,  he 
succeeded  no  better  than  Carnot.  Unfortunately,  in  describing 
Carnot's  cycle,  he  assumed  the  caloric  theory  of  heat,  and  made 
some  unnecessary  mistakes,  which  Carnot  (who,  we  now  know, 
was  a  believer  in  the  mechanical  theory)  had  been  very  careful 
to  avoid.  Clapeyron  directs  one  to  compress  the  gas  at  the  lower 
temperature  in  contact  with  the  body  B  until  the  heat  disengaged 
is  equal  to  that  which  has  been  absorbed  at  the  higher  temperature.1 
He  assumes  that  the  gas  at  this  point  contains  the  same  quantity 
of  heat  as  it  contained  in  its  original  state  at  the  higher  tempera- 
ture, and  that,  when  the  body  B  is  removed,  the  gas  will  be 
restored  to  its  original  temperature,  when  compressed  to  its 
initial  volume.  This  mistake  is  still  attributed  to  Carnot,  and 
regarded  as  a  fatal  objection  to  his  reasoning  by  nearly  all 
writers  at  the  present  day. 

18.  Mechanical  Theory  of  Heat. — Accordingto  the  caloric  theory, 
the  heat  absorbed  in  the  expansion  of  a  gas  became  latent, 
like  the  latent  heat  of  vaporization  of  a  liquid,  but  remained 
in  the  gas  and  was  again  evolved  on  compressing  the  gas.  This 
theory  gave  no  explanation  of  the  source  of  the  motive  power 
produced  by  expansion.  The  mechanical  theory  had  explained 
the  production  of  heat  by  friction  as  being  due  to  transformation 
of  visible  motion  into  a  brisk  agitation  of  the  ultimate  molecules, 
but  it  had  not  so  far  given  any  definite  explanation  of  the  con- 
verse production  of  motive  power  at  the  expense  of  heat.  The 
theory  could  not  be  regarded  as  complete  until  it  had  been 
shown  that  in  the  production  of  work  from  heat,  a  certain 
quantity  of  heat  disappeared,  and  ceased  to  exist  as  heat;  and 
that  this  quantity  was  the  same  as  that  which  could  be  generated 
by  the  expenditure  of  the  work  produced.  The  earliest  complete 
statement  of  the  mechanical  theory  from  this  point  of  view 
is  contained  in  some  notes  written  by  Carnot,  about  1830,  but 
published  by  his  brother  (Life  of  Sadi  Carnot,  Paris,  1878). 
Taking  the  difference  of  the  specific  heats  to  be  -078,  he  estimated 
the  mechanical  equivalent  at  370  kilogrammetres.  But  he 
fully  recognized  that  there  were  no  experimental  data  at  that 
time  available  for  a  quantitative  test  of  the  theory,  although 
it  appeared  to  afford  a  good  qualitative  explanation  of  the 
phenomena.  He  therefore  planned  a  number  of  crucial  experi- 
ments such  as  the  "  porous  plug  "  experiment,  to  test  the 
equivalence  of  heat  and  motive  power.  His  early  death  in  1836 
put  a  stop  to  these  experiments,  but  many  of  them  have  since 
been  independently  carried  out  by  other  observers. 

The  most  obvious  case  of  the  production  of  work  from  heat 
is  in  the  expansion  of  a  gas  or  vapour,  which  served  in  the  first 
instance  as  a  means  of  calculating  the  ratio  of  equivalence,  on 
the  assumption  that  all  the  heat  which  disappeared  had  been 
transformed  into  work  and  had  not  merely  become  latent. 
Marc  Seguin,  in  his  De  I  'influence  des  chemins  de  fer  (Paris, 
1839),  made  a  rough  estimate  in  this  manner  of  the  mechanical 
equivalent  of  heat,  assuming  that  the  loss  of  heat  represented 
by  the  fall  of  temperature  of  steam  on  expanding  was  equivalent 
to  the  mechanical  effect  produced  by  the  expansion.  He  also 
remarks  (loc.  cit.  p.  382)  that  it  was  absurd  to  suppose  that  "  a 
finite  quantity  of  heat  could  produce  an  indefinite  quantity  of 
mechanical  action,  and  that  it  was  more  natural  to  assume 
that  a  certain  quantity  of  heat  disappeared  in  the  very  act  of 
producing  motive  power."  J.  R.  Mayer  (Liebig's  Annalen, 
1842,  42,  p.  233)  stated  the  equivalence  of  heat  and  work  more 

1  It  was  for  this  reason  that  Professor  W.  Thomson  (Lord  Kelvin) 
stated  (Phil.  Mag.,  1852,  4)  that  "  Carnot's  original  demonstration 
utterly  fails,"  and  that  he  introduced  the  "  corrections  "  attributed 
to  James  Thomson  and  Clerk  Maxwell  respectively.  In  reality 
Carnot's  original  demonstration  requires  no  correction. 


definitely,  deducing  it  from  the  old  principle,  causa  aequat 
efectum.  Assuming  that  the  sinking  of  a  mercury  column  by 
which  a  gas  was  compressed  was  equivalent  to  the  heat  set  free 
by  the  compression,  he  deduced  that  the  warming  of  a  kilo- 
gramme of  water  i°  C.  would  correspond  to  the  fall  of  a  weight 
of  one  kilogramme  from  a  height  of  about  365  metres.  But 
Mayer  did  not  adduce  any  fresh  experimental  evidence,  and 
made  no  attempt  to  apply  his  theory  to  the  fundamental 
equations  of  thermodynamics.  It  has  since  been  urged  that  the 
experiment  of  Gay-Lussac  (1807),  on  the  expansion  of  gas  from 
one  globe  to  another  (see  above,  §  n),  was  sufficient  justification 
for  the  assumption  tacitly  involved  in  Mayer's  calculation. 
But  Joule  was  the  first  to  supply  the  correct  interpretation  of 
this  experiment,  and  to  repeat  it  on  an  adequate  scale  with  suit- 
able precautions.  Joule  was  also  the  first  to  measure  directly 
the  amount  of  heat  liberated  by  the  compression  of  a  gas,  and  to 
prove  that  heat  was  not  merely  rendered  latent,  but  disappeared 
altogether  as  heat,  when  a  gas  did  work  in  expansion. 

19.  Joule's  Determinations  of  the  Mechanical  Equivalent. — The 
honour  of  placing  the  mechanical  theory  of  heat  on  a  sound 
experimental  basis  belongs  almost  exclusively  to  J.  P.  Joule, 
who  showed  by  direct  experiment  that  in  all  the  most  important 
cases  in  which  heat  was  generated  by  the  expenditure  of 
mechanical  work,  or  mechanical  work  was  produced  at  the 
expense  of  heat,  there  was  a  constant  ratio  of  equivalence 
between  the  heat  generated  and  the  work  expended  and  vice 
versa.  His  first  experiments  were  on  the  relation  of  the  chemical 
and  electric  energy  expended  to  the  heat  produced  in  metallic 
conductors  and  voltaic  and  electrolytic  cells;  these  experiments 
were  described  in  a  series  of  papers  published  in  the  Phil.  Mag., 
1840-1843.  He  first  proved  the  relation,  known  as  Joule's 
law,  that  the  heat  produced  in  a  conductor  of  resistance  R  by 
a  current  C  is  proportional  to  C2R  per  second.  He  went  on  to 
show  that  the  total  heat  produced  in  any  voltaic  circuit  was 
proportional  to  the  electromotive  force  E  of  the  battery  and 
to  the  number  of  equivalents  electrolysed  in  it.  Faraday  had 
shown  that  electromotive  force  depends  on  chemical  affinity. 
Joule  measured  the  corresponding  heats  of  combustion,  and 
showed  that  the  electromotive  force  corresponding  to  a  chemical 
reaction  is  proportional  to  the  heat  of  combustion  of  the  electro- 
chemical equivalent.  He  also  measured  the  E.M.F.  required 
to  decompose  water,  and  showed  that  when  part  of  the  electric 
energy  EC  is  thus  expended  in  a  voltameter,  the  heat  generated 
is  less  than  the  heat  of  combustion  corresponding  to  EC  by  a 
quantity  representing  the  heat  of  combustion  of  the  decomposed 
gases.  His  papers  so  far  had  been  concerned  with  the  relations 
between  electrical  energy,  chemical  energy  and  heat  which 
he  showed  to  be  mutually  equivalent.  The  first  paper  in  which 
he  discussed  the  relation  of  heat  to  mechanical  power  was  entitled 
"  On  the  Calorific  Effects  of  Magneto-Electricity,  and  on  the 
Mechanical  Value  of  Heat  "  (Brit.  Assoc.,  1843;  Phil.  Mag., 
23,  p.  263).  In  this  paper  he  showed  that  the  heat  produced 
by  currents  generated  by  magneto-electric  induction  followed 
the  same  law  as  voltaic  currents.  By  a  simple  and  ingenious 
arrangement  he  succeeded  in  measuring  the  mechanical  power 
expended  in  producing  the  currents,  and  deduced  the  mechanical 
equivalent  of  heat  and  of  electrical  energy.  The  amount  of 
mechanical  work  required  to  raise  i  ft  of  water  i°  F.  (i 
B.Th.U.),  as  found  by  this  method,  was  838  foot-pounds.  In 
a  note  added  to  the  paper  he  states  that  he  found  the  value 
770  foot-pounds  by  the  more  direct  method  of  forcing  water 
through  fine  tubes.  In  a  paper  "  On  the  Changes  of  Tempera- 
ture produced  by  the  Rarefaction  and  Condensation  of  Air  "  (Phil. 
Mag.,  May  1845),  he  made  the  first  direct  measurements  of 
the  quantity  of  heat  disengaged  by  compressing  air,  and  also 
of  the  heat  absorbed  when  the  air  was  allowed  to  expand  against 
atmospheric  pressure;  as  the  result  he  deduced  the  value  798 
foot-pounds  for  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  i  B.Th.U.  He  also 
showed  that  there  was  no  appreciable  absorption  of  heat  when 
air  was  allowed  to  expand  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  develop 
mechanical  power,  and  he  pointed  out  that  the  mechanical 
equivalent  of  heat  could  not  be  satisfactorily  deduced  from 


JOULE'S  DETERMINATIONS] 


HEAT 


the  relations  of  the  specific  heats,  because  the  knowledge  of 
the  specific  heats  of  gases  at  that  time  was  of  so  uncertain  a 
character.  He  attributed  most  weight  to  his  later  determina- 
tions of  the  mechanical  equivalent  made  by  the  direct  method 
of  friction  of  liquids.  He  showed  that  the  results  obtained  with 
different  liquids,  water,  mercury  and  sperm  oil,  were  the  same, 
namely,  782  foot-pounds;  and  finally  repeating  the  method  with 
water,  using  all  the  precautions  and  improvements  which  his  ex- 
perience had  suggested,  he  obtained  the  value  772  foot-pounds, 
which  was  accepted  universally  for  many  years,  and  has  only 
recently  required  alteration  on  account  of  the  more  exact  defini- 
tion of  the  heat  unit,  and  the  standard  scale  of  temperature  (see 
CALORIMETRY).  The  great  value  of  Joule's  work  for  the  general 
establishment  of  the  principle  of  the  conservation  of  energy 
lay  in  the  variety  and  completeness  of  the  experimental  evidence 
he  adduced.  It  was  not  sufficient  to  find  the  relation  between 
heat  and  mechanical  work  or  other  forms  of  energy  in  one 
particular  case.  It  was  necessary  to  show  that  the  same  relation 
held  in  all  cases  which  could  be  examined  experimentally,  and 
that  the  ratio  of  equivalence  of  the  different  forms  of  energy, 
measured  in  different  ways,  was  independent  of  the  manner  in 
which  the  conversion  was  effected  and  of  the  material  or  working 
substance  employed. 

As  the  result  of  Joule's  experiments,  we  are  justified  in  con- 
cluding that  heat  is  a  form  of  energy,  and  that  all  its  transforma- 
tions are  subject  to  the  general  principle  of  the  conservation 
of  energy.  As  applied  to  heat,  the  principle  is  called  the  first 
law  of  thermo-dynamics,  and  may  be  stated  as  follows: 
When  heat  is  transformed  into  any  other  kind  of  energy,  or  vice 
versa,  the  total  quantity  of  energy  remains  invariable;  that  is  to 
say,  the  quantity  of  heat  which  disappears  is  equivalent  to  the 
quantity  of  the  other  kind  of  energy  produced  and  vice  versa. 

The  number  of  units  of  mechanical  work  equivalent  to  one  unit 
of  heat  is  generally  called  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat,  or 
Joule's  equivalent,  and  is  denoted  by  the  letter  J.  Its  numerical 
value  depends  on  the  units  employed  for  heat  and  mechanical 
energy  respectively.  The  values  of  the  equivalent  in  terms  of 
the  units  most  commonly  employed  at  the  present  time  are  as 
follows: — 

777  foot-pounds  (Lat.45°)are equivalent  to  i  B.Th.  U.(ftdeg.Fahr.) 
1399  foot-pounds       ,,  „  „          I  ft  deg.  C. 

426-3  kilogrammetres  „  „          I  kilogram-deg.C.  or  kilo- 

calorie. 

426-3  grammetres  ,,  „          I  gram-deg.  C.  or  calorie. 

4-180  joules  „  „          I  gram-deg.  C.  or  calorie. 

The  water  for  the  heat  units  is  supposed  to  be  taken  at  20°  C. 
or  68°  F.,  and  the  degree  of  temperature  is  supposed  to  be 
measured  by  the  hydrogen  thermometer.  The  acceleration  of 
gravity  in  latitude  45°  is  taken  as  980-7  C.G.S.  For  details  of 
more  recent  and  accurate  methods  of  determination,  the  reader 
should  refer  to  the  article  CALORIMETRY,  where  tables  of  the 
variation  of  the  specific  heat  of  water  with  temperature  are  also 
given. 

The  second  law  of  thermodynamics  is  a  title  often  used  to 
denote  Carnot's  principle  or  some  equivalent  mathematical 
expression.  In  some  cases  this  title  is  not  conferred  on  Carnot's 
principle  itself,  but  on  some  axiom  from  which  the  principle 
may  be  indirectly  deduced.  These  axioms,  however,  cannot 
as  a  rule  be  directly  applied,  so  that  it  would  appear  preferable 
to  take  Carnot's  principle  itself  as  the  second  law.  It  may  be 
observed  that,  as  a  matter  of  history,  Carnot's  principle  was 
established  and  generally  admitted  before  the  principle  of  the 
conservation  of  energy  as  applied  to  heat,  and  that  from  this  point 
of  view  the  titles,  first  and  second  laws,  are  not  particularly 
appropriate. 

20.  Combination  of  Carnot's  Principle  with  the  Mechanical 
Theory. — A  very  instructive  paper,  as  showing  the  state  of  the 
science  of  heat  about  this  time,  is  that  of  C.  H.  A.  Holtzmann, 
"  On  the  Heat  and  Elasticity  of  Gases  and  Vapours  "  (Mannheim, 
1845;  Taylor's  Scientific  Memoirs,  iv.  189).  He  points  out 
that  the  theory  of  Laplace  and  Poisson  does  not  agree  with 
facts  when  applied  to  vapours,  and  that  Clapeyron's  formulae, 


though  probably  correct,  contain  an  undetermined  function 
(Carnot's  F'/,  Clapeyron's  i/C)  of  the  temperature.  He  deter- 
mines the  value  of  this  function  to  be  J/T  by  assuming,  with 
Seguin  and  Mayer,  that  the  work  done  in  the  isothermal  expan- 
sion of  a  gas  is  a  measure  of  the  heat  absorbed.  From  the  then 
accepted  value  -078  of  the  difference  of  the  specific  heats  of  air, 
he  finds  the  numerical  value  of  J  to  be  374  kilogrammetres  per 
kilo-calorie.  Assuming  the  heat  equivalent  of  the  work  to  remain 
in  the  gas,  he  obtains  expressions  similar  to  Clapeyron's  for  the 
total  heat  and  the  specific  heats.  In  consequence  of  this  assump- 
tion, the  formulae  he  obtained  for  adiabatic  expansion  were 
necessarily  wrong,  but  no  data  existed  at  that  time  for  testing 
them.  In  applying  his  formulae  to  vapours,  he  obtained  an 
expression  for  the  saturation-pressure  of  steam,  which  agreed  with 
the  empirical  formula  of  Roche,  and  satisfied  other  experimental 
data  on  the  supposition  that  the  co-efficient  of  expansion  of  steam 
was  -00423,  and  its  specific  heat  1-69 — values  which  are  now 
known  to  be  impossible,  but  which  appeared  at  the  time  to  give 
a  very  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  phenomena. 

The  essay  of  Hermann  Helmholtz,  On  the  Conservation  of 
Force  (Berlin,  1847),  discusses  all  the  known  cases  of  the  trans- 
formation of  energy,  and  is  justly  regarded  as  one  of  the  chief 
landmarks  in  the  establishment  of  the  energy-principle.  Helm- 
holtz gives  an  admirable  statement  of  the  fundamental  principle 
as  applied  to  heat,  but  makes  no  attempt  to  formulate  the  correct 
equations  of  thermodynamics  on  the  mechanical  theory.  He 
points  out  the  fallacy  of  Holtzmann's  (and  Mayer's)  calculation 
of  the  equivalent,  but  admits  that  it  is  supported  by  Joule's 
experiments,  though  he  does  not  seem  to  appreciate  the  true 
value  of  Joule's  work.  He  considers  that  Holtzmann's  formulae 
are  well  supported  by  experiment,  and  are  much  preferable  to 
Clapeyron's,  because  the  value  of  the  undetermined  function 
F't  is  found.  But  he  fails  to  notice  that  Holtzmann's  equations 
are  fundamentally  inconsistent  with  the  conservation  of  energy, 
because  the  heat  equivalent  of  the  external  work  done  is  supposed 
to  remain  in  the  gas. 

That  a  quantity  of  heat  equivalent  to  the  work  performed 
actually  disappears  when  a  gas  does  work  in  expansion,  was  first 
shown  by  Joule  in  the  paper  on  condensation  and  rarefaction 
of  air  (1845)  already  referred  to.  At  the  conclusion  of  this  paper 
he  felt  justified  by  direct  experimental  evidence  in  reasserting 
definitely  the  hypothesis  of  Seguin  (loc.  cit.  p.  383)  that  "  the 
steam  while  expanding  in  the  cylinder  loses  heat  in  quantity 
exactly  proportional  to  the  mechanical  force  developed,  and  that 
on  the  condensation  of  the  steam  the  heat  thus  converted  into 
power  is  not  given  back."  He  did  not  see  his  way  to  reconcile 
this  conclusion  with  Clapeyron's  description  of  Carnot's  cycle. 
At  a  later  date,  in  a  letter  to  Professor  W.  Thomson  (Lord  Kelvin) 
(1848),  he  pointed  out  that,  since,  according  to  his  own  experi- 
ments, the  work  done  in  the  expansion  of  a  gas  at  constant 
temperature  is  equivalent  to  the  heat  absorbed,  by  equating 
Carnot's  expressions  (given  in  §  17)  for  the  work  done  and  the 
heat  absorbed,  the  value  of  Carnot's  function  F't  must  be  equal  to 
J/T,  in  order  to  reconcile  his  principle  with  the  mechanical 
theory. 

Professor  W.  Thomson  gave  an  account  of  Carnot's  theory 
(Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Edin.,  Jan.  1849),  in  which  he  recognized  the 
discrepancy  between  Clapeyron's  statement  and  Joule's  experi- 
ments, but  did  not  see  his  way  out  of  the  difficulty.  He  there- 
fore adopted  Carnot's  principle  provisionally,  and  proceeded 
to  calculate  a  table  of  values  of  Carnot's  function  F'/,  from 
the  values  of  the  total-heat  and  vapour-pressure  of  steam  then 
recently  determined  by  Regnault  (Memoires  de  I'lnstitut  de  Paris, 
1847).  In  making  the  calculation,  he  assumed  that  the  specific 
volume  v  of  saturated  steam  at  any  temperature  T  and  pressure 
p  is  that  given  by  the  gaseous  laws,  />»=RT.  The  results  are 
otherwise  correct  so  far  as  Regnault's  data  are  accurate,  because 
the  values  of  the  efficiency  per  degree  F't  are  not  affected  by  any 
assumption  with  regard  to  the  nature  of  heat.  He  obtained  the 
values  of  the  efficiency  F'/  over  a  finite  range  from  I  to  o°  C.,  by 
adding  up  the  values  of  F't  for  the  separate  degrees.  This  latter 
proceeding  is  inconsistent  with  the  mechanical  theory,  but  is  the 


146 


HEAT 


[ABSOLUTE  SCALE  OF  TEMPERATURE 


correct  method  on  the  assumption  that  the  heat  given  up  to  the 
condenser  is  equal  to  that  taken  from  the  source.  The  values  he 
obtained  for  F't  agreed  very  well  with  those  previously  given  by 
Carnot  and  Clapeyron,  and  showed  that  this  function  diminishes 
with  rise  of  temperature  roughly  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  T,  as 
suggested  by  Joule. 

R.  J.  E.  Clausius  (Pogg.  Ann.,  1850,  79,  p.  369)  and  W.  J.  M. 
Rankine  (Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Edin.,  1850)  were  the  first  to  develop 
the  correct  equations  of  thermodynamics  on  the  mechanical 
theory.  When  heat  was  supplied  to  a  body  to  change  its  tempera- 
ture or  state,  part  remained  in  the  body  as  intrinsic  heat  energy 
E,  but  part  was  converted  into  external  work  of  expansion  W 
and  ceased  to  exist  as  heat.  The  part  remaining  in  the  body  was 
always  the  same  for  the  same  change  of  state,  however  performed, 
as  required  by  Carnot's  fundamental  axiom,  but  the  part  corre- 
sponding to  the  external  work  was  necessarily  different  for 
different  values  of  the  work  done.  Thus  in  any  cycle  in  which 
the  body  was  exactly  restored  to  its  initial  state,  the  heat 
remaining  in  the  body  would  always  be  the  same,  or  as  Carnot 
puts  it,  the  quantities  of  heat  absorbed  and  given  out  in  its 
diverse  transformations  are  exactly  "  compensated,"  so  far  as 
the  body  is  concerned.  But  the  quantities  of  heat  absorbed  and 
given  out  are  not  necessarily  equal.  On  the  contrary,  they  differ 
by  the  equivalent  of  the  external  work  done  in  the  cycle.  Apply- 
ing this  principle  to  the  case  of  steam,  Clausius  deduced  a  fact 
previously  unknown,  that  the  specific  heat  of  steam  maintained 
in  a  state  of  saturation  is  negative,  which  was  also  deduced  by 
Rankine  (loc.  cit.)  about  the  same  time.  In  applying  the  principle 
to  gases  Clausius  assumes  (with  Mayer  and  Holtzmann)  that  the 
heat  absorbed  by  a  gas  in  isothermal  expansion  is  equivalent 
to  the  work  done,  but  he  does  not  appear  to  be  acquainted  with 
Joule's  experiment,  and  the  reasons  he  adduces  in  support  of 
this  assumption  are  not  conclusive.  This  being  admitted,  he 
deduces  from  the  energy  principle  alone  the  propositions  already 
given  by  Carnot  with  reference  to  gases,  and  shows  in  addition 
that  the  specific  heat  of  a  perfect  gas  must  be  independent 
of  the  density.  In  the  second  part  of  his  paper  he  introduces 
Carnot's  principle,  which  he  quotes  as  follows:  "  The  perform- 
ance of  work  is  equivalent  to  a  transference  of  heat  from  a  hot 
to  a  cold  body  without  the  quantity  of  heat  being  thereby 
diminished."  This  is  not  Carnot's  way  of  stating  his  principle 
(see  §  15),  but  has  the  effect  of  exaggerating  the  importance  of 
Clapeyron's  unnecessary  assumption.  By  equating  the  expres- 
sions given  by  Carnot  for  the  work  done  and  the  heat  absorbed 
in  the  expansion  of  a  gas,  he  deduces  (following  Holtzmann) 
the  value  J/T  for  Carnot's  function  F't  (which  Clapeyron 
denotes  by  i/C).  He  shows  that  this  assumption  gives  values  of 
Carnot's  function  which  agree  fairly  well  with  those  calculated 
by  Clapeyron  and  Thomson,  and  that  it  leads  to  values  of  the 
mechanical  equivalent  not  differing  greatly  from  those  of  Joule. 
Substituting  the  value  J/T  for  C  in  the  analytical  expressions 
given  by  Clapeyron  for  the  latent  heat  of  expansion  and  vaporiza- 
tion, these  relations  are  immediately  reduced  to  their  modern 
form  (see  THERMODYNAMICS,  §  4).  Being  unacquainted  with 
Carnot's  original  work,  but  recognizing  the  invalidity  of 
Clapeyron's  description  of  Carnot's  cycle,  Clausius  substituted 
a  proof  consistent  with  the  mechanical  theory,  which  he  based 
on  the  axiom  that  "  heat  cannot  of  itself  pass  from  cold  to  hot." 
The  proof  on  this  basis  involves  the  application  of  the  energy 
principle,  which  does  not  appear  to  be  necessary,  and  the  axiom 
to  which  final  appeal  is  made  does  not  appear  more  convincing 
than  Carnot's.  Strange  to  say,  Clausius  did  not  in  this  paper 
give  the  expression  for  the  efficiency  in  a  Carnot  cycle  of  finite 
range  (Carnot's  Ft)  which  follows  immediately  from  the  value 
J/T  assumed  for  the  efficiency  F'/  of  a  cycle  of  infinitesimal  range 
at  the  temperature  /  C  or  T  Abs. 

Rankine  did  not  make  the  same  assumption  as  Clausius 
explicitly,  but  applied  the  mechanical  theory  of  heat  to  the 
development  of  his  hypothesis  of  molecular  vortices,  and  deduced 
from  it  a  number  of  results  similar  to  those  obtained  by  Clausius. 
Unfortunately  the  paper  (loc.  cit.)  was  not  published  till  some 
time  later,  but  in  a  summary  given  in  the  Phil.  Mag.  (July  1851) 


the  principal  results  were  detailed.  Assuming  the  value  of 
Joule's  equivalent,  Rankine  deduced  the  value  0-2404  for  the 
specific  heat  of  air  at  constant  pressure,  in  place  of  0-267  as 
found  by  Delaroche  and  Berard.  The  subsequent  verification 
of  this  value  by  Regnault  (Comptes  rendus,  1853)  afforded  strong 
confirmation  of  the  accuracy  of  Joule's  work.  In  a  note  appended 
to  the  abstract  in  the  Phil.  Mag.  Rankine  states  that  he  has 
succeeded  in  proving  that  the  maximum  efficiency  of  an  engine 
working  in  a  Carnot  cycle  of  finite  range  t\  to  to  is  of  the  form 
(t\-to)l(t\-k),  where  k  is  a  constant,  the  same  for  all  substances. 
This  is  correct  if  t  represents  temperature  Centigrade,  and 
£  =—273. 

Professor  W.  Thomson  (Lord  Kelvin)  in  a  paper  "  On  the 
Dynamical  Theory  of  Heat  "  (Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Edin.,  1851, 
first  published  in  the  Phil.  Mag.,  1852)  gave  a  very  clear  state- 
ment of  the  position  of  the  theory  at  that  time.  He  showed 
that  the  value  F'<  =  J/T,  assumed  for  Carnot's  function  by 
Clausius  without  any  experimental  justification,  rested  solely 
on  the  evidence  of  Joule's  experiment,  and  might  possibly  not 
be  true  at  all  temperatures.  Assuming  the  value  J/T  with  this 
reservation,  he  gave  as  the  expression  for  the  efficiency  over  a 
finite  range  ti  to  ta  C.,  or  TI  to  To  Abs.,  the  result, 


W/H  =  (h  -M/Ci+273)  =  (Tt  -T0)/T,      . 


(4) 


which,  he  observed,  agrees  in  form  with  that  found  by  Rankine. 

21.  The    Absolute    Scale    of    Temperature. — Since    Carnot's 
function  is  the  same  for  all  substances  at  the  same  temperature, 
and  is  a  function  of  the  temperature  only,  it  supplies  a  means  of 
measuring  temperature  independently  of  the  properties  of  any 
particular  substance.     This  proposal  was  first  made  by  Lord 
Kelvin  (Phil.  Mag.,  1848),  who  suggested  that  the  degree  of 
temperature  should  be  chosen  so  that  the  efficiency  of  a  perfect 
engine  at  any  point  of  the  scale  should  be  the  same,  or  that 
Carnot's  function  F't  should  be  constant.     This  would  give  the 
simplest  expression  for  the  efficiency  on  the  caloric  theory,  but 
the  scale  so  obtained,  when  the  values  of  Carnot's  function  were 
calculated  from  Regnault's  observations  on  steam,  was  found  to 
differ  considerably  from  the  scale  of  the  mercury  or  air-thermo- 
meter.    At  a  later  date,  when  it  became  clear  that  the  value 
of  Carnot's  function  was  very  nearly  proportional  to  the  re- 
ciprocal of  the  temperature  T  measured  from  the  absolute  zero 
of  the  gas  thermometer,  he  proposed  a  simpler  method  (Phil. 
Trans.,   1854),  namely,  to  define  absolute  temperature    6  as 
proportional  to  the  reciprocal  of  Carnot's  function.     On  this 
definition  of  absolute  temperature,  the  expression   (0i-0o)/0i 
for  the  efficiency  of  a  Carnot  cycle  with  limits  61  and  0<>  would 
be  exact,  and  it  became  a  most  important  problem  to  determine 
how  far  the  temperature  T  by  gas  thermometer  differed  from 
the  absolute  temperature  6.     With  this  object  he  devised  a  very 
delicate   method,   known   as  the   "  porous  plug  experiment  " 
(see  THERMODYNAMICS)   of  testing  the  deviation  of    the    gas 
thermometer  from  the  absolute  scale.     The  experiments  were 
carried  out  in  conjunction  with  Joule,  and  finally  resulted  in 
showing   (Phil.    Trans.,    1862,    "On   the   Thermal   Effects   of 
Fluids  in  Motion  ")  that  the  deviations  of  the  air  thermometer 
from  the  absolute  scale  as  above  defined'  are  almost  negligible, 
and  that  in  the  case  of  the  gas  hydrogen  the  deviations  are 
so   small   that  -a   thermometer   containing    this   gas   may   be 
taken  for  all  practical  purposes  as  agreeing  exactly  with  the 
absolute  scale  at  all  ordinary  temperatures.     For  this  reason 
the  hydrogen  thermometer  has  since  been  generally  adopted  as 
the  standard. 

22.  Availability  of  Heat  of  Combustion. — Taking  the  value 
1-13  kilogrammetres  per  kilo-calorie  for  i°  C.  fall  of  temperature 
at  100°  C.,  Carnot  attempted  to  estimate  the  possible  perform- 
ance of  a  steam-engine  receiving  heat  at  160°  C.  and  rejecting 
it  at  40°  C.     Assuming  the  performance  to  be  simply  proportional 
to  the  temperature  fall,  the  work  done  for  120°  fall  would  be 
134   kilogrammetres   per   kilo-calorie.     To   make   an   accurate 
calculation  required  a  knowledge  of  the  variation  of  the  function 
F't  with  temperature.     Taking  the  accurate  formula  of  §  20,  the 
work  obtainable  is  118  kilogrammetres  per  kilo-calorie,  which  is 


INTERNAL  COMBUSTION] 


HEAT 


H7 


28%  of  426,  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  the  kilo-calorie  in 
kilogrammetres.  Carnot  pointed  out  that  the  fall  of  120°  C. 
utilized  in  the  steam-engine  was  only  a  small  fraction  of  the 
whole  temperature  fall  obtainable  by  combustion,  and  made  an 
estimate  of  the  total  power  available  if  the  whole  fall  could  be 
utilized,  allowing  for  the  probable  diminution  of  the  function 
F't  with  rise  of  temperature.  His  estimate  was  3-9  million 
kilogrammetres  per  kilogramme  of  coal.  This  was  certainly 
an  over-estimate,  but  was  surprisingly  close,  considering  the 
scanty  data  at  his  disposal. 

In  reality  the  fraction  of  the  heat  of  combustion  available, 
even  in  an  ideal  engine  and  apart  from  practical  limitations,  is 
much  less  than  might  be  inferred  from  the  efficiency  formula  of 
the  Carnot  cycle.  In  applying  this  formula  to  estimate  the 
availability  of  the  heat  it  is  usual  to  take  the  temperature 
obtainable  by  the  combustion  of  the  fuel  as  the  upper  limit  of 
temperature  in  the  formula.  For  carbon  burnt  in  air  at  constant 
pressure  without  any  loss  of  heat,  the  products  of  combustion 
might  be  raised  2300°  C.  in  temperature,  assuming  that  the 
specific  heats  of  the  products  were  constant  and  that  there  was 
no  dissociation.  If  all  the  heat  could  be  supplied  to  the  working 
fluid  at  this  temperature,  that  of  the  condenser  being  40°  C., 
the  possible  efficiency  by  the  formula  of  §  20  would  be  89%. 
But  the  combustion  obviously  cannot  maintain  so  high  a  tem- 
perature if  heat  is  being  continuously  abstracted  by  a  boiler. 
Suppose  that  6'  is  the  maximum  temperature  of  combustion  as. 
above  estimated,  6"  the  temperature  of  the  boiler,  and  0°  that 
of  the  condenser.  Of  the  whole  heat  supplied  by  combustion 
represented  by  the  rise  of  temperature  6'— 60,  the  fraction 
(0'-0")/(0'-0°)  is  the  maximum  that  could  be  supplied  to  the 
boiler,  the  fraction  (0"-0°)/(0'-0°)  being  carried  away  with  the 
waste  gases.  Of  the  heat  supplied  to  the  boiler,  the  fraction 
(0*-0°)/0*  might  theoretically  be  converted  into  work.  The 
problem  in  the  case  of  an  engine  using  a  separate  working  fluid, 
like  a  steam-engine,  is  to  find  what  must  be  the  temperature  0" 
of  the  boiler  in  order  to  obtain  the  largest  possible  fraction  of  the 
heat  of  combustion  in  the  form  of  work.  It  is  easy  to  show  that  0" 
must  be  the  geometric  mean  of  0'  and  0°,  or  0"=  V0'0o-  Taking 
0'-0°  =  23oo°  C.,  and  0°  =  3i3°  Abs.  as  before,  we  find  0"  = 
903°  Abs.  or  630°  C.  The  heat  supplied  to  the  boiler  is  then 
74-4%  of  the  heat  of  combustion,  and  of  this  65-3  %  is  converted 
into  work,  giving  a  maximum  possible  efficiency  of  49%  in 
place  of  89%.  With  the  boiler  at  160°  C.,  the  possible  efficiency, 
calculated  in  a  similar  manner,  would  be  26-3%,  which  shows 
that  the  possible  increase  of  efficiency  by  increasing  the  tem- 
perature range  is  not  so  great  as  is  usually  supposed.  If  the 
temperature  of  the  boiler  were  raised  to  300°  C.,  corresponding 
to  a  pressure  of  1 260  Ib  per  sq.  in.,  which  is  occasionally  surpassed 
in  modern  flash-boilers,  the  possible  efficiency  would  be  40%. 
The  waste  heat  from  the  boiler,  supposed  perfectly  efficient, 
would  be  in  this  case  1 1  %,  of  which  less  than  a  quarter  could 
be  utilized  in  the  form  of  work.  Carnot  foresaw  that  in  order 
to  utilize  a  larger  percentage  of  the  heat  of  combustion  it  would 
be  necessary  to  employ  a  series  of  working  fluids,  the  waste  heat 
from  one  boiler  and  condenser  serving  to  supply  the  next  in  the 
series.  This  has  actually  been  effected  in  a  few  cases,  e.g. 
steam  and  SO2,  when  special  circumstances  exist  to  compensate 
for  the  extra  complication.  Improvements  in  the  steam-engine 
since  Carnot's  time  have  been  mainly  in  the  direction  of  reducing 
waste  due  to  condensation  and  leakage  by  multiple  expansion, 
superheating,  &c.  The  gain  by  increased  temperature  range 
has  been  comparatively  small  owing  to  limitations  of  pressure, 
and  the  best  modern  steam-engines  do  not  utilize  more  than  20% 
of  the  heat  of  combustion.  This  is  in  reality  a  very  respectable 
fraction  of  the  ideal  limit  of  40%  above  calculated  on  the 
assumption  of  i26olb  initial  pressure,  with  a  perfectly  efficient 
boiler  and  complete  expansion,  and  with  an  ideal  engine  which 
does  not  waste  available  motive  power  by  complete  condensation 
of  the  steam  before  it  is  returned  to  the  boiler. 

23.  Advantages  of  Internal  Combustion. — As  Carnot  pointed 
out,  the  chief  advantage  of  using  atmospheric  air  as  a  working 
fluid  in  a  heat-engine  lies  in  the  possibility  of  imparting  heat  to 


it  directly  by  internal  combustion.    This  avoids  the  limitation 
imposed  by  the  use  of  a  separate  boiler,  which  as  we  have  seen 
reduces  the  possible  efficiency  at  least  50%.     Even  with  internal 
combustion,   however,   the   full   range  of  temperature  is  not 
available,  because  the  heat  cannot  conveniently  in  practice 
be  communicated  to  the  working  fluid  at  constant  temperature, 
owing  to  the  large  range  of  expansion  at  constant  temperature 
required  for  the  absorption  of  a  sufficient  quantity  of  heat. 
Air-engines  of  this  type,  such  as  Stirling's  or  Ericsson's,  taking 
in  heat  at  constant  temperature,  though  theoretically  the  most 
perfect,  are  bulky  and  mechanically  inefficient.     In  practical 
engines  the  heat  is  generated  by  the  combustion  of  an  explosive 
mixture  at  constant  volume  or  at  constant  pressure.     The  heat 
is  not  all  communicated  at  the  highest  temperature,  but  over 
a  range  of  temperature  from  that  of  the  mixture  at  the  beginning 
of    combustion    to    the    maximum  temperature.    The  earliest 
instance  of  this  type  of  engine  is  the  lycopodium  engine  of 
M.M.  Niepce,  discussed  by  Carnot,  in  which  a  combustible 
mixture  of  air  and  lycopodium  powder  at  atmospheric  pressure 
was  ignited  in  a  cylinder,  and  did  work  on  a  piston.     The 
early  gas-engines  of  E.  Lenoir  (1860)   and  N.  Otto  and  E. 
Langen  (1866),  operated  in  a  similar  manner  with  illuminating 
gas  in  place  of  lycopodium.     Combustion  in  this  case  is  effected 
practically  at  constant  volume,  and  the  maximum  efficiency 
theoretically  obtainable  is  i-loger/(r-i),  where  r  is  the  ratio 
of  the  maximum  temperature  0'  to  the  initial  temperature  0°. 
In  order  to  obtain  this  efficiency  it  would  be  necessary  to  follow 
Carnot's  rule,  and  expand  the  gas  after  ignition  without  loss 
or  gain  of  heat  from  0'  down  to  0°,  and  then  to  compress  it 
at  0°  to  its  initial  volume.    If  the  rise  of  temperature  in  com- 
bustion were  2300°  C.,  and  the  initial  temperature  were  o°  C. 
or  273°  Abs.,  the  theoretical  efficiency  would  be  73-3%,  which 
is  much  greater  than  that  obtainable  with  a  boiler.    But  in 
order  to  reach  this  value,  it  would  be  necessary  to  expand  the 
mixture  to  about  270  times  its  initial  volume,  which  is  obviously 
impracticable.     Owing    to    incomplete    expansion    and    rapid 
cooling  of  the  heated  gases  by  the  large  surface  exposed,  the 
actual  efficiency  of  the  Lenoir  engine  was  less  than  5  %,  and  of 
the  Otto  and  Langen,  with  more  rapid  expansion,  about  10%. 
Carnot  foresaw  that  in  order  to  render  an  engine  of  this  type 
practically  efficient,   it  would  be  necessary  to  compress  the 
mixture   before  ignition.     Compression   is  beneficial  in  three 
ways:  (i)  it  permits  a  greater  range  of  expansion  after  ignition; 
(2)  it  raises  the  mean  effective  pressure,  and  thus  improves  the 
mechanical  efficiency  and  the  power  in  proportion  to  size  and 
weight;  (3)  it  reduces  the  loss  of  heat  during  ignition  by  reducing 
the  surface  exposed  to  the  hot  gases.    In  the  modern  gas  or 
petrol  motor,  compression  is  employed  as  in  Carnot's  cycle, 
but  the  efficiency  attainable  is  limited  not  so  much  by  considera- 
tions of  temperature  as  by  limitations  of  volume.    It  is  impractic- 
able before  combustion  at  constant  volume  to  compress  a  rich 
mixture  to  much  less  than  -Jth  of  its  initial  volume,  and,  for 
mechanical  simplicity,  the  range  of  expansion  is  made  equal 
to  that  of  compression.     The  cycle  employed  was  patented 
in  1862  by  Beau  de  Rochas  (d.  1892),  but  was  first  successfully 
carried  out  by  Otto  (1876).    It  differs  from  the  Carnot  cycle 
in  employing  reception  and  rejection  of  heat  at  constant  volume 
instead  of  at  constant  temperature.    This  cycle  is  not  so  efficient 
as  the  Carnot  cycle  for  given  limits  of  temperature,  but,  for  the 
given  limits  of  volume  imposed,  it  gives  a  much  higher  efficiency 
than  the  Carnot  cycle.    The  efficiency  depends  only  on  the 
range  of  temperature  in  expansion  and  compression,  and  is 
given  by  the  formula  (0'-0")/0',  where  0'  is  the  maximum 
temperature,  and  0"  the  temperature  at  the  end  of  expansion. 
The  formula  is  the  same  as  that  for  the  Carnot  cycle  with  the 
same  range  of  temperature  in  expansion.      The  ratio  6' 16"   is 
1,  where  r  is  the  given  ratio  of  expansion  or  compression, 
and  -y  is  the  ratio  of  the  specific  heats  of  the  working  fluid. 
Assuming  the  working  fluid  to  be  a  perfect  gas  with  the  same 
properties  as  air,  we  should  have  7  =  1-41.     Taking  r=s,  the 
formula  gives  48%  for  the  maximum  possible  efficiency.    The 
actual  products  of  combustion  vary  with  the  nature  of  the  fuel 


148 


HEAT 


[TRANSFERENCE  OF  HEAT 


employed,  and  have  different  properties  from  air,  but  the 
efficiency  is  found  to  vary  with  compression  in  the  same  manner 
as  for  air.  For  this  reason  a  committee  of  the  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers  in  1905  recommended  the  adoption  of  the  air-standard 
for  estimating  the  effects  of  varying  the  compression  ratio, 
and  defined  the  relative  efficiency  of  an  internal  combustion 
engine  as  the  ratio  of  its  observed  efficiency  to  that  of  a  perfect 
air-engine  with  the  same  compression. 

24.  Effect  of  Dissociation,  and  Increase  of  Specific  Heat. — One 
of  the  most  important  effects  of  heat  is  the  decomposition  or 
dissociation  of  compound  molecules.  Just  as  the  molecules 
of  a  vapour  combine  with  evolution  of  heat  to  form  the  more 
complicated  molecules  of  the  liquid,  and  as  the  liquid  molecules 
require  the  addition  of  heat  to  effect  their  separation  into 
molecules  of  vapour;  so  in  the  case  of  molecules  of  different 
kinds  which  combine  with  evolution  of  heat,  the  reversal  of  the 
process  can  be  effected  either  by  the  agency  of  heat,  or  indirectly 
by  supplying  the  requisite  amount  of  energy  by  electrical  or 
other  methods.  Just  as  the  latent  heat  of  vaporization  diminishes 
with  rise  of  temperature,  and  the  pressure  of  the  dissociated 
vapour  molecules  increases,  so  in  the  case  of  compound  molecules 
in  general  the  heat  of  combination  diminishes  with  rise  of  tempera- 
ture, and  the  pressure  of  the  products  of  dissociation  increases. 
There  is  evidence  that  the  compound  carbon  dioxide,  C02,  is 
partly  dissociated  into  carbon  monoxide  and  oxygen  at  high 
temperatures,  and  that  the  proportion  dissociated  increases 
with  rise  of  temperature.  There  is  a  very  close  analogy  between 
these  phenomena  and  the  vaporization  of  a  liquid.  The  laws 
which  govern  dissociation  are  the  same  fundamental  laws  of 
thermodynamics,  but  the  relations  involved  are  necessarily 
more  complex  on  account  of  the  presence  of  different  kinds  of 
molecules,  and  present  special  difficulties  for  accurate  investiga- 
tion in  the  case  where  dissociation  does  not  begin  to  be  appreciable 
until  a  high  temperature  is  reached.  It  is  easy,  however,  to 
see  that  the  general  effect  of  dissociation  must  be  to  diminish 
the  available  temperature  of  combustion,  and  all  experiments 
go  to  show  that  in  ordinary  combustible  mixtures  the  rise  of 
temperature  actually  attained  is  much  less  than  that  calculated 
as  in  §  22,  on  the  assumption  that  the  whole  heat  of  combustion 
is  developed  and  communicated  to  products  of  constant  specific 
heat.  The  defect  of  temperature  observed  can  be  represented 
by  supposing  that  the  specific  heat  of  the  products  of  combustion 
increases  with  rise  of  temperature.  This  is  the  case  for  CO2 
even  at  ordinary  temperatures,  according  to  Regnault,  and 
probably  also  for  air  and  steam  at  higher  temperatures.  Increase 
of  specific  heat  is  a  necessary  accompaniment  of  dissociation, 
and  from  some  points  of  view  may  be  regarded  as  merely  another 
way  of  stating  the  facts.  It  is  the  most  convenient  method  to 
adopt  in  the  case  of  products  of  combustion  consisting  of  a 
mixture  of  COz  and  steam  with  a  large  excess  of  inert  gases, 
because  the  relations  of  equilibrium  of  dissociated  molecules 
of  so  many  different  kinds  would  be  too  complex  to  permit  of 
any  other  method  of  expression.  It  appears  from  the  researches 
of  Dugald  Clerk,  H.  le  Chatelier  and  others  that  the  apparent 
specific  heat  of  the  products  of  combustion  in  a  gas-engine 
may  be  taken  as  approximately  -34  to  -33  in  place  of  -24  at 
working  temperatures  between  1000°  C.  and  1700°  C.,  and  that 
the  ratio  of  the  specific  heats  is  about  1-29  in  place  of  1-41. 
This  limits  the  availability  of  the  heat  of  combustion  by  reducing 
the  rise  of  temperature  actually  obtainable  in  combustion  at 
constant  volume  by  30  or  40%,  and  also  by  reducing  the  range 
of  temperature  ff  19*  for  a  given  ratio  of  expansion  r  from  r'41to 
r-29.  The  formula  given  in  §  21  is  no  longer  quite  exact,  because 
the  ratio  of  the  specific  heats  of  the  mixture  during  compression  is 
not  the  same  as  that  of  the  products  of  combustion  during 
expansion.  But  since  the  work  done  depends  principally  on  the 
expansion  curve,  the  ratio  of  the  range  of  temperature  in  ex- 
pansion (0'-0")  to  the  maximum  temperature  6'  will  still  give 
a  very  good  approximation  to  the  possible  efficiency.  Taking 
r  =  5,  as  before,  for  the  compression  ratio,  the  possible  efficiency 
is  reduced  from  48%  to  38%,  if  7=1-29  instead  of  1-41.  A 
large  gas-engine  of  the  present  day  with  r=s  may  actually 


realize  as  much  as  34%  indicated  efficiency,  which  is  90%  of 
the  maximum  possible,  showing  how  perfectly  all  avoidable  heat 
losses  have  been  minimized. 

It  is  often  urged  that  the  gas-engine  is  relatively  less  efficient 
than  the  steam-engine,  because,  although  it  has  a  much  higher 
absolute  efficiency,  it  does  not  utilize  so  large  a  fraction  of  its 
temperature  range,  reckoning  that  of  the  steam-engine  from  the 
temperature  of  the  boiler  to  that  of  the  condenser,  and  that  of 
the  gas-engine  from  the  maximum  temperature  of  combustion 
to  that  of  the  air.  This  is  not  quite  fair,  and  has  given  rise  to  the 
mistaken  notion  that  "  there  is  an  immense  margin  for  improve- 
ment in  the  gas-engine,"  which  is  not  the  case  if  the  practical 
limitations  of  volume  are  rightly  considered.  If  expansion  could 
be  carried  out  in  accordance  with  Carnot's  principle  of  maximum 
efficiency,  down  to  the  lower  limit  of  temperature  00,  with 
rejection  of  heat  at  00  during  compression  to  the  original  volume 
»o,  it  would  no  doubt  be  possible  to  obtain  an  ideal  efficiency  of 
nearly  80%.  But  this  would  be  quite  impracticable,  as  it  would 
require  expansion  to  about  100  times  »0,  or  500  times  the  com- 
pression volume.  Some  advantage  no  doubt  might  be  obtained 
by  carrying  the  expansion  beyond  the  original  volume.  This 
has  been  done,  but  is  not  found  to  be  worth  the  extra  complica- 
tion. A  more  practical  method,  which  has  been  applied  by 
Diesel  for  liquid  fuel,  is  to  introduce  the  fuel  at  the  end  of 
compression,  and  adjust  the  supply  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give 
combustion  at  nearly  constant  pressure.  This  makes  it  possible 
to  employ  higher  compression,  with  a  corresponding  increase 
in  the  ratio  of  expansion  and  the  theoretical  efficiency.  With  a 
compression  ratio  of  14,  an  indicated  efficiency  of  40%  has  been 
obtained  in  this  way,  but  owing  to  additional  complications  the 
brake  efficiency  was  only  31%,  which  is  hardly  any  improve- 
ment on  the  brake  efficiency  of  30%  obtained  with  the  ordinary 
type  of  gas-engine.  Although  Carnot's  principle  makes  it  possible 
to  calculate  in  every  case  what  the  limiting  possible  efficiency 
would  be  for  any  kind  of  cycle  if  all  heat  losses  were  abolished, 
it  is  very  necessary,  in  applying  the  principle  to  practical  cases, 
to  take  account  of  the  possibility  of  avoiding  the  heat  losses 
which  are  supposed  to  be  absent,  and  of  other  practical  limita- 
tions in  the  working  of  the  actual  engine.  An  immense  amount 
of  time  and  ingenuity  has  been  wasted  in  striving  to  realize 
impossible  margins  of  ideal  efficiency,  which  a  close  study  of 
the  practical  conditions  would  have  shown  to  be  illusory.  As 
Carnot  remarks  at  the  conclusion  of  his  essay:  "  Economy  of 
fuel  is  only  one  of  the  conditions  a  heat-engine  must  satisfy; 
in  many  cases  it  is  only  secondary,  and  must  often  give  way  to 
considerations  of  safety,  strength  and  wearing  qualities  of  the 
machine,  of  smallness  of  space  occupied,  or  of  expense  in  erecting. 
To  know  how  to  appreciate  justly  in  each  case  the  considerations 
of  convenience  and  economy,  to  be  able  to  distinguish  the 
essential  from  the  accessory,  to  balance  all  fairly,  and  finally 
to  arrive  at  the  best  result  by  the  simplest  means,  such  must  be 
the  principal  talent  of  the  man  called  on  to  direct  and  co-ordinate 
the  work  of  his  fellows  for  the  attainment  of  a  useful  object  of 
any  kind." 

TRANSFERENCE  or  HEAT 

25.  Modes  of  Transference. — There  are  three  principal  modes 
of  transference  of  heat,  namely  (i)  convection,  (2)  conduction, 
and  (3)  radiation.  • 

(i)  In  convection,  heat  is  carried  or  conveyed  by  the  motion 
of  heated  masses  of  matter.  The  most  familiar  illustrations  of 
this  method  of  transference  are  the  heating  of  buildings  by  the 
circulation  of  steam  or  hot  water,  or  the  equalization  of  tem- 
perature of  a  mass  of  unequally  heated  liquid  or  gas  by  convection 
currents,  produced  by  natural  changes  of  density  or  by  artificial 
stirring.  (2)  In  conduction,  heat  is  transferred  by  contact 
between  contiguous  particles  of  matter  and  is  passed  on  from 
one  particle  to  the  next  without  visible  relative  motion  of  the 
parts  of  the  body.  A  familiar  illustration  of  conduction  is  the 
passage  of  heat  through  the  metal  plates  of  a  boiler  from  the 
fire  to  the  water  inside,  or  the  transference  of  heat  from  a  soldering 
bolt  to  the  solder  and  the  metal  with  which  it  is  placed  in  contact. 


NEWTON'S  LAW  OF  COOLING] 


HEAT 


149 


(3)  In  radiation,  the  heated  body  gives  rise  to  a  motion  of 
vibration  in  the  aether,  which  is  propagated  equally  in  all 
directions,  and  is  reconverted  into  heat  when  it  encounters  any 
obstacle  capable  of  absorbing  it.  Thus  radiation  differs  from 
conduction  and  convection  in  taking  place  most  perfectly  in  the 
absence  of  matter,  whereas  conduction  and  convection  require 
material  communication  between  the  bodies  concerned. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  of  transference  of  heat  all  three 
modes  'of  transference  are  simultaneously  operative  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree,  and  the  combined  effect  is  generally  of  great 
complexity.  The  different  modes  of  transference  are  subject 
to  widely  different  laws,  and  the  difficulty  of  disentangling  their 
effects  and  subjecting  them  to  calculation  is  often  one  of  the 
most  serious  obstacles  in  the  experimental  investigation  of  heat. 
In  space  void  of  matter,  we  should  have  pure  radiation,  but  it 
is  difficult  to  obtain  so  perfect  a  vacuum  that  the  effects  of  the 
residual  gas  in  transferring  heat  by  conduction  or  convection 
are  inappreciable.  In  the  interior  of  an  opaque  solid  we  should 
have  pure  conduction,  but  if  the  solid  is  sensibly  transparent 
in  thin  layers  there  must  also  be  an  internal  radiation, 
while  in  a  liquid  or  a  gas  it  is  very  difficult  to  eliminate  the  effects 
of  convection.  These  difficulties  are  well  illustrated  in  the 
historical  development  of  the  subject  by  the  experimental 
investigations  which  have  been  made  to  determine  the  laws  of 
heat-transference,  such  as  the  laws  of  cooling,  of  radiation 
and  of  conduction. 

26.  Newton's  Law  of  Cooling. — There  is  one  essential  condition 
common  to  all  three  modes  of  heat-transference,  namely,  that 
they  depend  on  difference  of  temperature,  that  the  direction 
of  the  transfer  of  heat  is  always  from  hot  to  cold,  and  that  the 
rate  of  transference  is,  for  small  differences,  directly  proportional 
to  the  difference  of  temperature.  Without  difference  of  tem- 
perature there  is  no  transfer  of  heat.  When  two  bodies  have  been 
brought  to  the  same  temperature  by  conduction,  they  are  also  in 
equilibrium  as  regards  radiation,  and  vice  versa.  If  this  were 
not  the  case,  there  could  be  no  equilibrium  of  heat  defined  by 
equality  of  temperature.  A  hot  body  placed  in  an  enclosure  of 
lower  temperature,  e.g.  a  calorimeter  in  its  containing  vessel, 
generally  loses  heat  by  all  three  modes  simultaneously  in  different 
degrees.  The  loss  by  each  mode  will  depend  in  different  ways 
on  the  form,  extent  and  nature  of  its  surface  and  on  that  of  the 
enclosure,  on  the  manner  in  which  it  is  supported,  on  its  relative 
position  and  distance  from  the  enclosure,  and  on  the  nature  of 
the  intervening  medium.  But  provided  that  the  difference  of 
temperature  is  small,  the  rate  of  loss  of  heat  by  all  modes  will 
be  approximately  proportional  to  the  difference  of  temperature, 
the  other  conditions  remaining  constant.  The  rate  of  cooling 
or  the  rate  of  fall  of  temperature  will  also  be  nearly  proportional 
to  the  rate  of  loss  of  heat,  if  the  specific  heat  of  the  cooling  body 
is  constant,  or  the  rate  of  cooling  at  any  moment  will  be  pro- 
portional to  the  difference  of  temperature.  This  simple  relation 
is  commonly  known  as  Newton's  law  of  cooling,  but  is  limited 
in  its  application  to  comparatively  simple  cases  such  as  the 
foregoing.  Newton  himself  applied  it  to  estimate  the  temperature 
of  a  red-hot  iron  ball,  by  observing  the  time  which  it  -took  to 
cool  from  a  red  heat  to  a  known  temperature,  and  comparing 
this  with  the  time  taken  to  cool  through  a  known  range  at 
ordinary  temperatures.  According  to  this  law  if  the  excess  of 
temperature  of  the  body  above  its  surroundings  is  observed 
at  equal  intervals  of  time,  the  observed  values  will  form  a 
geometrical  progression  with  a  common  ratio.  Supposing,  for 
instance,  that  the  surrounding  temperature  were  o°  C.,  that  the 
red-hot  ball  took  25  minutes  to  cool  from  its  original  temperature 
to  20°  C.,  and  5  minutes  to  cool  from  20°  C.  to  10°  C.,  the  original 
temperature  is  easily  calculated  on  the  assumption  that  the  excess 
of  temperature  above  o°  C.  falls  to  half  its  value  in  each  interval 
of  5  minutes.  Doubling  the  value  20°  at  25  minutes  five  times, 
we  arrive  at  640°  C.  as  the  original  temperature.  No  other  method 
of  estimation  of  such  temperatures  was  available  in  the  time  of 
Newton,  but,  as  we  now  know,  the  simple  law  of  proportionality 
to  the  temperature  difference  is  inapplicable  over  such  large 
ranges  of  temperature.  The  rate  of  loss  of  heat  by  radiation, 


and  also  by  convection  and  conduction  to  the  surrounding  air, 
increases  much  more  rapidly  than  in  simple  proportion  to  the 
temperature  difference,  and  the  rate  of  increase  of  each  follows 
a  different  law.  At  a  later  date  Sir  John  Herschel  measured  the 
intensity  of  the  solar  radiation  at  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and 
endeavoured  to  form  an  estimate  of  the  temperature  of  the  sun 
by  comparison  with  terrestrial  sources  on  the  assumption  that 
the  intensity  of  radiation  was  simply  pioportional  to  the  tem- 
perature difference.  He  thus  arrived  at  an  estimate  of  several 
million  degrees,  which  we  now  know  would  be  about  a  thousand 
times  too  great.  The  application  of  Newton's  law  necessarily 
leads  to  absurd  results  when  the  difference  of  temperature  is 
very  large,  but  the  error  will  not  in  general  exceed  2  to  3%  if 
the  temperature  difference  does  not  exceed  10°  C.,  and  the 
percentage  error  is  proportionately  much  smaller  for  smaller 
differences. 

27.  Didong  and  Pelit's  Empirical  Laws  of  Cooling. — One  of  the 
most  elaborate  experimental  investigations  of  the  law  of  cooling 
was  that  of  Dulong  and  Petit  (Ann.  Chim.  Phys.,  1817,  7,  pp. 
225  and  337),  who  observed  the  rate  of  cooling  of  a  mercury 
thermometer  from  300°  C.  in  a  water-jacketed  enclosure  at 
various  temperatures  from  o°  C.  to  80°  C.  In  order  to  obtain  the 
rate  of  cooling  by  radiation  alone,  they  exhausted  the  enclosure 
as  perfectly  as  possible  after  the  introduction  of  the  thermometer, 
but  with  the  imperfect  appliances  available  at  that  time  they 
were  not  able  to  obtain  a  vacuum  better  than  about  3  or  4  mm. 
of  mercury.  They  found  that  the  velocity  of  cooling  V  in  a 
vacuum  could  be  represented  by  a  formula  of  the  type 


A(o'-o'0) 


•      (5) 


in  which  t  is  the  temperature  of  the  thermometer,  and  /o  that  of 
the  enclosure,  a  is  a  constant  having  the  value  1-0075,  and  tne 
coefficient  A  depends  on  the  form  of  the  bulb  and  the  nature 
of  its  surface.  For  the  ranges  of  temperature  they  employed, 
this  formula  gives  much  better  results  than  Newton's,  but  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  temperatures  were  expressed  on 
the  arbitrary  scale  of  the  mercury  thermometer,  and  were  not 
corrected  for  the  large  and  uncertain  errors  of  stem-exposure 
(see  THERMOMETRY).  Moreover,  although  the  effects  of  cooling 
by  convection  currents  are  practically  eliminated  by  exhausting 
to  3  or  4  mm.  (since  the  density  of  the  gas  is  reduced  to  i/2ooth 
while  its  viscosity  is  not  appreciably  affected),  the  rate  of  cooling 
by  conduction  is  not  materially  diminished,  since  the  conductivity, 
like  the  viscosity,  is  nearly  independent  of  pressure.  It  has 
since  been  shown  by  Sir  William  Crookes  (Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  1881, 
21,  p.  239)  that  the  rate  of  cooling  of  a  mercury  thermometer 
in  a  vacuum  suffers  a  very  great  diminution  when  the  pressure 
is  reduced  from  i  mm.  to  -ooi  mm.,  at  which  pressure  the  effect 
of  conduction  by  the  residual  gas  has  practically  disappeared. 

Dulong  and  Petit  also  observed  the  rate  of  cooling  under  the 
same  conditions  with  the  enclosure  filled  with  various  gases. 
They  found  that  the  cooling  effect  of  the  gas  could  be  represented 
by  adding  to  the  term  already  given  as  representing  radiation, 
an  'expression  of  the  form 

V'  =  B/>«(/-fc)i:fM       ....      (6) 

They  found  that  the  cooling  effect  of  convection,  unlike  that  of 
radiation,  was  independent  of  the  nature  of  the  surface  of  the 
thermometer,  whether  silvered  or  blackened,  that  it  varied  as 
some  power  c  of  the  pressure  p,  and  that  it  was  independent 
of  the  absolute  temperature  of  the  enclosure,  but  varied  as  the 
excess  temperature  (t-la)  raised  to  the  power  1-233.  This 
highly  artificial  result  undoubtedly  contains  some  elements  of 
truth,  but  could  only  be  applied  to  experiments  similar  to  those 
from  which  it  was  derived.  F.  Herv6  de  la  Provostaye  and 
P.  Q.  Desains  (Ann.  Chim.  Phys.,  1846,  16,  p.  337),  in  repeating 
these  experiments  under  various  conditions,  found  that  the 
coefficients  A  and  B  were  to  some  extent  dependent  on  the 
temperature,  and  that  the  manner  in  which  the  cooling  effect 
varied  with  the  pressure  depended  on  the  form  and  size  of  the 
enclosure.  It  is  evident  that  this  should  be  the  case,  since  the 
cooling  effect  of  the  gas  depends  partly  on  convective  currents. 


HEAT 


[DIFFUSION  OF  TEMPERATURE 


which  are  necessarily  greatly  modified  by  the  form  of  the 
enclosure  in  a  manner  which  it  would  appear  hopeless  to 
attempt  to  represent  by  any  general  formula. 

28.  Surface  Emissivity. — The  same  remark  applies  to  many 
attempts  which  have  since  been  made  to  determine  the  general 
value  of  the  constant  termed  by  Fourier  and  early  writers  the 
"  exterior  conductibility,"  but  now  called  the  surface  emissivity. 
This  coefficient  represents  the  rate  of  loss  of  heat  from  a  body 
per  unit  area  of  surface  per  degree  excess  of  temperature,  and 
includes  the  effects  of  radiation,  convection  and  conduction. 
As  already  pointed  out,  the  combined  effect  will  be  nearly 
proportional  to  the  excess  of  temperature  in  any  given  case 
provided  that  the  excess  is  small,  but  it  is  not  necessarily  pro- 
portional to  the  extent  of  surface  exposed  except  in  the  case  of 
pure  radiation.     The  rate  of  loss  by  convection  and  conduction 
varies  greatly  with  the  form  of  the  surface,  and,  unless  the 
enclosure  is  very  large  compared  with  the  cooling  body,  the  effect 
depends  also  on  the  size  and  form  of  the  enclosure.     Heat  is 
necessarily  communicated  from  the  cooling  body  to  the  layer 
of  gas  in  contact  with  it  by  conduction.     If  the  linear  dimensions 
of  the  body  are  small,  as  in  the  case  of  a  fine  wire,  or  if  it  is 
separated  from  the  enclosure  by  a  thin  layer  of  gas,  the  rate 
of  loss  depends  chiefly  on  conduction.     For  very  fine  metallic 
wires  heated  by  an  electric  current,   W.  E.   Ayrton  and  H. 
Kilgour  (Phil.   Trans.,  1892)  showed  that  the  rate  of  loss  is 
nearly  independent  of  the  surface,  instead  of  being  directly 
proportional  to  it.     This  should  be  the  case,  as  Porter  has  shown 
(Phil.  Mag.,  March  1895),  since  the  effect  depends  mainly  on 
conduction.     The  effects  of  conduction  and  radiation  may  be 
approximately  estimated  if  the  conductivity  of  the  gas  and  the 
nature  and  forms  of  the  surfaces  of  the  body  and  enclosure  are 
known,  but  the  effect  of  convection  in  any  case  can  be  determined 
only  by  experiment.     It  has  been  found  that  the  rate  of  cooling 
by  a  current  of  air  is  approximately  proportional  to  the  velocity 
of  the  current,  other  things  being  equal.     It  is  obvious  that  this 
should  be  the  case,  but  the  result  cannot  generally  be  applied 
to  convection  currents.     Values  which  are  commonly  given  for 
the  surface  emissivity  must  therefore  be  accepted  with  great 
reserve.     They  can  be  regarded  only  as  approximate,  and  as 
applicable  only  to  cases  precisely  similar  to  those  for  which  they 
were  experimentally  obtained.     There  cannot  be  said  to  be  any 
general  law  of  convection.     The  loss  of  heat  is  not  necessarily 
proportional  to  the  area  of  the  surface,  and  no  general  value  of 
the  coefficient  can  be  given  to  suit  all  cases.     The  laws  of  con- 
duction and  radiation  admit  of  being  more  precisely  formulated, 
and  their  effects  predicted,  except  in  so  far  as  they  are  complicated 
by  convection. 

29.  Conduction  of  Heat. — The  laws  of  transference  of  heat  in 
the  interior  of  a  solid  body  formed  one  of  the  earliest  subjects 
of  mathematical  and  experimental  treatment  in  the  theory  of 
heat.     The  law  assumed  by  Fourier  was  of  the  simplest  possible 
type,  but  the  mathematical  application,  except  in  the  simplest 
cases,  was  so  difficult  as  to  require  the  development  of  a  new 
mathematical   method.     Fourier  succeeded  in  showing    how, 
by  his  method  of  analysis,  the  solution  of  any  given  problem 
with  regard  to  the  flow  of  heat  by  conduction  in  any  material 
could  be  obtained  in  terms  of  a  physical  constant,  the  thermal 
conductivity  of  the  material,  and  that  the  results  obtained  by 
experiment  agreed  in  a  qualitative  manner  with  those  predicted 
by  his  theory.     But  the  experimental  determination  of  the  actual 
values  of  these  constants  presented  formidable  difficulties  which 
were  not  surmounted  till  a  later  date.    The  experimental  methods 
and  difficulties  are  discussed  in  a  special  article  on  CONDUCTION 
OF  HEAT.     It  will  suffice  here  to  give  a  brief  historical  sketch, 
including  a  few    of  the  more  important    results  by  way  of 
illustration. 

30.  Comparison  of  Conducting  Powers. — That  the  power  of 
transmitting  heat  by  conduction  varied  widely    in    different 
materials  was  probably  known  in  a  general  way  from  prehistoric 
times.     Empirical  knowledge  of  this  kind  is  shown  in  the  con- 
struction of  many  articles  for  heating,  cooking,  &c.,  such  as  the 
copper  soldering  bolt,  or  the  Norwegian  cooking-stove.     One 


of  the  earliest  experiments  for  making  an  actual  comparison  of 
conducting  powers  was  that  suggested  by  Franklin,  but 
carried  out  by  Jan  Ingenhousz  (Journ.  de  phys.,  1789,  34, 
pp.  68  and  380).  Exactly  similar  bars  of  different  materials, 
glass,  wood,  metal,  &c.,  thinly  coated  with  wax,  were  fixed 
in  the  side  of  a  trough  of  boiling  water  so  as  to  project  for  equal 
distances  through  the  side  of  the  trough  into  the  external  air. 
The  wax  coating  was  observed  to  melt  as  the  heat  travelled  along 
the  bars,  the  distance  from  the  trough  to  which  the  wax  was 
melted  along  each  affording  an  approximate  indication  of 
the  distribution  of  temperature.  When  the  temperature  of  each 
bar  had  become  stationary  the  heat  which  it  gained  by  conduction 
from  the  trough  must  be  equal  to  the  heat  lost  to  the  surrounding 
air,  and  must  therefore  be  approximately  proportional  to  the 
distance  to  which  the  wax  had  melted  along  the  bar.  But  the 
temperature  fall  per  unit  length,  or  the  temperature-gradient, 
in  each  bar  at  the  point  where  it  emerged  from  the  trough  would 
be  inversely  proportional  to  the  same  distance.  For  equal 
temperature-gradients  the  quantities  of  heat  conducted  (or  the 
relative  conducting  powers  of  the  bars)  would  therefore  be 
proportional  to  the  squares  of  the  distances  to  which  the  wax 
finally  melted  on  each  bar.  This  was  shown  by  Fourier  and 
Despretz  (Ann.  Mm.  phys.,  1822,  19,  p.  97). 

31.  Diffusion  of  Temperature. — It  was  shown  in  connexion 
with  this  experiment  by  Sir  H.  Davy,  and  the  experiment  was 
later  popularized  by  John  Tyndall,  that  the  rate  at  which  wax 
melted  along  the  bar,  or  the  rate  of  propagation  of  a  given 
temperature,  during  the  first  moments  of  heating,  as  distinguished 
from  the  melting-distance  finally  attained,  depended  on  the 
specific  heat  as  well  as  the  conductivity.     Short  prisms  of  iron 
and  bismuth  coated  with  wax  were  placed  on  a  hot  metal  plate. 
The  wax  was  observed  to  melt  first  on  the  bismuth,  although  its 
conductivity  is  less  than  that  of  iron.     The  reason  is  that  its 
specific  heat  is  less  than  that  of  iron  in  the  proportion  of  3  to  n. 
The  densities  of  iron  and  bismuth  being  7-8  and  9-8,  the  thermal 
capacities  of  equal  prisms  will  be  in  the  ratio  -86  for  iron  to  -29 
for  bismuth.     If  the  prisms  receive  heat  at  equal  rates,  the  bis- 
muth will  reach  the  temperature  of  melting  wax  nearly  three 
times  as  quickly  as  the  iron.     It  is  often  stated  on  the  strength 
of  this  experiment  that  the  rate  of  propagation  of  a  temperature 
wave,  which  depends  on  the  ratio  of  the  conductivity  to  the 
specific  heat  per  unit  volume,  is  greater  in  bismuth  than  in  iron 
(e.g.  Preston,  Heat,  p.  628).     This  is  quite  incorrect,  because  the 
conductivity  of  iron  is  about  six  times  that  of  bismuth,  and  the 
rate  of  propagation  of  a  temperature  wave  is  therefore  twice 
as  great  in  iron  as  in  bismuth.     The  experiment  in  reality  is 
misleading  because  the  rates  of  reception  of  heat  by  the  prisms 
are  limited  by  the  very  imperfect  contact  with  the  hot  metal 
plate,  and  are  not  proportional  to  the  respective  conductivities. 
If  the  iron  and  bismuth  bars  are  properly  faced  and  soldered  to 
the  top  of  a  copper  box  (in  order  to  ensure  good  metallic  contact, 
and  exclude  a  non-conducting  film  of  air),  and  the  box  is  then 
heated  by  steam,  the  rates  of  reception  of  heat  will  be  nearly 
proportional  to  the  conductivities,  and  the  wax  will  melt  nearly 
twice  as  fast  along  the  iron  as  along  the  bismuth.     A  bar  of  lead 
similarly  treated  will  show  a  faster  rate  of  propagation  than 
iron,  because,  although  its  conductivity  is  only  half  that  of  iron, 
its  specific  heat  per  unit  volume  is  2-5  times  smaller. 

32.  Bad  Conductors.     Liquids  and  Gases. — Count  Rumford 
(1792)  compared  the  conducting  powers  of  substances  used  in 
clothing,  such  as  wool  and  cotton,  fur  and  down,  by  observing 
the  time  which  a  thermometer  took  to  cool  when  embedded  in  a 
globe  filled  successively  with  the  different  materials.     The  times 
of  cooling  observed  for  a  given  range  varied  from  1300  to  900 
seconds  for  different  materials.     The  low  conducting  power  of 
such  materials  is  principally  due  to  the  presence  of  air  in  the 
interstices,  which  is  prevented  from  forming  convection  currents 
by  the  presence  of  the  fibrous  material.     Finely  powdered  silica 
is  a  very  bad  conductor,  but  in  the  compact  form  of  rock  crystal 
it  is  as  good  a  conductor  as  some  of  the  metals.     According  to  the 
kinetic  theory  of  gases,  the  conductivity  of  a  gas  depends  on 
molecular  diffusion.     Maxwell  estimated  the  conductivity  of 


HEATING  BY  CONDENSATION] 


HEAT 


air  at  ordinary  temperatures  at  about  20,000  times  less  than  that 
of  copper.  This  has  been  verified  experimentally  by  Kundt  and 
Warburg,  Stefan  and  Winkelmann,  by  taking  special  precautions 
to  eliminate  the  effects  of  convection  currents  and  radiation. 
It  was  for  some  time  doubted  whether  a  gas  possessed  any  true 
conductivity  for  heat.  The  experiment  of  T.  Andrews,  repeated 
by  Grove,  and  Magnus,  showing  that  a  wire  heated  by  an  electric 
current  was  raised  to  a  higher  temperature  in  air  than  in 
hydrogen,  was  explained  by  Tyndall  as  being  due  to  the  greater 
mobility  of  hydrogen  which  gave  rise  to  stronger  convection 
currents.  In  reality  the  effect  is  due  chiefly  to  the  greater 
velocity  of  motion  of  the  ultimate  molecules  of  hydrogen,  and  is 
most  marked  if  molar  (as  opposed  to  molecular)  convection  is 
eliminated.  Molecular  convection  or  diffusion,  which  cannot  be 
distinguished  experimentally  from  conduction,  as  it  follows  the 
same  law,  is  also  the  main  cause  of  conduction  of  heat  in  liquids. 
Both  in  liquids  and  gases  the  effects  of  convection  currents  are 
so  much  greater  than  those  of  diffusion  or  conduction  that  the 
latter  are  very  difficult  to  measure,  and,  except  in  special  cases, 
comparatively  unimportant  as  affecting  the  transference  of  heat. 
Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  eliminating  the  effects  of  radiation 
and  convection,  the  results  obtained  for  the  conductivities  of 
liquids  are  somewhat  discordant,  and  there  is  in  most  cases  great 
uncertainty  whether  the  conductivity  increases  or  diminishes 
with  rise  of  temperature.  It  would  appear,  however,  that  liquids, 
such  as  water  and  glycerin,  differ  remarkably  little  in  conduc- 
tivity in  spite  of  enormous  differences  of  viscosity.  '  The  viscosity 
of  a  liquid  diminishes  very  rapidly  with  rise  of  temperature, 
without  any  marked  change  in  the  conductivity,  whereas  the 
viscosity  of  a  gas  increases  with  rise  of  temperature,  and  is 
always  nearly  proportional  to  the  conductivity. 

33.  Difficulty  of  Quantitative  Estimation  of  Heat  Transmitted. — • 
The  conducting  powers  of  different  metals  were  compared  by 
C.  M.  Despretz,  and  later  by  G.  H.  Wiedemann  and  R.  Franz, 
employing  an  extension  of  the  method  of  Jan  Ingenhousz,  in 
which  the  temperatures  at  different  points  along  a  bar  heated 
at  one  end  were  measured  by  thermometers  or  thermocouples 
let  into  small  holes  in  the  bars,  instead  of  being  measured  at  one 
point  only  by  means  of  melting  wax.  These  experiments  un- 
doubtedly gave  fairly  accurate  relative  values,  but  did  not  permit 
the  calculation  of  the  absolute  amounts  of  heat  transmitted. 
This  was  first  obtained  by  J.  D.  Forbes  (Brit.  Assoc.  Rep.,  1852; 
Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Ed.,  1862,  23,  p.  133)  by  deducing  the  amount 
of  heat  lost  to  the  surrounding  air  from  a  separate  experiment  in 
which  the  rate  of  cooling  of  the  bar  was  observed  (see  CONDUC- 
TION OF  HEAT).  Clement  (Ann.  Mm.  phys.,  1841)  had  pre- 
viously attempted  to  determine  the  conductivities  of  metals  by 
observing  the  amount  of  heat  transmitted  by  a  plate  with  one 
side  exposed  to  steam  at  100°  C.,  and  the  other  side  cooled  by 
water  at  28°  C.  Employing  a  copper  plate  3  mm.  thick,  and 
assuming  that  the  two  surfaces  of  the  plate  were  at  the  same 
temperatures  as  the  water  and  the  steam  to  which  they  were 
exposed,  or  that  the  temperature-gradient  in  the  metal  was 
72°  in  3  mm.,  he  had  thus  obtained  a  value  which  we_now  know 
to  be  nearly  200  times  too  small.  The  actual  temperature 
difference  in  the  metal  itself  was  really  about  0-36°  C.  The 
remainder  of  the  72°  drop  was  in  the  badly  conducting  films 
of  water  and  steam  close  to  the  metal  surface.  Similarly  in  a 
boiler  plate  in  contact  with  flame  at  1500°  C.  on  one  side  and 
water  at,  say,  150°  C.  on  the  other,  the  actual  difference  of 
temperature  in  the  metal,  even  if  it  is  an  inch  thick,  is  only  a 
few  degrees.  The  metal,  unless  badly  furred  with  incrustation, 
is  but  little  hotter  than  the  water.  It  is  immaterial  so  far  as 
the  transmission  of  heat  is  concerned,  whether  the  plates  are 
iron  or  copper.  The  greater  part  of  the  resistance  to  the  passage 
of  heat  resides  in  a  comparatively  quiescent  film  of  gas  close 
to  the  surface,  through  which  film  the  heat  has  to  pass  mainly 
by  conduction.  If  a  Bunsen  flame,  preferably  coloured  with 
sodium,  is  observed  impinging  on  a  cold  metal  plate,  it  will  be 
seen  to  be  separated  from  the  plate  by  a  dark  space  of  a  millimetre 
or  less,  throughout  which  the  temperature  of  the  gas  is  lowered 
by  its  own  conductivity  below  the  temperature  of  incandescence. 


There  is  no  abrupt  change  of  temperature  in  passing  from  the  gas 
to  the  metal,  but  a  continuous  temperature-gradient  from  the 
temperature  of  the  metal  to  that  of  the  flame.  It  is  true  that 
this  gradient  may  be  upwards  of  1000°  C.  per  mm.,  but  there 
is  no  discontinuity. 

34.  Resistance  of  a  Gas  Film  to  the  Passage  of  Heat. — It  is  possible 
to  make  a  rough  estimate  of  the  resistance  of  such  a  film  to  the 
passage  of  heat  through  it.    Taking  the  average  conductivity  of 
the  gas  in  the  film  as  10,000  times  less  than  that  of  copper 
(about  double  the  conductivity  of  air  at  ordinary  temperatures) 
a  millimetre  film  would  be  equivalent  to  a  thickness  of  10  metres 
of  copper,  or  about  1-2  metres  of  iron.     Taking  the  temperature- 
gradient  as  1000°  C.  per  mm.  such  a  film  would  transmit  i 
gramme-calorie  per  sq.  cm.  per  sec.,  or  36,000  kilo-calories  per 
sq.  metre  per  hour.     With  an  area  of  100  sq.  cms.  the  heat 
transmitted  at  this  rate  would  raise  a  litre  of  water  from  20°  C. 
to  100°  C.  in  800  sees.     By  experiment  with  a  strong  Bunsen 
flame  it  takes  from  8  to  10  minutes  to  do  this,  which  would 
indicate  that  on  the  above  assumptions  the  equivalent  thickness 
of  quiescent  film  should  be  rather  less  than  i  mm.  in  this  case. 
The  thickness  of  the  film  diminishes  with  the  velocity  of  the 
burning  gases  impinging  on  the  surface.     This  accounts  for 
the  rapidity  of  heating  by  a  blowpipe  flame,  which  is  not  due 
to  any  great  increase  in  temperature  of  the  flame  as  compared 
with  a  Bunsen.     Similarly  the  efficiency  of  a'  boiler  is  but  slightly 
reduced  if  half  the  tubes  are  stopped  up,  because  the  increase 
pf  draught  through  the  remainder  compensates  partly  for  the 
diminished  heating  surface.     Some  resistance  to  the  passage 
of  heat  into  a  boiler  is  also  due  to  the  water  film  on  the  inside. 
But  this  is  of  less  account,  because  the  conductivity  of  water 
is  much  greater  than  that  of  air,  and  because  the  film  is  continu- 
ally broken  up  by  the  formation  of  steam,  which  abstracts 
heat  very  rapidly. 

35.  Heating  by  Condensation  of  Steam. — It  is  often  stated  that 
the  rate  at  which  steam  will  condense  on  a  metal  surface  at  a 
temperature  below  that  corresponding  to  the  saturation  pressure 
of   the  steam   is   practically   infinite   (e.g.  Osborne   Reynolds, 
Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Ed.,  1873,  p.  275),  and  conversely  that  the  rate 
at  which  water  will  abstract  heat  from  a  metal  surface  by  the 
formation  of  steam  (if  the  metal  is  above  the  temperature  of 
saturation  of  the  steam)  is  limited  only  by  the  rate  at  which 
the  metal  can  supply  heat  by  conduction  to  its  surface  layer. 
The  rate  at  which  heat  can  be  supplied  by  condensation  of 
steam  appears  to  be  much  greater  than  that  at  which  heat  can 
be  supplied  by  a  flame  under  ordinary  conditions,  but  there  is 
no  reason  to  suppose  that  it  is  infinite,  or  that  any  discontinuity 
exists.     Experiments  by  H.  L.  Callendar  and  j.  T.  Nicolson 
by  three  independent  methods  (Proc.  Inst.  Civ.  Eng.,   1898, 
131,  p.  147;  Brit.  Assoc.  Rep.  p.  418)  appear  to  show  that  the 
rate  of  abstraction  of  heat  by  evaporation,  or  that  of  communica- 
tion of  heat  by  condensation,  depends  chiefly  on  the  difference 
of  temperature  between  the  metal  surface  and  the  saturated 
steam,  and  is  nearly  proportional  to  the  temperature  difference 
(not  to  the  pressure  difference,  as  suggested  by  Reynolds)  for 
such  ranges  of  pressure  as  are  common  in  practice.     The  rate 
of  heat  transmission  they  observed  was  equivalent  to  about 
8  calories  per  sq.  cm.  per  sec.,  for  a  difference  of  20  °  C.  between 
the  temperature  of  the  metal  surface  and  the  saturation  tempera- 
ture of  the  steam.    This  would  correspond  to  a  condensation 
of  530  kilogrammes  of  steam  at  100°  C.  per  sq.  metre  per  hour, 
or  109  Ib  per  sq.  ft.  per  hour  for  the  same  difference  of  temperature, 
values  which  are  many  times  greater  than  those  actually  obtained 
in  ordinary' surface  condensers.    The  reason  for  this  is  that  there 
is  generally  some  air  mixed  with  the  steam  in  a  surface  condenser, 
which  greatly  retards  the  condensation.     It  is  also  difficult  to 
keep  the  temperature  of  the  metal  as  much  as  20°  C.  below  the 
temperature  of  the  steam  unless  a  very  free  and  copious  circula- 
tion of  cold  water  is  available.     For  the  same  difference  of 
temperature,  steam  can  supply  heat  by  condensation  about  a 
thousand  times  faster  than  hot  air.     This  rate  is  not  often 
approached   in   practice,   but   the   facility   of   generation   and 
transmission   of  steam,   combined   with   its  high   latent   heat 


152 


HEAT 


[THEORY  OF  EXCHANGES 


and  the  accuracy  of  control  and  regulation  of  temperature 
afforded,  render  it  one  of  the  most  convenient  agents  for  the 
distribution  of  large  quantities  of  heat  in  all  kinds  of  manu- 
facturing processes. 

36.  Spheroidal  Slate. — An  interesting  contrast  to  the  extreme 
rapidity  with  which  heat  is  abstracted  by  the  evaporation  of  a 
liquid  in  contact  with  a  metal  plate,  is  the  so-called  spheroidal 
state.     A  small  drop  of  liquid  thrown  on  a  red-hot  metal  plate 
assumes  a  spheroidal  form,  and  continues  swimming  about  for 
some  time,  while  it  slowly  evaporates  at  a  temperature  somewhat 
below  its  boiling-point.     The  explanation   is  simply  that  the 
liquid  itself  cannot  come  in  actual  contact  with  the  metal  plate 
(especially  if  the  latter  is  above  the  critical  temperature),  but 
is  separated  from  it  by  a  badly  conducting  film  of  vapour, 
through  which,  as  we  have  seen,  the  heat  is  comparatively  slowly 
transmitted  even  if  the  difference  of  temperature  is  several 
hundred  degrees.     If  the  metal  plate  is  allowed  to  cool  gradually, 
the  drop  remains  suspended  on  its  cushion  of  vapour,  until,  in 
the  case  of  water,  a  temperature  of  about  200°  C.  is  reached, 
at  which  the  liquid  comes  in  contact  with  the  plate  and  boils 
explosively,   reducing  the  temperature  of  the  plate,  if  thin, 
almost  instantaneously  to  100°  C.     The  temperature  of  the  metal 
is  readily  observed  by  a  thermo-electric  method,  employing  a 
platinum  dish  with  a  platinum-rhodium  wire  soldered  with  gold 
to  its  under  side.     The  absence  of  contact  between  the  liquid 
and  the  dish  in  the  spheroidal  state  may  also  be  shown  by 
connecting  one  terminal  of  a  galvanometer  to  the  drop  and  the 
other  through  u  battery  to  the  dish,  and  observing  that  no 
current  passes  until  the  drop  boils. 

37.  Early  Theories  of  Radiation. — It  was  at  one  time  supposed 
that   there  were   three  distinct   kinds  of  radiation — thermal, 
luminous  and  actinic,  combined  in  the  radiation  from  a  luminous 
source  such  as  the  sun  or  a  flame.     The  first  gave  rise  to  heat, 
the  second  to  light  and  the  third  to  chemical  action.     The  three 
kinds  were  partially  separated  by  a  prism,  the  actinic  rays 
being  generally  more  refracted,  and  the  thermal  rays  less  re- 
fracted than  the  luminous.     This  conception  arose  very  naturally 
from  the  observation  that  the  feebly  luminous  blue  and  violet 
rays  produced  the  greatest  photographic  effects,  which  also 
showed  the  existence  of  dark  rays  beyond  the  violet,  whereas  the 
brilliant  yellow  and  red  were  practically  without  action  on  the 
photographic  plate.     A  thermometer  placed  in  the  blue  or  violet 
showed  no  appreciable  rise  of  temperature,  and  even  in  the  yellow 
the  effect  was  hardly  discernible.     The  effect  increased  rapidly 
as  the  light  faded  towards  the  extreme  red,  and  reached  a 
maximum  beyond  the  extreme  limits  of  the  spectrum  (Herschel), 
showing  that  the  greater  part  of  the  thermal  radiation  was  al- 
together non-luminous.     It  is  now  a  commonplace  that  chemical 
action,  colour  sensation  and  heat  are  merely  different  effects 
of  one  and  the  same  kind  of  radiation,  the  particular  effect 
produced  in  each  case  depending  on  the  frequency  and  intensity 
of  the  vibration,  and  on  the  nature  of  the  substance  on  which 
it  falls.     When  radiation  is  completely  absorbed  by  a  black 
substance,  it  is  converted  into  heat,  the  quantity  of  heat  produced 
being  equivalent  to  the  total  energy  of  the  radiation  absorbed, 
irrespective  of  the  colour  or  frequency  of  the  different  rays. 
The  actinic  or  chemical  effects,  on  the  other  hand,  depend  essenti- 
ally on  some  relation  between  the  period  of  the  vibration  and 
the  properties  of  the  substance  acted  on.     The  rays  producing 
such  effects  are  generally  those  which  are  most  strongly  absorbed. 
The  spectrum  of  chlorophyll,  the  green  colouring  matter  of  plants, 
shows  two  very  strong  absorption  bands  in  the  red.     The  red 
rays  of  corresponding  period  are  found  to  be  the  most  active 
in  promoting  the  growth  of  the  plant.     The  chemically  active 
rays    are    not    necessarily    the    shortest.     Even    photographic 
plates  may  be  made  to  respond  to  the  red  rays  by  staining  them 
with  pinachrome  or  some  other  suitable  dye. 

The  action  of  light  rays  on  the  retina  is  closely  analogous  to 
the  action  on  a  photographic  plate.  The  retina,  like  the  plate, 
is  sensitive  only  to  rays  within  certain  restricted  limits  of 
frequency.  The  limits  of  sensitiveness  of  each  colour  sensation 
are  not  exactly  defined,  but  vary  slightly  from  one  individual 


to  another,  especially  in  cases  of  partial  colour-blindness,  and 
are  modified  by  conditions  of  fatigue.  We  are  not  here  concerned 
with  these  important  physiological  and  chemical  effects  of 
radiation,  but  rather  with  the  question  of  the  conversion  of  energy 
of  radiation  into  heat,  and  with  the  laws  of  emission  and  absorp- 
tion of  radiation  in  relation  to  temperature.  We  may  here  also 
assume  the  identity  of  visible  and  invisible  radiations  from  a 
heated  body  in  all  their  physical  properties.  It  has  been  abund- 
antly proved  that  the  invisible  rays,  like  the  visible,  (i)  are 
propagated  in  straight  lines  in  homogeneous  media;  (2)  are 
reflected  and  diffused  from  the  surface  of  bodies  according  to  the 
same  law;  (3)  travel  with  the  same  velocity  in  free  space,  but 
with  slightly  different  velocities  in  denser  media,  being  subject 
to  the  same  law  of  refraction;  (4)  exhibit  all  the  phenomena 
of  diffraction  and  interference  which  are  characteristic  of  wave- 
motion  in  general;  (5)  are  capable  of  polarization  and  double 
refraction;  (6)  exhibit  similar  effects  of  selective  absorption. 
These  properties  are  more  easily  demonstrated  in  the  case  of 
visible  rays  on  account  of  the  great  sensitiveness  of  the  eye. 
But  with  the  aid  of  the  thermopile  or  other  sensitive  radiometer, 
they  may  be  shown  to  belong  equally  to  all  the  radiations  from 
a  heated  body,  even  such  as  are  thirty  to  fifty  times  slower  in 
frequency  than  the  longest  visible  rays.  The  same  physical 
properties  have  also  been  shown  to  belong  to  electromagnetic 
waves  excited  by  an  electric  discharge,  whatever  the  frequency, 
thus  including  all  kinds  of  aetherial  radiation  in  the  same  category 
as  light. 

38.  Theory  of  Exchanges. — The  apparent   concentration  of 
cold  by  a  concave  mirror,  observed  by  G.  B.  Porta  and  redis- 
covered by  M.  A.  Pictet,  led  to  the  enunciation  of  the  theory 
of  exchanges  by  Pierre  Prevost  in  1791.     Prevost's  leading  idea 
was  that  all  bodies,  whether  cold  or  hot,  are  constantly  radiating 
heat.     Heat  equilibrium,  he  says,  consists  in  an  equality  of  ex- 
change.    When  equilibrium  is  interfered  with,  it  is  re-established 
by  inequalities  of  exchange.     If  into   a  locality   at   uniform 
temperature  a  refracting  or  reflecting  body  is  introduced,  it  has 
no  effect  in  the  way  of  changing  the  temperature  at  any  point 
of  that  locality.     A  reflecting  body,  heated  or  cooled  in  the 
interior  of  such  an  enclosure,   will  acquire   the  surrounding 
temperature  more  slowly  than  would  a  non-reflector,  and  will 
less  affect  another  body  placed  at  a  little  distance,  but  will  not 
affect  the  final  equality  of  temperature.     Apparent  radiation  of 
cold,  as  from  a  block  of  ice  to  a  thermometer  placed  near  it,  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  thermometer  being  at  a  higher  tempera- 
ture sends  more  heat  to  the  ice  than  it  received  back  from  it. 
Although  Prevost  does  not  make  the  statement  in  so  many  words, 
it  is  clear  that  he  regards  the  radiation  from  a  body  as  depending 
only  on  its  own  nature  and  temperature,  and  as  independent  of 
the  nature  and  presence  of  any  adjacent  body.     Heat  equilibrium 
in  an  enclosure  of  constant  temperature  such  as  is  here  postulated 
by  Prevost,  has  often  been  regarded  as  a  consequence  of  Carnot's 
principle.     Since    difference    of    temperature    is    required    for 
transforming  heat  into  work,  no  work  could  be  obtained  from 
heat  in  such  a  system,  and  no  spontaneous  changes  of  tempera- 
ture can  take  place,  as  any  such  changes  might  be  utilized  for  the 
production  of  work.     This  line  of  reasoning  does  not  appear 
quite  satisfactory,  because  it  is  tactitly  assumed,  in  the  reasoning 
by  which   Carnot's  principle  was  established,  as  a  result  of 
universal  experience,  that  a  number  of  bodies  within  the  same 
impervious  enclosure,  which  contains  no  source  of  heat,  will 
ultimately  acquire  the  same  temperature,  and  that  difference  of 
temperature  is  required  to  produce  flow  of  heat.     Thus  although 
we  may  regard  the  equilibrium  in  such  an  enclosure  as  being 
due  to  equal  exchanges  of  heat  in  all  directions,  the  equal  and 
opposite  streams  of  radiation  annul  and  neutralize  each  other  in 
such  a  way  that  no  actual  transfer  of  energy  in  any  direction 
takes  place.     The  state  of  the  medium  is  everywhere  the  same 
in  such  an  enclosure,  but  its  energy  of  agitation  per  unit  volume 
is  a  function  of  the  temperature,  and  is  such  that  it  would  not 
be  in  equilibrium  with  any  body  at  a  different  temperature. 

39.  "  Full "    and    Selective     Radiation.     Correspondence     of 
Emission  and  Absorption. — The  most  obvious  difficulties  in  the 


DIATHERMANCY] 


HEAT 


way  of  this  theory  arise  from  the  fact  that  nearly  all  radiation 
is  more  or  less  selective  in  character,  as  regards  the  quality 
and  frequency  of  the  rays  emitted  and  absorbed.  It  was  shown 
by  J.  Leslie,  M.  Melloni  and  other  experimentalists  that  many 
substances  such  as  glass  and  water,  which  are  very  transparent  to 
visible  rays,  are  extremely  opaque  to  much  of  the  invisible 
radiation  of  lower  frequency;  and  that  polished  metals,  which 
are  perfect  reflectors,  are  very  feeble  radiators  as  compared 
with  dull  or  black  bodies  at  the  same  temperature.  If  two 
bodies  emit  rays  of  different  periods  in  different  proportions, 
it  is  not  at  first  sight  easy  to  see  how  their  radiations  can  balance 
each  other  at  the  same  temperature.  The  key  to  all  such 
difficulties  lies  in  the  fundamental  conception,  so  strongly  insisted 
on  by  Balfour  Stewart,  of  the  absolute  uniformity  (qualitative 
as  well  as  quantitative)  of  the  full  or  complete  radiation  stream 
inside  an  impervious  enclosure  of  uniform  temperature.  It 
follows  from  this  conception  that  the  proportion  of  the  full 
radiation  stream  absorbed  by  any  body  in  such  an  enclosure 
must  be  exactly  compensated  in  quality  as  well  as  quantity 
by  the  proportion  emitted,  or  that  the  emissive  and  absorptive 
powers  of  any  body  at  a  given  temperature  must  be  precisely 
equal.  A  good  reflector,  like  a  polished  metal,  must  also  be  a 
feeble  radiator  and  absorber.  Of  the  incident  radiation  it  absorbs 
a  small  fraction  and  reflects  the  remainder,  which  together  with 
the  radiation  emitted  (being  precisely  equal  to  that  absorbed) 
makes  up  the  full  radiation  stream.  A  partly  transparent  material, 
like  glass,  absorbs  part  of  the  full  radiation  and  transmits  part. 
But  it  emits  rays  precisely  equal  in  quality  and  intensity  to 
those  which  it  absorbs,  which  together  with  the  transmitted 
portion  make  up  the  full  stream.  The  ideal  black  body  or  perfect 
radiator  is  a  body  which  absorbs  all  the  radiation  incident  on  it. 
The  rays  emitted  from  such  a  body  at  any  temperature  must  be 
equal  to  the  full  radiation  stream  in  an  isothermal  enclosure  at 
the  same  temperature.  Lampblack,  which  may  absorb  between 
98  to  99%  of  the  incident  radiation,  is  generally  taken  as  the 
type  of  a  black  body.  But  a  closer  approximation  to  full  radia- 
tion may  be  obtained  by  employing  a  hollow  vessel  the  internal 
walls  of  which  are  blackened  and  maintained  at  a  uniform 
temperature  by  a  steam  jacket  or  other  suitable  means.  If 
a  relatively  small  hole  is  made  in  the  side  of  such  a  vessel,  the 
radiation  proceeding  through  the  aperture  will  be  the  full  radia- 
tion corresponding  to  the  temperature.  Such  a  vessel  is  also  a 
perfect  absorber.  Of  radiation  entering  through  the  aperture  an 
infinitesimal  fraction  only  could  possibly  emerge  by  successive 
reflection  even  if  the  sides  were  of  polished  metal  internally. 
A  thin  platinum  tube  heated  by  an  electric  current  appears 
feebly  luminous  as  compared  with  a  blackened  tube  at  the  same 
temperature.  But  if  a  small  hole  is  made  in  the  side  of  the 
polished  tube,  the  light  proceeding  through  the  hole  appears 
brighter  than  the  blackened  tube,  as  though  the  inside  of  the  tube 
were  much  hotter  than  the  outside,  which  is  not  the  case  to  any 
appreciable  extent  if  the  tube  is  thin.  The  radiation  proceeding 
through  the  hole  is  nearly  that  of  a  perfectly  black  body  if  the 
hole  is  small.  If  there  were  no  hole  the  internal  stream  of  radiation 
would  be  exactly  that  of  a  black  body  at  the  same  temperature 
however  perfect  the  reflecting  power,  or  however  low  the 
emissive  power  of  the  walls,  because  the  defect  in  emissive  power 
would  be  exactly  compensated  by  the  internal  reflection. 

Balfour  Stewart  gave  a  number  of  striking  illustrations  of  the 
qualitative  identity  of  emission  and  absorption  of  a  substance. 
Pieces  of  coloured  glass  placed  in  a  fire  appear  to  lose  their  colour 
when  at  the  same  temperature  as  the  coals  behind  them,  because 
they  compensate  exactly  for  their  selective  absorption  by 
radiating  chiefly  those  colours  which  they  absorb.  Rocksalt 
is  remarkably  transparent  to  thermal  radiation  of  nearly  all 
kinds,  but  it  is  extremely  opaque  to  radiation  from  a  heated 
plate  of  rocksalt,  because  it  emits  when  heated  precisely  those 
rays  which  it  absorbs.  A  plate  of  tourmaline  cut  parallel  to 
the  axis  absorbs  almost  completely  light  polarized  in  a  plane 
parallel  to  the  axis,  but  transmits  freely  light  polarized  in  a 
perpendicular  plane.  When  heated  its  radiation  is  polarized 
in  the  same  plane  as  the  radiation  which  it  absorbs.  In  the  case 


of  incandescent  vapours,  the  exact  correspondence  of  emission  ' 
and  absorption  as  regards  wave-length  of  frequency  of  the  light 
emitted  and  absorbed  forms  the  foundation  of  the  science  of 
spectrum  analysis.  Fraunhofer  had  noticed  the  coincidence  of 
a  pair  of  bright  yellow  lines  seen  in  the  spectrum  of  a  candle 
flame  with  the  dark  D  lines  in  the  solar  spectrum,  a  coincidence 
which  was  afterwards  more  exactly  verified  by  W.  A.  Miller. 
Foucault  found  that  the  flame  of  the  electric  arc  showed  the  same 
lines  bright  in  its  spectrum,  and  proved  that  they  appeared  as 
dark  lines  in  the  otherwise  continuous  spectrum  when  the  light 
from  the  carbon  poles  was  transmitted  through  the  arc.  Stokes 
gave  a  dynamical  explanation  of  the  phenomenon  and  illustrated 
it  by  the  analogous  case  of  resonance  in  sound.  KirchhofI 
completed  the  explanation  (Phil.  Mag.,  1860)  of  the  dark  lines 
in  the  solar  spectrum  by  showing  that  the  reversal  of  the  spectral 
lines  depended  on  the  fact  that  the  body  of  the  sun  giving  the 
continuous  spectrum  was  at  a  higher  temperature  than  the 
absorbing  layer  of  gases  surrounding  it.  Whatever  be  the  nature 
of  the  selective  radiation  from  a  body,  the  radiation  of  light  of 
any  particular  wave-length  cannot  be  greater  than  a  certain 
fraction  E  of  the  radiation  R  of  the  same  wave-length  from  a 
black  body  at  the  same  temperature.  The  fraction  E  measures 
the  emissive  power  of  the  body  for  that  particular  wave-length, 
and  cannot  be  greater  than  unity.  The  same  fraction,  by  the 
principle  of  equality  of  emissive  and  absorptive  powers,  will 
measure  the  proportion  absorbed  of  incident  radiation  R'.  If 
the  black  body  emitting  the  radiation  R'  is  at  the  same  tempera- 
ture as  the  absorbing  layer,  R  =  R',  the  emission  balances  the 
absorption,  and  the  line  will  appear  neither  bright  nor  dark.  If 
the  source  and  the  absorbing  layer  are  at  different  temperatures, 
the  radiation  absorbed  will  be  ER',  and  that  transmitted  will  be 
R'-ER'.  To  this  must  be  added  the  radiation  emitted  by  the 
absorbing  layer,  namely  ER,  giving  R'-E(R'-R).  The  lines 
will  appear  darker  than  the  background  R'  if  R'  is  greater  than 
R,  but  bright  if  the  reverse  is  the  case.  The  D  lines  are  dark  in 
the  sun  because  the  photosphere  is  much  hotter  than  the  reversing 
layer.  They  appear  bright  in  the  candle-flame  because  the  outside 
mantle  of  the  flame,  in  which  the  sodium  burns  and  combustion 
is  complete,  is  hotter  than  the  inner  reducing  flame  containing 
the  incandescent  particles  of  carbon  which  give  rise  to  the  con- 
tinuous spectrum.  This  qualitative  identity  of  emission  and 
absorption  as  regards  wave-length  can  be  most  exactly  and  easily 
verified  for  luminous  rays,  and  we  are  justified  in  assuming  that 
the  relation  holds  with  the  same  exactitude  for  nob-luminous 
rays,  although  in  many  cases  the  experimental  proof  is  less 
complete  and  exact. 

40.  Diathermancy. — A  great  array  of  data  with  regard  to  the 
transmissive  power  or  diathermancy  of  transparent  substances 
for  the  heat  radiated  from  various  sources  at  different  tempera- 
tures were  collected  by  Melloni,  Tyndall,  Magnus  and  other 
experimentalists.  The  measurements  were  chiefly  of  a  qualitative 
character,  and  were  made  by  interposing  between  the  source 
and  a  thermopile  a  layer  or  plate  of  the  substance  to  be  examined. 
This  method  lacked  quantitative  precision,  but  led  to  a  number 
of  striking  and  interesting  results,  which  are  admirably  set  forth 
in  Ty  ndall's  Heal.  It  also  gave  rise  to  many  curious  discrepancies, 
some  of  which  were  recognized  as  being  due  to  selective 
absorption,  while  others  are  probably  to  be  explained  by  im- 
perfections in  the  methods  of  experiment  adopted.  The  general 
result  of  such  researches  was  to  show  that  substances,  like  water, 
alum  and  glass,  which  are  practically  opaque  to  radiation  from 
a  source  at  low  temperature,  such  as  a  vessel  filled  with  boiling 
water,  transmit  an  increasing  percentage  of  the  radiation  when 
the  temperature  of  the  source  is  increased.  This  is  what  would 
be  expected,  as  these  substances  are  very  transparent  to  visible 
rays.  That  the  proportion  transmitted  is  not  merely  a  question 
of  the  temperature  of  the  source,  but  also  of  the  quality  of  the 
radiation,  was  shown  by  a  number  of  experiments.  For  instance, 
K.  H.  Knoblauch  (Pogg.  Ann.,  1847)  found  that  a  plate  of  glass 
interposed  between  a  spirit  lamp  and  a  thermopile  intercepts  a 
larger  proportion  of  the  radiation  from  the  flame  itself  than 
of  the  radiation  from  a  platinum  spiral  heated  in  the  flame, 


HEAT 


(DIATHERMANCY 


'  although  the  spiral  is  undoubtedly  at  a  lower  temperature  than 
the  flame.  The  explanation  is  that  the  spiral  is  a  fairly  good 
radiator  of  the  visible  rays  to  which  the  glass  is  transparent, 
but  a  bad  radiator  of  the  invisible  rays  absorbed  by  the  glass 
which  constitute  the  greater  portion  of  the  heat-radiation  from 
the  feebly  luminous  flame. 

Assuming  that  the  radiation  from  the  source  under  investiga- 
tion is  qualitatively  determinate,  like  that  of  a  black  body  at  a 
given  temperature,  the  proportion  transmitted  by  plates  of 
various  substances  may  easily  be  measured  and  tabulated  for 
given  plates  and  sources.  But  owing  to  the  highly  selective  char- 
acter of  the  radiation  and  absorption,  it  is  impossible  to  give 
any  general  relation  between  the  thickness  of  the  absorbing  plate 
or  layer  and  the  proportion  of  the  total  energy  absorbed.  For 
these  reasons  the  relative  diathermancies  of  different  materials 
do  not  admit  of  any  simple  numerical  statement  as  physical 
constants,  though  many  of  the  qualitative  results  obtained  are 
very  striking.  Among  the  most  interesting  experiments  were 
those  of  Tyndall,  on  the  absorptive  powers  of  gases  and  vapours, 
which  led  to  a  good  deal  of  controversy  at  the  time,  owing  to 
the  difficulty  of  the  experiments,  and  the  contradictory  results 
obtained  by  other  observers.  The  arrangement  employed  by 
Tyndall  for  these  measurements  is  shown  in  Fig.  6.  A  brass 


7 


FIG.  6. — Tyndall's  Apparatus  for  observing  absorption  of  heat  by 
gas  and  vapours. 

tube  AB,  polished  inside,  and  closed  with  plates  of  highly 
diathermanous  rocksalt  at  either  end,  was  fitted  with  stopcocks 
C  and  D  for  exhausting  and  admitting  air  or  other  gases  or 
vapours.  The  source  of  heat  S  was  usually  a  plate  of  copper  heated 
by  a  Bunsen  burner,  or  a  Leslie  cube  containing  boiling  water 
as  shown  at  E.  To  obtain  greater  sensitiveness  for  differential 
measurements,  the  radiation  through  the  tube  AB  incident  on 
one  face  of  the  pile  P  was  balanced  against  the  radiation  from 
a  Leslie  cube  on  the  other  face  of  the  pile  by  means  of  an  adjust- 
able screen  H.  The  radiation  on  the  two  faces  of  the  pile  being 
thus  balanced  with  the  tube  exhausted,  Tyndall  found  that  the 
admission  of  dry  air  into  the  tube  produced  practically  no  absorp- 
tion of  the  radiation,  whereas  compound  gases  such  as  carbonic 
acid,  ethylene  or  ammonia  absorbed  20  to  90%,  and  a  trace 
of  aqueous  vapour  in  the  air  increased  its  absorption  50  to  100 
times.  H.  G.  Magnus,  on  the  other  hand,  employing  a  thermopile 
and  a  source  of  heat,  both  of  which  were  enclosed  in  the  same 
exhausted  receiver,  in  order  to  avoid  interposing  any  rocksalt 
or  other  plates  between  the  source  and  the  pile,  found  an  absorp- 
tion of  11%  on  admitting  dry  air,  but  could  not  detect  any 
difference  whether  the  air  were  dry  or  moist.  Tyndall  suggested 
that  the  apparent  absorption  observed  by  Magnus  may  have 
been  due  to  the  cooling  of  his  radiating  surface  by  convection, 
which  is  a  very  probable  source  of  error  in  this  method  of  experi- 
ment. Magnus  considered  that  the  remarkable  effect  of  aqueous 
vapour  observed  by  Tyndall  might  have  been  caused  by  con- 
densation on  the  polished  internal  walls  of  his  experimental 
tube,  or  on  the  rocksalt  plates  at  either  end.1  The  question  of 

1  In  reference  to  this  objection,  Tyndall  remarks  (Phil.  Mag., 
1862,  p.  422;  Heat,  p.  385);  "  In  the  first  place  the  plate  of  salt 
nearest  the  source  of  heat  is  never  moistened,  unless  the  experiments 
are  of  the  roughest  character.  Its  proximity  to  the  source  enables 
the  heat  to  chase  away  every  trace  of  humidity  from  its  surface." 
He  therefore  took  precautions  to  dry  only  the  circumferential  por- 
tions of  the  plate  nearest  the  pile,  assuming  that  the  flux  of  heat 
through  the  central  portions  would  suffice  to  keep  them  dry.  This 
reasoning  is  not  at  all  satisfactory,  because  rocksalt  is  very  hygro- 
scopic and  becomes  wet,  even  in  unsaturated  air,  if  the  vapour 
pressure  is  greater  than  that  of  a  saturated  solution  of  salt  at  the 


the  relative  diathermancy  of  air  and  aqueous  vapour  for  radiation 
from  the  sun  to  the  earth  and  from  the  earth  into  space  is  one 
of  great  interest  and  importance  in  meteorology.  Assuming 
with  Magnus  that  at  least  10%  of  the  heat  from  a  source  at 
100°  C.  is  absorbed  in  passing  through  a  single  foot  of  air,  a  very 
moderate  thickness  of  atmosphere  should  suffice  to  absorb 
practically  all  the  heat  radiated  from  the  earth  into  space.  This 
could  not  be  reconciled  with  well-known  facts  in  regard  to 
terrestrial  radiation,  and  it  was  generally  recognized  that  the 
result  found  by  Magnus  must  be  erroneous.  Tyndall's  experi- 
ment on  the  great  diathermancy  of  dry  air  agreed  much  better 
with  meteorological  phenomena,  but  he  appears  to  have 
exaggerated  the  effect  of  aqueous  vapour.  He  concluded  from 
his  experiments  that  the  water  vapour  present  in  the  air  absorbs 
at  least  10%  of  the  heat  radiated  from  the  earth  within  10  ft. 
of  its  surface,  and  that  the  absorptive  power  of  the  vapour  is 
about  17,000  times  that  of  air  at  the  same  pressure.  If  the 
absorption  of  aqueous  vapour  were  really  of  this  order  of  magni- 
tude, it  would  exert  a  far  greater  effect  in  modifying  climate 
than  is  actually  observed  to  be  the  case.  Radiation  is  observed 
to  take  place  freely  through  the  atmosphere  at  times  when  the 
proportion  of  aqueous  vapour  is  such  as  would  practically  stop 
all  radiation  if  Tyndall's  results  were  correct.  The  very  careful 
experiments  of  E.  Lecher  and  J.  Pernter  (Phil.  Mag.,  Jan.  1881) 
confirmed  Tyndall's  observations  on  the  absorptive  powers  of 
gases  and  vapours  satisfactorily  in  nearly  all  cases  with  the 
single  exception  of  aqueous  vapour.  They  found  that  there  was 
no  appreciable  absorption  of  heat  from  a  source  at  100°  C.  in 
passing  through  i  ft.  of  air  (whether  dry  or  moist),  but  that 
CO  and  CO2  at  atmospheric  pressure  absorbed  about  8%,  and 
ethylene  (olefiant  gas)  about  50%  in  the  same  distance;  the 
vapours  of  alcohol  and  ether  showed  absorptive  powers  of  the 
same  order  as  that  of  ethylene.  They  confirmed  Tyndall's 
important  result  that  the  absorption  does  not  diminish  in  pro- 
portion to  the  pressure,  being  much  greater  in  proportion  for 
smaller  pressures  in  consequence  of  the  selective  character  of 
the  effect.  They  also  supported  his  conclusion  that  absorptive 
power  increases  with  the  complexity  of  the  molecule.  But  they 
could  not  detect  any  absorption  by  water  vapour  at  a  pressure 
of  7  mm.,  though  alcohol  at  the  same  pressure  absorbed  3% 
and  acetic  acid  10%.  Later  researches,  especially  those  of 
S.  P.  Langley  with  the  spectre-bolometer  on  the  infra-red 
spectrum  of  sunlight,  demonstrated  the  existence  of  marked 
absorption  bands,  some  of  which  are  due  to  water  vapour. 
From  the  character  of  these  bands  and  the  manner  in  which 
they  vary  with  the  state  of  the  air  and  the  thickness  traversed, 
it  may  be  inferred  that  absorption  by  water  vapour  plays  an 
important  part  in  meteorology,  but  that  it  is  too  small  to  be 

temperature  of  the  plate.  Assuming  that  the  vapour  pressure  of 
the  saturated  salt  solution  is  only  half  that  of  pure  water,  it  would 
require  an  elevation  of  temperature  of  10°  C.  to  dry  the  rocksalt 
plates  in  saturated  air  at  15°  C.  It  is  only  fair  to  say  that  the  laws 
of  the  vapour  pressures  of  solutions  were  unknown  in  Tyndall's 
time,  and  that  it  was  usual  to  assume  that  the  plates  would  not 
become  wetted  until  the  dew-point  was  reached.  The  writer  has 
repeated  Tyndall's  experiments  with  a  facsimile  of  one  of  Tyndall's 
tubes  in  the  possession  of  the  Royal  College  of  Science,  fitted  with 
plates  of  rocksalt  cut  from  the  same  block  as  Tyndall's,  and  therefore 
of  the  same  hygroscopic  quality.  Employing  a  reflecting  galvano- 
meter in  conjunction  with  a  differential  bolometer,  which  is  quicker 
in  its  action  than  Tyndall's  pile,  there  appears  to  be  hardly  any 
difference  between  dry  and  moist  air,  provided  that  the  latter  is  not 
more  than  half  saturated.  Using  saturated  air  with  a  Leslie  cube 
as  source  of  heat,  both  rocksalt  plates  invariably  become  wet  in  a 
minute  or  two  and  the  absorption  rises  to  10  or  20%  according  to 
the  thickness  of  the  film  of  deposited  moisture.  Employing  the  open 
tube  method  as  described  by  Tyndall,  without  the  rocksalt  plates, 
the  absorption  is  certainly  less  than  I  %  in  3  ft.  of  air  saturated  at 
20°  C.,  unless  condensation  is  induced  on  the  walls  of  the  tube.  It 
is  possible  that  the  walls  of  Tyndall's  tube  may  have  become  covered 
with  a  very  hygroscopic  film  from  the  powder  of  the  calcium  chloride 
which  he  was  in  the  habit  of  introducing  near  one  end.  Such  a  film 
would  be  exceedingly  difficult  to  remove,  and  would  account  for  thfi 
excessive  precautions  which  he  found  necessary  in  drying  the  air 
in  order  to  obtain  the  same  transmitting  power  as  a  vacuum.  It  is 
probable  that  Tyndall's  experiments  on  aqueous  vapour  were  effected 
by  experimental  errors  of  this  character. 


WIEN'S  DISPLACEMENT  LAW] 


HEAT 


readily  detected  by  laboratory  experiments  in  a  4  ft.  tube,  with- 
out the  aid  of  spectrum  analysis. 

41.  Relation  between  Radiation  and  Temperature. — Assuming,  in 
accordance  with  the  reasoning  of  Balfour  Stewart  and  Kirchhoff, 
that  the  radiation  stream  inside  an  impervious  enclosure  at  a 
uniform  temperature  is  independent  of  the  nature  of  the  walls 
of  the  enclosure,  and  is  the  same  for  all  substances  at  the  same 
temperature,  it  follows  that  the  full  stream  of  radiation  in  such 
an  enclosure,  or  the  radiation  emitted  by  an  ideal  black  body 
or  full  radiator,  is  a  function  of  the  temperature  only.  The  form 
of  this  function  may  be  determined  experimentally  by  observing 
the  radiation  between  two  black  bodies  at  different  temperatures, 
which  will  be  proportional  to  the  difference  of  the  full  radiation 
streams  corresponding  to  their  several  temperatures.  The  law 
now  generally  accepted  was  first  proposed  by  Stefan  as  an 
empirical  relation.  Tyndall  had  found  that  the  radiation  from 
a  white  hot  platinum  wire  at  1 200°  C.  was  11-7  times  its  radiation 
when  dull  red  at  525°  C.  Stefan  (Wien.  Akad.  Ber.,  1879,  79, 
p.  421)  noticed  that  the  ratio  11-7  is  nearly  that  of  the  fourth 
power  of  the  absolute  temperatures  as  estimated  by  Tyndall. 
On  making  the  somewhat  different  assumption  that  the  radiation 
between  two  bodies  varied  as  the  difference  of  the  fourth  powers 
of  their  absolute  temperatures,  he  found  that  it  satisfied  approxi- 
mately the  experiments  of  Dulong  and  Petit  and  other  observers. 
According  to  this  law  the  radiation  between  a  black  body  at 
a  temperature  6  and  a  black  enclosure  or  a  black  radiometer 
at  a  temperature  00  should  be  proportional  to  (04-004).  The 
law  was  very  simple  and  convenient  in  form,  but  it  rested  so  far 
on  very  insecure  foundations.  The  temperatures  given  by 
Tyndall  were  merely  estimated  from  the  colour  of  the  light 
emitted,  and  might  have  been  some  hundred  degrees  in  error. 
We  now  know  that  the  radiation  from  polished  platinum  is 
of  a  highly  selective  character,  and  varies  more  nearly  as  the 
fifth  power  of  the  absolute  temperature.  The  agreement  of  the 
fourth  power  law  with  Tyndall's  experiment  appears  therefore 
to  be  due  to  a  purely  accidental  error  in  estimating  the  tempera- 
tures of  the  wire.  Stefan  also  found  a  very  fair  agreement  with 
Draper's  observations  of  the  intensity  of  radiation  from  a 
platinum  wire,  in  which  the  temperature  of  the  wire  was  deduced 
from  the  expansion.  Here  again  the  apparent  agreement  was 
largely  due  to  errors  in  estimating  the  temperature,  arising 
from  the  fact  that  the  coefficient  of  expansion  of  platinum 
increases  considerably  with  rise  of  temperature.  So  far  as  the 
experimental  results  available  at  that  time  were  concerned, 
Stefan's  law  could  be  regarded  only  as  an  empirical  expression 
of  doubtful  significance.  But  it  received  a  much  greater  import- 
ance from  theoretical  investigations  which  were  even  then  in 
progress.  James  Clerk  Maxwell  (Electricity  and  Magnetism, 
1873)  had  shown  that  a  directed  beam  of  electromagnetic 
radiation  or  light  incident  normally  on  an  absorbing  surface 
should  produce  a  mechanical  pressure  equal  to  the  energy  of  the 
radiation  per  unit  volume.  A.  G.  Bartoli  (1875)  took  up  this  idea 
and  made  it  the  basis  of  a  thermodynamic  treatment  of  radiation. 
P.  N.  Lebedew  in  1900,  and  E.  F.  Nichols  and  G.,F.  Hull  in  1901, 
proved  the  existence  of  this  pressure  by  direct  experiments. 
L.  Boltzmann  (1884)  employing  radiation  as  the  working  sub- 
stance in  a  Carnot  cycle,  showed  that  the  energy  of  full 
radiation  at  any  temperature  per  unit  volume  should  be  pro- 
portional to  the  fourth  power  of  the  absolute  temperature. 
This  law  was  first  verified  in  a  satisfactory  manner  by  Heinrich 
Schneebeli  (Wied.  Ann.,  1884,  22,  p.  30).  He  observed  the 
radiation  from  the  bulb  of  an  air  thermometer  heated  to  known 
temperatures  through  a  small  aperture  in  the  walls  of  the  furnace. 
With  this  arrangement  the  radiation  was  very  nearly  that  of  a 
black  body.  Measurements  by  J.T.  Bottomley,  August  Schleier- 
,  macher,  L.  C.  H.  F.  Paschen  and  others  of  the  radiation  from 
electrically  heated  platinum,  failed  to  give  concordant  results 
on  account  of  differences  in  the  quality  of  the  radiation,  the 
importance  of  which  was  not  fully  realized  at  first.  Later 
researches  by  Paschen  with  improved  methods  verified  the  law, 
and  greatly  extended  our  knowledge  of  radiation  in  other 
directions.  One  of  the  most  complete  series  of  experiments  on 


the  relation  between  full  radiation  and  temperature  is  that  of 
O.  R.  Lummer  and  Ernst  Pringsheim  (Ann.  Phys.,  1897,  63, 
P-  395)-  They  employed  an  aperture  in  the  side  of  an  enclosure 
at  uniform  temperature  as  the  source  of  radiation,  and  compared 
the  intensities  at  different  temperatures  by  means  of  a  bolometer. 
The  fourth  power  law  was  well  satisfied  throughout  the  whole 
range  of  their  experiments  from  -190°  C.  to  2300°  C.  According 
to  this  law,  the  rate  of  loss  of  heat  by  radiation  R  from  a  body 
of  emissive  power  E  and  surface  S  at  a  temperature  6  in  an 
enclosure  at  00  is  given  by  the  formula 


where  a  is  the  radiation  constant.  The  absolute  value  of  a  was 
determined  by  F.  Kurlbaum  using  an  electric  compensation 
method  (Wied.  Ann.,  1898,  65,  p.  746),  in  which  the  radiation  re- 
ceived by  a  bolometer  from  a  black  body  at  a  known  temperature 
was  measured  by  finding  the  electric  current  required  to  produce 
the  same  rise  of  temperature  in  the  bolometer.  K.  Angstrom 
employed  a  similar  method  for  solar  radiation.  Kurlbaum  gives 
thevalue<r=  5-32  X  10  ~6  ergs  per  sq.  cm.  per  sec.  C.Christiansen 
(Wied.  Ann.,  1883,  19,  p.  267)  had  previously  found  a  value 
about  5  %  smaller,  by  observing  the  rate  of  cooling  of  a  copper 
plate  of  known  thermal  capacity,  which  is  probably  a  less  accurate 
method. 

42.  Theoretical  Proof  of  the  Fourth  Power  Law.  —  The  proof  given 
by  Boltzmann  may  be  somewhat  simplified  if  we  observe  that  full 
radiation  in  an  enclosure  at  constant  temperature  behaves  exactly 
like  a  saturated  vapour,  and  must  therefore  obey  Carnot's  or  Clapey- 
ron's  equation  given  in  section  17.  The  energy  of  radiation  per  unit 
volume,  and  the  radiation-pressure  at  any  temperature,  are  functions 
of  the  temperature  only,  like  the  pressure  of  a  saturated  vapour. 
If  the  volume  of  the  enclosure  is  increased  by  any  finite  amount, 
the  temperature  remaining  the  same,  radiation  is  given  off  from  the 
walls  so  as  to  fill  the  space  to  the  same  pressure  as  before.  The 
heat  absorbed  when  the  volume  is  increased  corresponds  with  the 
latent  heat  of  vaporization.  In  the  case  of  radiation,  as  in  the  case 
of  a  vapour,  the  latent  heat  consists  partly  of  internal  energy  of 
formation  and  partly  of  external  work  of  expansion  at  constant 
pressure.  Since  in  the  case  of  full  or  undirected  radiation  the  pres- 
sure is  one-third  of  the  energy  per  unit  volume,  the  external  work 
for  any  expansion  is  one-third  of  the  internal  energy  added.  The 
latent  heat  absorbed  is,  therefore,  four  times  the  external  work  of 
expansion.  Since  the  external  work  is  the  product  of  the  pressure  P 
and  the  increase  of  volume  V,  the  latent  heat  per  unit  increase  of 
volume  is  four  times  the  pressure.  But  by  Carnot's  equation  the 
latent  heat  of  a  saturated  vapour  per  unit  increase  of  volume  is 
equal  to  the  rate  of  increase  of  saturation-pressure  per  degree  divided 
by  Carnot's  function  or  multiplied  by  the  absolute  temperature. 
Expressed  in  symbols  we  have, 


where  (dP/d9)  represents  the  rate  of  increase  of  pressure.  This 
equation  shows  that  the  percentage  rate  of  increase  of  pressure  is 
four  times  the  percentage  rate  of  increase  of  temperature,  or  that  if 
the  temperature  is  increased  by  I  %,  the  pressure  is  increased  by 
4%.  This  is  equivalent  to  the  statement  that  the  pressure  varies 
as  the  fourth  power  of  the  temperature,  a  result  which  is  mathematic- 
ally deduced  by  integrating  the  equation. 

43.  Wien's  Displacement  Law.  —  Assuming  that  the  fourth 
power  law  gives  the  quantity  of  full  radiation  at  any  tempera- 
ture, it  remains  to  determine  how  the  quality  of  the  radiation 
varies  with  the  temperature,  since  as  we  have  seen  both  quantity 
and  quality  are  determinate.  This  question  may  be  regarded 
as  consisting  of  two  parts,  (i)  How  is  the  wave-length  or 
frequency  of  any  given  kind  of  radiation  changed  when  its 
temperature  is  altered?  (2)  What  is  the  form  of  the  curve 
expressing  the  distribution  of  energy  between  the  various  wave- 
lengths in  the  spectrum  of  full  radiation,  or  what  is  the  distribu- 
tion of  heat  in  the  spectrum?  The  researches  of  Tyndall, 
Draper,  Langley  and  other  investigators  had  shown  that  while 
the  energy  of  radiation  of  each  frequency  increased  with  rise 
of  temperature,  the  maximum  of  intensity  was  shifted  or  dis- 
placed along  the  spectrum  in  the  direction  of  shorter  wave- 
lengths or  higher  frequencies.  W.  Wien  (Ann.  Phys.,  1898, 
58,  p.  662),  applying  Doppler's  principle  to  the  adiabatic  com- 
pression of  radiation  in  a  perfectly  reflecting  enclosure,  deduced 
that  the  wave-length  of  each  constituent  of  the  radiation  should 
be  shortened  in  proportion  to  the  rise  of  temperature  produced 


156 


HEAT 


[CURVE  IN  SPECTRUM 


by  the  compression,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  product  X0  of 
wave-length  and  the  absolute  temperature  should  remain 
constant.  According  to  this  relation,  which  is  known  as  Wien's 
Displacement  Law,  the  frequency  corresponding  to  the  maximum 
ordinate  of  the  energy  curve  of  the  normal  spectrum  of  full 
radiation  should  vary  directly  (or  the  wave-length  inversely) 
as  the  absolute  temperature,  a  result  previously  obtained  by 
H.  F.  Weber  (1888).  Paschen,  and  Lummer  and  Pringsheim 
verified  this  relation  by  observing  with  a  bolometer  the  intensity 
at  different  points  in  the  spectrum  produced  by  a  fluorite  prism. 
The  intensities  were  corrected  and  reduced  to  a  wave-length 
scale  with  the  aid  of  Paschen's  results  on  the  dispersion  formula 
of  fluorite  (Wied  Ann.,  1894,  53,  p.  301).  The  curves  in  fig.  7 
illustrate  results  obtained  by  Lummer  and  Pringsheim  (Ber. 
deut.  phys.  Ges.,  1899,  i,  p.  34)  at  three  different  temperatures, 
namely  1377°,  1087°  and  836°  absolute,  plotted  on  a  wave- 
length base  with  a  scale  of  microns  (/i)  or  millionths  of  a  metre. 
The  wave-lengths  Oa,  06,  Oc,  corresponding  to  the  maximum 
ordinates  of  each  curve,  vary  inversely  as  the  absolute  tempera- 
tures given.  The  constant  value  of  the  product  X<?  at  the 
maximum  point  is  found  to  be  2920  Thus  for  a  temperature 
of  1000°  Abs.  the  maximum  is  at  wave-length  2-92/4;  at  2000° 
the  maximum  is  at  1-46  p. 

44.  Form  of  the  Curve  representing  the  Distribution  of  Energy 
in  the  Spectrum. — Assuming  Wien's  displacement  law,  it  follows 
that  the  form  of  the  curve  representing  the  distribution  of 
energy  in  the  spectrum  of  full  radiation  should  be  the  same 
for  different  temperatures  with  the  maximum  displaced  in 
proportion  to  the  absolute  temperature,  and  with  the  total  area 
increased  in  proportion  to  the  fourth  power  of  the  absolute 
temperature.  Observations  taken  with  a  bolometer  along  the 
length  of  a  normal  or  wave-length  spectrum,  would  give  the 
form  of  the  curve  plotted  on  a  wave-length  base.  The  height  of 
the  ordinate  at  each  point  would  represent  the  energy  included 
between  given  limits  of  wave-length,  depending  on  the  width 
of  the  bolometer  strip  and  the  slit.  Supposing  that  the  bolometer 
strip  had  a  width  corresponding  to  -oi/i,  and  were  placed  at 
i-o/i  in  the  spectrum  of  radiation  at  2000°  Abs.,  it  would  receive 
the  energy  corresponding  to  wave-lengths  between  i-oo  and 
i -oi  p.  At  a  temperature  of  1000°  Abs.  the  corresponding  part 
of  the  energy,  by  Wien's  displacement  law,  would  lie  between 
the  limits  2-00  and  2-02  p,  and  the  total  energy  between  these 
limits  would  be  16  times  smaller.  But  the  bolometer  strip 
placed  at  2-0  fj.  would  now  receive  only  half  of  the  energy,  or  the 
energy  in  a  band  -01  /i  wide,  and  the  deflection  would  be  32  times 
less.  Corresponding  ordinates  of  the  curves  at  different  tempera- 
tures will  therefore  vary  as  the  fifth  power  of  the  temperature, 
when  the  curves  are  plotted  on  a  wave-length  base.  The 
maximum  ordinates  in  the  curves  already  given  are  found  to 
vary  as  the  fifth  powers  of  the  corresponding  temperatures. 
The  equation  representing  the  distribution  of  energy  on  a  wave- 
length base  must  be  of  the  form 

E  =  CX-5  F(X9)=C96(X0)-6F(X0) 

where  F(X0)  represents  some  function  of  the  product  of  the 
wave-length  and  temperature,  which  remains  constant  for 
corresponding  wave-lengths  when  9  is  changed.  If  the  curves 
were  plotted  on  a  frequency  base,  owing  to  the  change  of  scale, 
the  maximum  ordinates  would  vary  as  the  cube  of  the  temperature 
instead  of  the  fifth  power,  but  the  form  of  the  function  F  would 
remain  unaltered.  Reasoning  on  the  analogy  of  the  distribution 
of  velocities  among  the  particles  of  a  gas  on  the  kinetic  theory, 
which  is  a  very  similar  problem,  Wien  was  led  to  assume  that 
the  function  F  should  be  of  the  form  e-"/™,  where  e  is  the  base 
of  Napierian  logarithms,  and  c  is  a  constant  having  the  value 
14,600  if  the  wave-length  is  measured  in  microns  ft.  This 
expression  was  found  by  Paschen  to  give  a  vtry  good  approxima- 
tion to  the  form  of  the  curve  obtained  experimentally  for  those 
portions  of  the  visible  and  infra-red  spectrum  where  observations 
could  be  most  accurately  made.  The  formula  was  tested  in 
two  ways:  (i)  by  plotting  the  curves  of  distribution  of  energy 
in  the  spectrum  for  constant  temperatures  as  illustrated  in 


fig.  7;  (2)  by  plotting  the  energy  corresponding  to  a  given  wave- 
length as  a  function  of  the  temperature.  Both  methods  gave 
very  good  agreement  with  Wien's  formula  for  values  of  the 
product  X0  not  much  exceeding  3000  A  method  of  isolating 
rays  of  great  wave-length  by  successive  reflection  was  devised 
by  H.  Rubens  and  E. 
F.  Nichols  (Wied.  Ann., 
1897,  60,  p.  418).  They 
found  that  quartz  and 
fluorite  possessed  the 
property  of  selective 
reflection  for  rays  of 
wave-length  8-8/t  and  10 
24/1  to  32/1  respec- 
tively, so  that  after 
four  to  six  reflections  ""  a 
these  rays  could  be 
isolated  from  a  source 
at  any  temperature  in 
a  state  of  considerable 
purity.  The  residual 
impurity  at  any  stage 
could  be  estimated 
by  interposing  a  thin 


k3         c   4  S  61". 

FIG.  7. — Distribution  of  energy  in  the 
spectrum  of  a  black  body. 


plate     of    quartz    or    fluorite    which 

completely  reflected  or  absorbed  the  residual  rays,  but 
allowed  the  impurity  to  pass.  H.  Beckmann,  under  the 
direction  of  Rubens,  investigated  the  variation  with  tempera- 
ture of  the  residual  rays  reflected  from  fluorite  employing 
sources  from  -80°  to  600°  C.,  and  found  the  results  could  not 
be  represented  by  Wien's  formula  unless  the  constant  c  were 
taken  as  26,000  in  place  of  14,600.  In  their  first  series  of  observa- 
tions extending  to  6  ju  O.R.  Lummer  and  E.  Pringsheim  (Dcut. 
phys.  Ges.,  1899,  i,p.  34)  found  systematic  deviations  indicating 
an  increase  in  the  value  of  the  constant  c  for  long  waves  and 
high  temperatures.  In  a  theoretical  discussion  of  the  subject, 
Lord  Rayleigh  (Phil.  Mag.,  1900,  49,  p.  539)  pointed  out  that 
Wien's  law  would  lead  to  a  limiting  value  CX~5,  of  the  radiation 
corresponding  to  any  particular  wave-length  when  the  tempera- 
ture increased  to  infinity,  whereas  according  to  his  view  the 
radiation  .  of  great  wave-length  should  ultimately  increase  in 
direct  proportion  to  the  temperature.  Lummer  and  Pringsheim 
(Deut.  phys.  Ges.,  1900,  2.  p.  163)  extended  the  range  of  their 
observations  to  18/1  by  employing  a  prism  of  sylvine  in  place  of 
fluorite.  They  found  deviations  from  Wien's  formula  increasing 
to  nearly  50%  at  18/1,  where,  however,  the  observations  were 
very  difficult  on  account  of  the  smallness  of  the  energy  to  be 
measured.  Rubens  and  F.  Kurlbaum  (Ann.  Phys.,  1901.  4, 
p.  649)  extended  the  residual  reflection  method  to  a  temperature 
range  from  —190°  to  1500°  C.,  and  employed  the  rays  reflected 
from  quartz  8-8/t, 
and  rocksalt  51  /*,  in 
addition  to  those 
from  fluorite.  It  ap- 
peared from  these 
researches  that  the 
rays  of  great  wave- 
length from  a  source 
at  a  high  temperature 
tended  to  vary  in  the 
limit  directly  as  the 
absolute  temperature 
of  the  source,  as 

suggested     by     Lord 
* 


Jl\ 


\ 


m= 


FlG-  8-"  Distribution  of  energy  in  the 


T,      ,  .  ,  *.  ,  ,  spectrum  of  full   radiation  at   2000    Abs. 

Rayleigh,    and    could  a£cordlng  to  formuiae  Of  Planck  &  Wien. 

not     be     represented 

by  Wien's  formula  with  any  value  of  the  constant  c.     The 

simplest   type   of   formula   satisfying   the   required   conditions 

is  that  proposed  by  Max  Planck  (Ann.  Phys.,  1901,  4,  p.  553) 

namely, 


which  agrees  with  Wien's  formula  when  6  is  small,  where  Wien's 
formula  is  known  to  be  satisfactory,  but  approaches  the  limiting 


HEATH,  B.— HEATH,  N. 


157 


form  E  =  CX-^/c,  when  6  is  large,  thus  satisfying  the  condition 
proposed  by  Lord  Rayleigh.  The  theoretical  interpretation  of 
this  formula  remains  to  some  extent  a  matter  of  future  investiga- 
tion, but  it  appears  to  satisfy  experiment  within  the  limits  of 
observational  error.  In  order  to  compare  Planck's  formula 
graphically  with  Wien's,  the  distribution  curves  corresponding 
to  both  formulae  are  plotted  in  fig.  8  for  a  temperature  of  2000° 
abs.,  taking  the  value  of  the  constant 
c=  14,600  with  a  scale  of  wave-length 
in  microns  /i.  The  curves  in  fig.  9 
illustrate  the  difference  between  the 
two  formulae  for  the  variation  of  the 
intensity  of  radiation  corresponding  to 
a  fixed  wave-length  30  p.  Assuming 
Wien's  displacement  law,  the  curves 
may  be  applied  to  find  the  energy  for 
any  other  wave-length  or  temperature, 
by  simply  altering  the  wave-length 
scale  in  inverse  ratio  to  the  tempera- 
ture, or  vice  versa.  Thus  to  find  the 
distribution  curve  for  1000°  abs.,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  multiply  all  the 
numbers  in  the  wave-length  scale  of 
fig.  8  by  2;  or  to  find  the  variation 


FIG.  9. — Variation  of 
energy  of  radiation  cor- 
responding to  wave- 
length 30  it,  with  tem- 
perature of  source. 


curve  for  wave-length  60  n,  the  numbers  on  the  temperature  scale 
of  fig.  9  should  be  divided  by  2.  The  ordinate  scales  must  be 
increased  in  proportion  to  the  fifth  power  of  the  temperature,  or 
inversely  as  the  fifth  power  of  the  wave-length  respectively 
in  figs.  8  and  9  if  comparative  results  are  required  for  different 
temperatures  or  wave-lengths.  The  results  hitherto  obtained 
for  cases  other  than  full  radiation  are  not  sufficiently  simple  and 
definite  to  admit  of  profitable  discussion  in  the  present  article. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — It  would  not  be  possible,  within  the  limits  of  an 
article  like  the  present,  to  give  tables  of  the  specific  thermal  properties 
of  different  substances  so  far  as  they  have  been  ascertained  by  ex- 
periment. To  be  of  any  use,  such  tables  require  to  be  extremely 
detailed,  with  very  full  references  and  explanations  with  regard  to 
the  value  of  the  experimental  evidence,  and  the  limits  within  which 
the  results  may  be  relied  on.  The  quantity  of  material  available 
is  so  enormous  and  its  value  so  varied,  that  the  most  elaborate  tables 
still  require  reference  to  the  original  authorities.  Much  information 
will  be  found  collected  in  Landolt  and  Bornstein's  Physical  and 
Chemical  Tables  (Berlin,  1905).  Shorter  tables,  such  as  Everett's 
Units  and  Physical  Constants,  are  useful  as  illustrations  of  a  system, 
but  are  not  sufficiently  complete  for  use  in  scientific  investigations. 
Some  of  the  larger  works  of  reference,  such  as  A.  A.  Winkelmann's 
Handbuch  der  Physik,  contain  fairly  complete  tables  of  specific 
properties,  but  these  tables  occupy  so  much  space,  and  are  so  mis- 
leading if  incomplete,  that  they  are  generally  omitted  in  theoretical 
textbooks. 

Among  older  textbooks  on  heat,  Tyndall's  Heat  may  be  Recom- 
mended for  its  vivid  popular  interest,  and  Balfour  Stewart's  Heat 
for  early  theories  of  radiation.  Maxwell's  Theory  of  Heat  and  Tail's 
Heat  give  a  broad  and  philosophical  survey  of  the  subject.  _  Among 
modern  textbooks,  Preston's  Theory  of  Heat  and  Poynting  and 
Thomson's  Heat  are  the  best  known,  and  have  been  brought  well 
up  to  date.  Sections  on  heat  are  included  in  all  the  general  text- 
books of  Physics,  such  as  those  of  Deschanel  (translated  by  Everett), 
Ganot  (translated  by  Atkinson),  Daniell,  Watson,  &c.  Of  the  original 
investigations  on  the  subject,  the  most  important  have  already  been 
cited.  Others  will  be  found  in  the  collected  papers  of  Joule,  Kelvin 
and  Maxwell.  Treatises  on  special  branches  of  the  subject,  such  as 
Fourier's  Conduction  of  Heat,  are  referred  to  in  the  separate  articles 
in  this  encyclopaedia  dealing  with  recent  progress,  of  which  the 
following  is  a  list:  CALORIMETRY,  CONDENSATION  OF  GASES,  CON- 
DUCTION OF  HEAT,  DIFFUSION,  ENERGETICS,  FUSION,  LIQUID  GASES, 
RADIATION,  RADIOMETER,  SOLUTION,  THERMODYNAMICS,  THERMO- 
ELECTRICITY, THERMOMFTRY,  VAPORIZATION.  For  the  practical 
aspects  of  heating  see  HEATING.  (H.  L.  C.) 

HEATH,  BENJAMIN  (1704-1766),  English  classical  scholar 
and  bibliophile,  was  born  at  Exeter  on  the  2oth  of  April  1704. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  wealthy  merchant,  and  was  thus  able  to 
devote  himself  mainly  to  travel  and  book-collecting.  He  became 
town  cleik  of  his  native  city  in  1752,  and  held  the  office  till  his 
death  on  the  i3th  of  September  1766.  In  1763  he  had  published 
a  pamphlet  advocating  the  repeal  of  the  cider  tax  in  Devonshire, 
and  his  endeavours  led  to  success  three  years  later.  As  a  classical 
scholar  he  made  his  reputation  by  his  critical  and  metrical  notes 
on  the  Greek  tragedians,  which  procured  him  an  honorary 


D.C.L.  from  Oxford  (315!  of  March  1752).  He  also  left  MS. 
notes  on  Burmann's  and  Martyn's  editions  of  Virgil,  on  Euripides, 
Catullus,  Tibullus,  and  the  greater  part  of  Hesiod.  In  some  of 
these  he  adopts  the  whimsical  name  Dexiades  Ericius.  His 
Revisal  of  Shakespear's  Text  (1765)  was  an  answer  to  the  "  in- 
solent dogmatism  "  of  Bishop  Warburton.  The  Essay  towards  a 
Demonstrative  Proof  of  the  Divine  Existence,  Unity  and  Attributes 
(1740)  was  intended  to  combat  the  opinions  of  Voltaire,  Rousseau 
and  Hume.  Two  of  his  sons  (among  a  family  of  thirteen)  were 
Benjamin,  headmaster  of  Harrow  (1771-1785),  and  George, 
headmaster  of  Eton  (1796).  His  collection  of  rare  classical  works 
formed  the  nucleus  of  his  son  Benjamin's  famous  library  (Biblio- 
theca  Heathiana). 

An  account  of  the  Heath  family  will  be  found  in  Sir  W.  R.  Drake's 
Heathiana  (1882). 

HEATH,  NICHOLAS  (c.  1501-1578),  archbishop  of  York  and 
lord  chancellor,  was  born  in  London  about  1501  and  graduated 
B.A.  at  Oxford  in  1519.  He  then  migrated  to  Christ's  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  B.A.  in  1520,  M.A.  in  1522,  and 
was  elected  fellow  in  1524.  After  holding  minor  preferments 
he  was  appointed  archdeacon  of  Stafford  in  1534  and  graduated 
D.D.  in  1535.  He  then  accompanied  Edward  Fox  (?.».),  bishop 
of  Hereford,  on  his  mission  to  promote  a  theological  and  political 
understanding  with  the  Lutheran  princes  of  Germany.  His 
selection  for  this  duty  implies  a  readiness  on  Heath's  part  to 
proceed  some  distance  along  the  path  of  reform;  but  his  dealings 
with  the  Lutherans  did  not  confirm  this  tendency,  and  Heath's 
subsequent  career  was  closely  associated  with  the  cause  of  re- 
action. In  1539,  the  year  of  the  Six  Articles,  he  was  made  bishop 
of  Rochester,  and  in  1543  he  succeeded  Latimer  at  Worcester. 
His  Catholicism,  however,  was  of  a  less  rigid  type  than  Gardiner's 
and  Bonner's;  he  felt  something  of  the  force  of  the  national 
antipathy  to  foreign  influence,  whether  ecclesiastical  or  secular, 
and  was  always  impressed  by  the  necessity  of  national  unity, 
so  far  as  was  possible,  in  matters  of  faith.  Apparently  he  made 
no  difficulty  about  carrying  out  the  earlier  reforms  of  Edward  VI., 
and  he  accepted  the  first  book  of  common  prayer  after  it  had 
been  modified  by  the  House  of  Lords  in  a  Catholic  direction. 

His  definite  breach  with  the  Reformation  occurred  on  the 
grounds,  on  which  four  centuries  later  Leo  XIII.  denied  the 
Catholicity  of  the  reformed  English  Church,  namely,  on  the 
question  of  the  Ordinal  drawn  up  in  February  1550.  Heath 
refused  to  accept  it,  was  imprisoned,  and  in  1551  deprived  of  his 
bishopric.  On  Mary's  accession  he  was  released  and  restored, 
and  made  president  of  the  council  of  the  Marches  and  Wales. 
In  1555  he  was  promoted  to  the  archbishopric  of  York,  which  he 
did  much  to  enrich  after  the  Protestant  spoliation;  he  built 
York  House  in  the  Strand.  After  Gardiner's  death  he  was 
appointed  lord  chancellor,  probably  on  Pole's  recommendation; 
for  Heath,  like  Pole  himself,  disliked  the  Spanish  party  in 
England.  Unlike  Pole,  however,  he  seems  to  have  been  averse 
from  the  excessive  persecution  of  Mary's  reign,  and  no  Protestants 
were  burnt  in  his  diocese.  He  exercised,  however,  little  influence 
on  Mary's  secular  or  ecclesiastical  policy. 

On  Mary's  death  Heath  as  chancellor  at  once  proclaimed 
Elizabeth.  Like  Sir  Thomas  More  he  held  that  it  was  entirely 
within  the  competence  of  the  national  state,  represented  by 
parliament,  to  determine  questions  of  the  succession  to  the 
throne;  and  although  Elizabeth  did  not  renew  his  commission 
as  lord  chancellor,  he  continued  to  sit  in  the  privy  council  for 
two  months  until  the  government  had  determined  to  complete 
the  breach  with  the  Roman  Catholic  Church;  and  as  late  as 
April  1559  he  assisted  the  government  by  helping  to  arrange 
the  Westminster  Conference,  and  reproving  his  more  truculent 
co-religionists.  He  refused  to  crown  Elizabeth  because  she 
would  not  have  the  coronation  service  accompanied  with  the 
elevation  of  the  Host;  and  ecclesiastical  ceremonies  and  doctrine 
could  not,  in  Heath's  view,  be  altered  or  abrogated  by  any  mere 
national  authority.  Hence  he  steadily  resisted  Elizabeth's  acts 
of  supremacy  and  uniformity,  although  he  had  acquiesced  in  the 
acts  of  1534  and  1549.  Like  others  of  Henry's  bishops,  he  had 
been  convinced  by  the  events  of  Edward  VI. 's  reign  that  Sir 


i58 


HEATH,  W.— HEATH 


Thomas  More  was  right  and  Henry  VIII.  was  wrong  in  their 
attitude  towards  the  claims  of  the  papacy  and  the  Catholic 
Church.  He  was  therefore  necessarily  deprived  of  his  arch- 
bishopric in  ISS9,  but  he  remained  loyal  to  Elizabeth;  and  after 
a  temporary  confinement  he  was  suffered  to  pass  the  remaining 
nineteen  years  of  his  life  in  peace  and  quiet,  never  attending 
public  worship  and  sometimes  hearing  mass  in  private.  The 
queen  visited  him  more  than  once  at  his  house  at  Chobham, 
Surrey;  he  died  and  was  buried  there  at  the  end  of  1578. 

AUTHORITIES.— Letters  and  Papers  of  Henry  VIII.;  Acts  of  the 
Privy  Council ;  Cal.  State  Papers,  Domestic,  Addenda,  Spanish  and 
Venetian;  Kemp's  Loseley  MSS. ;  Froude's  History;  Burnet, 
Collier,  Dixon  and  Frere's  Church  Histories-  Strype's  Works  (General 
Index);  Parker  Soc.  Publications  (Gough's  Index);  Birt's  Eliza- 
bethan Settlement.  (  A.  F.  P.) 

HEATH,  WILLIAM  (1737-1814),  American  soldier,  was  born 
in  Roxbury,  Massachusetts,  on  the  2nd  of  March  1737  (old 
style).  He  was  brought  up  as  a  farmer  and  had  a  passion  for 
military  exercises.  In  1 765  he  entered  the  Ancient  and  Honour- 
able Artillery  Company  of  Boston,  of  which  he  became  commander 
in  1770.  In  the  same  year  he  wrote  to  the  Boston  Gazette  letters 
signed  "  A  Military  Countryman,  "  urging  the  necessity  of 
military  training.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts 
General  Court  from  1770  to  1774,  of  the  provincial  committee  of 
safety,  and  in  1774-1775  of  the  provincial  congress.  He  was 
commissioned  a  provincial  brig. -general  in  December  1774, 
directed  the  pursuit  of  the  British  from  Concord  (April  19,  1775), 
was  promoted  to  be  provincial  major-general  on  the  2oth  of  June 
1775,  and  two  days  later  was  commissioned  fourth  brig.-general 
in  the  Continental  Army.  He  became  major-general  on  the  pth 
of  August  1776,  and  was  in  active  service  around  New  York 
until  early  the  next  year.  In  January  1777  he  attempted  to 
take  Fort  Independence,  near  Spuyten  Duyvil,  then  garrisoned 
by  about  2000  Hessians,  but  at  the  first  sally  of  the  garrison  his 
troops  became  panic-stricken  and  a  few  days  later  he  withdrew. 
Washington  reprimanded  him  and  never  again  entrusted  to  him 
any  important  operation  in  the  field.  Throughout  the  war, 
however,  Heath  was  very  efficient  in  muster  service  and  in  the 
barracks.  From  March  1777  to  October  1778  he  was  in  command 
of  the  Eastern  Department  with  headquarters  at  Boston,  and 
had  charge  (Nov.  i777~Oct.  1778)  of  the  prisoners  of  war  from 
Burgoyne's  army  held  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts.  In  May  1779 
he  was  appointed  a  commissioner  of  the  Board  of  War.  He  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  troops  on  the  E.  side  of  the  Hudson 
in  June  1779,  and  of  other  troops  and  posts  on  the  Hudson  in 
November  of  the  same  year.  In  July  1780  he  met  the  French 
allies  under  Rochambeau  on  their  arrival  in  Rhode  Island;  in 
October  of  the  same  year  he  succeeded  Arnold  in  command  of 
West  Point  and  its  dependencies;  and  in  August  1781,  when 
Washington  went  south  to  meet  Cornwallis,  Heath  was  left  in 
command  of  the  Army  of  the  Hudson  to  watch  Clinton.  After 
the  war  he  retired  to  his  farm  at  Roxbury,  was  a  member  of  the 
state  House  of  Representatives  in  1788,  of  the  Massachusetts 
convention  which  ratified  the  Federal  Constitution  in  the  same 
year,  and  of  the  governor's  council  in  1780-1790,  was  a  state 
senator  (1791-1793),  and  in  1806  was  elected  lieutenant-governor 
of  Massachusetts  but  declined  to  serve.  He  died  at  Roxbury  on 
the  24th  of  January  1814,  the  last  of  the  major-generals  of  the 
War  of  American  Independence. 

See  Memoirs  of  Major-General  Heath,  containing  Anecdotes,  Details 
of  Skirmishes,  Battles  and  other  Military  Events  during  the  American 
War,  written  by  Himself  (Boston,  1798;  frequently  reprinted,  perhaps 
the  best  edition  being  that  published  in  New  York  in  1901  by  William 
Abbatt),  particularly  valuable  for  the  descriptions  of  Lexington 
and  Bunker  Hill,  of  the  fighting  around  New  York,  of  the  contro- 
versies with  Burgoyne  and  his  officers  during  their  stay  in  Boston, 
and  of  relations  with  Rochambeau;  and  his  correspondence,  iThe 
Heath  Papers,  vols.  iv.-v.,  seventh  series,  Massachusetts  Historical 
Society  Collections  (Boston,  1904-1905). 

HEATH,  the  English  form  of  a  name  given  in  most  Teutonic 
dialects  to  the  common  ling  or  heather  (Calluna  valgaris),  but 
now  applied  to  all  species  of  Erica,  an  extensive  genus  of  mono- 
petalous  plants,  belonging  to  the  order  Ericaceae.  The  heaths 
are  evergreen  shrubs,  with  small  narrow  leaves,  in  whorls  usually 


FIG.  i. 

Calluna  vulgaris. 


set  rather  thickly  on  the  shoots;  the  persistent  flowers  have  4 
sepals,  and  a  4-cleft  campanulate  or  tubular  corolla,  in  many 
species  more  or  less  ventricose  or  inflated;  the  dry  capsule  is 
4-celled,  and  opens,  in  the  true  Ericae,  in  4  segments,  to  the 
middle  of  which  the  partitions  adhere,  though  in  the  ling  the 
valves  separate  at  the  dissepiments.  The  plants  are  mostly  of 
low  growth,  but  several  African  kinds  reach  the  size  of  large 
bushes,  and  a  common  South  European  species,  E.  arborea, 
occasionally  attains  almost  the  aspect  and  dimensions  of  a  tree. 

One  of  the  best  known  and  most  interesting  of  the  family  is 
the  common  heath,  heather  or  ling,  Calluna  vulgaris  (fig.  i), 
placed  by  most  botanists  in  a  separate 
genus  on  account  of  the  peculiar  dehiscence 
of  the  fruit,  and  from  the  coloured  calyx, 
which  extends  beyond  the  corolla,  having 
a  whorl  of  sepal-like  bracts  beneath.  This 
shrub  derives  some  economic  importance 
from  its  forming  the  chief  vegetation  on 
many  of  those  extensive  wastes  that  occupy 
so  large  a  portion  of  the  more  sterile  lands 
of  northern  and  western  Europe,  the  usually 
desolate  appearance  of  which  is  enlivened 
in  the  latter  part  of  summer  by  its  abundant 
pink  blossoms.  When  growing  erect  to  the 
height  of  3  ft.  or  more,  as  it  often  does  in 
sheltered  places,  its  purple  stems,  close- 
leaved  green  shoots  and  feathery  spikes 
of  bell-shaped  flowers  render  it  one  of  the 
handsomest  of  the  heaths;  but  on  the 
bleaker  elevations  and  more  arid  slopes  it 
frequently  rises  only  a  few  inches  above  the 
ground.  In  all  moorland  countries  the  ling 
is  applied  to  many  rural  purposes;  the 
larger  stems  are  made  into  brooms,  the 
shorter  tied  up  into  bundles  that  serve  as 
brushes,  while  the  long  trailing  shoots  are 
woven  into  baskets.  Pared  up  with  the  peat  about  its  roots 
it  forms  a  good  fuel,  often  the  only  one  obtainable  on  the 
drier  moors.  The  shielings  of  the  Scottish  Highlanders  were 
formerly  constructed  of  heath  stems,  cemented  together  with 
peat-mud,  worked  into  a  kind  of  mortar  with  dry  grass  or 
straw;  hovels  and  sheds  for  temporary  purposes  are  still 
sometimes  built  in  a  similar  way,  and  roofed  in  with  ling. 
Laid  on  the  ground,  with  the  flowers  above,  it  forms  a  soft 
springy  bed,  the  luxurious  couch  of  the  ancient  Gael,  still  gladly 
resorted  to  at  times  by  the  hill  shepherd  or  hardy  deer-stalker. 
The  young  shoots  were  in  former  days  employed  as  a  substitute 
for  hops  in  brewing,  while  their  astringency  rendered  them 
valuable  as  a  tanning  material  in  Ireland  and  the  Western  Isles. 
They  are  said  also  to  have  been  used  by  the  Highlanders  for 
dyeing  woollen  yarn  yellow,  and  other  colours  are  asserted  to 
have  been  obtained  from  them,  but  some  writers  appear  to  con- 
fuse the  dyer's-weed,  Genista  tincloria,  with  the  heather.  The 
young  juicy  shoots  and  the  seeds,  which  remain  long  in  the 
capsules,  furnish  the  red  grouse  of  Scotland  with  the  larger  portion 
of  its  sustenance;  the  ripe  seeds  are  eaten  by  many  birds.  The 
tops  of  the  ling  afford  a  considerable  part  of  the  winter  fodder  of 
the  hill  flocks,  and  are  popularly  supposed  to  communicate  the 
fine  flavour  to  Welsh  and  Highland  mutton,  but  sheep  seldom  crop 
heather  while  the  mountain  grasses  and  rushes  are  sweet 'and 
accessible.  Ling  has  been  suggested  as  a  material  for  paper, 
but  the  stems  are  hardly  sufficiently  fibrous  for  that  purpose. 
The  purple  or  fine-leaved  heath,  E.  cinerea  (fig.  2),  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  the  genus,  abounds  on  the  lower  moors  and  commons 
of  Great  Britain  and  western  Europe,  in  such  situations  being 
sometimes  more  prevalent  than  the  ling.  The  flowers  of  both 
these  species  yield  much  honey,  furnishing  a  plentiful  supply 
to  the  bees  in  moorland  districts;  from  this  heath  honey  the 
Picts  probably  brewed  the  mead  said  by  Boetius  to  have  been 
made  from  the  flowers  themselves. 

The  genus  contains  about  420  known  species,  by  far  the  greater 
part  being  indigenous  to  the  western  districts  of  South  Africa, 


HEATHCOAT— HEATHFIELD 


FIG.  2. 
Erica  cinerea. 


but  it  is  also  a  characteristic  genus  of  the  Mediterranean  region, 
while  several  species  extend  into  northern  Europe.  No  species  is 
native  in  America,  but  ling  occurs  as  an  introduced  plant  on  the 
Atlantic  side  from  Newfoundland  to  New  Jersey.  Five  species 
occur  in  Britain:  E.  cinerea,  E.  letralix  (cross-leaved  heath), 
both  abundant  on  heaths  and  commons, 
E.  iiagans,  Cornish  heath,  found  only  in 
West  Cornwall,  E.  ciliaris  in  the  west  of 
England  and  Ireland  and  E.  mediterranea 
in  Ireland.  The  three  last  are  south-west 
European  species  which  reach  the  northern 
limit  of  their  distribution  in  the  west  of 
England  and  Ireland.  E.  scoparia  is  a 
common  heath  in  the  centre  of  France 
and  elsewhere  in  the  Mediterranean 
region,  forming  a  spreading  bush  several 
feet  high.  It  is  known  as  bruyere,  and 
its  stout  underground  rootstocks  yield 
the  briar-wood  used  for  pipes. 

The  Cape  heaths  have  long  been 
favourite  objects  of  horticulture.  In  the 
warmer  parts  of  Britain  several  will  bear 
exposure  to  the  cold  of  ordinary  winters 
in  a  sheltered  border,  but  most  need  the 
protection  of  the  conservatory.  They  are 
sometimes  raised  from  seed,  but  are  chiefly 
multiplied  by  cuttings  "  struck  "  in  sand, 
and  afterwards  transferred  to  pots  filled 
with  a  mixture  of  black  peat  and  sand;  the  peat  should  be  dry 
and  free  from  sourness.  Much  attention  is  requisite  in  watering 
heaths,  as  they  seldom  recover  if  once  allowed  to  droop,  while 
they  will  not  bear  much  water  about  their  roots:  the  heath- 
house  should  be  light  and  well  ventilated,  the  plants  requiring 
sun,  and  soon  perishing  in  a  close  or  permanently  damp  atmo^ 
sphere;  in  England  little  or  no  heat  is  needed  in  ordinary  seasons. 
The  European  heaths  succeed  well  in  English  gardens,  only 
requiring  a  peaty  soil  and  sunny  situation  to  thrive  as  well  as  in 
their  native  localities:  E.  carnea,  mediterranea,  ciliaris,  iiagans, 
and  the  pretty  cross-leaved  heath  of  boggy  moors,  E.  Tetralix, 
are  among  those  most  worthy  of  cultivation.  The  beautiful  large- 
flowered  St  Dabeoc's  heath,  belonging  to  the  closely  allied  genus 
Dabeocia,  is  likewise  often  seen  in  gardens.  It  is  found  in  boggy 
heaths  in  Connemara  and  Mayo,  and  is  also  native  in  West 
France,  Spain  and  the  Azores. 

A  beautiful  work  on  heaths  is  that  by  H.  C.  Andrews,  containing 
coloured  engravings  of  nearly  300  species  and  varieties,  with  descrip- 
tions in  English  and  Latin  (4  vols.,  1802-1805). 

HEATHCOAT,  JOHN  (1783-1861),  English  inventor,  was  born 
at  Duffield  near  Derby  on  the  7th  of  August  1783.  During  his 
apprenticeship  to  a  framesmith  near  Lough  borough,  he  made 
an  improvement  in  the  construction  of  the  warp-loom,  so  as  to 
produce  mitts  of  a  lace-like  appearance  by  means  of  it.  He 
began  business  on  his  own  account  at  Nottingham,  but  finding 
himself  subjected  to  the  intrusion  of  competing  inventors  he 
removed  to  Hathern.  There  in  1808  he  constructed  a  machine 
capable  of  producing  an  exact  imitation  of  real  pillow-lace. 
This  was  by  far  the  most  expensive  and  complex  textile  apparatus 
till  then  existing;  and  in  describing  the  process  of  his  invention 
Heathcoat  said  in  1836,  "  The  single  difficulty  of  getting  the 
diagonal  threads  to  twist  in  the  allotted  space  was  so  great  that, 
if  now  to  be  done,  I  should  probably  not  attempt  its  accomplish- 
ment." Some  time  before  perfecting  his  invention,  which  he 
patented  in  1809,  he  removed  to  Loughborough,  where  he 
entered  into  partnership  with  Charles  Lacy,  a  Nottingham 
manufacturer;  but  in  1816  their  factory  was  attacked  by  the 
Luddites  and  their  3  5  lace  frames  destroyed.  The  damages 
were  assessed  in  the  King's  Bench  at  £10,000;  but  as  Heathcoat 
declined  to  expend  the  money  in  the  county  of  Leicester  he  never 
received  any  part  of  it.  Undaunted  by  his  loss,  he  began  at 
once  to  construct  new  and  greatly  improved  machines  in  an 
unoccupied  factory  at  Tiverton,  Devon,  propelling  them  by 
water-power  and  afterwards  by  steam.  His  claim  to  the  inven- 


tion of  the  twisting  and  traversing  lace  machine  was  disputed, 
and  a  patent  was  taken  out  by  a  clever  workman  for  a  similar 
machine,  which  was  decided  at  a  trial  in  1816  to  be  an  infringe- 
ment of  Heathcoat's  patent.  He  followed  his  great  invention  by 
others  of  much  ability,  as,  for  instance,  contrivances  for  orna- 
menting net  while  in  coutse  of  manufacture  and  for  making 
ribbons  and  platted  and  twisted  net  upon  his  machines,  improved 
yarn  spinning-frames,  and  methods  for  winding  raw  silk  from 
cocoons.  He  also  patented  an  improved  process  for  extracting 
and  purifying  salt.  An  offer  of  £10,000  was  made  to  him  in 
1833  for  the  use  of  his  processes  in  dressing  and  finishing  silk  nets, 
but  he  allowed  the  highly  profitable  secret  to  remain  undivulged. 
In  1832  he  patented  a  steam  plough.  Heathcoat  was  elected 
member  of  parliament  for  Tiverton  in  1832.  Though  he  seldom 
spoke  in  the  House  he  was  constantly  engaged  on  committees, 
where  his  thorough  knowledge  of  business  and  sound  judgment 
were  highly  valued.  He  retained  his  seat  until  1859,  and  after 
two  years  of  declining  health  he  died  on  the  i8th  of  January 
1861  at  Bolham  House,  near  Tiverton. 

HEATHCOTE,  SIR  GILBERT  (c.  1651-1733),  lord  mayor  of 
London,  belonged  to  an  old  Derbyshire  family  and  was  educated 
at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  afterwards  becoming  a  merchant 
in  London.  His  .trading  ventures  were  very  successful;  he 
was  one  of  the  promoters  of  the  new  East  India  company  and 
he  emerged  victorious  from  a  contest  between  himself  and  the 
old  East  India  company  in  1693;  he  was  also  one  of  the  founders 
and  first  directors  of  the  bank  of  England.  In  1 702  he  became 
an  alderman  of  the  city  of  London  and  was  knighted;  he  served 
as  lord  mayor  in  1711,  being  the  last  lord  mayor  to  ride  on  horse- 
back in  his  procession.  In  1700  Heathcote  was  sent  to  parlia- 
ment as  member  for  the  city  of  London,  but  he  was  soon  expelled 
for  his  share  in  the  circulation  of  some  exchequer  bills;  however, 
he  was  again  elected  for  the  city  later  in  the  same  year,  and 
he  retained  his  seat  until  1710.  In  1714  he  was  member  for 
Helston,  in  1722  for  New  Lymington,  and  in  1727  for  St 
Germans.  He  was  a  consistent  Whig,  and  was  made  a  baronet 
eight  days  before  his  death.  Although  extremely  rich,  Heath- 
cote's  meanness  is  referred  to  by  Pope;  and  it  was  this  trait 
that  accounts  largely  for  his  unpopularity  with  the  lower  classes. 
He  died  in  London  on  the  251)1  of  January  1733  and  was  buried 
at  Normanton,  Rutland,  a  residence  which  he  had  purchased 
from  the  Mackworths. 

A  descendant,  Sir  Gilbert  John  Heathcote,  Bart.  (1795-1867), 
was  created  Baron  Aveland  in  1856;  and  his  son  Gilbert  Henry, 
who  in  1888  inherited  from  his  mother  the  barony  of  Willoughby 
de  Eresby,  became  ist  earl  of  Ancaster  in  1892. 

HEATHEN,  a  term  originally  applied  to  all  persons  or  races 
who  did  not  hold  the  Jewish  or  Christian  belief,  thus  including 
Mahommedans.  It  is  now  more  usually  given  to  polytheistic 
races,  thus  excluding  Mahommedans.  The  derivation  of  the 
word  has  been  much  debated.  It  is  common  to  all  Germanic 
languages ;  cf .  German  Heide,  Dutch  heiden.  It  is  usually  ascribed 
to  a  Gothic  hafyi,  heath.  In  Ulfilas'  Gothic  version  of  the 
Bible,  the  earliest  extant  literary  monument  of  the  Germanic 
languages,  the  Syrophoenician  woman  (Mark  vii.  26)  is  called 
hafyno,  where  the  Vulgate  has  gentilis.  "  Heathen,"  i.e.  the 
people  of  the  heath  or  open  country,  would  thus  be  a  translation 
of  the  Latin  paganus,  pagan,  i.e.  the  people  of  the  pagus  or 
village,  applied  to  the  dwellers  in  the  country  where  the  worship 
of  the  old  gods  still  lingered,  when  the  people  of  the  towns  were 
Christians  (but  see  PAGAN  for  a  more  tenable  explanation  of  that 
term).  On  the  other  hand  it  has  been  suggested  (Prof.  S. 
Bugge,  Indo-German.  Forschungen,  v.  178,  quoted  in  the  New 
English  Dictionary)  that  Ulfilas  may  have  adopted  the  word 
from  the  Armenian  heianos,  i.e.  Greek  Wvrj,  tribes,  races,  the 
word  used  for  the  "  Gentiles  "  in  the  New  Testament.  Gentilis 
in  Latin,  properly  meaning  "  tribesman,"  came  to  be  used  of 
foreigners  and  non-Roman  peoples,  and  was  adopted  in  eccle- 
siastical usage  for  the  non-Christian  nations  and  in  the  Old 
Testament  for  non- Jewish  races. 

HEATHFIELD,  GEORGE  AUGUSTUS  ELIOTT,  BARON  (1717- 
1790),  British  general,  a  younger  son  of  Sir  Gilbert  Eliott,  Bart., 


i6o 


HEATING 


of  Stobs,  Roxburghshire,  was  born  on  the  25th  of  December 
1717,  and  educated  abroad  for  the  military  profession.  As  a 
volunteer  he  fought  with  the  Prussian  army  in  1735  and  1736, 
and  then  entered  the  Grenadier  Guards.  He  went  through  the 
war  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  and  was  wounded  at  Dettingen, 
rising  to  be  lieutenant-colonel  in  1 7  54.  In  1 7  59  he  became  colonel 
of  a  new  regiment  of  light  horse  (afterwards  the  isth  Hussars) 
and  became  well  known  for  the  efficiency  which  it  displayed  in 
the  subsequent  campaigns.  He  became  lieutenant-general  in 
1765.  In  1775  he  was  selected  to  be  governor  of  Gibraltar  (q.v.), 
and  it  is  in  connexion  with  his  magnificent  defence  in  the  great 
siege  of  1779  that  his  name  is  famous.  His  portrait  by  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds  is  in  the  National  Gallery.  In  1787  he  was 
created  Baron  Heathfield  of  Gibraltar,  but  died  on  the  6th  of 
July  1790.  He  had  married  in  1748  the  heiress  of  the  Drake 
family,  to  which  Sir  Francis  Drake  belonged.  His  son,  the 
2nd  baron,  died  in  1813  and  the  peerage  became  extinct,  but 
the  estates  went  to  the  family  of  Eliott-Drake  (baronetcy  of 
1821)  through  his  sister. 

HEATING.  In  temperate  latitudes  the  climate  is  generally 
such  as  to  necessitate  in  dwellings  during  a  great  portion  of  the 
year  a  temperature  warmer  than  that  out  of  doors.  The  object 
of  the  art  of  heating  is  to  secure  this  required  warmth  with  the 
greatest  economy  and  efficiency.  For  reasons  of  health  it  may 
b«  assumed  that  no  system  of  heating  is  advisable  which  does 
not  provide  for  a  constant  renewal  of  the  air  in  the  locality 
warmed,  and  on  this  account  there  is  a  difficulty  in  treating  as 
separate  matters  the  subjects  of  heating  and  ventilation,  which 
in  practical  schemes  should  be  considered  conjointly.  (See 
VENTILATION). 

The  object  of  all  heating  apparatus  is  the  transference  of  heat 
from  the  fire  to  the  various  parts  of  the  building  it  is  intended 
to  warm,  and  this  transfer  may  be  effected  by  radiation,  by  con- 
duction or  by  convection.  An  open  fire  acts  by  radiation;  it 
warms  the  air  in  a  room  by  first  warming  the  walls,  floor,  ceiling 
and  articles  in  the  room, and  these  in  turn  warm  the  air.  There- 
fore in  a  room  with  an  open  fire  the  air  is,  as  a  rule,  less  heated 
than  the  walls.  In  many  forms  of  fireplaces  fresh  air  is  brought 
in  and  passed  around  the  back  and  sides  of  the  stove  before  being 
admitted  into  the  room.  A  closed  stove  acts  mainly  by  con- 
vection; though  when  heated  to  a  high  temperature  it  gives 
out  radiant  heat.  Windows  have  a  chilling  effect  on  a  room, 
and  in  calculations  extra  allowance  should  be  made  for  window 
areas. 

There  are  a  number  of  methods  available  for  adoption  in  the 
heating  of  buildings,  but  it  is  a  matter  of  considerable  difficulty 
to  suit  the  method  of  warming  to  the  class  of  building  to  be 
warmed.  Heating  may  be  effected  by  one  of  the  following 
systems,  or  installations  may  be  so  arranged  as  to  combine  the 
advantages  of  more  than  one  method:  open  fires,  closed  stoves, 
hot-air  apparatus,  hot  water  circulating  in  pipes  at  low  or  at  high 
pressure,  or  steam  at  high  or  low  pressure. 

The  open  grate  still  holds  favour  in  England,  though  in 
America  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe  it  has  been  superseded 
by  the  closed  stove.  The  old  form  of  open  fire  is 
tin".  certainly  wasteful  of  fuel,  and  the  loss  of  heat  up  the 

chimney  and  by  conduction  into  the  brickwork 
backing  of  the  stove  is  considerable.  Great  improvements, 
however,  have  been  effected  in  the  design  of  open  fireplaces, 
and  many  ingenious  contrivances  of  this  nature  are  now  in  the 
market  which  combine  efficiency  of  heating  with  economy  of 
fuel.  Unless  suitable  fresh  air  inlets  are  provided,  this  form 
of  stove  will  cause  the  room  to  be  draughty,  the  strong  current 
of  warm  air  up  the  flue  drawing  cold  air  in  through  the  crevices 
in  the  doors  and  windows.  The  best  form  of  open  fireplace  is 
the  ventilating  stove,  in  which  fresh  air  is  passed  around  the 
back  and  sides  of  the  stove  before  being  admitted  through 
convenient  openings  into  the  room.  This  has  immense  advantages 
over  the  ordinary  type  of  fireplace.  The  illustrations  show 
two  forms  of  ventilating  fireplace,  one  (fig.  i)  similar  in  appearance 
to  the  ordinary  domestic  grate,  the  other  (fig.  2)  with  descending 
smoke  flue  suitable  for  hospitals  and  public  rooms,  where  it 


might  be  fixed  in  the  middle  of  the  apartment.  The  fixing  of 
stoves  of  this  kind  entails  the  laying  of  pipes  or  ducts  from  the 
open  to  convey  fresh  air  to  the  back  of  the  stove. 

With  closed  stoves  much  less  heat  is  wasted,  and  consequently 
less  fuel  is  burned,  than  with  open  grates,  but  they  often  cause 
an  unpleasant  sensation  of  dryness  in  the  air,  and  the 
products  of  combustion  also  escape  to  some  extent, 
rendering  this  method  of  heating  not  only  unpleasant 
but  sometimes  even  dangerous.  The  method  in  Great  Britain 
is  almost  entirely  confined  to  places  of  public  assembly,  but  in 


FIG.  i. 


FIG.  2. 


America  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe  it  is  much  used  for 
domestic  heating.  If  the  flue  pipe  be  carried  up  a  considerable 
distance  inside  the  apartment  to  be  warmed  before  being  turned 
into  the  external  air,  practically  the  whole  of  the  heat  generated 
will  be  utilized.  Charcoal,  coke  or  anthracite  coal  are  the  fuels 
generally  used  in  slow  combustion  heating  stoves. 

Gas  fires,  as  a  substitute  for  the  open  coal  fire,  have  many 
points  in  their  favour,  for  they  are  conducive  to  cleanliness,  they 
need  but  little  attention,  and  the  heat  is  easily  controlled. 
On  the  other  hand,   they  may  give  off  unhealthy 
fumes  and  produce  unpleasant  odours.    They  usually 
take  the  form  of  cast  iron  open  stoves  fitted  with  a  number  of 
Bunsen  burners  which  heat  perforated  lumps  of  asbestos.    The 
best  form  of  stove  is  that  with  which  perfect  combustion  is 
most  nearly  attained,  and  to  which  a  pan  of  water  is  affixed  to 
supply  a  desirable  humidity  to  the  air,  the  gas  having  the  effect 
of  drying  the  atmosphere.     With  another  form  of  gas  stove 
coke  is  used  in  place  of  the  perforated  asbestos;  the  fire  is 
started  with  the  gas,  which,  when  the  coke  is  well  alight,  may 
be  dispensed  with,  and  the  fire  kept  up  with  coke  in  the  usual 
way. 

Electrical  heating  appliances  have  only  recently  passed  the 
experimental  stage;  there  is,  however,  undoubtedly  a  great 
future  for  electric  heating,  and  the  perfecting  of  the 
stove,  together  with  the  cheapening  of  the  electric 
current,  may  be  expected  to  result  in  many  of  the 
other  stoves  and  convectors  being  superseded.  Hitherto  the 
large  bill  for  electric  energy  has  debarred  the  general  use  of 
electrical  heating,  in  spite  of  its  numerous  advantages. 

Oils  are  powerful  fuels,  but  the  high  price  of  refined  petroleum , 
the  oil  generally  preferred,  precludes  its  widespread  use  for 
many  purposes  for  which  it  is  suitable.  In  small 
stoves  for  warming  and  for  cooking,  petroleum  presents  stoves 
some  advantages  over  other  fuels,  in  that  there  is  no 
chimney  to  sweep,  and  if  well  managed  no  unpleasant  fumes, 
and  the  stoves  are  easily  portable.  On  the  other  hand,  these 
stoves  need  a  considerable  amount  of  attention  in  filling,  trimming 
and  cleaning,  and  there  is  some  risk  of  explosion  and  damage  by 
accidental  leaking  and  smoking.  Crude  or  unrefined  petroleum 
needs  a  special  air-spray  pressure  burner  for  its  use,  and  this 
suffers  from  the  disadvantage  of  being  noisy.  Gas  and  oil 
radiators  would  be  more  properly  termed  "  convectors,"  since 
they  warm  mainly  by  converted  currents.  They  are  similar 
in  appearance  to  a  hot-water  or  steam  radiator,  and,  indeed, 
some  are  designed  to  be  filled  with  water  and  used  as  such. 
They  should  always  be  fitted  with  a  pan  of  water  to  supply  the 
necessary  humidity  to  the  warmed  air,  and  a  flue  to  carry  off 
any  disagreeable  fumes. 


HEATING 


161 


Warm 

air. 


Ouerflt 

Combined  feed  & 
tupunlion  tank 


Heating  by  warmed  air,  one  of  the  oldest  methods  in  use, 
has  been  much  improved  by  attention  to  the  construction  of 
the  apparatus,  and  if  properly  installed  will  give  as 
good  effects  as  it  is  possible  to  obtain.  The  system 
is  especially  suitable  for  churches,  assembly  halls  and 
large  rooms.  A  stove  of  special  design  is  placed  in  a  chamber 
in  the  basement  or  cellar,  and  cold  fresh  air  is  passed  through 
it,  and  led  by  means  of  flues  to  the  various  apartments  for  dis- 
tribution by  means  of  easily  regulated  inlet  valves.  To  prevent 
the  atmosphere  from  becoming  unduly  dry  a  pan  of  water  is 
fitted  to  the  stove;  this  serves  to  moisten  the  air  before  it 
passes  into  the  distributing  flues.  If  each  distributing  flue  is 
connected  by  means  of  a  mixing  valve  with  a  cold-air  flue,  the 
warmth  of  the  incoming  air  can  be  regulated  to  a  nicety  (see 
VENTILATION). 

There  are  many  different  systems  of  heating  by  hot  water 
circulating  in  pipes.  The  oldest  and  best  known  is  the  "  two 
Low  P'Pe  "  svstem,  others  being  the  "  one  pipe  "  or  "  simple 

pressure  circuit,"  and  the  "  drop  "  or  "  overhead."  The  high 
hot  pressure  system  is  of  later  invention,  having  been 

first  put  to  practical  use  by  A.  M.  Perkins  in  1845. 
All  these  methods  warm  chiefly  by  means  of  convected  heat, 
the  amount  of  true  radiation  from  the  pipes  being  small.  The 
manner  in  which  the  circulation  of  hot  water  takes  place  in  the 
tubes  is  as  follows.  Fire  heats  the  water  in  a  boiler  from  the  top 
of  which  a  "  flow  "  pipe  communicates  with  the  rooms  to  be 
warmed  (fig.  3).  As  the  water  is  heated  it  becomes  lighter, 
r  rises  to  the  top  of  the  boiler, 

/  and  passes  along   the  flow 

/coid  metir  pipe.  It  is  followed  by 
*""•""""  more  and  more  hot  water, 
and  so  travels  along  the  flow 
pipe,  which  is  rising  all  the 
time,  to  the  farthest  point 
of  the  circuit,  by  which 
time  it  has  in  aU  proba- 
bility cooled  considerably. 
From  this  point  the  "  re- 
turn "  pipe  drops,  usually  at 
the  same  rate  as  the  flow 
pipe  rises;  and  in  due  course 
the  water  reaches  its  start- 
ing point,  the  boiler,  and  is 
again  heated  and  again  cir- 
culated through  the  system. 
The  connexion  of  the  return 
pipe  is  made  with  the  lower 
part  of  the  boiler.  Branches 
may  be  made  from  the  main 
pipes  by  means  of  smaller 
pipes  arranged  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  mains,  the 
branch  flow  pipe  being  con- 
nected with  the  •  main  flow 
pipe  and  returning  into  the 
FIG.  3.  main  return.  To  obtain  a 

larger  heating  surface  than 

a  pipe  affords,  radiators  are  connected  with  the  pipes  where 
desired,  and  the  water  passing  through  them  warms  the  sur- 
rounding air. 

The  "  one  pipe "  system  (fig.  4)  acts  on  precisely  the 
same  principle,  but  in  place  of  two  pipes  being  placed 
in  adjacent  positions  one  large  main  makes  a  complete 
circuit  of  the  area  to  be  warmed,  starting  from  and  return- 
ing to  the  boiler,  and  from  this  main  flow  and  return  branches 
are  taken  and  connected  with  radiators  and  other  heating 
appliances. 

In  the  "  drop  "  or  "  overhead  "  system  (fig.  5)  a  rising  main 
is  taken  directly  from  the  boiler  to  the  topmost  floor  of  the 
building,  and  from  this  branches  are  dropped  to  the  lower  floors, 
and  connected  by  means  of  smaller  branches  to  radiators  or 
coils.  The  vertical  branches  descend  to  the  basement  and 
xui.  6 


f.  denotes  radiator 

V.       ,,       regulating  value 


generally  merge  in  a  single  return  pipe  which  is  connected  to 
the  lower  part  of  the  boiler. 

The  rate  of  circulation  in  the  ordinary  low  pressure  hot-water 
system  may  be  considerably  accelerated  by  means  of  steam 
injections.  The  water  after  being  heated  passes  into  a  circulating 


ft.  denotty  radiator 

V.        ..         regulating  Mint 


syttem 


FIG.  4. 


tank  into  which  steam  is  introduced;  this,  mixing  with  the  hot 
water,  gives  it  additional  motive  power,  resulting  in  a  faster 
circulation.  This  steam  condensing  adds  to  the  water  in  the 
pipe  and  naturally  causes  an  overflow,  which  is  led  back  to  the 
boiler  and  re-used.  In  districts  where  the  water  is  hard,  this 
arrangement  considerably  lengthens  the  life  of  the  boiler,  as 


E 


Alternative  method 
with  separate 
return  pipe 


X.  devotee  radiator 
V.        „       regulating  I 


FIG.  5. 

the  same  water  is  used  over  and  over  again,  and  no  fresh  deposit 
of  fur  occurs.  Owing  to  the  very  rapid  movement  and  the 
consequent  increased  rate  of  transmission  of  heat,  the  pipes  and 
radiators  may  be  reduced  in  size,  in  many  circumstances  a  very 
desirable  thing  to  achieve.  With  this  system  the  temperature 


l62 


HEATING 


hot 

water. 


Expansion 
chamber 


Lavatory 
basin 


s""faL'° 


'.Stated  by  coil   . 


can  be  quickly  raised  and  easily  controlled.  If  the  weather  is 
mild,  a  moderate  heat  may  be  obtained  by  using  the  apparatus 
as  an  ordinary  hot  water  system,  and  shutting  off  the  steam 
injectors. 

The  cold-water  supply  and  expansion  tank  (fig.  3)  are  often 
combined  in  one  tank  placed  at  a  point  above  the  level  of  circula- 
tion. The  tank  should  be  of  a  size  to  hold  not  less  than  a 
twentieth  part  of  the  total  amount  of  water  held  in  the  system. 
The  automatic  inlet  of  cold  water  to  the  hot  water  system  from 
the  main  house  tank  or  other  source  is  controlled  by  a  ball  valve, 
which  is  so  fixed  as  to  allow  the  water  to  rise  no  more  than  an 
inch  above  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  thus  leaving  the  remainder 
of  the  space  clear  for  expansion.  An  overflow  is  provided, 
discharging  into  the  open  air  to  allow  the  water  to  escape  should 
the  ball  valve  become  defective. 

The  "  Perkins  "  or  "  small  bore  high  pressure  "  system 
(fig.  6)  has  many  advantages,  for  it  is  safe,  the  boiler  is  small 
High  and  is  easily  managed,  the  temperature  is  well  under 

pressure  control  and  may  be  regulated  to  suit  the  changing 
.  weather,  and  the  small  pipes  present  a  neat  appearance 
in  a  room.  The  whole  system  is  constructed  of  wrought 
iron  pipe  of  small  diameter,  strong  enough  to  resist  a  testing 
pressure  of  2000  to  2500  Ib  per  sq.  in.  The  boiler  consists  of 

similar  pipe  coiled  up  to  form 
a  fire-box,  inside  which  the 
furnace  is  lighted.  The  coil 
's  encased  with  firebricks 
and  brickwork,  and  the 
smoke  from  the  fire  is  carried 
off  by  a  flue  in  the  ordinary 
way-  Tne  flow  PiPe  of  similar 
:;  iron*  o/«ntw  section  (usually  having  an 
internal  diameter  of  about  i 
in.,  the  metal  being  nearly  \  in. 
thick)  continues  from  the  top 
of  the  coil,  and  after  travel- 
ling round  the  various  apart- 
ments returns  to,  and  is 
connected  with,  the  lowest 
part  of  the  boiler  coil.  The 
joints  take  a  special  form  to 
enable  them  to  withstand  the 
great  strain  to  which  they 
are  subjected  (fig.  7).  One 
end  of  a  pipe  is  finished  flat, 
the  end  of  the  other  pipe 
being  brought  to  a  conical 
edge.  On  one  end  also  a 
right-handed,  and  on  the 
other  a  left-handed,  screw- 
thread  is  turned.  A  coupling 
collar,  tapped  in  the  same 

manner,  is  screwed  on,  and  causes  the  conical  edge  to  impress 
itself  tightly  on  the  flat  end,  giving  a  sound  and  lasting  joint. 
The  system  is  hermetically  sealed  after  being  pumped  full  of 
water,  an  expansion  chamber  in  the  shape  of  a  pipe  of  larger 
dimensions  being  provided  at  the  top  of  the  system  above 
the  highest  point  of  circulation.  Upon  the  application  of  heat 

to  the  fire-box  coil  the  water 
naturally  expands  and  forces  its 
way  up  into  the  expansion 
chamber;  but  there  it  encounters 
the  pressure  of  the  confined  air, 
and  ebullition  is  consequently 
prevented.  Thus  at  no  time 
can  steam  form  in  the  system. 
This  system  is  trustworthy  and  safe  in  working.  The  smallness 
of  the  pipes  renders  it  liable  to  damage  by  frost,  but  this  accident 
may  be  prevented  by  always  keeping  in  frosty  weather  a  small 
fire  in  the  furnace.  If  this  course  is  inconvenient,  some  liquid 
of  low  freezing-point,  such  as  glycerine,  may  be  mixed  with  the 
water. 


C.   cftnotes  radtrttincj  coll 
V,        „       regulating  vatvt 


FIG.  6. 


FIG.  7. 


For  large  public  buildings,  factories,  &c.,  heating  by  steam 
is  generally  adopted  on  account  of  the  rapidity  with  which  heat 
is  available,  and  the  great  distance  from  the  boiler  at 
which  warming  is  effected.    In  the  case  of  factories      Bating 
the  exhaust  steam  from  the  engines  used  for  driving 
the  working  machinery  is  made  use  of  and  forms  the  most 
economical   method   of   heating   possible.     There   are   several 
different    systems   of   heating   by   steam — low   pressure,    high 
pressure  and  minus  pressure. 

In  the  low  pressure  two  pipe  system  the  flow  pipe  is  carried 
to  a  sufficient  height  directly  above  the  boiler  to  allow  of  its 
gradual  fall  to  a  little  beyond  the  most  distant  point  at  which 
connexion  is  to  be  made  with  the  return  pipe,  which  thence 
slopes  towards  the  boiler.  Branches  are  taken  off  the  flow  pipe, 
and  after  circulating  through  coils  or  radiators  are  connected 
with  the  return  pipe.  In  a  well-proportioned  system  the  pres- 
sure need  not  exceed  2  or  3  Ib  per  sq.  in.  for  excellent 
results  to  be  obtained.  The  one-pipe  system  is  similar  in  prin- 
ciple, the  pipe  rising  to  its  greatest  height  above  the  boiler 
and  being  then  carried  around  as  a  single  pipe  falling  all  the 
while.  It  resembles  in  many  points  the  one-pipe  low  pressure 
hot-water  system.  Radiators  are  fed  directly  from  the  main. 
Where,  as  in  factories  or  workshops,  there  are  already  in-stalled 
engines  working  at  a  high  steam  pressure,  say  120  to  180  Ib  per 
sq.  in.,  a  portion  of  the  steam  generated  in  the  boilers  may  be 
utilized  for  heating  by  the  aid  of  a  reducing  valve.  The  steam 
is  passed  through  the  valve  and  emerges  at  the  pressure  required 
generally  from  3  Ib  upwards.  It  is  then  used  for  one  of  the 
systems  described  above. 

High-pressure  steam-heating,  compared  with  the  heating  by 
low  pressure,  is  little  used.  The  principles  are  the  same  as  those 
applied  to  low-pressure  work,  but  all  fittings  and  appliances 
must,  of  course,  be  made  to  stand  the  higher  strain  to  which 
they  are  subjected. 

The  "  minus  pressure "  steam  system,  sometimes  termed 
"  atmospheric  "  or  "  vacuum,"  is  of  more  recent  introduction 
than  those  just  described.  It  is  certainly  the  most  scientific 
method  of  steam-heating,  and  heat  can  be  made  to  travel  a 
greater  distance  by  its  aid  than  by  any  other  means.  The  heat 
of  the  pipes  is  great,  but  can  be  easily  regulated.  The  system 
is  economical  in  fuel,  but  needs  skilled  attendance  to  keep  the 
appliances  and  fittings  in  order.  The  steam  is  introduced  into 
the  pipes  at  about  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  and  is  sucked 
through  the  system  by  means  of  a  vacuum  pump,  which  at  the 
same  operation  frees  the  pipes  from  air  and  from  condensation 
water.  This  pumping  action  results  in  an  extremely  rapid 
circulation  of  the  heating  agent,  enabling  long  distances  to  be 
traversed  without  much  loss  of  heat. 

Compared  with  heating  by  hot  water,  steam-heating  requires 
less  piping,  which,  further,  may  be  of  much  smaller  diameter 
to  attain  a  similar  result,  because  of  the  higher  temperature 
of  the  heat  yielding  surface.  A  drawback  to  the  use  of  steam 
is  the  fact  that  the  high  temperature  of  the  pipes  and  radiators 
attracts  and  spreads  a  great  deal  of  dust.  There  is  also  a  risk 
that  woodwork  near  the  pipes  may  warp  and  split.  The  apparatus 
needs  constant  attention,  since  neglect  in  stoking  would  result 
in  stopping  the  generation  of  steam,  and  the  whole  system 
would  almost  immediately  cool.  To  regulate  the  heat  it  is 
necessary  either  to  instal  a  number  of  small  radiators  or  to 
divide  the  radiators  into  sections,  each  section  controlled  by 
distinct  valves;  steam  may  then  be  admitted  to  all  the  sections 
of  the  radiator  or  to  any  less  number  of  sections  as  desired. 
In  a  hot-water  system  the  heat  is  given  off  at  a  lower  temperature 
and  is  consequently  more  agreeable  than  that  yielded  by  a 
steam-heating  apparatus.  The  joint  most  commonly  used  for 
hot-water  pipes  is  termed  the  "  rust  "  joint,  which  is  cheap  to 
make,  but  unfortunately  is  inefficient.  The  materials  required 
are  iron  borings,  sal-ammoniac  and  sulphur;  these  are  mixed 
together,  moistened  with  water,  and  rammed  into  the  socket, 
which  is  previously  half  filled  with  yarn,  well  caulked.  The 
materials  mixed  with  the  iron  borings  cause  them  to  rust  into  a 
solid  mass,  and  in  doing  so  a  slight  expansion  takes  place.  On 


HEATING 


163 


this  account  it  is  necessary  to  exercise  some  skill  in  forming  the 
joint,  or  the  socket  of  the  pipe  will  be  split;  numbers  of  pipes 
are  undoubtedly  spoilt  in  this  way.  Suitable  proportions  of 
materials  to  form  a  rust  joint  are  90  parts  by  weight  of  iron 
borings  well  mixed  with  2  parts  of  flowers  of  sulphur,  and  i 
part  of  powdered  sal-ammoniac.  Another  joint,  less  rigid  but 
sound  and  durable,  is  made  with  yarn  and  white  and  red  lead. 
The  white  and  red  lead  are  mixed  together  to  form  a  putty,  and 
are  filled  into  the  socket  alternately  with  layers  of  well-caulked 
yarn,  starting  with  yarn  and  finishing  off  with  the  lead  mixture. 
Iron  expands  when  heated  to  the  temperature  of  boiling 
water  (212°  F.)  about  i  part  in  900,  that  is  to  say,  a  pipe 
100  ft.  long  would  expand  or  increase  in  length  when 
heated  to  this  temperature  about  i^  in.,  an  amount 
which  seems  small  but  which  would  be  quite  sufficient 
to  destroy  one  or  more  of  the  joints  if  provision  were  not  made 
to  prevent  damage.  The  amount  of  expansion  increases  as  the 
temperature  is  raised;  at  340°  F.  it  is  2j  in. 
in  100  ft.  With  wrought  iron  pipes  bends 
may  be  arranged,  as  shown  in  fig.  8,  to  take 
up  this  expansion.  With  cast  iron  pipe  this 
cannot  be  done,  and  no  length  of  piping  over 
40  ft.  should  be  without  a  proper  expansion 
joint.  The  pipes  are  best  supported  on  rollers 
which  allow  of  movement  without  straining 
the  joints. 

There  are  several  joints  in  general  use  for  the 
best  class  of  work  which  are  formed  with  the  aid  of  india-rubber 
rings  or  collars,  any  expansion  being  divided  amongst  the  whole 
number  of  joints.  In  the  rubber  ring  joint  an  india-rubber  ring  is 
used  ;  slightly  less  in  diameter  than  the  pipe.  The  rubber  is  circular 
in  section,  and  about  5  in.  thick,  and  is  stretched  on  the  extreme 
end  of  a  pipe  which  is  then  forced  into  the  next  socket.  This 
joint  is  durable,  secure  and  easily  made;  it  allows  for  expansion 
and  by  its  use  the  risk  of  pipe  sockets  being  cracked  is  avoided. 
It  is  much  used  for  greenhouse  heating  works.  Richardson's 


FIG.  8. 


Ktibbe: 
ring 


FIG.  9. 


FIG.  10. 


patent  joint  (fig.  9)  is  a  good  form  of  this  class  of  joint.  The 
pipes  have  specially  shaped  ends  between  which  a  rubber  collar 
is  placed,  the  joint  being  held  together  by  clips.  The  result 
is  very  satisfactory  and  will  stand  heavy  water  pressure. 
Messenger's  joint  (fig.  10)  is  designed  to  allow  more  freedom  of 
expansion  and  at  the  same  time  to  withstand  considerable 
pressure;  one  loose  cast  iron  collar  is  used,  and  another  is 
formed  as  a  socket  on  the  end  of  the  pipe  itself.  One  end  of 
each  pipe  is  plain,  so  that  it  may  be  cut  to  any  desired  length; 
pipes  with  shaped  ends  •  obviously 
must  be  obtained  in  the  exact  lengths 
required.  Jones's  expansion  joint 
(fig.  n)  is  somewhat  similar  to 
Messenger's  but  it  is  not  capable 
of  withstanding  so  great  a  pressure. 
In  this  case  both  collars  of  cast 
iron  are  loose. 

Radiators  (really  convectors)  were  in  their  primitive  design 
coils  of  pipe,  used  to  give  a  larger  heating  area  than  the  single 
pipe  would  afford.  They  are  now  usually  of  special 
''  design,  and  may  be  divided  into  three  classes — indirect 
radiators,  direct  radiators  and  direct  ventilating  radiators. 
Indirect  radiators  are  placed  beneath  the  floor  of  the  apartment 
to  be  heated  and  give  off  heat  through  a  grating.  This  method 
is  frequently  adopted  in  combined  schemes  of  heating  and 
ventilating;  the  fresh  air  is  warmed  by  being  passed  over  their 
surfaces  previously  to  being  admitted  through  the  gratings  into 
the  room.  Direct  radiators  are  a  development  of  the  early  coil 


Rulibti 
ring 


FIG.  ii. 


Hai' 


I 


of  pipe;  they  are  made  in  various  types  and  designs  and  are 
usually  of  cast  iron.  Ventilating  radiators  are  similar,  but  have 
an  inlet  arrangement  at  the  base  to  allow  external  air  to  pass 
over  the  heating  surface  before  passing  out  through  the  perfora- 
tions. Radiators  should  not  be  fixed  directly  on  to  the  main 
heating  pipe,  but  always  on  branches  of  smaller  diameter  leading 
from  the  flow  pipe  to  one  end  of  the  radiator  and  back  to  the 
main  return  pipe  from  the  other  end;  they  may  then  be  easily 
controlled  by  a  valve  placed  on  the  branch  from  the  flow  pipe. 
To  each  radiator  should  be  fitted  an  air  tap,  which  when  opened 
will  permit  the  escape  of  any  air  that  has  accumulated  in  the 
coil;  otherwise  free  circulation  is  impossible,  and  the  full 
benefit  of  the  heat  is  not  obtained. 

A  plentiful  supply  of  hot  water  is  a  necessity  in  every  house 
for  domestic  and  hygienic  purposes.  In  small  houses  all  require- 
ments may  be  satisfied  with  a  boiler  heated  by  the 
kitchen  fire.  For  large  buildings  where  large  quantities 
of  hot  water  are  used  an  independent  boiler  of  suitable 
size  should  be  installed.  Every  installation  is  made 
up  of  a  boiler  or  other  water  heater,  a  tank  or  cylinder  to  contain 
the  water  when  heated,  and  a  cistern  of  cold  water,  the  supply 
from  which  to  the  system  is  regulated  automatically  by  a  ball 
valve.  These  containers,  proportioned  to  the  required  supply 
of  hot  water,  are  connected  with  each  other  by  means  of  pipes, 
a  "  flow "  and  a  "  return "  connecting  the  boiler  with  the 
cylinder  or  tank  (fig.  12).  The  flow  pipe  starts  from  the  top 
of  the  boiler  and  is  connected  near  the  top  of  the  cylinder,  the 
return  pipe  joining  the 
lower  portions  of  the  -  WOPCOC*. 

cylinder  and  boiler.  The 
supply  from  the  cold  water 
cistern  enters  the  bottom 
of  the  cylinder,  and  thence 
travels  by  way  of  the  re- 
turn pipe  to  the  boiler, 
where  it  is  heated,  and 
back  through  the  flow 
pipe  to  the  cylinder,  which 
is  thus  soon  filled  with  hot 
water.  A  flow  pipe  which 
serves  also  for  expansion 
is  taken  from  the  top  of 
the  cylinder  to  a  point 
above  the  cold  -  water 
supply  and  turned  down 
to  prevent  the  ingress  of 
dirt.  From  this  pipe  at 
various  points  are  taken 
the  supply  pipes  to  baths,  pIG  I2 

lavatories,  sinks  and  other 

appliances.  It  will  be  observed  that  in  fig.  12  the  cylinder 
is  placed  in  proximity  to  the  boiler;  this  is  the  usual  and 
most  effective  method,  but  it  may  be  placed  some  distance 
away  if  desired.  The  tank  system  is  of  much  earh'er  date  than 
this  cylinder  system,  and  although  the  two  resemble  each  other 
in  many  respects,  the  tank  system  is  in  practice  the  less  effective. 
The  tank  is  placed  above  the  level  of  the  topmost  draw  off,  and 
often  in  a  cupboard  which  it  will  warm  sufficiently  to  permit 
of  its  being,  used  as  a  linen  airing  closet.  An  expansion  pipe  is 
taken  from  the  top  of  the  tank  to  a  point  above  the  roof.  All 
draw  off  services  are  taken  off  from  the  flow  pipe  which  connects 
the  boiler  with  the  tank.  This  method  differs  from  that  adopted 
in  the  cylinder  system,  where  all  services  are  led  from  the  top 
of  the  cylinder.  A  suitable  proportion  between  the  size  of  the 
tank  or  cylinder  and  that  of  the  boiler  is  8  or  10  to  i.  Water 
may  also  be  heated  by  placing  a  coil  of  steam  or  high-pressure 
hot- water  pipes  in  a  water  tank  (fig.  6),  the  water  heated  in  this 
way  circulating  in  the  manner  already  described.  An  alternative 
plan  is  to  pass  the  water  through  pipes  placed  in  a  steam  chest. 

Cylinders,  tanks  and  independent  boilers  should  be  encased 
in  a  non-conducting  material  such  as  silicate  cotton,  thick  felt 
or  asbestos  composition.  The  two  first  mentioned  are  affixed 


Iraq 


Bran  a* 


164 


HEATING 


Boilers. 


FIG.  13. 


heating. 


by  means  of  bands  or  straps  or  stitched  on;  the  asbestos  is  laid 
on  in  the  form  of  a  plaster  from  2  to  6  in.  thick. 

Taps  to  baths  and  lavatories  should  be  connected  to  the  main 
services  by  a  flow  and  return  pipe  so  that  hot  water  is  constantly 
flowing  past  the  tap,  thus  enabling  hot  water  to  be  obtained 
immediately.  Frequently  a  single  pipe  is  led  to  the  tap,  but  the 
water  in  this  branch  cools  and  must  therefore  be  drawn  off  before 
hot  water  can  be  obtained. 

Two  classes  of  boilers  are  chiefly  used  in  hot-water  heating 
installations,  viz.  those  heated  by  the  fire  of  the  kitchen  range, 
and  those  heated  separately  or  independently.  Of 
the  first  class  there  are  two  varieties  in  common  use  — 
a  form  of  "  saddle  "  boiler  (fig.  13)  and  the  "  boot  "  boiler 
(fig.  14).  Independent  boilers  are  made  in  every  conceivable 
size  and  form  of  construction,  and  many  of 
them  are  capable  of  doing  excellent  work.  In 
the  choice  of  a  boiler  of  this  description  it 
should  be  remembered  that  rapid  heating, 
economical  combustion  of  fuel,  and  facilities 
for  cleaning,  are  requisites,  the  absence  of 
any  of  which  considerably  lowers  the  efficiency 
of  the  apparatus.  Boilers  set  in  brickwork 
are  sometimes  used  in  domestic  work,  although 
they  are  more  favoured  for  horticultural 
The  shape  mostly  used  is  the  "  saddle  "  boiler,  or 
some  variation  upon  this  very  old  pattern.  The  coiled  pipe  fire- 
box of  the  high-pressure  hot-water  system  previously  described 
may  be  also  classed  with  boilers. 

A  notable  feature  of  modern  boiler  construction  is  the  mode  of 
building  the  apparatus  of  cast  iron  in  either  horizontal  or  vertical 
sections.  Both  the  types  intended  to  be  set  in  brickwork  and 
those  working  independently  are  formed  on  the  sectional 
principle,  which  has  many  good  points.  The  parts  are  easy  of 
transport  and  can  be  handled  without  difficulty  through  narrow 
doorways  and  in  confined  situations.  The  size  of  the  boiler  may 
be  increased  or  diminished  by  the  addition  or  subtraction  of  one 
or  more  sections;  these,  being  simple  in  design,  are  easily  fitted 
together,  and  should  a  section  become  defective  it  is  a  simple 
matter  to  insert  a  new  one  in  its  place.  Should  a  defect  occur 
with  a  wrought  iron  boiler  it  is  usually  necessary  for  the  purpose 
of  repair  to  disconnect  and  remove  the 
whole  apparatus,  the  heating  system  of 
which  it  forms  a  part  being  in  the 
meantime  useless.  In  a  type  built  with 
vertical  sections  each  division  is  complete 
in  itself,  and  is  not  directly  connected 
with  the  next  section,  but  communicates 
I  with  flow  and  return  drums.  A  defective 
section  may  thus  be  left  in  position  and 
stopped  off  by  means  of  plugs  from  the 
drums  until  it  is  convenient  to  fit  a  new 
one  in  its  place.  A  boiler  with  horizontal 
sections  is  shown  in  fig.  15;  it  will  be 
seen  that  each  of  the  upper  sections  has  a  number  of  cross 
waterways  which  form  a  series  of  gratings  over  the  fire-box 
and  intercept  most  of  the  heat  generated,  effecting  great 
economy  of  fuel. 

In  the  ordinary  working  of  a  hot-water  apparatus  the  expansion 
pipe  already  referred  to  will  prevent  any  overdue  pressure 
occurring  in  the  boiler;  should,  however,  the  pipes 
become  blocked  in  any  way  while  the  apparatus  is 
in  use,  or  the  water  in  them  become  frozen,  the  lighting 
of  the  fire  would  cause  the  water  to  expand,  and  having  no  outlet 
it  would  in  all  probability  burst  the  boiler.  To  prevent  this  a 
safety  valve  should  be  fitted  on  the  top  of  the  boiler,  or  be  con- 
nected thereto  with  a  large  pipe  so  as  to  be  visible.  The  valve 
may  be  of  the  dead  weight  (fig.  16),  lever  weight,  spring  (fig.  17) 
or  diaphragm  variety.  The  three  first  named  are  largely  used. 
In  the  diaphragm  valve  a  thin  piece  of  metal  is  fixed  to  an  outlet 
from  the  boiler,  and  when  a  moderate  pressure  is  exceeded  this 
gives  way,  allowing  the  water  and  steam  to  escape. 

Fusible  plugs  are  little  used;  they  consist  of  pieces  of  softer 


FIG.  14. 


metal  inserted  on  the  side  of  the  boiler,  which  melt  should  the 
heat  of  the  water  rise  above  a  certain  temperature. 

A  "  Geyser  "  is  a  very  convenient  form  of  apparatus  for  heat- 
ing a  quantity  of  water  in  a  short  time.  A  water  pipe  of  copper 
or  wrought  iron  is  passed  through  a  cylinder  in  which  Qe  Kn 
gas  or  oil  heating  burners  are  placed.  The  piping 
takes  a  winding  or  zigzag  course,  and  by  the  time  the  outlet  is 
reached,  the  water  it  contains  has  reached  a  high  temperature. 


//„»  pip. 


Flo,  ata. 


FIG.  15. 

By  this  means  a  continuous  stream  of  hot  water  is  obtained, 
greater  or  smaller  in  proportion  to  the  size  and  power  of  the 
apparatus.  The  improved  types  of  gas  geysers  are  provided 
with  a  single  control  to  both  gas  and  water  supplies,  with  a 
small  "  pilot  "  burner  to  ignite  the  gas.  A  flue  should  in  all  cases 
be  provided  to  carry  off  the  fumes  of  the  fuel. 

In  districts  where  the  water  is  of  a  "  hard  nature,"  that  is, 
contains  bicarbonate  of  lime  in  solution,  the  interior  of  the 
boiler,  cylinders,    tanks   and   pipes   of   a   hot   water 
system  will  become  incrusted  with  a  deposit  of  lime     JJJJJJ1 
which  is  gradually  precipitated  as  the  water  is  heated 
to    boiling    point.     With    "  very    hard "    water    this    deposit 
may  require   removal  every   three   months;   in  London   it   is 
usual  to  clean  out  the  boiler  every  six  months  and  the  cylinders 
and  tanks  at  longer  intervals.     For  this 
purpose  manlids  must  be  provided  (figs. 
13  and  14),  and  pipes  should  be  fitted 
with  removable  caps  at  the  bends  to 
allow  for  periodical  cleaning.     The  lime 
deposit  or  "  fur  "  is  a  poor  conductor  of 
heat,  and  it  is  therefore  most  detrimental 
to  the  efficiency  of  the  system  to  allow 
the  interior  of  the  boiler  or  any  other 
portion  to  become  furred  up.     Further,  if 
not  removed,  the  fur  will  in  a  short  time 


FIG.  16.     FIG.  17. 


bring  about  a  fracture  in'the  boiler.  The  use  of  soft  water  entails 
a  disadvantage  of  another  character — that  of  corroding  iron  and 
lead  work,  soft  water  exercising  a  very  vigorous  chemical  action 


HEAVEN— HEBBEL 


165 


upon  these  metals.     In  districts  supplied  with  soft  water,  copper 
should  be  employed  to  as  large  an  extent  as  possible. 

The  table  given  below  will  be  useful  in  calculating  the  size  of  the 
radiating  surface  necessary  to  raise  the  temperature  to  the  extent 
required  when  the  external  air  is  at  freezing  point  (32°  Fahr.): — 


Description  of  Building 
to  be  heated. 

Temperature 
required. 

Cubic  Feet  of  Air  heated  by 
I  sq.  ft.  of  Radiator  or 
Pipe  Surface. 

Low  Pressure 
Water. 

Low  Pressure 
Steam. 

Dwelling  rooms         
Schools       
Churches  and  chapels     .... 
Offices  and  shops      .        .                .        . 
Public  halls,  workshops,  waiting-rooms 
Warehouses,  stores           .... 

55°-6o° 
60° 
55°-6o° 

55°-6o° 

55° 
50^-55° 

85-90 
90-100 

IOO-I2O 
I2O-I25 
130-150 
I4O-I6O 

115-125 
120-130 
135-160 
160-170 
175-200 
190-220 

In  closing  this  account  of  heating  and  the  practical  methods 
of  application  of  heat,  an  example  may  be  mentioned  to  show 
the  great  capabilities  of  a  carefully  planned  system. 
steam  fa  tne  cjty  of  Lockport  m  New  York  state,  America, 
*Lockport.  an  interesting  example  of  the  direct  application  of 
steam-heating  on  a  large  scale  has  been  carried  out 
under  the  direction  of  Mr  Birdsill  Holly  of  that  city.  Houses 
within  a  radius  of  3  m.  from  the  boiler  house  are  supplied  with 
superheated  steam  at  a  pressure  of  35  Ib  to  the  in.  The  mains, 
the  largest  of  which  are  4  in.  in  diameter,  and  the  smallest 
2  in.,  are  wrapped  in  asbestos,  felt  and  other  non-conducting 
materials,  and  are  placed  in  wooden  tubes  laid  under  ground 
like  water  and  gas  pipes.  The  house  branches  pipes  are  15  in. 
in  diameter,  and  f-in.  pipes  are  used  inside  the  houses.  The 
steam  is  employed  for  warming  apartments  by  means  of  pipe 
radiators,  for  heating  water  by  steam  injections,  and  for  all 
cooking  purposes.  The  steam  mains  to  the  houses  are  laid  by 
the  supply  company;  the  internal  .pipes  and  fittings  are  paid 
for  or  rented  by  the  occupier,  costing  for  an  installation  from 
£30  for  an  ordinary  eight-roomed  house  to  £100  or  more  for 
larger  buildings.  With  the  success  of  this  undertaking  in  view 
it  is  a  matter  of  wonder  that  the  example  set  in  this  instance 
has  not  been  adopted  to  a  much  greater  extent  elsewhere. 

The  principal  publications  on  heating  are:  Hood,  Practical  Treatise 
on  Warming  Buildings  by  Hot  Water;  Baldwin,  Hot  Water  Heating 
and  Fittings;  Baldwin,  Steam  Heating  for  Buildings;  Billings, 
Ventilation  and  Heating;  Carpenter,  Heating  and  Ventilating 
Buildings;  Jones,  Heating  by  Hot  Water,  Ventilation  and  Hot  Water 
Supply;  Dye,  Hot  Water  Supply.  Q.  BT.) 

HEAVEN  (O.  Eng.  hefen,  heofon,  heofone;  this  word  appears 
in  O.S.  hevan;  the  High.  Ger.  word  appears  in  Ger.  Himmel, 
Dutch  hemel;  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any  connexion  between 
the  two  words,  and  the  ultimate  derivation  of  the  word  is 
unknown;  the  suggestion  that  it  is  connected  with  "  to  heave,  " 
in  the  sense  of  something  "  lifted  up,"  is  erroneous),  properly 
the  expanse,  taking  the  appearance  of  a  domed  vault  above  the 
earth,  in  which  the  sun,  moon,  planets  and  stars  seem  to  be  placed, 
the  firmament;  hence  also  used,  generally  in  the  plural,  of  the 
space  immediately  above  the  earth,'  the  atmospheric  region 
of  winds,  rain,  clouds,  and  of  the  birds  of  the  air.  The  heaven 
and  the  earth  together,  therefore,  to  the  ancient  cosmographers, 
and  still  in  poetical  language,  make  up  the  universe.  In  the 
cosmogonies  of  many  ancient  peoples  there  was  a  plurality  of 
heavens,  probably  among  the  earlier  Hebrews,  the  idea  being 
elaborated  in  rabbinical  literature,  among  the  Babylonians  and 
in  Zoroastrianism.  The  number  of  these  heavens,  the  higher 
transcending  the  lower  in  glory,  varied  from  three  to  seven. 
Heaven,  as  in  the  Hebrew  shamayim,  the  Greek  o&pawfc,  the 
Latin  caelum,  is  the  abode  of  God,  and  as  such  in  Christian 
eschatology  is  the  place  of  the  blessed  in  the  next  world  (see 
ESCHATOLOGY  and  PARADISE). 

HEBBEL,  CHRISTIAN  FRIEDRICH  (1813-1863),  German 
poet  and  dramatist,  was  born  at  Wesselburen  in  Ditmarschen, 
Holstein,  on  the  i8th  of  March  1813.  Though  only  the  son  of  a 
poor  bricklayer,  he  early  showed  a  talent  for  poetry,  which  was 


first  displayed  to  the  world  by  the  publication,  in  the  Hamburg 
Modezeitung,  of  verses  which  he  had  sent  to  Amalie  Schoppe 
(1791-1858),  a  then  popular  journalist  and  author  of  nursery 
tales.  Through  the  kindness  of  this  lady,  who  interested  several 
of  her  friends  on  his  behalf,  he  was  enabled  to  go  to  Hamburg 
and  there  prepare  himself  for  the  university. 
A  year  later  he  went  to  Heidelberg  to  study 
law,  but  finding  this  uncongenial  he  passed 
on  to  the  university  of  Munich,  where  he 
devoted  himself  to  philosophy,  history  and 
literature.  In  1839  Hebbel  left  Munich  and 
wandered  back  to  Hamburg  on  foot,  where 
he  resumed  his  relations  with  Elsie  Lensing, 
whose  self-sacrificing  assistance  had  helped 
him  over  the  darkest  days  in  Munich.  In 
the  same  year  he  wrote  his  first  tragedy 
Judith  (published  1841),  which  in  the 
following  year  was  performed  in  Hamburg 
and  Berlin  and  made  his  name  known  throughout  Germany. 
In  1840  he  wrote  the  tragedy  Genoveva,  and  the  following  year 
finished  a  comedy,  Der  Diamant,  which  he  had  begun  at  Munich, 
In  1842  he  visited  Copenhagen,  where  he  obtained  from  the 
king  of  Denmark  a  small  travelling  studentship,  which  enabled 
him  to  spend  some  time  in  Paris  and  two  years  (1844-1846)  in 
Italy.  In  Paris  he  wrote  his  fine  "  tragedy  of  common  life," 
Maria  Magdalene  (1844).  On  his  return  from  Italy  Hebbel 
met  at  Vienna  two  Polish  noblemen,  the  brothers  Zerboni  di 
Sposetti,  who  in  their  enthusiasm  for  his  genius  urged  him  to 
remain,  and  supplied  him  with  the  means  to  mingle  in  the  best 
intellectual  society  of  the  Austrian  capital.  The  unwonted 
life  of  ease  had  its  effect.  The  old  precarious  existence  became 
a  horror  to  him,  he  made  a  deliberate  breach  with  it  by  marrying 
(in  1846)  the  beautiful  and  wealthy  actress  Christine  Enghaus, 
ruthlessly  sacrificing  the  girl  who  had  given  up  all  for  him  and 
who  remained  faithful  till  her  death,  on  the  ground  that  "  a 
man's  first  duty  is  to  the  most  powerful  force  within  him,  that 
which  alone  can  give  him  happiness  and  be  of  service  to  the 
world":  in  his  case  the  poetical  faculty,  which  would  have 
perished  " in  the  miserable  struggle  for  existence."  This  "deadly 
sin,"  which,  "  if  peace  of  conscience  be  the  test  of  action,"  was, 
he  considered,  the  best  act  of  his  life,  established  his  fortunes. 
Elise,  however,  still  provided  useful  inspiration  for  his  art.  As 
late  as  1855,  shortly  after  her  death,  he  wrote  the  little  epic 
Mutter  und  Kind,  intended  to  show  that  the  relation  of  parent 
and  child  is  the  essential  factor  which  makes  the  quality  of 
happiness  among  all  classes  and  under  all  conditions  equal. 
Long  before  this  Hebbel  had  become  famous.  German  sovereigns 
bestowed  decorations  upon  him;  and  in  foreign  capitals  he 
was  f£ted  as  the  greatest  of  living  German  dramatists.  From 
the  grand-duke  of  Saxe- Weimar  he  received  a  flattering  invitation 
to  take  up  his  residence  at  Weimar,  where  several  of  his  plays 
were  first  performed.  He  remained,  however,  at  Vienna  unyi 
his  death  on  the  i3th  of  December  1863. 

Besides  the  works  already  mentioned,  Hebbel's  principal 
tragedies  are  Herodes  und  Mariamne  (1850);  Julia  (1851); 
Michel  Angelo  (1851);  Agnes  Bernauer  (1855);  Gyges  und  sein 
Ring  (1856),  and  the  magnificently  conceived  trilogy  Die 
Nibelungen  (1862),  his  last  work  (consisting  of  a  prologue,  Der 
gehornte  Siegfried,  and  the  tragedies,  Siegfrieds  Tod  and  Kriem- 
hilds  Rache),  which  won  for  the  author  the  Schiller  prize.  Of 
his  comedies  Der  Diamant  (1847),  Der  Rubin  (1850),  and  the 
tragi-comedy  Ein  Trauerspiel  in  Sizilien  (1845),  are  the  more 
important,  but  they  are  heavy  and  hardly  rise  above  mediocrity. 
All  his  dramatic  productions,  however,  exhibit  skill  in  character- 
ization, great  glow  of  passion,  and  a  true  feeling  for  dramatic 
situation;  but  their  poetic  effect  is  frequently  marred  by 
extravagances  which  border  on  the  grotesque,  and  by  the  intro- 
duction of  incidents  the  unpleasant  character  of  which  is  not 
sufficiently  relieved.  In  many  of  his  lyric  poems,  and  especially 
in  Mutter  und  Kind,  published  in  1859,  Hebbel  showed  that  his 
poetic  gifts  were  not  restricted  to  the  drama. 

His  collected  works  were  first  published  by  E.  Kuh  (12  vols., 


i66 


HEBBURN— HEBER,  REGINALD 


Hamburg,  1866-1868);  revised  by  H.  Krumm  (12  vols.,  Hamburg, 
1892).  The  best  critical  edition  is  that  by  R.  M.  Werner  (12  vols., 
1901-1903),  to  which  have  been  added  Hebbel's  Diaries  (4  vols.) 
and  Correspondence  (6  vols.).  Hebbel's  Briehvechsel  mil  Freunden 
und  beruhmten  Zeitgenossen  was  issued  by  F.  Bamberg  (1890-1892). 
The  chief  biographies  of  Hebbel  are  those  by  E.  Kuh  (1877)  and 
R.  M.  Werner  (1905).  See  also  L.  A.  Frankl,  Zur  Biographie  F. 
Hebbels  (1884);  T.  Poppe,  F.  Hebbel  und  sein  Drama  (1900);  A. 
Scheunert,  Der  Pantragismus  als  System  der  Weltanschauung  und 
Asthetik  Hebbels  (1903);  E.  A.  Georgy,  Die  Tragodie  F.  Hebbels 
nach  ihrem  Ideengehalt  (1904). 

HEBBURN,  an  urban  district  in  the  Jarrow  parliamentary 
division  of  Durham,  England,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tyne, 
45  m.  below  Newcastle,  and  on  a  branch  of  the  North-Eastern 
railway.  Pop.  (1881),  11,802;  (1901),  20,901.  It  has  extensive 
shipbuilding  and  engineering  works,  rope  and  sail  factories, 
chemical,  colour  and  cement  works,  and  collieries. 

HEBDEN  BRIDGE,  an  urban  district  in  the  Sowerby  parlia- 
mentary division  of  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  England, 
on  the  Calder  and  Hebden  rivers,  7  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Halifax 
by  the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  railway.  Pop.  (1901),  7536. 
The  town  has  cotton  factories,  dye-works,  foundries  and  manu- 
factories of  shuttles.  The  upper  Calder  valley,  between  Halifax 
and  Todmorden,  is  walled  with  bold  hills,  the  summits  of  which 
consist  of  wild  moorland.  The  vale  itself  is  densely  populated, 
but  its  beauty  is  not  destroyed,  and  the  contrast  with  its  desolate 
surroundings  is  remarkable. 

HEBE,  in  Greek  mythology,  daughter  of  Zeus  and  Hera,  the 
goddess  of  youth.  In  the  Homeric  poems  she  is  the  female 
counterpart  of  Ganymede,  and  acts  as  cupbearer  to  the  gods 
(Iliad,  iv.  2).  She  was  the  special  attendant  of  her  mother, 
whose  horses  she  harnessed  (Iliad,  v.  722).  When  Heracles 
was  received  amongst  the  gods,  Hebe  was  bestowed  upon  him  in 
marriage  (Odyssey,  xi.  603).  When  the  custom  of  the  heroic 
age,  which  permitted  female  cupbearers,  fell  into  disuse,  Hebe 
was  replaced  by  Ganymede  in  the  popular  mythology.  To 
account  for  her  retirement  from  her  office,  it  was  said  that  she 
fell  down  in  the  presence  of  the  gods  while  handing  the  wine, 
and  was  so  ashamed  that  she  refused  to  appear  before  them 
again.  Hebe  exhibits  many  striking  points  of  resemblance  with 
the  pure  Greek  goddess  Aphrodite.  She  is  the  daughter  of  Zeus 
and  Hera,  Aphrodite  of  Zeus  and  Dione;  but  Dione  and  Hera 
are  often  identified.  Hebe  is  called  Dia,  a  regular  epithet  of 
Aphrodite;  at  Phlius,  a  festival  called  KWO-OTOJUOI  (the  days  of 
ivy-cutting)  was  annually  celebrated  in  her  honour  (Pausanias, 
ii.  13);  and  ivy  was  sacred  also  to  Aphrodite.  The  apotheosis 
of  Heracles  and  his  marriage  with  Hebe  became  a  favourite 
subject  with  poets  and  painters,  and  many  instances  occur  on 
vases.  In  later  art  she  is  often  represented,  like  Ganymede, 
caressing  the  eagle. 

See  R.  Kekule',  Hebe  (1867),  mainly  dealing  with  the  represen- 
tations of  Hebe  in  art ;  and  P.  Decharme  in  Daremberg  and  Saglio's 
Dictionnaire  des  antiquites. 

fThe  meaning  of  the  word  Hebe  tended  to  transform  the 
goddess  into  a  mere  personification  of  the  eternal  youth  that 
belongs  to  the  gods,  and  this  conception  is  frequently  met  with. 
Then  she  becomes  identical  with  the  Roman  Juventas,  who  is 
simply  an  abstraction  of  an  attribute  of  Jupiter  Juventus, 
the  god  of  increase  and  blessing  and  youth.  To  Juventas,  as 
personifying  the  eternal  youth  of  the  Roman  state,  a  chapel 
was  dedicated  in  very  early  times  in  the  cella  of  Minerva  in 
the  temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus.  With  this  temple  is  connected 
the  legend  of  Juventas  and  Terminus,  who  alone  of  all  the  gods 
refused  to  give  way  when  it  was  being  built — an  indication  of  the 
eternal  solidity  and  youth  of  Rome.  The  cult  of  Juventas  did 
not,  however,  become  firmly  established  until  the  time  of  the 
second  Punic  war.  In  218  the  Sibylline  books  ordered  a  lecti- 
sternium  in  honour  of  Juventas  and  a  supplicatio  in  honour  of 
Hercules,  and  in  191  a  temple  was  dedicated  in  her  honour  in 
the  Circus  Maximus.  In  later  times  Juventas  became  the 
personification,  not  of  the  Roman  youth,  but  of  the  emperor, 
who  assumed  the  attributes  of  a  god  (Livy  v.  54,  xxi.  62, 
xxxvi.  36;  Dion.  Halic.  iii.  69;  G.  Wissowa  in  Roscher's 
Lexikon  der  Mythologie). 


HEBEL,  JOHANN  PETER  (1760-1826),  German  poet  and 
popular  writer,  was  born  at  Basel  on  the  loth  of  May  1760. 
The  father  dying  when  the  child  was  little  over  a  year  old,  he 
was  brought  up  amidst  poverty-stricken  conditions  in  the  village 
of  Hausen  in  the  Wiesental,  where  he  received  his  earliest 
education.  Being  of  brilliant  promise,  he  found  friends  who 
enabled  him  to  complete  his  school  education  and  to  study 
theology  (1778-1780)  at  Erlangen.  At  the  end  of  his  university 
course  he  was  for  a  time  a  private  tutor,  then  became  teacher  at 
the  Gymnasium  in  Karlsruhe,  and  in  1808  was  appointed  director 
of  the  school.  He  was  subsequently  appointed  member  of  the 
Consistory  and  "  evangelical  prelate."  He  died  at  Schwetzingen, 
near  Heidelberg,  on  the  22nd  of  September  1826.  Hebel  is  one 
of  the  most  widely  read  of  all  German  popular  poets  and  writers. 
His  poetical  narratives  and  lyric  poems,  written  in  the  "  Alemanic" 
dialect,  are  "  popular  "  in  the  best  sense.  His  Allemannische 
Gedichte  (1803)  "  bucolicize,"  in  the  words  of  Goethe,  "  the 
whole  world  in  the  most  attractive  manner  "  (verbauert  das  ganze 
Universum  auf  die  anmuligste  Weise).  Indeed,  few  modern 
German  poets  surpass  him  in  fidelity,  naivete,  humour,  and  in  the 
freshness  and  vigour  of  his  descriptions.  His  poem,  Die  Wiese, 
has  been  described  by  Johannes  Scherr  as  the  "  pearl  of  German 
idyllic  poetry";  while  his  prose  writings,  especially  the  narra- 
tives and  essays  contained  in  the  Schatzkastlein  des  rheinischen 
Hausfreundes  (Tubingen,  1811;  new  edition,  Stuttg.  1869, 
1888),  belong  to  the  best  class  of  German  stories,  and  according 
to  August  Friedrich  Christian  Vilmar  (1800-1868)  in  his  Geschichte 
der  deutschen  Lileratur  are  "  worth  more  than  a  cartload  of 
novels  "  (wiegen  ein  ganzes  Fuder  Romane  auf).  Memorials 
have  been  erected  to  him  at  Karlsruhe,  Basel  and  Schwetzingen. 

A  complete  edition  of  Hebel's  works — Samtliche  Werke — was 
first  published  at  Stuttgart  in  8  vols.  (1832-1834);  subsequent 
editions  appeared  in  1847  (3  vols.),  1868  (2  vols.),  1873  (edited  by 
G.  Wendt,  2  vols.),  1883-1885  (edited  by  O.  Behaghel,  2  vols.)  and 
1905  (edited  by  E.  Keller,  5  vols.),  as  well  as  innumerable  reprints. 
Hebel's  correspondence  has  been  edited  by  O.  Behaghel  (1883). 
See  G.  Langin,  J.  P.  Hebel,  ein  Lebensbild  (1894),  and  the  introduction 
to  Behaghel's  edition. 

HEBER,  REGINALD  (1783-1826),  English  bishop  and  hymn- 
writer,  was  born  at  Malpas  in  Cheshire  on  the  2ist  of  April 
1783.  His  father,  who  belonged  to  an  old  Yorkshire  family, 
held  a  moiety  of  the  living  of  Malpas.  Reginald  Heber  early 
showed  remarkable  promise,  and  was  entered  in  November  1800 
at  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  where  he  proved  a  distinguished 
student,  carrying  off  prizes  for  a  Latin  poem  entitled  Carmen 
seculare,  an  English  poem  on  Palestine,  and  a  prose  essay  on 
The  Sense  of  Honour.  In  November  1804  he  was  elected  a 
fellow  of  All  Souls  College;  and,  after  finishing  his  distinguished 
university  career,  he  made  a  long  tour  in  Europe.  He  was 
admitted  to  holy  orders  in  1807,  and  was  then  presented  to  the 
family  living  of  Hodnet  in  Shropshire.  In  1809  Heber  married 
Amelia,  daughter  of  Dr  Shipley,  dean  of  St  Asaph.  He  was 
made  prebendary  of  St  Asaph  in  1812,  appointed  Bampton 
lecturer  for  1815,  preacher  at  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1822,  and  bishop 
of  Calcutta  in  January  1823.  Before  sailing  for  India  he  received 
the  degree  of  D.D.  from  the  university  of  Oxford.  In  India 
Bishop  Heber  laboured  indefatigably,  not  only  for  the  good  of 
his  own  diocese,  but  for  the  spread  of  Christianity  throughout 
the  East.  He  undertook  numerous  tours  in  India,  consecrating 
churches,  founding  schools  and  discharging  other  Christian 
duties.  His  devotion  to  his  work  in  a  trying  climate  told  severely 
on  his  health.  At  Trichinopoly  he  was  seized  with  an  apoplectic 
fit  when  in  his  bath,  and  died  on  the  3rd  of  April  1826.  A 
statue  of  him,  by  Chantrey,  was  erected  at  Calcutta. 

Heber  was  a  pious  man  of  profound  learning,  literary  taste 
and  great  practical  energy.  His  fame  rests  mainly  on  his 
hymns,  which  rank  among  the  best  in  the  English  language. 
The  following  may  be  instanced:  "  Lord  of  mercy  and  of 
might";  "Brightest  and  best  of  the  sons  of  the  morning  "; 
"  By  cool  Siloam's  shady  rill  ";  "  God,  that  madest  earth 
and  heaven";  "The  Lord  of  might  from  Sinai's  brow"; 
"  Holy,  holy,  holy,  Lord  God  Almighty  ";  "  From  Greenland's 
icy  mountains  ";  "  The  Lord  will  come,  the  earth  shall  quake  "; 


HEBER,  RICHARD— HEBREW  LANGUAGE 


167 


"  The  Son  of  God  goes  forth  to  war."  Heber's  hymns  and  other 
poems  are  distinguished  by  finish  of  style,  pathos  and  soaring 
aspiration;  but  they  lack  originality,  and  are  rather  rhetorical 
than  poetical  in  the  strict  sense. 

Among  Heber's  works  are:  Palestine:  a  Poem,  to  which  is  added 
the  Passage  of  the  Red  Sea  (1809) ;  Europe:  Lines  on  the  Present  War 
(1809);  a  volume  of  poems  in  1812;  The  Personality  and  Office  of 
the  Christian  Comforter  asserted  and  explained  (being  the  Bampton 
Lectures  for  1815);  The  Whole  Works  of  Bishop  Jeremy  Taylor,  with 
aLifeof  the  Author,  and  a  Critical  Examination  of  his  Writings  (1822); 
Hymns  written  and  adapted  to  the  Weekly  Church  Service  of  the  Year, 
principally  by  Bishop  Heber  (1827) ;  A  Journey  through  India  (1828) ; 
Sermons  preached  in  England,  and  Sermons  preached  in  India  (1829) ; 
Sermons  on  the  Lessons,  the  Gospel,  or  the  Epistle  for  every  Sunday  in 
the  Year  (1837).  The  Poetical  Works  of  Reginald  Heber  were  collected 
in  1841. 

See  the  Life  of  Reginald  Heber,  D.D .  .  .  .,  by  his  widow,  Amelia 
Heber  (1830),  which  also  contains  a  number  of  Heber's  miscellaneous 
writings;  The  Last  Days  of  Bishop  Heber,  by  Thomas  Robinson, 
A.M.,  archdeacon  of  Madras  (1830) ;  T.  S.  Smyth,  The  Character 
and  Religious  Doctrine  of  Bishop  Heber  (1831),  and  Memorials  of  a 
Quiet  Life,  by  Augustus  J.  C.  Hare  (1874). 

HEBER,  RICHARD  (1773-1833),  English  book-collector, 
the  half-brother  of  Reginald  Heber,  was  born  in  London  on 
the  5th  of  January  1773.  As  an  undergraduate  at  Brasenose 
College,  Oxford,  he  began  to  collect  a  purely  classical  library, 
but  his  taste  broadening,  he  became  interested  in  early  English 
drama  and  literature,  and  began  his  wonderful  collection  of  rare 
books  in  these  departments.  He  attended  continental  book- 
sales,  purchasing  sometimes  single  volumes,  sometimes  whole 
libraries.  Sir  Walter  Scott,  whose  intimate  friend  he  was,  and 
who  dedicated  to  him  the  sixth  canto  of  Marmion,  classed 
Heber's  library  as  "  superior  to  all  others  in  the  world  "; 
Campbell  described  him  as  "  the  fiercest  and  strongest  of  all  the 
bibliomaniacs."  He  did  not  confine  himself  to  the  purchase 
of  a  single  copy  of  a  work  which  took  his  fancy.  "  No  gentleman," 
he  remarked,  "  can  be  without  three  copies  of  a  book,  one  for 
show,  one  for  use,  and  one  for  borrowers."  To  such  a  size  did 
his  library  grow  that  it  over-ran  eight  houses,  some  in  England, 
some  on  the  Continent.  It  is  estimated  to  have  cost  over  £100,000, 
and  after  his  death  the  sale  of  that  part  of  his  collection  stored 
in  England  realized  more  than  £56,000.  He  is  known  to  have 
owned  1 50,000  volumes,  and  probably  many  more.  He  possessed 
extensive  landed  property  in  Shropshire  and  Yorkshire,  and  was 
sheriff  of  the  former  county  in  1821,  was  member  of  Parliament 
for  Oxford  University  from  1821-1826,  and  in  1822  was  made 
a  D.C.L.  of  that  University.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Athenaeum  Club,  London.  He  died  in  London  on  the  4th  of 
October  1833. 

HEBERDEN,  WILLIAM  (1710-1801),  English  physician,  was 
born  in  London  in  1710.  In  the  end  of  1724  he  was  sent  to  St 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  obtained  a  fellowship 
about  1730,  became  master  of  arts  in  1732,  and  took  the  degree 
of  M.D.  in  1739.  He  remained  at  Cambridge  nearly  ten  years 
longer  practising  medicine,  and  gave  an  annual  course  of  lectures 
on  materia  medica.  In  1746  he  became  a  fellow  6f  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians  in  London;  and  two  years  later  he  settled 
in  London,  where  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
in  1749,  and  enjoyed  an  extensive  medical  practice  for  more 
than  thirty  years.  At  the  age  of  seventy-two  he  partially 
retired,  spending  his  summers  at  a  house  which  he  had  taken 
at  Windsor,  but  he  continued  to  practise  in  London  during  the 
winter  for  some  years  longer.  In  1778  he  was  made  an  honorary 
member  of  the  Paris  Royal  Society  of  Medicine.  He  died  in 
London  on  the  I7th  of  May  1801.  Heberden,  who  was  a  good 
classical  scholar,  published  several  papers  in  the  Phil.  Trans. 
of  the  Royal  Society,  and  among  his  noteworthy  contributions 
to  the  Medical  Transactions  (issued,  largely  at  his  suggestion,  by 
the  College  of  Physicians)  were  papers  on  chicken-pox  (1767) 
and  angina  pectoris  (1768).  His  Commentarii  de  morborum 
historia  et  curatione,  the  result  of  careful  notes  made  in  his 
pocket-book  at  the  bedside  of  his  patients,  were  published  in 
1802;  in  the  following  year  an  English  translation  appeared, 
believed  to  be  from  the  pen  of  his  son,  William  Heberden  (1767- 


1845),  also  a  distinguished  scholar  and  physician,  who  attended 
King  George  III.  in  his  last  illness. 

HEBERT,  EDMOND  (1812-1890),  French  geologist,  was 
born  at  Villefargau,  Yonne,  on  the  i2th  of  June  1812.  He  was 
educated  at  the  College  de  Meaux,  Auxerre,  and  at  the  Ecole 
Normale  in  Paris.  In  1836  he  became  professor  at  Meaux, 
in  1838  demonstrator  in  chemistry  and  physics  at  the  Ecole 
Normale,  and  in  1841  sub-director  of  studies  at  that  school  and 
lecturer  on  geology.  In  1857  thedegree  of  D.es  Sc.  wasconferred 
upon  him,  and  he  was  appointed  professor  of  geology  at  the 
Sorbonne.  There  he  was  eminently  successful  as  a  teacher, 
and  worked  with  great  zeal  in  the  field,  adding  much  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  Jurassic  and  older  strata.  He  devoted,  how- 
ever, special  attention  to  the  subdivisions  of  the  Cretaceous 
and  Tertiary  formations  in  France,  and  to  their  correlation  with 
the  strata  in  England  and  in  southern  Europe.  To  him  we  owe 
the  first  definite  arrangement  of  the  Chalk  into  palaeontological 
zones  (see  Table  in  Geol.  Mag.,  1869,  p.  200).  During  his  later 
years  he  was  regarded  as  the  leading  geologist  in  France.  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1877,  Commander 
of  the  Legion  of  Honour  in  1885,  and  he  was  three  times  president 
of  the  Geological  Society  of  France.  He  died  in  Paris  on  the 
4th  of  April  1890. 

HUBERT,  JACQUES  RENE  (1757-1794),  French  Revolutionist, 
called  "  Pere  Duchesne,"  from  the  newspaper  he  edited,  was 
born  at  Alen^on,  on  the  i5th  of  November  1757,  where  his 
father,  who  kept  a  goldsmith's  shop,  had  held  some  municipal 
office.  His  family  was  ruined,  however,  by  a  lawsuit  while 
he  was  still  young,  and  Hebert  came  to  Paris,  where  in  his 
struggle  against  poverty  he  endured  great  hardships;  the 
accusations  of  theft  directed  against  him  later  by  Camille 
Desmoulins  were,  however,  without  foundation.  In  1790  he 
attracted  attention  by  some  pamphlets,  and  became  a  prominent 
member  of  the  club  of  the  Cordeliers  in  1791.  On  the  loth  of 
August  1792  he  was  a  member  of  the  revolutionary  Commune 
of  Paris,  and  became  se'cond  substitute  of  the  procureur  of  the 
Commune  on  the  2nd  of  December  1792'.  His  violent  attacks 
on  the  Girondists  led  to  his  arrest  on  the  24th  of  May  1793,  but 
he  was  released  owing  to  the  threatening  attitude  of  the  mob. 
Henceforth  very  popular,  Hebert  organized  with  P.  G.  Chaumette 
(q.v.)  the  "worship  of  Reason,"  in  opposition  to  the  theistic 
cult  inaugurated  by  Robespierre,  against  whom  he  tried  to  excite 
a  popular  movement.  The  failure  of  this  brought  about  the 
arrest  of  the  Hebertists,  or  enrages,  as  his  partisans  were  called. 
Hebert  was  guillotined  on  the  24th  of  March  1794.  His  wife, 
who  had  been  a  nun,  was  executed  twenty  days  later.  Hubert's 
influence  was  mainly  due  to  his  articles  in  his  journal  Le  Pere 
Duchesne,1  which  appeared  from  1790  to  1794.  These  articles, 
while  not  lacking  in  a  certain  cleverness,  were  violent  and 
abusive,  and  purposely  couched  in  foul  language  in  order  to 
appeal  to  the  mob. 

See  Louis  Duval,  "  Hubert  chez  lui,"  in  La  Revolution  Fran$aise, 
revue  d'histoire  moderne  et  contemporaine,  t.  xii.  and  t.  xiii. ;  D.  Mater, 
J.  R.  Hebert,  I'auteur  du  Pbre  Duchesne  avant  lajournee  du  10  aout 
1792  (Bpurges,  Comm.  Hist,  du  Cher,  1888);  F.  A.  Aulard,  Le  Culte 
de  la  raison  et  de  Vetre  supreme  (Paris,  1892). 

HEBREW  LANGUAGE.  The  name  "  Hebrew  "  is  derived, 
through  the  Greek  'E/3p<uos,  from  'ibhray,  the  Aramaic  equivalent 
of  the  Old  Testament  word  'ibhri,  denoting  the  people  who 
commonly  spoke  of  themselves  as  Israel  or  Children  of  Israel 
from  the  name  of  their  common  ancestor  (see  JEWS).  The 
later  derivative  Yisra'eli,  Israelite,  from  Yisra'el,  is  not  found 
in  the  Old  Testament.2  Other  names  used  for  the  language  of 
Israel  are  speech  of  Canaan  (Isa.  xix.  18)  and  Yehtidhith,  Jewish, 
(2  Kings  xviii.  26).  In  later  times  it  was  called  the  holy  tongue. 
The  real  meaning  of  the  word  'ibhri  must  ultimately  be  sought 
in  the  root  'abhar,  to  pass  across,  to  go  beyond,  from  which  is 
derived  the  noun  'ebher,  meaning  the  "  farther  bank  "  of  a  river. 
The  usual  explanation  of  the  term  is  that  of  Jewish  tradition 

1  There  were  several  journals  of  this  name,  the  best  known  of  the 
others  being  that  edited  by  Lemaire. 

1  In  2  Sam.  xvii.  25  Israelite  should  be  Ishmaelite,  as  in,  the 
parallel  passage  I  Chron.  ii.  17. 


i68 


HEBREW  LANGUAGE 


that  'ibhrl  means  the  man  "  from  the  other  side,"  i.e.  either  of 
the  Euphrates  or  the  Jordan.  Hence  the  Septuagint  in  Gen. 
xiv.  13  render  Abram  ha-'ibhri  by  6  Trepon/s,  the  "  Grosser," 
and  Aquila,  following  the  same  tradition,  has  6  TrepaiTTjs,  the 
man  "  from  beyond."  This  view  of  course  implies  that  the  term 
was  originally  applied  to  Abram  or  his  descendants  by  a  people 
living  on  the  west  of  the  Euphrates  or  of  the  Jordan.  It  has 
been  suggested  that  the  root  'abhar  is  to  be  taken  in  the  sense 
of  "  travelling,"  and  that  Abram  the  wandering  Aramaean 
(Deut.  xxvi.  5)  was  called  ha-'ibhri  because  he  travelled  about 
for  trading  purposes,  his  language,  'ibhri,  being  the  lingua 
franca  of  Eastern  trade.  The  use  of  the  term  e/3pai'<m  for 
biblical  Hebrew  is  first  found  in  the  Greek  prologue  to  Ecclesi- 
asticus  (c.  130  B.C.).  In  the  New  Testament  it  denotes  the  native 
language  of  Palestine  (Aramaic  and  Hebrew  being  popularly 
confused)  as  opposed  to  Greek.  In  modern  usage  the  name 
Hebrew  is  applied  to  that  branch  of  the  northern  part  of  the 
Semitic  family  of  languages  which  was  used  by  the  Israelites 
during  most  of  the  time  of  their  national  existence  in  Palestine, 
and  in  which  nearly  all  their  sacred  writings  are  composed.  As 
to  its  characteristics  and  relation  to  other  languages  of  the  same 
stock,  see  SEMITIC  LANGUAGES.  It  also  includes  the  later  forms 
of  the  same  language  as  used  by  Jewish  writers  after  the  close 
of  the  Canon  throughout  the  middle  ages  (Rabbinical  Hebrew) 
and  to  the  present  day  (New  Hebrew). 

Before  the  rise  of  comparative  philology  it  was  a  popular 
opinion  that  Hebrew  was  the  original  speech  of  mankind,  from 
which  all  others  were  descended.  This  belief,  derived  from  the 
Jews  (cf.  Pal.  Targ.  Gen.  xi.  i),  was  supported  by  the  etymologies 
and  other  data  supplied  by  the  early  chapters  of  Genesis.  But 
though  Hebrew  possesses  a  very  old  literature,  it  is  not,  as  we 
know  it,  structurally  as  early  as,  e.g.  Arabic,  or,  in  other  words, 
it  does  not  come  so  near  to  that  primitive  Semitic  speech  which 
may  be  pre-supposed  as  the  common  parent  of  all  the  Semitic 
languages.  Owing  to  the  imperfection  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet, 
which,  like  that  of  most  Semitic  languages,  has  no  means  of 
expressing  vowel-sounds,  it  is  only  partly  possible  to  trace  the 
development  of  the  language.  In  its  earliest  form  it  was  no 
doubt  most  closely  allied  to  the  Canaanite  or  Phoenician  stock, 
to  the  language  of  Moab,  as  revealed  by  the  stele  of  Mesha 
(c.  850  B.C.),  and  to  Edomite.  The  vocalization  of  Canaanite, 
as  far  as  it  is  known  to  us,  e.g.  from  glosses  in  the  Tell-el-Amarna 
tablets  (isth  century  B.C.)1  and  much  later  from  the  Punic 
passages  in  the  Poenulus  of  Plautus,  differs  in  many  respects 
from  that  of  the  Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testament,  as  also  does  the 
Septuagint  transcription  of  proper  names.  The  uniformity, 
however,  of  the  Old  Testament  text  is  due  to  the  labours  of 
successive  schools  of  grammarians  who  elaborated  the  Massorah 
(see  HEBREW  LITERATURE),  thereby  obliterating  local  or  dialectic 
differences,  which  undoubtedly  existed,  and  establishing  the 
pronunciation  current  in  the  synagogues  about  the  7th  century 
A.D.  The  only  mention  of  such  differences  in  the  Old  Testament 
is  in  Judges  xii.  6,  where  it  is  stated  that  the  Ephraimites  pro- 
nounced &  (sh)  as  iff  or  D  (s).  In  Neh.  xiii.  24,  the  "speech 
of  Ashdod  "  is  more  probably  a  distinct  (Philistine)  language. 
Certain  peculiarities  in  the  language  of  the  Pentateuch  (KII  for 
K-.I,  tyi  for  tryn),  which  used  to  be  regarded  as  archaisms, 
are  to  be  explained  as  purely  orthographical.2  In  a  series  of 
writings,  however,  extending  over  so  long  a  period  as  those  of 
the  Old  Testament,  some  variation  or  development  in  language 
is  to  be  expected  apart  from  the  natural  differences  between  the 
poetic  (or  prophetic)  and  prose  styles.  The  consonantal  text 
sometimes  betrays  these  in  spite  of  the  Massorah.  In  general, 
the  later  books  of  the  Old  Testament  show,  roughly  speaking, 
a  greater  simplicity  and  uniformity  of  style,  as  well  as  a  tendency 
to  Aramaisms.  For  some  centuries  after  the  Exile,  the  people 
of  Palestine  must  have  been  bilingual,  speaking  Aramaic  for 
ordinary  purposes,  but  still  at  least  understanding  Hebrew. 
Not  that  they  forgot  their  own  tongue  in  the  Captivity  and  learnt 
Aramaic  in  Babylon,  as  used  to  be  supposed.  In  the  western 

1  See  Zimmern,  in  Ztsch.  fur  Assyriol.  (1891),  p.  154. 
2  See  Gesenius-Kautzsch,  Hebr.  Gram.  §  17  c. 


provinces  of  the  Persian  empire  Aramaic  was  the  official  lan- 
guage, spoken  not  only  in  Palestine  but  in  all  the  surrounding 
countries,  even  in  Egypt  and  among  Arab  tribes  such  as  the 
Nabateans.  It  is  natural,  therefore,  that  it  should  influence  and 
finally  supplant  Hebrew  in  popular  use,  so  that  translations  even 
of  the  Old  Testament  eventually  appear  in  it  (TARGUMS)  .  Mean- 
while Hebrew  did  not  become  a  dead  language — indeed  it  can 
hardly  be  said  ever  to  have  died,  since  it  has  continued  in  use 
till  the  present  day  for  the  purposes  of  ordinary  life  among 
educated  Jews  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  gradually  became  a 
literary  rather  than  a  popular  tongue,  as  appears  from  the  style 
of  the  later  books  of  the  Old  Testament  (Chron.,  Dan.,  Eccles.), 
and  from  the  Hebrew  text  of  Ecclesiasticus  (c.  170  B.C.).  During 
the  ist  century  B.C.  and  the  ist  century  A.D.  we  have  no  direct 
evidence  of  its  characteristics.  After  that  period  there  is  a  great 
development  in  the  language  of  the  Mishna.  It  was  still  living 
Hebrewr  although  mainly  confined  to  the  schools,  with  very 
clear  differences  from  the  biblical  language.  In  the  Old  Testa- 
ment the  range  of  subjects  was  limited.  In  the  Mishna  it  was 
very  much  extended.  Matters  relating  to  daily  life  had  to  be 
discussed,  and  words  and  phrases  were  adopted  from  what  was 
no  doubt  the  popular  language  of  an  earlier  period.  A  great 
many  foreign  words  were  also  introduced.  The  language  being 
no  longer  familiar  in  the  same  sense  as  formerly,  greater  definite- 
ness  of  expression  became  necessary  in  the  written  style.  In 
order  to  avoid  the  uncertainty  arising  from  the  lack  of  vowels 
to  distinguish  forms  consisting  of  the  same  consonants  (for 
the  vowel-points  were  not  yet  invented),  the  aramaising  use  of 
the  reflexive  conjugations  (Hithpa'el,  Nithpa'el)  for  the  internal 
passives  (Pu'al,  Hoph'al)  became  common;  particles  were  used 
to  express  the  genitive  and  other  relations,  and  in  general  there 
was  an  endeavour  to  avoid  the  obscurities  of  a  purely  consonantal 
writing.  What  is  practically  Mishnic  Hebrew  continued  to  be 
used  in  Midrash  for  some  centuries.  The  language  of  both 
Talmuds,  which,  roughly  speaking,  were  growing  contem- 
poraneously with  Midrash,  is  a  mixture  of  Hebrew  and  Aramaic 
(Eastern  Aram,  in  the  Babylonian,  Western  in  the  Jerusalem 
Talmud),  as  was  also  that  of  the  earlier  commentators.  As  the 
popular  use  of  Aramaic  was  gradually  restricted  by  the  spread 
of  Arabic  as  the  vernacular  (from  the  7th  century  onwards), 
while  the  dispersion  of  the  Jews  became  wider,  biblical  Hebrew 
again  came  to  be  the  natural  standard  both  of  East  and  West. 
The  cultivation  of  it  is  shown  and  was  no  doubt  promoted  by 
the  many  philological  works  (grammars,  lexicons  and  masorah) 
which  are  extant  from  the  ipth  century  onward.  In  Spain, 
under  Moorish  dominion,  most  of  the  important  works  of  that 
period  were  composed  in  Arabic,  and  the  influence  of  Arabic 
writers  both  on  language  and  method  may  be  seen  in  con- 
temporaneous Hebrew  compositions.  No  other  vernacular 
(except,  of  course,  Aramaic)  ever  had  the  same  influence  upon 
Hebrew,  largely  because  no  other  bears  so  close  a  relation  to  it. 
At  the  present  day  in  the  East,  and  among  learned  Jews  else- 
where, Hebrew  is  still  cultivated  conversationally,  and  it  is 
widely  used  for  literary  purposes.  Numerous  works  on  all  kinds 
of  subjects  are  produced  in  various  countries,  periodicals  flourish, 
and  Hebrew  is  the  vehicle  of  correspondence  between  Jews  in 
all  parts  of  the  world.  Naturally  its  quality  varies  with  the 
ability  and  education  of  the  writer.  In  the  modern  pronunciation 
the  principal  differences  are  between  the  Ashkenazim  (German 
and  Polish  Jews)  and  the  Sephardim  (Spanish  and  Portuguese 
Jews),  and  concern  not  only  the  vowels  but  also  certain  con- 
sonants, and  in  some  cases  probably  go  back  to  early  times.  As 
regards  writing,  it  is  most  likely  that  the  oldest  Hebrew  records 
were  preserved  in  some  form  of  cuneiform  script.  The  alphabet 
(see  WRITING)  subsequently  adopted  is  seen  in  its  earliest  form 
on  the  stele  of  Mesha,  and  has  been  retained,  with  modifications, 
by  the  Samaritans.  According  to  Jewish  tradition  Ezra  in- 
troduced the  Assyrian  character  ("WK  3n3),  a  much-debated 
statement  which  no  doubt  means  that  the  Aramaic  hand  in  use 
in  Babylonia  was  adopted  by  the  Jews  about  the  sth  century 
B.C.  Another  form  of  the  same  hand,  allowing  for  differences  of 
material,  is  found  in  Egyptian  Aramaic  papyri  of  the  gth  and  4th 


HEBREW  LITERATURE 


169 


centuries  B.C.  From  this  were  developed  (a)  the  square  character 
used  in  MSS.  of  the  Bible  or  important  texts,  and  in  most  printed 
books,  (b)  the  Rabbinic(or  Rashi)  character,  used  in  commentaries 
and  treatises  of  all  kinds,  both  in  MS.  and  in  printed  books, 
(c)the  Cursive  character,  used  in  letters  and  for  informal  purposes, 
not  as  a  rule  printed.  In  the  present  state  of  Hebrew  palaeo- 
graphy it  is  not  possible  to  determine  accurately  the  date  of  a 
MS.,  but  it  is  easy  to  recognize  the  country  in  which  it  was  written. 
The  most  clearly  marked  distinctions  are  between  Spanish, 
French,  German,  Italian,  Maghrebi,  Greek,  Syrian  (including 
Egyptian),  Yemenite,  Persian  and  Qaraite  hands.  It  is  in  the 
Rabbinic  and  Cursive  characters  that  the  differences  are  most 
noticeable.  The  Hebrew  alphabet  is  also  used,  generally  with 
the  addition  of  some  diacritical  marks,  by  Jews  to  write  other 
languages,  chiefly  Arabic,  Spanish,  Persian,  Greek,  Tatar  (by 
Qaraites)  and  in  later  times  German. 

The  philological  study  of  Hebrew  among  the  Jews  is  described 
below,  under  Hebrew  Literature,  of  which  it  formed  an  integral 
part.  Among  Christian  scholars  there  was  no  independent 
school  of  Hebraists  before  the  revival  of  learning.  In  the  Greek 
and  Latin  Church  the  few  fathers  who,  like  Origen  and  Jerome, 
knew  something  of  the  language,  were  wholly  dependent  on  their 
Jewish  teachers,  and  their  chief  value  for  us  is  as  depositaries 
of  Jewish  tradition.  Similarly  in  the  East,  the  Syriac  version 
of  the  Old  Testament  is  largely  under  the  influence  of  the  syna- 
gogue, and  the  homilies  of  Aphraates  are  a  mine  of  Rabbinic 
lore.  In  the  middle  ages  some  knowledge  of  Hebrew  was  pre- 
served in  the  Church  by  converted  Jews  and  even  by  non-Jewish 
scholars,  of  whom  the  most  notable  were  the  Dominican  con- 
troversialist Raymundus  Martini  (in  his  Pugio  fidei)  and  the 
Franciscan  Nicolaus  of  Lyra,  on  whom  Luther  drew  largely  in 
his  interpretation  of  Scripture.  But  there  was  no  tradition  of 
Hebrew  study  apart  from  the  Jews,  and  in  the  isth  century 
when  an  interest  in  the  subject  was  awakened,  only  the  most 
ardent  zeal  could  conquer  the  obstacles  that  lay  in  the  way. 
Orthodox  Jews  refused  to  teach  those  who  were  not  of  their 
faith,  and  on  the  other  hand  many  churchmen  conscientiously 
believed  in  the  duty  of  entirely  suppressing  Jewish  learning. 
Even  books  were  to  be  had  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty, 
at  least  north  of  the  Alps.  In  Italy  things  were  somewhat 
better.  Jews  expelled  from  Spain  received  favour  from  the  popes. 
Study  was  facilitated  by  the  use  of  the  printing-press,  and  some 
of  the  earliest  books  printed  were  in  Hebrew.  The  father  of 
Hebrew  study  among  Christians  was  the  humanist  Johann 
Reuchlin  (1455-1522),  the  author  of  the  Rudimenta  Hebraica 
(Pforzheim,  1506),  whose  contest  with  the  converted  Jew 
Pfefferkorn  and  the  Cologne  obscurantists,  established  the  claim 
of  the  new  study  to  recognition  by  the  Church.  Interest  in  the 
subject  spread  rapidly.  Among  Reuchlin's  own  pupils  were 
Melanchthon,  Oecolampadius  and  Cellarius,  while  Sebastian 
Miinster  in  Heidelberg  (afterwards  professor  at  Basel),  and 
Buchlein  (Fagius)  at  Isny,  Strasburg  and  Cambridge,  were 
pupils  of  the  liberal  Jewish  scholar  Elias  Levita.  France 
drew  teachers  from  Italy.  Santes  Pagninus  of  Lucca  was  at 
Lyons;  and  the  trilingual  college  of  Francis  I.  at  Paris,  with 
Vatablus  and  le  Mercier,  attracted,  among  other  foreigners, 
Giustiniani,  bishop  of  Nebbio,  the  editor  of  the  Genoa  psalter 
of  1516.  In  Rome  the  converted  Jew  Felix  Pratensis  taught 
under  the  patronage  of  Leo  X.,  and  did  useful  work  in  connexion 
with  the  great  Bomberg  Bibles.  In  Spain  Hebrew  learning 
was  promoted  by  Cardinal  Ximenes,  the  patron  of  the  Com- 
plutensian  Polyglot.  The  printers,  as  J.  Froben  at  Basel  and 
Etienne  at  Paris,  also  produced  Hebrew  books.  For  a  time 
Christian  scholars  still  leaned  mainly  on  the  Rabbis.  But  a  more 
independent  spirit  soon  arose,  of  which  le  Mercier  in  the  i6th, 
and  Drusius  early  in  the  i7th  century,  may  be  taken  as  repre- 
sentatives. In  the  1 7th  century  too  the  cognate  languages  were 
studied  by  J.  Selden,  E.  Castell  (Heptaglott  lexicon)  and  E. 
Pococke  (Arabic)  in  England,  Ludovicus  de  Dieu  in  Holland. 
S.  Bochart  in  France,  J.  Ludolf  (Ethiopic)  and  J.  H.  Hottinger 
(Syriac)  in  Germany,  with  advantage  to  the  Hebrew  grammar 
and  lexicon.  Rabbinic  learning  moreover  was  cultivated  at 


Basel  by  the  elder  Buxtorf  who  was  the  author  of  grammatical 
works  and  a  lexicon.  With  the  rise  of  criticism  Hebrew  philology 
soon  became  a  necessary  department  of  theology.  Cappellus 
(d.  1658)  followed  Levita  in  maintaining,  against  Buxtorf,  the 
late  introduction  of  the  vowel-points,  a  controversy  in  which 
the  authority  of  the  massoretic  text  was  concerned.  He  was 
supported  by  J.  Morin  and  R.  Simon  in  France.  In  the  i8th 
century  in  Holland  A.  Schultens  and  N.  W.  Schroeder  used  the 
comparative  method,  with  great  success,  relying  mainly  on 
Arabic.  In  Germany  there  was  the  meritorious  J.  D.  Michaelis 
and  in  France  the  brilliant  S.  de  Sacy.  In  the  ipth  century 
the  greatest  name  among  Hebraists  is  that  of  Gesenius,  at  Halle, 
whose  shorter  grammar  (of  Biblical  Hebrew)  first  published  in 
1813,  is  still  the  standard  work,  thanks  to  the  ability  with  which 
his  pupil  E.  Rodiger  and  recently  E.  Kautzsch  have  revised 
and  enlarged  it.  Important  work  was  also  done  by  G.  H.  A. 
Ewald,  J.  Olshausen  and  P.  A.  de  Lagarde,  not  to  mention 
later  scholars  who  have  utilized  the  valuable  results  of  Assyrio- 
logical  research. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Among  the  numerous  works  dealing  with  the 
study  of  Hebrew,  the  following  are  some  of  the  most  practically 
useful. 

Grammars.Introductory. — DavidsonJntroductoryHebrewGrammar 
(9th  ed.,  Edinburgh,  1888);  and  Syntax  (Edinburgh,  1894).  Ad- 
vanced: Gesenius's  Hebrdische  Grammatik,  ed.  Kautzsch  (28th  ed., 
Leipzig,  1909;  Eng.  trans.,  Oxford,  1910);  also  Driver,  Treatise  on 
the  Use  of  the  Tenses  in  Hebrew  (jrd  ed.,  Oxford,  1892).  For  post- 
biblical  Hebrew,  Strack  and  Siegfried,  Lehrbuch  d.  neuhebrdischen 
Sprache  (Leipzig,  1884). 

Comparative  Grammar. — Wright,  Lectures  on  the  Comp.  Grammar 
of  the  Sem.  Lang.  (Cambridge,  1890);  Brockelmann,  Grundriss  der 
vergleichenden  Grammatik  (Berlin,  1907,  &c.). 

Lexicons. — Gesenius's  Thesaurus  philologicus(Le\\iz\g,  1829-1858), 
and  his  Hebrdisches  Handwprterbuch  (i  Jjth  ed.  by  Zimmern  and  Buhl, 
Leipzig,  1910) ;  Brown,  Briggs  and  Driver,  Hebrew  and  Eng.  Lexicon 
(Oxford,  1892-1906).  For  later  Hebrew:  Levy,  Neuhebrdisches 
Worterbuch  (Leipzig,  1876-1889);  Jastrow,  Dictionary  of  the  Tar- 
gumi,  &c.  (NewYork,  1886,  &c.) ;  Dalman,  Aramaisches  neuhebrdisches 
Worterbuch  (Frankfort  a.  M.,  1897);  Kohut,  Aruch  completum 
(Vienna,  1878-1890)  (in  Hebrew)  is  valuable  for  the  language  of  the 
Talmud.  (A.  CY.) 

HEBREW  LITERATURE.  Properly  speaking,  "  Hebrew 
Literature  "  denotes  all  works  written  in  the  Hebrew  language. 
In  catalogues  and  bibliographies,  however,  the  expression  is  now 
generally  used,  conveniently  if  incorrectly,  as  synonymous  with 
Jewish  literature,  including  all  works  written  by  Jews  in  Hebrew 
characters,  whether  the  language  be  Aramaic,  Arabic  or  even 
some  vernacular  not  related  to  Hebrew. 

The  literature  begins  with,  as  it  is  almost  entirely  based  upon, 
the  Old  Testament.  There  were  no  doubt  in  the  earliest  times 
popular  songs  orally  transmitted  and  perhaps  books  ou  -j-etta- 
of  annals  and  laws,  but  except  in  so  far  as  remnants  ment- 
al them  are  embedded  in  the  biblical  books,  they  have  Soif 
entirely  disappeared.  Thus  the  Book  of  the  Wars  of  tuns' 
the  Lord  is  mentioned  in  Num.  xxi.  14;  the  Book  of  Jashar 
in  Josh.  x.  13,  2.  Sam.  i.  18;  the  Song  of  the  Well  is  quoted  in 
Num.  xxi.  17,  18,  and  the  song  of  Sihon  and  Moab,  ib.  27-30; 
of  Lamech,  Gen.  iv.  23,  24;  of  Moses,  Exod.  xv.  As  in  other 
literatures,  these  popular  elements  form  the  foundation  on  which 
greater  works  are  gradually  built,  and  it  is  one  function  of  literary 
criticism  to  show  the  way  in  which  the  component  parts  were 
welded  into  a  uniform  whole.  The  traditional  view  that  Moses 
was  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch  in  its  present  form,  would 
make  this  the  earliest  monument  of  Hebrew  literature.  Modern 
inquiry,  however,  has  arrived  at  other  conclusions  (see  BIBLE, 
Old  Testament),  which  may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows: 
the  Pentateuch  is  compiled  from  various  documents,  the  earliest 
of  which  is  denoted  by  J  (beginning  at  Gen.  ii.  4)  from  the  fact 
that  its  author  regularly  uses  the  divine  name  Jehovah  (Yahweh). 
Its  date  is  now  usually  given  as  about  800  B.C.1  In  the  next 
century  the  document  E  was  composed,  so  called  from  its  using 

1  The  dating  of  these  documents  is  extremely  difficult,  since  it  is 
based  entirely  on  internal  evidence.  Various  scholars,  while  agreeing 
on  the  actual  divisions  of  the  text,  differ  on  the  question  of  priority. 
The  dates  here  given  are  those  which  seem  to  be  most  generally 
accepted  at  the'present  time.  They  are  not  put  forward  as  the  result 
of  an  independent  review  of  the  evidence. 


170 


HEBREW  LITERATURE 


Elohlm  (God)  instead  of  Yahweh.  Both  these  documents  are 
considered  to  have  originated  in  the  Northern  kingdom,  Israel, 
where  also  in  the  8th  century  appeared  the  prophets  Amos  and 
Hosea.  To  the  same  period  belong  the  book  of  Micah,  the  earlier 
parts  of  the  books  of  Samuel,  of  Isaiah  and  of  Proverbs,  and 
perhaps  some  Psalms.  In  722  B.C.  Samaria  was  taken  and  the 
Northern  kingdom  ceased  to  exist.  Judah  suffered  also,  and  it  is 
not  until  a  century  later  that  any  important  literary  activity 
is  again  manifested.  The  main  part  of  the  book  of  Deuteronomy 
was  "  found  "  shortly  before  621  B.C.  and  about  the  same  time 
appeared  the  prophets  Jeremiah  and  Zephaniah,  and  perhaps 
the  book  of  Ruth.  A  few  years  later  (about  600)  the  two  Penta- 
teuchal  documents  J  and  E  were  woven  together,  the  books  of 
Kings  were  compiled,  the  book  of  Habakkuk  and  parts  of  the 
Proverbs  were  written.  Early  in  the  next  century  Jerusalem 
was  taken  by  Nebuchadrezzar,  and  the  prophet  Ezekiel  was 
among  the  exiles  with  Jehoiachin.  Somewhat  later  (c.  550)  the 
combined  document  JE  was  edited  by  a  writer  under  the  influence 
of  Deuteronomy,  the  later  parts  of  the  books  of  Samuel  were 
written,  parts  of  Isaiah,  the  books  of  Obadiah,  Haggai,  Zechariah 
and  perhaps  the  later  Proverbs.  In  the  exile,  but  probably  after 
500  B.C.,  an  important  section  of  the  Hexateuch,  usually  called 
the  Priest's  Code  (P),  was  drawn  up.  At  various  times  in  the 
same  century  are  to  be  placed  the  book  of  Job,  the  post-exilic 
parts  of  Isaiah,  the  books  of  Joel,  Jonah,  Malachi  and  the  Song 
of  Songs.  The  Pentateuch  (or  Hexateuch)  was  finally  completed 
in  its  present  form  at  some  time  before  400  B.C.  The  latest  parts 
of  the  Old  Testament  are  the  books  of  Chronicles,  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah  (c.  330  B.C.),  Ecclesiastes  and  Esther  (3rd  century) 
and  Daniel,  composed  either  in  the  3rd  century  or  according 
to  some  views  as  late  as  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (c.  168 
B.C.).  With  regard  to  the  date  of  the  Psalms,  internal  evidence, 
from  the  nature  of  the  case,  leads  to  few  results  which  are  con- 
vincing. The  most  reasonable  view  seems  to  be  that  the  collection 
was  formed  gradually  and  that  the  process  was  going  on  during 
most  of  the  period  sketched  above. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  all  the  contents  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment were  immediately  accepted  as  sacred,  or  that  they  were 

ever  all  regarded  as  being  on  the  same  level.     The 
Apocry-       Torah,  the  Law  delivered  to  Moses,  held  among  the 
4th  century  B.C.  as  it  holds  now,  a  pre- 

eminent position.  The  inclusion  of  other  books  in  the 
Canon  was  gradual,  and  was  effected  only  after  centuries  of 
debate.  The  Jews  have  always  been,  however,  an  intensely 
literary  people,  and  the  books  ultimately  accepted  as  canonical 
were  only  a  selection  from  the  literature  in  existence  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  The  rejected  books  receiving 
little  attention  have  mostly  either  been  altogether  lost  or  have 
survived  only  in  translations,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Apocrypha. 
Hence  from  the  composition  of  the  latest  canonical  books  to  the 
redaction  of  the  Mishna  (see  below)  in  the  2nd  century  A.D.,  the 
remains  of  Hebrew  literature  are  very  scanty.  Of  books  of  this 
period  which  are  known  to  have  existed  in  Hebrew  or  Aramaic 
up  to  the  time  of  Jerome  (and  even  later)  we  now  possess  most 
of  the  original  Hebrew  text  of  Ben  Sira  (Ecclesiasticus)  in  a 
somewhat  corrupt  form,  and  fragments  of  an  Aramaic  text  of  a  re- 
cension of  theTestaments  of  theTwelve  Patriarchs,both  discovered 
within  recent  years.  Besides  definite  works  of  this  kind,  there 
was  also  being  formed  during  this  period  a  large  body  of  ex- 
egetical  and  legal  material,  for  the  most  part  orally  transmitted, 
which  only  received  its  literary  form  much  later.  As  Hebrew 
became  less  familiar  to  the  people,  a  system  of  translating 
the  text  of  the  Law  into  the  Aramaic  vernacular  verse  by  verse, 
was  adopted  in  the  synagogue.  The  beginnings  of  it  are  supposed 
to  be  indicated  in  Neh.  viii.  8.  The  translation  was  no  doubt 
originally  extemporary,  and  varied  with  the  individual  trans- 
lators, but  its  form  gradually  became  fixed  and  was  ultimately 

written    down.     It    was    called    Tar  gum,    from    the 

Aramaic  targem,  to  translate.  The  earliest  to  be  thus 
edited  was  the  Targum  of  Onkelos  (Onqelos),  the  proselyte,  on 
the  Law.  It  received  its  final  form  in  Babylonia  probably  in  the 
3rd  century  A.D.  The  Samaritan  Targum,  of  about  the  same 


literatim.    Jews  °f 


date,  clearly  rests  on  the  same  tradition.  Parallel  to  Onkelos 
was  another  Targum  on  the  Law,  generally  called  pseudo- 
Jonathan,  which  was  edited  in  the  7th  century  in  Palestine,  and 
is  based  on  the  same  system  of  interpretation  but  is  fuller  and 
closer  to  the  original  tradition.  There  is  also  a  fragmentary 
Targum  (Palestinian)  the  relation  of  which  to  the  others  is 
obscure.  It  may  be  only  a  series  of  disconnected  glosses  on 
Onkelos.  For  the  other  books,  the  recognized  Targum  on  the 
Prophets  is  that  ascribed  to  Jonathan  ben  Uzziel  (4th  century  ?), 
which  originated  in  Palestine,  but  was  edited  in  Babylonia,  so 
that  it  has  the  same  history  and  linguistic  character  as  Onkelos. 
Just  as  there  is  a  Palestinian  Targum  on  the  Law  parallel  to  the 
Babylonian  Onkelos,  so  there  is  a  Palestinian  Targum  (called 
Yemshalmi)  on  the  Prophets  parallel  to  that  of  Ben  Uzziel,  but 
of  later  date  and  incomplete.  The  Law  and  the  Prophets  being 
alone  used  in  the  services  of  the  synagogue,  there  was  no  author- 
ized version  of  the  rest  of  the  Canon.  There  are,  however, 
Targumim  on  the  Psalms  and  Job,  composed  in  the  5th  century, 
on  Proverbs,  resembling  the  Peshitta  version,  on  the  five 
Meghilloth,  paraphrastic  and  agadic  (see  below)  in  character, 
and  on  Chronicles — all  Palestinian.  There  is  also  a  second 
Targum  on  Esther.  There  is  none  on  Daniel,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah. 

We  must  now  return  to  the  2nd  century.  During  the  period 
which  followed  the  later  canonical  books,  notonlywas  translation, 
and  therefore  exegesis,  cultivated,  but  even  more  the 
amplification  of  the  Law.  According  to  Jewish  teach-  Ha/a**a*- 
ing  (e.g.  Abhoth  i.  i)  Moses  received  on  Mount  Sinai  not 
only  the  written  Law  as  set  down  in  the  Pentateuch,  but  also 
the  Oral  Law,  which  he  communicated  personally  to  the  70 
elders  and  through  them  by  a  "  chain  of  tradition"  to  succeeding 
ages.  The  application  of  this  oral  law  is  called  Halakhah,  the 
rules  by  which  a  man's  daily  "  walk  "  is  regulated.  The  halakhah 
was  by  no  means  inferior  in  prestige  to  the  written  Law.  Indeed 
some  teachers  even  went  so  far  as  to  ascribe  a  higher  value  to  it, 
since  it  comes  into  closer  relation  with  the  details  of  everyday 
life.  It  was  not  independent  of  the  written  Law,  still  less  could 
it  be  in  opposition  to  it.  Rather  it  was  implicitly  contained 
in  the  Torah,  and  the  duty  of  the  teacher  was  to  show 
this.  It  was  therefore  of  the  first  importance  that  the  chain  of 
tradition  should  be  continuous  and  trustworthy.  The  line  is 
traced  through  biblical  teachers  to  Ezra,  the  first  of  the  Sopherlm 
or  scribes,  who  handed  on  the  charge  to  the  "  men  of  the  Great 
Synagogue,"  a  much-discussed  term  for  a  body  or  succession  of 
teachers  inaugurated  by  Ezra.  The  last  member  of  it,  Simon  the 
Just  (either  Simon  I.,  who  died  about  300  B.C.,  or  Simon  II.,  who 
died  about  200 B.C.),  was  the  first  of  the  next  series,  called  Elders, 
represented  in  the  tradition  by  pairs  of  teachers,  ending  with 
Hillel  and  Shammai  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era. 
Their  pupils  form  the  starting-point  of  the  next  series,  the 
Tannalm  (from  Aram,  tend  to  teach),  who  occupy  the  first  two 
centuries  A.D. 

By  this  time  the  collection  of  halakhic  material  had  become 
very  large  and  various,  and  after  several  attempts  had  been  made 
to  reduce  it  to  uniformity,  a  code  of  oral  tradition  was  Mishaab 
finally  drawn  up  in  the  2nd  century  by  Judah  ha-Nasi, 
called  Rabbi  par  excellence.  This  was  the  Mishnah.  Its  name 
is  derived  from  the  Hebrew  shanah,  corresponding  to  the  Aramaic 
tena,  and  therefore  a  suitable  name  for  a  tannaitic  work,  meaning 
the  repetition  or  teaching  of  the  oral  law.  It  is  written  in  the 
Hebrew  of  the  schools  (leshon  hakhamim)  which  differs  in 
many  respects  from  that  of  the  Old  Testament  (see  HEBREW 
LANGUAGE).  It  is  divided  into  six  "orders,"  according  to 
subject,  and  each  order  is  subdivided  into  chapters.  In  making 
his  selection  of  halakhoth,  Rabbi  used  the  earlier  compilations, 
which  are  quoted  as  "  words  of  Rabbi  'Aqlba  "  or  of  R.  Me'Ir, 
but  rejected  much  which  was  afterwards  collected  under  the 
title  of  Tosefta  (addition)  and  Baraita  (outside  the  Mishnah). 

Traditional  teaching  was,  however,  not  confined  to  halakhah. 
As  observed  above,  it  was  the  duty  of  the  teachers  to  show  the 
connexion  of  practical  rules  with  the  written  Law, 
the  more  so  since  the  Sadducees  rejected  the  authority 
of  the  oral  law  as  such.     Hence  arises  Midrash,  exposition,  from 


HEBREW  LITERATURE 


171 


darash  to  "  investigate  "  a  scriptural  passage.  Of  this  halakhic 
Midrash  we  possess  that  on  Exodus,  called  Mekhilta,  that  on 
Leviticus,  called  Sifra,  and  that  on  Numbers  and  Deuteronomy, 
called  Sifre.  All  of  these  were  drawn  up  in  the  period  of  the 
Amoraim,  the  order  of  teachers  who  succeeded  the  Tannaim, 
from  the  close  of  the  Mishnah  to  about  A.D.  500.  The  term 
Midrash,  however,  more  commonly  implies  agada,  i.e.  the 
homiletical  exposition  of  the  text,  with  illustrations  designed 
to  make  it  more  attractive  to  the  readers  or  hearer.  Picturesque 
teaching  of  this  kind  was  always  popular,  and  specimens  of  it 
are  familiar  in  the  Gospel  discourses.  It  began,  as  a  method, 
with  the  Sopherlm  (though  there  are  traces  in  the  Old  Testament 
itself),  and  was  most  developed  among  the  Tannaim  and  Amor- 
aim,  rivalling  even  the  study  of  halakhah.  As  the  existing 
halakhoth  were  collected  and  edited  in  the  Mishnah,  so  the 
much  larger  agadic  material  was  gathered  together  and  arranged 
in  the  Midrashlm.  Apart  from  the  agadic  parts  of  the  earlier 
Mekhilta,  Sifra  and  Sifre,  the  most  important  of  these  collections 
(which  are  anonymous)  form  a  sort  of  continuous  commentary 
on  various  books  of  the  Bible.  They  were  called  Rabboth  (great 
Midrashlm)  to  distinguish  them  from  preceding  smaller  collec- 
tions. Bereshlth  Rabba,  on  Genesis,  and  Rkhah  Rabbati,  on  Lamen- 
tations, were  probably  edited  in  the  7th  century.  Of  the  same 
character  and  of  about  the  same  date  are  the  Pesiqla,  on  the 
lessons  for  Sabbaths  and  feast-days,  and  Wayyiqra  R.  on  Leviti- 
cus. A  century  perhaps  later  is  the  Tanhuma,  on  the  sections  of 
the  Pentateuch,  and  later  still  the  Pesiqta  Rabbati,  Shemoth  R. 
(on  Exodus),  Bemidhbar  R.  (on  Numbers),  Debharim  R.  (on 
Deuteronomy).  There  are  also  Midrashlm  on  the  Canticle, 
Ruth,  Ecclesiastes,  Esther  and  the  Psalms,  belonging  to  this 
later  period,  the  Pirqe  R.  Eliezer,  of  the  8th  or  gth  century,  a 
sort  of  history  of  creation  and  of  the  patriarchs,  and  the  Tanna 
debe  Eliyahu  (an  ethical  work  of  the  icth  century  but  containing 
much  that  is  old),  besides  a  large  number  of  minor  compositions.1 
In  general,  these  performed  very  much  the  same  function  as 
the  lives  of  saints  in  the  early  and  medieval  church.  Very 
important  for  the  study  of  Midrashic  literature  are  the  Yalqut 
(gleaning)  Shim'oni,  on  the  whole  Bible,  the  Yalqiit  Mekhlri, 
on  the  Prophets,  Psalms,  Proverbs  and  Job,  and  the  Midrash 
ha-gadhol?  all  of  which  are  of  uncertain  but  late  date  and 
preserve  earlier  material.  The  last,  which  is  preserved  in  MSS. 
from  Yemen,  is  especially  valuable  as  representing  an  independent 
tradition. 

Meanwhile,  if  agadic  exegesis  was  popular  in  the  centuries 
following  the  redaction  of  the  Mishna,  the  study  of  halakhah 
Talmud  was  ^v  no  means  neglected.  As  the  discussion  of  the 
Law  led  up  to  the  compilation  of  the  Mishnah,  so  the 
Mishnah  itself  became  in  turn  the  subject  of  further  discussion. 
The  material  thus  accumulated,  both  halakhic  and  agadic, 
forming  a  commentary  on  and  amplification  of  the  Mishnah, 
was  eventually  written  down  under  the  name  of  Gemara  (from 
gemar,  to  learn  completely),  the  two  together  forming  the 
Talmud  (properly  "  instruction  ").  The  tradition,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  Targums,  was  again  twofold;  that  which  had  grown  up 
in  the  Palestinian  Schools  and  that  of  Babylonia.  The  founda- 
tion, however,  the  Mishnah,  was  the  same  in  both.  Both  works 
were  due  to  the  Amoraim  and  were  completed  by  about  A.D.  500, 
though  the  date  at  which  they  were  actually  committed  to 
writing  is  very  uncertain.  It  is  probable  that  notes  or  selections 
were  from  time  to  time  written  down  to  help  in  teaching  and 
learning  the  immense  mass  of  material,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
even  in  Sherira's  time  (nth  century)  such  aids  to  memory  were 
not  officially  recognized.  Both  Talmuds  are  arranged  according 
to  the  six  orders  of  the  Mishnah,  but  the  discussion  of  the 
Mishnic  text  often  wanders  off  into  widely  different  topics. 
Neither  is  altogether  complete.  In  the  Palestinian  Talmud 
(Yerushalmi)  the  gemara  of  the  sth  order  (Qodashim)  and  of 
nearly  all  the  6th  (Tohoroth)  is  missing,  besides  smaller  parts. 

1  See  especially  A.  Jellinek's  Bet-ha-Midrasch  (Leipzig,  1853),  for 
these  lesser  midrashim. 

*  That  on  Genesis  was  edited  for  the  first  time  by  Schechter 
(Cambridge,  1902). 


In  the  Babylonian  Talmud  (Babhli)  there  is  no  gemara  to  the 
smaller  tractates  of  Order  i,  and  to  parts  of  ii.,  iv.,  v.,  vi.  The 
language  of  both  gemaras  is  in  the  main  the  Aramaic  vernacular 
(western  Aramaic  in  Yerushalmi,  eastern  in  Babhli),  but  early 
halakhic  traditions  (e.g.  of  Tannaitic  origin)  are  given  in  their 
original  form,  and  the  discussion  of  them  is  usually  also  in 
Hebrew.  Babhli  is  not  only  greater  in  bulk  than  Yerushalmi, 
but  has  also  received  far  greater  attention,  so  that  the  name 
Talmud  alone  is  often  used  for  it.  As  being  a  constant  object  of 
study  numerous  commentaries  have  been  written  on  the  Talmud 
from  the  earliest  times  till  the  present.  The  most  important  of 
them  for  the  understanding  of  the  gemara  (Babhli)  is  that  of 
Rashi3  (Solomon  ben  Isaac,  d.  1 104)  with  the  Tosafoth  (additions, 
not  to  be  confused  with  the  Tosefta)  chiefly  by  the  French  school 
of  rabbis  following  Rashi.  These  are  always  printed  in  the 
editions  on  the  same  page  as  the  Mishnah  and  Gemara,  the  whole, 
with  various  other  matter,  filling  generally  about  1 2  folio  volumes. 
Since  the  introduction  of  printing,  the  Talmud  is  always  cited  by 
the  number  of  the  leaf  in  the  first  edition  (Venice,  1320,  &c.), 
to  which  all  subsequent  editions  conform.  In  order  to  facilitate 
the  practical  study  of  the  Talmud,  it  was  natural  that  abridge- 
ments of  it  should  be  made.  Two  of  these  may  be  mentioned 
which  are  usually  found  in  the  larger  editions:  that  by  Isaac 
Alfasi  (i.e.  of  Fez)  in  the  nth  century,  often  cited  in  the  Jewish 
manner  as  Rif;  and  that  by  Asher  ben  Yehiel  (d.  1328)  of 
Toledo,  usually  cited  as  Rabbenu  Asher.  The  object  of  both  was 
to  collect  all  halakhoth  having  a  practical  importance,  omitting 
all  those  which  owing  to  circumstances  no  longer  possess  more 
than  an  academic  interest,  and  excluding  the  discussions  on  them 
and  all  agada.  Both  add  notes  and  explanations  of  their  own, 
and  both  have  in  turn  formed  the  text  of  commentaries. 

With  the  Talmud,  the  anonymous  period  of  Hebrew  literature 
may  be  considered  to  end.  Henceforward  important  works 
are  produced  not  by  schools  but  by  particular  teachers,  .,  h 
who,  however,  no  doubt  often  represent  the  opinions 
of  a  school.  There  are  two  branches  of  work  which  partake 
of  both  characters,  the  Masorah  and  the  Liturgy.  The  name 
Masorah  (Massorah)  is  usually  derived  from  masar,  to  hand  on, 
and  explained  as  "  tradition."  According  to  others  *  it  is  the  word 
found  in  Ezek.  xx.  37,  meaning  a  "  fetter."  Its  object  was  to 
fix  the  biblical  text  unalterably.  It  is  generally  divided  into  the 
Great  and  the  Small  Masorah,  forming  together  an  apparatus 
criticus  which  grew  up  gradually  in  the  course  of  centuries  and 
now  accompanies  the  text  in  most  MSS.  and  printed  editions  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent.  There  are  also  separate  masoretic  treat- 
ises. Some  system  of  the  kind  was  necessary  to  guard  against 
corruptions  of  copyists,  while  the  care  bestowed  upon  it  no  doubt 
reacted  so  as  to  enhance  the  sanctity  ascribed  to  the  text.  Many 
apparent  puerilities,  such  as  the  counting  of  letters  and  the 
marking  of  the  middle  point  of  books,  had  a  practical  use  in 
enabling  copyists  of  MSS.  to  determine  the  amount  of  work 
done.  The  registration  of  anomalies,  such  as  the  suspended 
letters,  inverted  nuns  and  larger  letters,  enabled  any  one  to  test 
the  accuracy  of  a  copy.  But  the  work  of  the  Masoretes  was  much 
greater  than  this.  Their  long  lists  of  the  occurrences  of  words 
and  forms  fixed  with  accuracy  the  present  (Masoretic)  text, 
which  they'  had  produced,  and  were  invaluable  to  subsequent 
lexicographers,  while  their  system  of  vowel-points  and  accents 
not  only  gives  us  the  pronunciation  and  manner  of  reading 
traditional  about  the  7th  century  A.D.,  but  frequently  serves 
also  the  purpose  of  an  explanatory  commentary.  (See  further 
under  BIBLE.)  Most  of  the  Masorah  is  anonymous,  including 
the  Massekheth  Soferlm  (of  various  dates  from  perhaps  the  6th 
to  the  9th  century)  and  the  Okhlah  we-Okhlah,  but  when  the 
period  of  anonymous  literature  ceases,  there  appear  (in  the  loth 
century)  Ben  Asher  of  Tiberias,  the  greatest  authority  on  the 
subject,  and  his  opponent  Ben  Naphthali.  Later  on,  Jacob 

8  In  Hebrew  'en,  from  the  initial  letters  of  Rabbi  Shelomoh 
Yijhaqi,  a  convenient  method  used  by  Jewish  writers  in  referring 
to  well-known  authors.  The  name  Jarchi,  formerly  used  for  Rashi, 
rests  on  a  misunderstanding. 

«  So  Bacher  in  J.Q.R.  iii.  785  sqq. 


172 


HEBREW  LITERATURE 


ben  Hayyim  arranged  the  Masorah  for  the  great  Bomberg  Bible 
of  1524.  Elias  Levita's  Massoreth  ha-Massoreth  (1538)  and 
Buxtorf's  Tiberias  (1620)  are  also  important. 

We  must  now  turn  back  to  a  most  difficult  subject — the 
growth  of  the  Liturgy.  We  are  not  concerned  here  with  indica- 
tions of  the  ritual  used  in  the  Temple.  Of  the  prayer- 
book  as  it  is  at  present,  the  earliest  parts  are  the 
Shema"  (Deut.  vi.  4,  &c.)  and  the  anonymous  blessings  commonly 
called  Shemoneh  'Esreh  (the  Eighteen),  together  with  certain 
Psalms.  (Readings  from  the  Law  and  the  Prophets  [Haphtarah] 
also  formed  part  of  the  service.)  To  this  framework  were  fitted, 
from  time  to  time,  various  prayers,  and,  for  festivals  especially, 
numerous  hymns.  The  earliest  existing  codification  of  the  prayer- 
book  is  the  Siddur  (order)  drawn  up  by  Amram  Gaon  of  Sura 
about  850.  Half  a  century  later  the  famous  Gaon  Seadiah,  also 
of  Sura,  issued  his  Siddur,  in  which  the  rubrical  matter  is  in 
Arabic.  Besides  the  Siddur,  or  order  for  Sabbaths  and  general 
use,  there  is  the  Mahzor  (cycle)  for  festivals  and  fasts.  In  both 
there  are  ritual  differences  according  to  the  Sephardic  (Spanish), 
Ashkenazic  (German-Polish),  Roman  (Greek  and  South  Italian) 
and  some  minor  uses,  in  the  later  additions  to  the  Liturgy.  The 
Mahzor  of  each  rite  is  also  distinguished  by  hymns  (piyyutlm) 
composed  by  authors  (payyetanim)  of  the  district.  The  most 
important  writers  are  Yoseh  ben  Yoseh,  probably  in  the  6th 
century,  chiefly  known  for  his  compositions  for  the  day  of  Atone- 
ment, Eleazar  Qalir,  the  founder  of  the  payyetanic  style,  perhaps 
in  the  7th  century,  Seadiah,  and  the  Spanish  school  consisting 
of  Joseph  ibn  Abitur  (died  in  970),  Ibn  Gabirol,  Isaac  Gayyath, 
Moses  ben  Ezra,  Abraham  ben  Ezra  and  Judah  ha-levi,  who  will 
be  mentioned  below;  later,  Moses  ben  Nahman  and  Isaac  Luria 
the  Kabbalist.1 

The  order  of  the  Amoraim,  which  ended  with  the  close  of  the 
Talmud  (A.D.  500),  was  succeeded  by  that  of  the  Saboralm,  who 
merely  continued  and  explained  the  work  of  their 
Qelaim.  predecessors,  and  these  again  were  followed  by  the 
Geonim,  the  heads  of  the  schools  of  Sura  and  Pum- 
beditha  in  Babylonia.  The  office  of  Gaon  lasted  for  something 
over  400  years,  beginning  about  A.D.  600,  and  varied  in  import- 
ance according  to  the  ability  of  the  holders  of  it.  Individual 
Geonim  produced  valuable  works  (of  which  later),  but  what  is 
perhaps  most  important  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  develop- 
ment of  Judaism  is  the  literature  of  their  Responsa  or  answers 
to  questions,  chiefly  on  halakhic  matters,  addressed  to  them  from 
various  countries.  Some  of  these  were  actual  decisions  of 
particular  Geonim;  others  were  an  official  summary  -of  the 
discussion  of  the  subject  by  the  members  of  the  School.  They 
begin  with  Mar  Rab  Sheshna  (7th  century)  and  continue  to 
Hai  Gaon,  who  died  in  1038,  and  are  full  of  historical  and  literary 
interest.2  The  She'iltoth  (questions)  of  Rab  Ahai  (8th  century) 
also  belong  probably  to  the  school  of  Pumbeditha,  though  their 
author  was  not  Gaon.  Besides  the  Responsa,  but  closely  related 
to  them,  we  have  the  lesser  Halakhoth  of  Yehudai  Gaon  of  Sura 
(8th  century)  and  the  great  Halakhoth  of  Simeon  Qayyara  of 
Sura  (not  Gaon)  in  the  9th  century.  In  a  different  department 
there  is  the  first  Talmud  lexicon  ('Arukh)  now  lost,  by  £emah  ben 
Paltoi,  Gaon  of  Pumbeditha  in  the  gth  century.  The  Siddur 
of  Amram  ben  Sheshna  has  been  already  mentioned.  All  these 
writers,  however,  are  entirely  eclipsed  by  the  commanding 
personality  of  the  most  famous  of  the  Geonim,  SEADIAH  ben 
Joseph  (q.v.)  of  Sura,  often  called  al-Fayyuml  (of  the  Fayum  in 
Egypt),  one  of  the  greatest  representatives  of  Jewish  learning 
of  all  times,  who  died  in  942.  The  last  three  holders  of  the  office 
were  also  distinguished.  Sherira  of  Pumbeditha  (d.  998)  was 
the  author  of  the  famous  "Letter"  (in  the  form  of  a  Responsum 
to  a  question  addressed  to  him  by  residents  in  Kairawan),  an 
historical  document  of  the  highest  value  and  the  foundation  of 
our  knowledge  of  the  history  of  tradition.  His  son  Hai,  last 
Gaon  of  Pumbeditha  (d.  1038),  a  man  of  wide  learning,  wrote 

1  For  the  history  of  the  very  extensive  literature  of  this  class, 
Zunz,  Literaturgeschichte  der  synagogalen  Poesie  (Berlin,  1865),  is 
indispensable. 

*  See  the  edition  of  them  in  Harkavy,  Studien,  iv.  (Berlin,  1885). 


(partly  in  Arabic)  not  only  numerous  Responsa,  but  also  treatises 
on  law,  commentaries  on  the  Mishnah  and  the  Bible,  a  lexicon 
called  in  Arabic  al-JJ.awl,  and  poems  such  as  the  Musar  Haskel, 
but  most  of  them  are  now  lost  or  known  only  from  translations 
or  quotations.  Though  his  teaching  was  largely  directed  against 
superstition,  he  seems  to  have  been  inclined  to  mysticism,  and 
perhaps  for  this  reason  various  kabbalistic  works  were  ascribed 
to  him  in  later  times.  His  father-in-law  Samuel  ben  Hophni, 
last  Gaon  of  Sura  (d.  1034),  was  a  voluminous  writer  on  law, 
translated  the  Pentateuch  into  Arabic,  commented  on  much  of 
the  Bible,  and  composed  an  Arabic  introduction  to  the  Talmud, 
of  which  the  existing  Hebrew  introduction  (by  Samuel  the  Nagid) 
is  perhaps  a  translation.  Most  of  his  works  are  now  lost. 

In  the  Geonic  period  there  came  into  prominence  the  sect  of 
the  Karaites  (Bene  miqra,  "  followers  of  the  Scripture  ",  the  pro- 
testants  of  Judaism,  who  rejected  rabbinical  authority, 
basing  their  doctrine  and  practice  exclusively  on 
the  Bible.  The  sect  was  founded  by  'Anan  in  the  8th 
century,  and,  after  many  vicissitudes,  still  exists.  Their  litera- 
ture, with  which  alone  we  are  here  concerned,  is  largely  polemical 
and  to  a  great  extent  deals  with  grammar  and  exegesis.  Of 
their  first  important  authors,  Benjamin  al-Nehawendi  and  Daniel 
al-QumisI  (both  in  the  gth  century),  little  is  preserved.  In  the 
loth  century  Jacob  al-Qirqisani  wrote  his  Kitab  al-anwar,  on 
law,  Solomon  ben  Yeruham  (against  Seadiah)  and  Yefet  ben 
'All  wrote  exegetical  works;  in  the  nth  century  Abu'l-faraj 
Furqan,  exegesis,  and  Yusuf  al-BasIr  against  Samuel  ben  Hophni. 
Most  of  these  wrote  in  Arabic.  In  the  i2th  century  and  in 
S.  Europe,  Judah  Hadassi  composed  his  Eshkol  ha-Kopher,  a 
great  theological  compendium  in  the  form  of  a  commentary  on 
the  Decalogue.  Other  writers  are  Aaron  (the  elder)  ben  Joseph, 
I3th  century,  who  wrote  the  commentary  Sepher  ha-mibhhar; 
Aaron  (the  younger)  of  Nicomedia  (i4th  century),  author  of 
'£?  Ifayyim,  on  philosophy,  Can  'Eden,  on  law,  and  the  com- 
mentary Kether  Torah;  in  the  isth  century  Elijah  Bashyazi, 
on  law  (Addereth  Eliyahu),  and  Caleb  Efendipoulo,  poet  and 
theologian;  in  the  i6th  century  Moses  Bashyazi,  theologian. 
From  the  i2th  century  onward  the  sect  gradually  declined, 
being  ultimately  restricted  mainly  to  the  Crimea  and  Lithuania, 
learning  disappeared  and  their  literature  became  merely  popular 
and  of  little  interest.  Much  of  it  in  later  times  was  written  in 
a  curious  Tatar  dialect.  Mention  need  only  be  made  further 
of  Isaac  of  Troki,  whose  anti-Christian  polemic  flizzuq  Emunah 
(1593)  was  translated  into  English  by  Moses  Mocatta  under  the 
title  of  Faith  Strengthened  (1851);  Solomon  of  Troki,  whose 
Appiryon,  an  account  of  Karaism,  was  written  at  the  request  of 
Pufendorf  (about  1700);  and  Abraham  Firkovich,  who,  in  spite 
of  his  impostures,  did  much  for  the  literature  of  his  people  about 
the  middle  of  the  igth  century.  (See  also  QARAITES.) 

To  return  to  the  period  of  the  Geonim.  While  the  schools 
of  Babylonia  were  flourishing  as  the  religious  head  of  Judaism, 
the  West,  and  especially  Spain  under  Moorish  rule, 
was  becoming  the  home  of  Jewish  scholarship.  On  the  Medieval 
breaking  up  of  the  schools  many  of  the  fugitives  fled  s^/p."' 
to  the  West  and  helped  to  promote  rabbinical  learning 
there.  The  communities  of  Fez,  Kairawan  and  N.  Africa  were  in 
close  relation  with  those  of  Spain,  and  as  early  as  the  beginning 
of  the  gth  century  Judah  ben  Quraish  of  Tahort  had  composed 
his  Risolah  (letter)  to  the  Jews  of  Fez  on  grammatical  subjects 
from  a  comparative  point  of  view,  and  a  dictionary  now  lost. 
His  work  was  used  in  the  icth  century  by  Menahem  ben  Saruq, 
of  Cordova,  in  his  Mahbereth  (dictionary).  Menahem's  system 
of  bi-literal  and  uni-literal  roots  was  violently  attacked  by 
Dunash  ibn  Labrat,  and  as  violently  defended  by  the  author's 
pupils.  Among  these  was  Judah  Hayyuj  of  Cordova,  the  father 
of  modern  Hebrew  grammar,  who  first  established  the  principle 
of  tri-literal  roots.  His  treatises  on  the  verbs,  written  in 
Arabic,  were  translated  into  Hebrew  by  Moses  Giqatilla 
(nth  century),  himself  a  considerable  grammarian  and  com- 
mentator, and  by  Ibn  Ezra.  His  system  was  adopted  by 
Abu'I-walld  ibn  Jannah,  of  Saragossa  (died  early  in  the  nth 
century),  in  his  lexicon  (Kitab  al-usul,  in  Arabic)  and  other  works. 


HEBREW  LITERATURE 


In  Italy  appeared  the  invaluable  Talmud-lexicon  ('Arukh)  by 
Nathan  b.  Yehiel,  of  Rome  (d.  1106),  who  was  indirectly 
indebted  to  Babylonian  teaching.  He  does  not  strictly  follow 
the  system  of  Hayyuj.  Other  works  of  a  different  kind  also 
originated  in  Italy  about  this  time:  the  very  popular  history 
of  the  Jews,  called  Josippon  (probably  of  the  loth  or  even  pth 
century),  ascribed  to  Joseph  ben  Gorion  (Gorionides)1;  the 
medical  treatises  of  Shabbethai  Donnolo  (loth  century)  and  his 
commentary  on  the  Sepher  Ye$irah,  the  anonymous  and  earliest 
Hebrew  kabbalistic  work  ascribed  to  the  patriarch  Abraham. 
In  North  Africa,  probably  in  the  gth  century,  appeared  the 
book  known  under  the  name  of  Eldad  ha-Danl,  giving  an  account 
of  the  ten  tribes,  from  which  much  medieval  legend  was  derived;2 
and  in  Kairawan  the  medical  and  philosophical  treatises  of  Isaac 
Israeli,  who  died  in  932. 

The  aim  of  the  grammatical  studies  of  the  Spanish  school  was 
ultimately  exegesis.  This  had  already  been  cultivated  in  the 
sis  East.  In  the  gth  century  Hivi  of  Balkh  wrote  a 
rationalistic  treatise3  on  difficulties  in  the  Bible, 
which  was  refuted  by  Seadiah.  The  commentaries  of  the  Geonim 
have  been  mentioned  above.  The  impulse  to  similar  work  in  the 
West  came  also  from  Babylonia.  In  the  loth  century  Hushiel, 
one  of  four  prisoners,  perhaps  from  Babylonia,  though  that  is 
doubtful,  was  ransomed  and  settled  at  Kairawan,  where  he 
acquired  great  reputation  as  a  Talmudist.  His  son  Hananeel 
(d.  1050)  wrote  a  commentary  on  (probably  all)  the  Talmud,  and 
one  now  lost  on  the  Pentateuch.  Hananeel's  contemporary  Nisslm 
ben  Jacob,  of  Kairawan,  who  corresponded  with  Hai  Gaon  of 
Pumbeditha  as  well  as  with  Samuel  the  Nagld  in  Spain,  likewise 
wrote  on  the  Talmud,  and  is  probably  the  author  of  a  collection 
of  Maasiyyoth  or  edifying  stories,  besides  works  now  lost. 
The  activity  in  North  Africa  reacted  on  Spain.  There  the  most 
prominent  figure  was  that  of  Samuel  ibn  Nagdela  (or  Nagrela), 
generally  known  as  Samuel  the  Nagld  or  head  of  the  Jewish 
settlement,  who  died  in  1055.  As  vizier  to  the  Moorish  king 
at  Granada,  he  was  not  only  a  patron  of  learning,  but  himself 
a  man  of  wide  knowledge  and  a  considerable  author.  Some 
of  his  poems  are  extant,  and  an  Introduction  to  the  Talmud 
mentioned  above.  In  grammar  he  followed  Hayyuj,  whose 
pupil  he  was.  Among  others  he  was  the  patron  of  Solomon 
ibn  Gabirol  (q.v.),  the  poet  and  philosopher.  To  this  period 
belong  Haf?  al-Qutl  (the  Goth?)  who  made  a  version  of  the 
Psalms  in  Arabic  rhyme,  and  Bahya  (more  correctly  Behai) 
ibn  Paquda,  dayyan  at  Saragossa,  whose  Arabic  ethical  treatise 
has  always  had  great  popularity  among  the  Jews  in  its  Hebrew 
translation,  flobhoth  ha-lebhabhoth.  He  also  composed  liturgical 
poems.  At  the  end  of  the  nth  century  Judah  ibn  Bal'am 
wrote  grammatical  works  and  commentaries  (on  the  Pentateuch, 
Isaiah,  &c.)  in  Arabic;  the  liturgist  Isaac  Gayyath  (d.  in  1089 
at  Cordova)  wrote  on  ritual.  Moses  Giqatilla  has  been  already 
mentioned. 

The  French  school  of  the  nth  century  was  hardly  less  im- 
portant. Gershom  ben  Judah,  the  "  Light  of  the  Exile  "  (d. 
Rash!  *n  I04°  at  Mainz),  a  famous  Talmudist  and  com- 
mentator, his  pupil  Jacob  ben  Yaqar,  and  Moses  of 
Narbonne,  called  ha-Darshan,  the  "  Exegete,"  were  the  fore- 
runners of  the  greatest  of  all  Jewish  commentators,  Solomon 
ben  Isaac  (Rashi) ,  who  died  at  Troyes  in  1 105.  Rashi  was  a  pupil 
of  Jacob  ben  Yaqar,  and  studied  at  Worms  and  Mainz.  Unlike 
his  contemporaries  in  Spain,  he  seems  to  have  confined  himself 
wholly  to  Jewish  learning,  and  to  have  known  nothing  of  Arabic 
or  other  languages  except  his  native  French.  Yet  no  commentator 
is  more  valuable  or  indeed  more  voluminous,  and  for  the  study 

1  Two  different  texts  of  it  exist :  (i)  in  the  ed.  pr.  (Mantua,  1476) ; 
(2)  ed.  by  Seb.  Munster  (Basel,  1541).  There  is  also  an  early  Arabic 
recension,  but  its  relation  to  the  Hebrew  and  to  the  Arabic 
2  Maccabees  is  still  obscure.  See  /.  Q.  R.,  xi.  355  sqq.  The  Hebrew 
text  was  edited  with  a  Latin  translation  by  Breithaupt  (Gotha,  1707). 

"  On  the  various  recensions  of  the  text  see  D.  H.  Miiller  in  the 
Denkschriften  of  the  Vienna  Academy  (Phil.-hist.  Cl.,  xli.  I,  p.  41)  and 
Epstein's  ed.  (Pressburg,  1891). 

3  A  fragment  of  such  a  work,  probably  emanating  from  the  school 
of  yivi,  was  found  by  Schechter  and  published  in  J.Q.R.,  xiii.  345  sqq. 


of  the  Talmud  he  is  even  now  indispensable.  He  commented 
on  all  the  Bible  and  on  nearly  all  the  Talmud,  has  been  himself 
the  text  of  several  super-commentaries,  and  has  exercised  great 
influence  on  Christian  exegesis.  The  biblical  commentary  was 
translated  into  Latin  by  Breithaupt  (Gotha,  1710-1714),  that  on 
the  Pentateuch  rather  freely  into  German  by  L.  Dukes  (Prag, 
1838,  in  Hebrew-German  characters,  with  the  text),  and  parts 
by  others.  Closely  connected  with  Rashi,  or  of  his  school,  are 
Joseph  Qara,  of  Troyes  (d.  about  1130),  the  commentator, 
and  his  teacher  Menahem  ben  Helbo,  Jacob  ben  Me'Ir,  called 
Rabbenu  Tarn  (d.  1171),  the  most  important  of  the  Tosaphists 
(».  sup.) ,  and  later  in  the  1 2th  century  the  liberal  and  rationalizing 
Joseph  Bekhor  Shor,  and  Samuel  ben  Me'Ir  (d.  about  1174)  of 
Ramerupt,  commentator  and  Talmudist. 

In  the  1 2th  and  i3th  centuries  literature  maintained  a  high 
level  in  Spain.  Abraham  bar  Hiyya,  known  to  Christian  scholars 
as  Abraham  Judaeus  (d.  about  1136),  was  a  mathematician, 
astronomer  and  philosopher  much  studied  in  the  middle  ages. 
Moses  ben  Ezra,  of  Granada  (d.  about  1140),  wrote  in  Arabic 
a  philosophical  work  based  on  Greek  and  Arabic  as  well  as 
Jewish  authorities,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Hebrew  translation 
as  'Arugath  ha-bosem,  and  the  Kitab  al-Mahadarah,  of  great 
value  for  literary  history.  He  is  even  better  known  as  a  poet, 
for  his  Dlwan  and  the  'Anaq,  and  as  a  hymn-writer.  His 
relative  Abraham  ben  Ezra,  generally  called  simply  Ibn  Ezra,4 
was  still  more  distinguished.  He  was  born  at  Toledo,  spent 
most  of  his  life  in  travel,  wandering  even  to  England  and  to  the 
East,  and  died  in  1167.  Yet  he  contrived  to  write  his  great 
commentary  on  the  Pentateuch  and  other  books  of  the  Bible, 
treatises  on  philosophy  (as  the  Yesodh  mom),  astronomy, 
mathematics,  grammar  (translation  of  Hayyu  j) ,  besides  a  Dlwan. 
The  man,  however,  who  shares  with  Ibn  Gabirol  the  first  place 
in  Jewish  poetry  is  Judah  Ha-levi,  of  Toledo,  who  died  in 
Jerusalem  about  1140.  His  poems,  both  secular  and  religious, 
contained  in  his  Dlwan  and  scattered  in  the  liturgy,  are  all  in 
Hebrew,  though  he  employed  Arabic  metres.  In  Arabic  he 
wrote  his  philosophical  work,  called  in  the  Hebrew  translation 
Sepher  ha-Kuzari,  a  defence  of  revelation  as  against  non- Jewish 
philosophy  and  Qaraite  doctrine.  It  shows  considerable 
knowledge  of  Greek  and  Arabic  thought  (Avicenna).  Joseph 
ibn  Mlgash  (d.  1141  at  Lucena),  a  friend  of  Judah  Ha-levi 
and  of  Moses  ben  Ezra,  wrote  Responsa  and  Hiddushin  (annota- 
tions) on  parts  of  the  Talmud.  In  another  sphere  mention  must 
be  made  of  the  travellers  Benjamin  of  Tudela  (d.  after  1173), 
whose  Massa'oth  are  of  great  value  for  the  history  and  geography 
of  his  time,  and  (though  not  belonging  to  Spain)  Pethahiah  of 
Regensburg  (d.  about  1190),  who  wrote  short  notes  of  his 
journeys.  Abraham  ben  David,  of  Toledo  (d.  about  1180), 
in  philosophy  an  Aristotelian  (through  Avicenna)  and  the 
precursor  of  Maimonides,  is  chiefly  known  for  his  Sepher  ha- 
qabbalah,  written  as  a  polemic  against  Karaism,  but  valuable 
for  the  history  of  tradition. 

The  greatest  of  all  medieval  Jewish  scholars  was  Moses  ben 
Maim5n  (Rambam),  called  Maimonides  by  Christians.  He  was 
born  at  Cordova  in  1135,  fled  with  his  parents  from 
persecution  in  1148,  settled  at  Fez  in  1160,  passing  0Ue*. 
there  for  a  Moslem,  fled  again  to  Jerusalem  in  1165, 
and  finally  went  to  Cairo  where  he  died  in  1204.  He  was  dis- 
tinguished in  his  profession  as  a  physician,  and  wrote  a  number 
of  medical  works  in  Arabic  (including  a  commentary  on  the 
aphorisms  of  Hippocrates),  all  of  which  were  translated  into 
Hebrew,  and  most  of  them  into  Latin,  becoming  the  text-books 
of  Europe  in  the  succeeding  centuries.  But  his  fame  rests  mainly 
on  his  theological  works.  Passing  over  the  less  important, 
these  are  the  Moreh  Nebhukhim  (so  the  Hebrew  translation  of 
the  Arabic  original),  an  endeavour  to  show  philosophically  the 
reasonableness  of  the  faith,  parts  of  which,  translated  into  Latin, 
were  studied  by  the  Christian  schoolmen,  and  the  Mishneh 
Torah,  also  called  Yad  hahazaqah  (r=i4,  the  number  of  the 
parts),  a  classified  compendium  of  the  Law,  written  in  Hebrew 

4  See  M.  Friedliinder  in  Publications  of  the  Society  of  Hebrew  Lit., 
1st  ser.  vol.  i.,  and  2nd  ser.  vol.  iv. 


174 


HEBREW  LITERATURE 


Maimo- 
alsts. 


and  early  translated  into  Arabic.  The  latter  of  these,  though 
generally  accepted  in  the  East,  was  much  opposed  in  the  West, 
especially  at  the  time  by  the  Talmudist  Abraham  ben  David 
of  Posquieres  (d.  1198).  Maimonides  also  wrote  an  Arabic 
commentary  on  the  Mishnah,  soon  afterwards  translated  into 
Maimo-  Hebrew,  commentaries  on  parts  of  the  Talmud  (now 
nistsand  lost),  and  a  treatise  on  Logic.  His  breadth  of  view 
aati-  and  his  Aristotelianism  were  a  stumbling-block  to  the 

orthodox,  and  subsequent  teachers  may  be  mostly 
classified  as  Maimonists  or  anti-Maimonists.  Even 
his  friend  Joseph  ibn  'Aqnin  (d.  1226),  author  of  a  philosophical 
treatise  in  Arabic  and  of  a  commentary  on  the  Song  of  Solomon, 
found  so  much  difficulty  in  the  new  views  that  the  Moreh 
Nebhukhim  was  written  in  order  to  convince  him.  Maimonides' 
son  Abraham  (d.  1234),  also  a  great  Talmudist,  wrote  in  Arabic 
Ma'aseh  Yerushalmi,  on  oaths,  and  Kitab  al-Kifdyah,  theology. 
His  grandson  David  was  also  an  author.  A  very  different  person 
was  Moses  ben  Nahman  (Ramban)  or  Nahmanides,  who  was  born 
at  Gerona  in  1194  and  died  in  Palestine  about  1270.  His  whole 
tendency  was  as  conservative  as  that  of  Maimonides  was  liberal, 
and  like  all  conservatives  he  may  be  said  to  represent  a  lost 
though  not  necessarily  a  less  desirable  cause.  Much  of  his  life 
was  spent  in  controversy,  not  only  with  Christians  (in  1293 
before  the  king  of  Aragon),  but  also  with  his  own  people  and  on 
the  views  of  the  time.  His  greatest  work  is  the  commentary 
on  the  Pentateuch  in  opposition  to  Maimonides  and  Ibn  Ezra. 
He  had  a  strong  inclination  to  mysticism,  but  whether  certain 
kahbalistic  works  are  rightly  attributed  to  him  is  doubtful. 
It  is,  however,  not  a  mere  coincidence  that  the  two  great  kabbal- 
istic  text-books,  the  Bahir  and  the  Zohar  (both  meaning  "  bright- 
ness "),  appear  first  in  the  i3th  century.  If  not  due  to  his  teaching 
they  are  at  least  in  sympathy  with  it.  The  Bahir,  asort  of  outline 
of  the  Zohar,  and  traditionally  ascribed  to  Nehunya  (ist  century), 
is  believed  by  some  to  be  the  work  of  Isaac  the  Blind  ben  Abraham 
of  Posquieres  (d.  early  in  the  I3th  century),  the  founder  of  the 
modern  Kabbalah  and  the  author  of  the  names  for  the  10 
Sephlroth.  The  Zohar,  supposed  to  be  by  Simeon  ben  Yohai 
(2nd  century),  is  now  generally  attributed  to  Moses  of  Leon 
(d.  1305),  who,  however,  drew  his  material  in  part  from  earlier 
written  or  traditional  sources,  such  as  the  Sepher  Yezlrah. 
At  any  rate  the  work  was  immediately  accepted  by  thekabbalists, 
and  has  formed  the  basis  of  all  subsequent  study  of  the  subject. 
Though  put  into  the  form  of  a  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch, 
it  is  really  an  exposition  of  the  kabbalistic  view  of  the  universe, 
and  incidentally  shows  considerable  acquaintance  with  the 
natural  science  of  the  time.  A  pupil,  though  not  a  follower  of 
Nahmanides,  was  Solomon  Adreth  (not  Addereth),  of  Barcelona 
(d.  1310),  a  prolific  writer  of  Talmudic  and  polemical  works 
(against  the  Kabbalists  and  Mahommedans)  as  well  as  of  responsa. 
He  was  opposed  by  Abraham  Abulafia  (d.  about  1291)  and  his 
pupil  Joseph  Giqatilla  (d.  about  1305),  the  author  of  numerous 
kabbalistic  works.  Solomon's  pupil  Bahya  ben  Asher,  of 
Saragossa  (d.  1340)  was  the  author  of  a  very  popular  com- 
mentary on  the  Pentateuch  and  of  religious  discourses  entitled 
Kad  ha-qemah,  in  both  of  which,  unlike  his  teacher,  he  made 
large  use  of  the  Kabbalah.  Other  studies,  however,  were  not 
neglected.  In  the  first  half  of  the  I3th  century,  Abraham  ibn 
Hasdai,  a  vigorous  supporter  of  Maimonides,  translated  (or 
adapted)  a  large  number  of  philosophical  works  from  Arabic, 
among  them  being  the  Sepher  ha-tappuah,  based  on  Aristotle's 
de  Anima,  and  theMozene  Zedeq  of  Ghazzali  on  moral  philosophy, 
of  both  of  which  the  originals  are  lost.  Another  Maimonist  was 
Shem  Tobh  ben  Joseph  Falaquera  (d.  after  1290),  philosopher 
(following  Averroes),  poet  and  author  of  a  commentary  on  the 
Moreh.  A  curious  mixture  of  mysticism  and  Aristotelianism 
is  seen  in  Isaac  Aboab  (about  1300),  whose  Menorath  ha-Ma'dr, 
a  collection  of  agadoth,  attained  great  popularity  and  has  been 
frequently  printed  and  translated.  Somewhat  earlier  in  the  i3th 
century  lived  Judah  al-Harizi,  who  belongs  in  spirit  to  the  time 
of  Ibn  Gabirol  and  Judah  ha-levi.  He  wrote  numerous  transla- 
tions, of  Galen,  Aristotle,  Hariri,  Hunain  ben  Isaac  and 
Maimonides,  as  well  as  several  original  works,  a  Sepher  'Anaq 


in  imitation  of  Moses  ben  Ezra,  and  treatises  on  grammar  and 
medicine  (Rephuath  geviyyah),  but  he  is  best  known  for  his 
Tahkemonl,  a  diwan  in  the  style  of  Hariri's  Maqdmdt. 

Meanwhile  the  literary  activity  of  the  Jews  in  Spain  had  its 
effect  on  those  of  France.  The  fact  that  many  of  the  most 
important  works  were  written  in  Arabic,  the  vernacular  of  the 
Spanish  Jews  under  the  Moors,  which  was  not  understood  in 
France,  gave  rise  to  a  number  of  translations  into  Hebrew, 
chiefly  by  the  family  of  Ibn  Tibbon  (or  Tabbon).  The  first  of 
them,  Judah  ibn  Tibbon,  translated  works  of  Bahya  ibn  Paqudah, 
Judah  ha-levi,  Seadiah,  Abu'lwalid  and  Ibn  Gabirol,  besides 
writing  works  of  his  own.  He  was  a  native  of  Granada,  but 
migrated  to  Lunel,  where  he  probably  died  about  1190.  His 
son  Samuel,  who  died  at  Marseilles  about  1230,  was  equally 
prolific.  He  translated  the  Moreh  Nebhukhim  during  the  life 
of  the  author,  and  with  some  help  from  him,  so  that  this  may 
be  regarded  as  the  authorized  version;  Maimonides'  commentary 
on  the  Mishnah  tractate  Pirqe  Abhoth,  and  some  minor  works; 
treatises  of  Averroes  and  other  Arabic  authors.  His  original 
works  are  mostly  biblical  commentaries  and  some  additional 
matter  on  the  Moreh.  His  son  Moses,  who  died  about  the  end 
of  the  I3th  century,  translated  the  rest  of  Maimonides,  much  of 
Averroes,  the  lesser  Canon  of  Avicenna,  Euclid's  Elements 
(from  the  Arabic  version),  Ibn  al-Jazzar's  Viaticum,  medical 
works  of  Hunain  ben  Isaac  (Johannitius)  and  Razi  (Rhazes), 
besides  works  of  less-known  Arabic  authors.  His  original  works 
are  commentaries  and  perhaps  a  treatise  on  immortality.  His 
nephew  Jacob  ben  Makhir,  of  Montpellier  (d.  about  1304), 
translated  Arabic  scientific  works,  such  as  parts  of  Averroes  and 
Ghazzali,  Arabic  versions  from  the  Greek,  as  Euclid's  Data, 
Autolycus,  Menelaus  (ovS-c)  and  Theodosius  on  the  Sphere, 
and  Ptolemy's  Almagest.  He  also  compiled  astronomical  tables 
and  a  treatise  on  the  quadrant.  The  great  importance  of  these 
translations  is  that  many  of  them  were  afterwards  rendered 
into  Latin,1  thus  making  Arabic  and,  through  it,  Greek  learning 
accessible  to  medieval  Europe.  Another  important  family 
about  this  time  is  that  of  Qimhi  (or  Qamhi).  It  also  originated 
in  Spain,  where  Joseph  ben  Isaac  Qimhi  was  born,  who  migrated 
to  S.  France,  probably  for  the  same  reason  which  caused  the 
flight  of  Maimonides,  and  died  there  about  1170.  He  wrote  on 
grammar  (Sepher  ha-galui  and  Sepher  Zikkaron),  commentaries 
on  Proverbs  and  the  Song  of  Solomon,  an  apologetic  work, 
Sepher  ha-berith,  and  a  translation  of  Bahya's  Hobhoth 
ha-lebhabhoth.  His  son  Moses  (d.  about  1190)  also  wrote  on 
grammar  and  some  commentaries,  wrongly  attributed  to  Ibn 
Ezra.  A  younger  son,  David  (Radaq)  of  Narbonne  (d.  1235) 
is  the  most  famous  of  the  name.  His  great  work,  the  Mikhlol, 
consists  of  a  grammar  and  lexicon;  his  commentaries  on  various 
parts  of  the  Bible  are  admirably  luminous,  and,  in  spite  of  his 
anti-Christian  remarks,  have  been  widely  used  by  Christian 
theologians  and  largely  influenced  the  English  authorized  version 
of  the  Bible.  A  friend  of  Joseph  Qimhi,  Jacob  ben  Me'Ir,  known 
as  Rabbenu  Tarn  of  Ramerupt  (d.  1171),  the  grandson  of 
Rashi,  wrote  the  Sepher  ha-yashar  (hiddushin  and  responsa)  and 
was  one  of  the  chief  Tosaphists.  Of  the  same  school  were 
Menahem  ben  Simeon  of  Posquieres,  a  commentator,  who  died 
about  the  end  of  the  1 2th  century,  and  Moses  ben  Jacob  of  Coucy 
(i3th  century),  author  of  the  Semag  (book  of  precepts,  positive 
and  negative)  a  very  popular  and  valuable  halakhic  work.  A 
younger  contemporary  of  David  Qirnhi  was  Abraham  ben  Isaac 
Bedersi  (i.e.  of  Beziers),  the  poet,  and  some  time  in  the  i3th 
century  lived  Joseph  Ezobhi  of  Perpignan,  whose  ethical  poem, 
Qe'arath  Yoseph,  was  translated  by  Reuchlin  and  later  by 
others.  Berachiah,2  the  compiler  of  the  "  Fox  Fables  "  (which 
have  much  in  common  with  the  "  Ysopet  "  of  Marie  de  France), 
is  generally  thought  to  have  lived  in  Provence  in  the  i3th  century, 
but  according  to  others  in  England  in  the  i2th  century.  In 
Germany,  Eleazar  ben  Judah  of  Worms  (d.  1238),  besides  being 

1  The  fullest  account  of  them  is  to  be  found  in  Steinschneider's 
Hebraische  Ubersetzungen  des  Mittelalters  (Berlin,  1893). 

2  See  H.  Gollancz,   The  Ethical  Treatises  of  Berachya  (London, 
1902). 


HEBREW  LITERATURE 


'75 


a  Talmudist,  was  an  earnest  promoter  of  kabbalistic  studies. 
Isaac  ben  Moses  (d.  about  1270),  who  had  studied  in  France, 
wrote  the  famous  Or  Zarua'  (from  which  he  is  often  called), 
an  halakhic  work  somewhat  resembling  Maimonides'  Mishneh 
Torah,  but  more  diffuse.  In  the  course  of  his  wanderings  he 
settled  for  a  time  at  Wiirzburg,  where  he  had  as  a  pupil  Me'Ir 
of  Rothenburg  (d.  1293).  The  latter  was  a  prolific  writer  of 
great  influence,  chiefly  known  for  his  Responsa,  but  also  for  his 
halakhic  treatises,  hiddushln  and  tosaphoth.  He  also  composed 
a  number  of  piyyutim.  Me'ir's  pupil,  Mordecai  ben  Hillel  of 
Niirnberg  (d.  1298),  had  an  even  greater  influence  through  his 
halakhic  work,  usually  known  as  the  Mordekhai.  This  is  a  codi- 
fication of  halakhoth,  based  on  all  the  authorities  then  known, 
some  of  them  now  lost.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  material 
collected  by  Mordecai  was  left  to  his  pupils  to  arrange,  the  work 
was  current  in  two  recensions,  an  Eastern  (in  Austria)  and  a 
Western  (in  Germany,  France,  &c.).  In  the  East,  Tanhum  ben 
Joseph  of  Jerusalem  was  the  author  of  commentaries  (not  to  be 
confounded  with  the  Midrash  Tanhuma)  on  many  books  of  the 
Bible,  and  of  an  extensive  lexicon  (Kitdb  al-Murshid)  to  the 
Mishnah,  all  in  Arabic. 

With  the  i3th  century  Hebrew  literature  may  be  said  to  have 
reached  the  limit  of  its  development.  Later  writers  to  a  large 
extent  used  over  again  the  materials  of  their  predecessors,  while 
secular  works  tend  to  be  influenced  by  the  surrounding  civiliza- 
tion, or  even  are  composed  in  the  vernacular  languages.  From 
the  i4th  century  onward  only  the  most  notable  names  can  be  men- 
tioned. In  Italy  Immanuel  ben  Solomon,  of  Rome  (d.  about 
1330),  perhaps  the  friend  and  certainly  the  imitator  of  Dante, 
wrote  his  diwan,  of  which  the  last  part,  "  Topheth  ve-'Eden," 
is  suggested  by  the  Divina  Commedia.  In  Spain  Israel  Israeli,  of 
Toledo  (d.  1326),  was  a  translator  and  the  author  of  an  Arabic 
work  on  ritual  and  a  commentary  on  Pirqe  Abhoth.  About  the 
same  time  Isaac  Israeli  wrote  his  Yesodh  'Olam  and  other  astro- 
nomical works  which  were  much  studied.  Asher  ben  Jehiel, 
a  pupil  of  Me'Ir  of  Rothenburg,  was  the  author  of  the  popular 
Talmudic  compendium,  generally  quoted  as  Rabbenu  Asher,  on 
the  lines  of  Alfasi,  besides  other  halakhic  works.  He  migrated 
from  Germany  and  settled  at  Toledo,  where  he  died  in  1328. 
His  son  Jacob,  of  Toledo  (d.  1340),  was  the  author  of  the  Tur 
(or  the  four  Turlm),  a  most  important  manual  of  Jewish  law, 
serving  as  an  abridgement  of  the  Mishneh  Torah  brought  up  to 
date.  His  pupil  David  Abudrahim,  of  Seville  (d.  after  1340), 
wrote  a  commentary  on  the  liturgy.  Both  the  I4th  and  isth 
centuries  in  Spain  were  largely  taken  up  with  controversy,  as 
by  Isaac  ibn  Pulgar  (about  1350),  and  Shem  Tobh  ibn  Shaprut 
(about  1380),  who  translated  St  Matthew's  gospel  into  Hebrew. 
In  France  Jedaiah  Bedersi,  i.e.  of  Beziers  (d.  about  1340),  wrote 
poems  (Behinalh  ha-olam),  commentaries  on  agada  and  a  defence 
of  Maimonides  against  Solomon  Adreth.  Levi  ben  Gershom 
(d.  1344),  called  Ralbag,  the  great  commentator  on  the  Bible  and 
Talmud,  in  philosophy  a  follower  of  Aristotle  and  Averroes, 
known  to  Christians  as  Leo  Hebraeus,  wrote  also  many  works 
on  halakhah,  mathematics  and  astronomy.  Joseph  Kaspi, 
i.e.  of  Largentiere  (d.  1340),  wrote  a  large  number  of  treatises 
on  grammar  and  philosophy  (mystical),  besides  commentaries 
and  piyyutim.  In  the  first  half  of  the  i4th  century  lived  the 
two  translators  Qalonymos  ben  David  and  Qalonymos  ben 
Qalonymos,  the  latter  of  whom  translated  many  works  of  Galen 
and  Averroes,  and  various  scientific  treatises,  besides  writing 
original  works,  e.g,  one  against  Kaspi,  and  an  ethical  work 
entitled  Eben  Bohan.  At  the  end  of  the  century  Isaac  ben 
Moses,  called  Profiat  Duran  (Efodi),  is  chiefly  known  as  an  anti- 
Christian  controversialist  (letter  to  Me'Ir  Alguadez),  but  also 
wrote  on  grammar  (Ma'aseh  Efod)  and  a  commentary  on  the 
Moreh.  In  philosophy  he  was  an  Aristotelian.  About  the  same 
time  in  Spain  controversy  was  very  active.  Hasdai  Crescas 
(d.  1410)  wrote  against  Christianity  and  in  his  Or  Adonai 
against  the  Aristotelianism  of  the  Maimonists.  His  pupil  Joseph 
Albo  in  his  'Iqqarim  had  the  same  two  objects.  On  the  side  of 
the  Maimonists  was  Simeon  Duran  (d.  at  Algiers  1444)  in  his 
Magen  Abhoth  and  in  his  numerous  commentaries.  Shem  Tobh 


ibn  Shem  Tobh,  the  kabbalist,  was  a  strong  anti-Maimonist, 
as  was  his  son  Joseph  of  Castile  (d.  1480),  a  commentator  with 
kabbalistic  tendencies  but  versed  in  Aristotle,  Averroes  and 
Christian  doctrine.  Joseph's  son  Shem  T6bh  was,  on  the  contrary, 
a  follower  of  Maimonides  and  the  Aristotelians.  In  other 
subjects,  Saadyah  ibn  Danan,  of  Granada  (d.  at  Oran  after  1473), 
is  chiefly  important  for  his  grammar  and  lexicon,  in  Arabic; 
Judah  ibn  Verga,  of  Seville  (d.  after  1480),  was  a  mathematician 
and  astronomer;  Solomon  ibn  Verga,  somewhat  later,  wrote 
Shebet  Yehudah,  of  doubtful  value  historically;  Abraham 
Zakkuth  or  Zakkuto,  of  Salamanca  (d.  after  1510),  astronomer, 
wrote  the  Sepher  Yuhasin.  an  historical  work  of  importance. 
In  Italy,  Obadiah  Bertinoro  (d.  about  1500)  compiled  his  very 
useful  commentary  on  the  Mishnah,  based  on  those  of  Rashi 
and  Maimonides.  His  account  of  his  travels  and  his  letters  are 
also  of  great  interest.  Isaac  Abravanel  (d.  1508)  wrote  com- 
mentaries (not  of  the  first  rank)  on  the  Pentateuch  and  Prophets 
and  on  the  Moreh,  philosophical  treatises  and  apologetics,  such  as 
the  Yeshu'oth  Meshiho,  all  of  which  had  considerable  influence. 
Elijah  Delmedigo,  of  Crete  (d.  1497),  a  strong  opponent  of 
Kabbalah,  was  the  author  of  the  philosophical  treatise  Behinalh 
ha-dalh,  but  most  of  his  work  (on  Averroes)  was  in  Latin. 

The  introduction  of  printing  (first  dated  Hebrew  printed  book, 
Rashi,  Reggio,  1475)  gave  occasion  for  a  number  of  scholarly 
compositors  and  proof-readers,  some  of  whom  were 
also  authors,  such  as  Jacob  ben  Hayylm  of  Tunis 
(d.  about  1530),  proof-reader  to  Bomberg,  chiefly 
known  for  his  masoretic  work  in  connexion  with  the  Rabbinic 
Bible  and  his  introduction  to  it;  Elias  Levita,  of  Venice  (d.  1549), 
also  proof-reader  to  Bomberg,  author  of  the  Massoreth  ha- 
Massoreth  and  other  works  on  grammar  and  lexicography;  and 
Cornelius  Adelkind,  who  however  was  not  an  author.  In  the 
East,  Joseph  Karo  (Qaro)  wrote  his  Beth  Yoseph  (Venice,  1550), 
a  commentary  on  the  jur,  and  his  Shulhan  'Arukh  (Venice, 
1564)  an  halakhic  work  like  the  fur,  which  is  still  a  standard 
authority.  The  influence  of  non- Jewish  methods  is  seen  in  the 
more  modern  tendency  of  Azariah  dei  Rossi,  who  was  opposed 
by  Joseph  Karo.  In  his  Me'or  'Enayim  (Mantua,  1573)  Dei 
Rossi  endeavoured  to  investigate  Jewish  history  in  a  scientific 
spirit,  with  the  aid  of  non- Jewish  authorities,  and  even  criticizes 
Talmudic  and  traditional  statements.  Another  historian  living 
also  in  Italy  was  Joseph  ben  Joshua,  whose  Dibhre  ha-yamim 
(Venice,  1534)  is  a  sort  of  history  of  the  world,  and  his  'Emeq 
ha-bakhah  an  account  of  Jewish  troubles  to  the  year  1575.  In 
Germany  David  Cans  wrote  on  astronomy,  and  also  the  historical 
work  Zemah  David  (Prag,  1592).  The  study  of  Kabbalah  was 
promoted  and  the  practical  Kabbalah  founded  by  Isaac  Luria 
in  Palestine  (d.  1572).  Numerous  works,  representing  the 
extreme  of  mysticism,  were  published  by  his  pupils  as  the  result 
of  his  teaching.  Foremost  among  these  was  Hayylm  Vital, 
author  of  the  'Ez  hayylm,  and  his  son  Samuel,  who  wrote  an 
introduction  to  the  Kabbalah,  called  Shemoneh  She'arim.  To 
the  same  school  belonged  Moses  Zakkuto,  of  Mantua  (d.  1697), 
poet  and  kabbalist.  Contemporary  with  Luria  and  also  living 
at  Safed,  was  Moses  Cordovero  (d.  1570),  the  kabbalist,  whose 
chief  work  was  the  Pardes  Rimmonim  (Cracow,  1591).  In  the 
1 7th  century  Leon  of  Modena  (d.  1648)  wrote  his  Beth  Yehudah, 
and  probably  Qol  Sakhal,  against  traditionalism,  besides  many 
controversial  works  and  commentaries.  Joseph  Delmedigo,  of 
Prag  (d.  1655),  wrote  almost  entirely  on  scientific  subjects. 
Also  connected  with  Prag  was  Yom  Tobh  Lipmann  Heller,  a 
voluminous  author,  best  known  for  the  Tosaphoth  Yom  Tobh 
on  the  Mishna  (Prag,  1614;  Cracow,  1643).  Another  important 
Talmudist,  Shabbethai  ben  Me'Ir,  of  Wilna  (d.  1662),  commented 
on  the  Shulhan  'Arukh.  In  the  East,  David  Conforte  (d.  about 
1685)  wrote  the  historical  work  Qore  ha-doroth  (Venice,  1746), 
using  Jewish  and  other  sources;  Jacob  ben  Hayylm  Zemah, 
kabbalist  and  student  of  Luria,  wrote  Qol  be-ramah,  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Zohar  and  on  the  liturgy;  Abraham  Hayeklnl, 
kabbalist,  chiefly  remembered  as  a  supporter  of  the  would-be 
Messiah,  Shabbethai  Zebhl,  wrote  Hod  Malkulh  (Constantinople, 
1655)  and  sermons.  In  the  i8th  century  the  study  of  the 


HEBREW  RELIGION 


kabbalah  was  cultivated  by  Moses  Hayyim  Luzzatto  (d.  1747) 
and  by  Elijah  ben  Solomon,  called  Gaon,  of  Wilna  (d.  1797), 
who  commented  on  the  whole  Bible  and  on  many  Talmudic 
and  kabbalistic  works.  In  spite  of  his  own  leaning  towards 
mysticism  he  was  a  strong  opponent  of  the  Hasidlm,  a  mystical 
sect  founded  by  Israel  Ba'al  Shem  Tobh  (Besht)  and  promoted 
by  Baer  of  Meseritz.  Elijah's  son  Abraham  (d.  1808),  the  com- 
mentator, is  valuable  for  his  work  on  Midrash.  An  historical 
work  which  makes  an  attempt  to  be  scientific,  is  the  Seder 
ha-doroth  of  Yehiel  Heilprin  (d.  1746).  These,  however,  belong  in 
spirit  to  the  previous  century. 

The  characteristic  of  the  i8th  and  iQth  centuries  is  the  en- 
deavour, connected  with  the  name  of  Moses  Mendelssohn,  to 
Modern-  bring  Judaism  more  into  relation  with  external 
learning,  and  in  using  the  Hebrew  language  to  purify 
an<^  develop  it  m  accordance  with  the  biblical  standard. 
The  result,  while  linguistically  more  uniform  and 
pleasing,  often  lacks  the  spontaneity  of  medieval  literature.  It 
was  Moses  Mendelssohn's  German  translation  of  the  Pentateuch 
(1780-1793)  which  marked  the  new  spirit,  while  the  views  of 
his  opponents  belong  to  a  bygone  age.  In  fact  the  controversy 
of  which  he  was  the  centre  may  fitly  be  compared  with  the 
earlier  battles  between  the  Maimonists  and  anti-Maimonists. 
One  of  the  most  remarkable  writers  of  the  new  Hebrew  was 
Mendelssohn's  friend  N.  H.  Wessely,  of  Hamburg  (d.  1805), 
author  of  Shire  Tiphe'reth,  a  long  poem  on  the  Exodus,  Dibhre 
Shalom,  a  plea  for  liberalism,  Sepher  ha-middoth,  on  ethics, 
besides  philological  works  and  commentaries.  A  curious  com- 
bination of  new  and  old  was  Hayyim  Azulai  (d.  1807) ,  a  kabbalist , 
but  also  the  author  of  Shem  ha-gedhottm,  a  valuable  contribution 
to  literary  history. 

In  the  i  gth  century  the  modernizing  tendency  continued  to 
grow,  though  always  side  by  side  with  a  strong  conservative 
opposition,  and  the  most  prominent  names  on  both  sides  are 
those  of  scholars  rather  than  literary  men.  Among  them  may 
be  mentioned,  Akiba  ('Aqlbha)  Eger  (d.  1837),  Talmudist  of 
the  orthodox,  conservative  school;  W.  Heidenheim  (d.  1832),  a 
liberal,  and  editor  of  the  Pentateuch  and  Mahzor;  N.  Krochmal, 
of  Galicia  (d.  1840),  author  of  Moreh  Nebhukhe  ha-zeman,  on 
Jewish  history  and  literature;  his  son  Abraham  (d.  1895), 
conservative  commentator  and  philosopher.  One  consequence 
of  the  Mendelssohn  movement  was  that  many  writers  used  their 
vernacular  language  besides  or  instead  of  Hebrew,  or  translated 
from  one  to  the  other.  Thus  Isaac  Samuel  Reggio  (d.  1855), 
a  strong  liberal,  wrote  both  in  Hebrew  and  Italian;  Joseph 
Almanzi,  of  Padua  (d.  1860),  a  poet,  translated  Italian  poems 
into  Hebrew;  S.  D.  Luzzatto,  of  Padua  (d.  1865),  a  distinguished 
scholar  and  opponent  of  the  philosophy  of  Maimonides,  wrote 
much  in  Italian;  M.  H.  Letteris,  of  Vienna  (d.  1871),  translated 
German  poems  into  Hebrew;  S.  Bacher,  of  Hungary  (d.  1891), 
was  a  poet  and  moderate  liberal;  L.  Gordon  (d.  1892),  poet  and 
prose-writer  in  Hebrew  and  Russian,  of  liberal  views;  A. 
Jellinek,  of  Vienna  (d.  1893),  preacher  and  scholar;  Jacob 
Reifmann  (d.  1895),  scholar,  wrote  only  in  Hebrew.  The 
endeavour  to  bring  Judaism  into  relation  with  the  modern 
world  and  to  change  the  current  impressions  about  Jews  by 
making  their  teaching  accessible  to  the  rest  of  the  world,  is 
connected  chiefly  with  the  names  of  Z.  Frankel  (d.  1875),  the 
first  Jewish  scholar  to  study  the  Septuagint;  Abraham  Geiger 
(d.  1874),  critic  of  the  first  rank;  L.  Zunz  (d.  1884)  and  L.  Dukes 
(d.  1891),  both  scholarly  investigators  of  Jewish  literary  history. 
Their  most  important  works  are  in  German.  The  question  of 
the  use  of  the  vernacular  or  of  Hebrew  is  bound  up  with  the 
differences  between  the  orthodox  and  the  liberal  or  reform  parties, 
complicated  by  the  many  problems  involved.  Patriotic  efforts 
are  made  to  encourage  the  use  of  Hebrew  both  for  writing  and 
speaking,  but  the  continued  existence  of  it  as  a  literary  language 
depends  on  the  direction  in  which  the  future  history  of  the  Jews 
will  develop. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Only  the  more  comprehensive  works  are  men- 
tioned here,  omitting  those  relating  to  particular  authors,  and  those 
already  cited. 


Introductory:  Abrahams,  Short  History  of  Jewish  Literature 
(London,  1906) ;  Steinschneider,  Jewish  Literature  (London,  1857); 
Winter  and  Wiinsche,  Die  jiidische  Literatur  (Leipzig,  1893-1895) 
(containing  selections  translated  into  German). 

For  further  study:  Graetz,  Geschichle  der  Juden  (Leipzig,  1853, 
&c.)  (the  volumes  are  in  various  editions),  with  special  reference  to 
the  notes;  English  translation  by  B.  Lowy  (London,  1891-1892) 
(without  the  notes) ;  Zunz,  Gottesdienstliche  Vortrdge  der  Juden 
(new  ed.,  Frankfort-on-Main,  1892) ;  Zur  Geschichte  und  Literatur 
(Berlin,  1845).  The  Synagogale  Poesie  has  been  mentioned  above. 
Steinschneider,  Arabische  Literatur  der  Juden  (Frankfort-on-Main, 
1902) ;  Hebraische  Ubersetzungen  des  Mittelalters  (Berlin,  1893). 

On  particular  authors  and  subjects  there  are  many  excellent 
monographs  in  the  Jewish  Encyclopaedia  (New  York,  1901-6),  to  which 
the  present  article  is  much  indebted. 

Bibliographies  of  printed  books:  Steinschneider,  Catalogus  libr. 
Hebr.  in  Bibl.  Bodleiana  (Berlin,  1852-1860)  (more  than  a  catalogue) ; 
Zedner,  Catalogue  of  the  Hebr.  Books  in  the  British  Museum  (London, 
1867;  continued  by  van  Straalen,  London,  1894).  Of  manuscripts: 
Neubauer,  Catal.  of  the  Hebrew  MSS.  in  the  Bodleian  Library  (Oxford, 
1886),  vol.  ii.  by  Neubauer  and  Cowley  (Oxford,  1906);  G.  Margo- 
liouth,  Catal.  of  the  Hebr.  .  .  .  MSS.  in  the  British  Museum  (London, 
1899,  &c.).  Of  both:  Benjacob,  Ozar  ha-sepharim  (Wilna,  1880)  (in 
Hebrew;  arranged  by  titles). 

Periodicals:  Jewish  Quarterly  Review;  Revue  des  etudes  juives; 
Hebraische  Bibliographic.  (A.  CY.) 

HEBREW  RELIGION  (i)  Introductory.— To  trace  the 
history  of  the  religion  of  the  Hebrews  is  a  complex  task,  because 
the  literary  sources  from  which  our  knowledge  of  that  history  is 
derived  are  themselves  complex  and  replete  with  problems  as 
to  age  and  authorship,  some  of  which  have  been  solved  according 
to  the  consensus  of  nearly  all  the  best  scholars,  but  some  of 
which  still  await  solution  or  are  matters  of  dispute.  Even  if 
the  analysis  of  the  literature  into  component  documents  were 
complete,  we  should  still  possess  a  most  imperfect  record,  since 
the  documents  themselves  have  passed  through  many  re- 
dactions, and  these  redactions  have  proceeded  from  varying 
standpoints  of  religious  tradition,  successively  eliminating 
or  modifying  certain  elements  deemed  inconsistent  with  the 
canons  of  religious  usage  or  propriety  which  prevailed  in  the  age 
when  the  redaction  took  place.  Lastly  it  should  be  recollected 
that  the  entire  body  of  the  fragments  of  tradition  and  literature 
belonging  to  northern  Israel  has  come  down  to  us  through  the 
channel  of  Judaean  recensions. 

The  influence  of  the  Deuteronomic  tradition  in  redaction  is 
seen  in  such  passages  as  Genesis  xxxiii.  20  (cf.  xxxi.  45  fol.); 
Josh.  iv.  9-20,  xxiv.  26  fol.;  i  Sam.  vii.  12,  where  the  mas$ebhah 
or  stone  symbol  of  deity  (forbidden  in  Deut.  xii.  3,  xvi.  22) 
is  in  some  way  got  rid  of  (in  Gen.  xxxiii.  20  the  word  "  altar  " 
in  Hebrew  is  substituted).  Similarly  in  Gen.  xiii.  18,  xiv.  13, 
xviii.  i,  the  Septuagint  shows  that  the  singular  form  "  tere- 
binth "  stood  in  the  original  text.  But  the  Massoretes  altered 
this  to  the  plural  as  this  form  was  less  suggestive  of  tree-worship 
(see  Smend,  A.Tliche  Religionsgesch.  i.  p.  134,  footnote  i; 
Nowack,  Heb.  Archaol.  p.  12,  footnote  i).  Many  other  examples 
might  be  cited,  as  the  "  suspended  nun  "  which  transforms 
the  pronunciation  of  the  original  Mosheh  (Moses)  into  Menashsheh 
(Manasseh)  owing  to  the  irregular  practices  of  his  descendant, 
Jonathan  ben  Gershom  (Jud.  xviii.  30).  It  is  not  improbable 
that  in  2  Kings  iii.  27  the  words  "  from  Kemosh  "  stood  after 
"  great  wrath  "  in  the  original  document,  as  the  phraseology 
seems  bald  without  them,  and  the  motives  for  their  suppression 
are  obvious. 

So  far  as  concerns  the  critical  problems  which  stand  at  the 
threshold  of  our  task,  it  must  suffice  to  say  that  the  main  con- 
clusions reached  by  the  school  of  Kuenen  and  Wellhausen  as 
to  the  literary  problems  of  the  Old  Testament  are  assumed 
throughout  this  sketch  of  the  evolution  of  Hebrew  religion. 
The  documents  underlying  the  Pentateuch  and  book  of  Joshua, 
represented  by  the  ciphers  J,  E,  D  and  P,  are  assumed  to  have 
been  drawn  up  in  the  chronological  order  in  which  those  ciphers 
are  here  set  down,  and  the  period  of  their  composition  extends 
from  the  9th  century  B.C.,  in  which  the  earlier  portions  of  J 
were  written,  to  the  5th  century  B.C.,  in  which  P  finally  took 
shape.  The  view  of  Professor  Dillmann,  who  placed  P  before 
D  in  the  regal  period  (though  he  admitted  exilic  and  post- 
exilic  additions  in  Exod.,  Levit.  and  Numb.),  a  view  which  he 


HEBREW  RELIGION 


177 


maintained  in  his  commentary  on  Genesis  (edition  of  1892),  has 
now  been  abandoned  by  nearly  all  scholars  of  repute.  In  the 
following  pages  we  shall  not  attempt  to  do  more  than  to  sketch 
in  very  succinct  outline  the  general  results  of  investigation  into 
the  origins  and  growth  of  Hebrew  religion. 

2.  Pre-Mosaic  Religion. — Can  any  clear  indications  be  found 
to  guide  us  as  to  the  religion  of  the  Hebrew  clans  before  the  time 
of  Moses?  That  Moses  united  the  scattered  tribes,  probably 
consisting  at  first  mainly  of  the  Josephite,  under  the  common 
worship  of  Yahweh,  and  that  upon  the  religion  of  Yahweh  a 
distinctly  ethical  character  was  impressed,is  generally  recognized. 
The  tradition  of  the  earliest  document  J  ascribes  the  worship  of 
Yahweh  to  much  earlier  times,  in  fact  to  the  dawn  of  human  life. 
A  close  survey  of  the  facts,  however,  would  lead  us  to  regard  it 
as  probable  that  some  at  least  of  the  Hebrew  clans  had  patron- 
deities  of  their  own. 

(a)  Both  Moab  and  Ammon  as  well  as  Edom  had  their  separate 
tribal  deities,  viz.  Chemosh  (Moab)  and  Milk  (Milcom),  the  god 
of  Ammon,  and  in  the  case  of  Edom  a  deity  known  from  the 
inscriptions  as  Kos  (in  Assyrian  Kaus).1    From  the  patriarchal 
narratives  and  genealogies  in  Genesis  we  infer  that  these  races 
were  closely  allied  to  Israel.    That  in  early  pre-Mosaic  times 
parallel  cults  existed  among  the  various  Hebrew  tribes  is  by 
no  means  improbable.    It  would  be  reasonable  to  assume  that 
Moab,  Ammon,  Edom  and  kindred  tribes  of  Israel  in  the  isth 
and  preceding  centuries  were  included  in  the  generic  term 
Habirl  (or  Hebrews)  mentioned  in  the  Tell  el-Amarna  inscriptions 
as  forming  predatory  bands  that  disturbed  the  security  of  the 
Canaanite  dwellers  west  of  the  Jordan.    Lastly  pre-Mosaic  poly- 
theism seems  to  be  impb'ed  in  the  Mosaic  prohibition  Ex.  xx. 
3,  xxii.  20. 

(b)  The  tribal  names  Gad  and  Asher  are  suggestive  of  the 
worship  of  a  deity  of  fortune  (Gad)  and  of  the  male  counterpart 
of  the  goddess,  Asherah.     Under  the  name  Shaddai  (which 
Noldeke  suggests2  was  originally  Shedi  "  my  demon  ")  it  is 
possible  to  discern  the  name  of  a  deity  who  in  later  times  came 
to  be  identified  with  Yahweh.    On  the  other  hand,  the  connexion 
of  the  name  Samson  with  sun-worship  throws  light  on  the  period 
of  the  Hebrew  settlement  in  Canaan  and  not  on  pre-Mosaic 
times.    Nor  is  it  possible  to  agree  with  Baudissin  (Studien  zur 
semit.     Religionsgcsch.  i.   55)   that  Elohim  as  a  plural  form 
for  the  name  of  the  Hebrew  deity  "  can  hardly  be  understood 
otherwise  than  as  a  comprehensive  expression  for  the  multitude 
of  gods  embraced  in  the  One  God  of  Old  Testament  religion," 
in  other  words  that  it  presupposes  an  original  polytheism.    For 
(i)  Elohim  is  also  applied  in  Judges  xi.  24  to  the  Moabite  Chemosh 
(Kemosh);  in  i  Sam.  v.  7  to  Dagon;  in  i  Kings  xi.  5  to  Ash- 
toreth;  in  2  Kings  i.  2,  iii.  6,  16  to  Ba'al  Zebul  of  Ekron.    (2) 
It  is  merely  a  plural  of  dignity  (pluralis  majestatis)  parallel  to 
adonim  (applied  to  a  king  in  i  Kings  xviii.  8,  whereas  in  the 
previous  verse  the  singular  form  adoni  is  applied  to  the  prophet 
Elijah).     (3)  The  Tell  el-Amarna  inscriptions  indicate  that  the 
term  Elohim  might  even  be  applied  in  abject  homage  to  an 
Egyptian  monarch  as  the  use  of  the  term  Hani  in  this  connexion 
obviously  implies.3 

The  religion  of  the  Arabian  tribes  in  the  days  of  Mahomet, 
of  which  a  picture  is  presented  to  us  by  Wellhausen  in  his 
Remains  of  Arabic  Heathendom,  furnishes  some  suggestive  indica- 
tions of  the  religion  that  prevailed  in  nomadic  Israel  before  as 
well  as  during  the  lifetime  of  Moses.  It  is  true  that  Arabian 
polytheism  in  the  time  of  Mahomet  was  in  a  state  of  decay. 
Nevertheless  the  life  of  ths  desert  changes  but  slowly.  We  may 
therefore  infer  that  ancient  Israel  during  the  period  when  they 

1  See  Bathgen,  Beitrage  zur  semit.  Religions gesch.  p.  1 1  (Edom) ; 
and  cf.  Schrader,  C.O.T.  i.  137;  K.A.T.  (3rd  ed.),  p.  472  foil.     See 
also  Beitrage,  pp.  13-15;  K.A.T.  (3rd  ed.),  pp.  469-472. 

2  Z.D.M.G.  (1886).     It  is  impossible  to  discuss  the  other  theories 
of  the  origin  of  this  name.     See  Driver,  Commentary  on  Genesis, 
excursus  i.  pp.  404-406. 

*  The  Tell  el-Amarna  despatches  are  crowded  with  evidences  of 
Canaanite  forms  and  idioms  impressed  on  the  Babylonian  language 
of  these  cuneiform  documents.  Ilani  here  simply  corresponds  to  the 
Canaanite  Elohim.  See  opening  of  the  letters  of  Abimelech  of  Tyre, 
Bezold's  Oriental  Diplomacy,  Nos.  28,  29,  30. 


inhabited  the  negebh  (S.  of  Canaan)  stood  in  awe  of  the  demons 
(Jinn)  of  the  desert,  just  as  the  Arabs  at  the  present  day  described 
in  Doughty's  Arabia  deserla.  We  know  that  diseases  were  attri- 
buted by  the  Israelites  to  malignant  demons  which  they,  like  the 
Arabs,  identified  with  serpents.  The  counterspell  took  the  form 
of  a  bronze  image  of  the  serpent-demon;  see  Frazer,  Golden 
Bough,  ii.  426  ;  and  i  Sam.  v.  6,  vi.  4,  5  (LXX.  and  Heb.)  as  well 
as  Buchanan  Gray's  instructive  note  in  Numbers,  p.  276.  The 
slaughter  of  a  lamb  at  the  Passover  or  Easter  season,  whose  blood 
was  smeared  on  the  door-post,  as  described  in  Ex.  xii.  21-23, 
probably  points  back  to  an  immemorial  custom.  In  this  case 
the  counterspell  assumed  a  different  form.  Westermarck  has 
shown  from  his  observations  in  Morocco  that  the  blood  of  the 
victim  was  considered  to  visit  a  curse  upon  the  object  to  whom 
the  sacrifice  is  offered  and  thereby  the  latter  is  made  amenable 
to  the  sacrificer.4  It  is  hardly  possible  to  doubt  that  in  the 
original  form  of  the  rite  described  in  Exodus  the  blood  offering 
was  made  to  the  plague  demon  ("  the  destroyer  ")  and  possessed 
over  him  a  magic  power  of  arrest. 

It  is  therefore  certain  that  belief  in  demons  and  magic  spells 
prevailed  in  pre-Mosaic  times 5  among  the  Israelite  clans.  And  it 
is  also  probable  that  certain  persons  combined  in  their  own 
individuality  the  functions  of  magician  and  sacrificer  as  well  as 
soothsayer.  For  we  know  that  in  Arabic  the  Kahin,  or  soothsayer, 
is  the  same  participial  form  that  we  meet  with  in  the  Hebrew 
Kohen,  or  priest,  and  in  the  early  period  of  Hebrew  history  (e.g. 
in  the  days  of  Saul  and  David)  it  was  the  priest  with  the  ephod 
or  image  of  Yahweh  who  gave  answers  to  those  who  consulted 
him.  How  far  totemism,  or  belief  in  deified  animal  ancestors, 
existed  in  prehistoric  Israel,  as  evidenced  by  the  tribal  names 
Simeon  (hyena,  wolf),  Caleb  (dog),  Hamor  (ass),  Rahel  (ewe) 
and  Leah  (wild  cow),  &c.,6  as  well  as  by  the  laws  respecting 
clean  and  unclean  animals,  is  too  intricate  and  speculative 
a  problem  to  be  discussed  here.  That  the  food-taboo  against 
eating  the  flesh  of  a  particular  animal  would  prevail  in  the 
clan  of  which  that  animal  was  the  deified  totem-ancestor  is 
obvious,  and  it  would  be  a  plausible  theory  to  hold  that  the 
laws  in  question  arose  when  the  Israelite  tribes  were  to  be  con- 
solidated into  a  national  unity  (i.e.  in  the  time  of  David  and 
Solomon),  but  the  application  of  this  theory  to  the  list  of  unclean 
foods  in  Deut.  xiv.  (Lev.  xi.)  seems  to  present  insuperable 
difficulties.  In  fact,  while  Robertson  Smith  (in  Kinsnip  and 
Marriage  in  Early  Arabia,  as  well  as  his  Religion  of  the  Semites, 
followed  by  Stade  and  Benzinger)  strongly  advocated  the  view 
that  clear  traces  of  totemism  can  be'found  in  early  Israel,  later 
"writers,  such  as  Marti,  Gesch.  der  israelit.  Religion,  4th  ed.,  p.  24, 
Kautzsch  in  his  Religion  of  Israel  already  cited,  p.  613,  and 
recently  Addis  in  his  Hebrew  Religion,  p.  33  foil.,  have  abandoned 
the  theory  as  applied  to  Israel.7  On  the  other  hand,  the  evidence 
for  the  existence  of  ancestor-worship  in  primitive  Israel  cannot 
be  so  easily  disposed  of  as  Kautzsch  (ibid.  p.  615)  appears  to 
think.  We  have  examples  (i  Sam.  xxviii.  13)  in  which  Elohim 
is  the  term  which  is  applied  to  departed  spirits.  Oracles  were 
received  from  them  (Isa.  viii.  19,  xxviii.  15,  18;  Deut.  xviii. 
10  foil.).  At  the  graves  of  national  heroes  or  ancestors  worship 
was  paid.  In  Gen.  xxxv.  20  we  read  that  a  ma^ebah  or  sacred 
pillar  was  erected  at  Rahel's  tomb.  That  the  Teraphlm,  which 
we  know  to  have  resembled  the  human  form  (i  Sam.  xix.  13, 16), 
were  ancestral  images  is  a  reasonable  theory.  That  they  were 
employed  in  divination  is  consonant  with  the  facts  already 
noted.  Lastly,  the  rite  of  circumcision  (q.v.),  which  the  Hebrews 
practised  in  common  with  their  Semitic  neighbours  as  well  as  the 
Egyptians,  belonged  to  ages  long  anterior  to  the  time  of  Moses. 
This  is  a  fact  which  has  long  been  recognized ;  cf .  Gen.  xvii.  10  foil., 

* "  Magic  and  Social  Relations "  in  Sociological  Papers,  ii. 
1 60. 

6  See  Kautzsch,  "  Religion  of  Israel,"  in  Hastings's  Diet,  of  the 
Bible,  extra  vol.,  p.  614. 

8  See  Benzinger,  Hebrdische  Archdologie,  pp.  152,  297  foil.  (1st  ed.). 

7  The  theory  was  opposed  by  Noldeke,  1886  (Z.D.M.G.  p.  157  foil.), 
as  well  as  Wellhausen,  and  since  then  by  Jacobs  and  Zapletal  (Der 
Totemismus  u.  die  Religion  Israels).    See  Stanley  A.  Cook,   "  Israel 
and  Totemism,"  in  J.Q.R.  (April,  1902). 


i78 


HEBREW  RELIGION 


Herod,  ii.  104,  and  Barton,  Semitic  Origins,  pp.  98-100.  Probably 
the  custom  was  of  African  origin,  and  came  from  eastern  Africa 
along  with  the  Semitic  race.  Respecting  Arabia,  see  Doughty, 
Arabia  deserta,  i.  340  foil. 

It  is  necessary  here  to  advert  to  a  subject  much  debated  during 
recent  years,  viz.  the  effects  of  Babylonian  culture  in  western 
Asia  on  Israel  and  Israel's  religion  in  early  times  even  preceding 
the  advent  of  Moses.  The  great  influence  exercised  by  Babylonian 
culture  over  Palestine  between  2000  and  1400  B.C.  (circa),  which 
has  been  clearly  revealed  to  us  since  1887  by  the  discovery  of  the 
Tell  el  Amarna  tablets,  is  now  universally  acknowledged.  The 
subsequent  discovery  of  a  document  written  in  Babylonian 
cuneiform  at  Lachish  (Tell  el  Hesy),  and  more  recently  still 
of  another  in  the  excavations  at  Ta'annek,  have  established 
the  fact  beyond  all  dispute.  The  last  discovery  had  tended  to 
confirm  the  views  of  Fried.  Delitzsch,  Jeremias  (Monotheistische 
Strijmungeri)  and  Baentsch,  that  monotheistic  tendencies  are 
to  be  found  in  the  midst  of  Babylonian  polytheism.  Page 
Renouf,  in  his  Hibbert  lectures,  Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion 
as  illustrated  by  that  of  Ancient  Egypt  (1879),  p.  89  foU.,  pointed 
out  this  monotheistic  tendency  in  Egyptian  religion,  as  did 
de  Rouge  before  him.  Baentsch  draws  attention  to  this  feature 
in  his  monograph  Altorientalischer  u.  israelitischer  Monotheismus 
(1906).  This  tendency,  however,  he,  unlike  the  earlier  conserva- 
tive writers,  rightly  considers  to  have  emerged  out  of  polytheism. 
He  ventures  into  a  more  disputable  region  when  he  penetrates 
into  the  obscure  realm  of  the  Abrahamic  migration  and  finds  in 
the  \brahamic  traditions  of  Genesis  the  higher  Canaanite  mono- 
theistic tendencies  evolved  out  of  Babylonian  astral  religion, 
and  reflected  in  the  name  El'Elyon  (Gen.  xiv.  18,  22).  Further 
discoveries  like  Sellin's  find  at  Ta'annek  may  elucidate  the 
problem.  See  Baudissin  in  Theolog.  lit.  Zeitung  (27th  October 
1906). 

3.  The  Era  of  Moses. — We  are  now  on  safer  ground  though 
still  obscure.  Moses  was  the  first  historic  individuality  who  can 
be  said  to  have  welded  the  Israelite  clans  into  a  whole.  This 
could  never  have  been  accomplished  without  unity  of  worship. 
The  object  of  this  worship  was  Yahweh.  As  we  have  already 
indicated,  the  document  J  assumes  that  Yahweh  was  worshipped 
by  the  Hebrew  race  from  the  first.  On  the  other  hand,  according 
to  P  (Ex.  vi.  2),  God  spake  to  Moses  and  said  to  him:  "  I  am 
Yahweh.  But  I  appeared  to  Abraham,  Isaac  and  Jacob  as  El 
Shaddai  and  by  my  name  Yah  well  I  did  not  make  myself  known  to 
them."  According  to  this  later  tradition  Yahweh  was  unknown 
till  the  days  of  Moses,  and  under  the  aegis  of  His  power  the 
Hebrew  tribes  were  delivered  from  Egyptian  thraldom.  The 
truth  probably  lies  somewhere  between  these  two  sharply  con- 
trasted traditions.  So  much  is  clear.  Yahweh  now  becomes  the 
supreme  deity  of  the  Hebrew  people,  and  an  ark  analogous  to  the 
Egyptian  and  Babylonian  arks  portrayed  on  the  monuments1 
was  constructed  as  embodiment  of  the  numen  of  Yahweh  and  was 
borne  in  front  of  the  Hebrew  army  when  it  marched  to  war.  It 
was  the  signal  victory  won  by  Moses  at  the  exodus  against  the 
Egyptians  and  in  the  subsequent  battle  at  Rephldlm  against 
'Amalek  (Ex.  xvii.)  that  consolidated  the  prestige  of  Yahweh, 
Israel's  war-god.  Indications  in  the  Old  Testament  itself  clearly 
point  to  the  celestial  or  atmospheric  character  of  the  Yahweh  of 
the  Hebrews.  The  supposition  that  the  name  originally  con- 
tained the  notion  of  permanent  or  eternal  being,  and  was  derived 
from  the  verbal  root  signifying  "  to  be,"  involves  too  abstract  a 
conception  to  be  probable,  though  it  is  based  on  Ex.  iii.  15  (E) 
representing  a  tradition  which  may  have  prevailed  in  the  8th 
century  B.C.  Kautzsch,  however,  supports  it  (Hastings's  D.B., 
extra  vol.  "  Rel.  of  Isr."  p.  625  foil.)  against  the  other  derivations 
proposed  by  recent  scholars  (see  JEHOVAH).  That  the  name  also 
prevailed  as  that  of  a  god  among  other  Semitic  races  (or  even 

1  These  sacred  arks  were  carried  in  procession  accompanied  by 
symbolic  figures.  We  note  in  this  connexion  the  form  of  a  sacred 
bark  represented  in  Meyer's  Hist,  of  Egypt  (Oncken  scries),  p.  257, 
viz._the  procession  carrying  the  sacred  ark  and  the  bark  of  the  god 
Amon  belonging  to  the  reign  of  Rameses  II.  (Lepsius,  Denkmaler,  iii. 
iSgb).  See  also  Birch,  Egypt  (S.P.C.K.),  p.  151  (ark  of  Khonsu) ;  cf. 
Jeremias,  Das  A.T.  im  Lichte  des  alien  Orients  (2nd  ed.),  pp.  436-441. 


non-Semitic)  is  rendered  certain  by  the  proper  names  Jau-bi'-di 
(  =  Ilu-bi'di)  of  Hamath  in  Sargon's  inscriptions,  Ahi-jawi  (mi) 
in  Sellin's  discovered  tablet  at  Ta'annek,  to  say  nothing  of  those 
which  have  been  found  in  the  documents  of  Khammurabi's  reign. 
It  has  generally  been  held  that  Stade's  supposition  has  much  to 
recommend  it,  that  it  was  derived  by  Moses  from  the  Kenites,  and 
should  be  connected  with  the  Sinai-Horeb  region.  The  name 
Sinai  suggests  moon-worship  and  the  moon-god  Sin;  and  it  also 
suggests  Babylonian  influence  (cf .  also  Mount  Nebo,  which  was  a 
place-name  both  in  Moab  and  in  Judah,  and  naturally  connects 
itself  with  the  name  of  the  Babylonian  deity).  Several  indica- 
tions favour  the  view  of  the  connexion  in  the  age  of  Moses  between 
the  Yahweh-cult  at  Sinai  and  the  moon-worship  of  Babylonian 
origin  to  which  the  name  Sinai  points  (Sin  being  the  Babylonian 
moon-god).  We  note  (a)  that  in  the  worship  of  Yahweh  the 
sacred  seasons  of  new  moon  and  Sabbath  are  obviously  lunar. 
Recent  investigations  have  even  been  held  to  disclose  the  fact 
that  the  Sabbath  coincided  originally,  i.e.  in  early  pre-exilian 
days,  with  the  full  moon.2  (b)  It  also  accords  with  the  name 
bestowed  on  Yahweh  as  "  Lord  of  Hosts  "  (s.ebddth)  or  stars, 
which  were  regarded  as  personified  beings  (Job  xxxviii.  7)  and 
attendants  on  the  celestial  Yahweh,  constituting  His  retinue 
(i  Kings  xxii.  19)  which  fought  on  high  while  the  earthly  armies 
of  Israel,  His  people,  contended  below  (Judges  v.  20).  . 

The  atmospheric  and  celestial  character  which  belonged  from 
the  first  to  the  Hebrew  conception  of  Yahweh  explains  to  us  the 
ease  with  which  the  idea  of  His  universal  sovereignty  arose, 
which  the  Yahwistic  creation  account  (belonging  to  the  earlier 
stratum  of  J,  Gen.  ii.  4^  foil.)  presupposes.  How  this  came  to  be 
overlaid  by  narrow  local  limitations  of  His  power  and  province 
will  be  shown  later.  It  is  probable  that  Moses  held  the  larger 
rather  than  the  narrower  conception  of  Yahweh's  sphere  of 
influence.  While  the  ark  carried  with  Israel's  host  symbolized 
His  presence  in  their  midst,  He  was  also  known  to  be  present  in 
the  cloud  which  hovered  before  the  host  and  in  the  lightning 
('esh  Yahweh  or  "  fire  of  Yahweh  ")  and  the  thunder  (kol  Yahweh 
or  "  voice  of  Yahweh  ")  which  played  around  Mount  Sinai. 
Moreover,  it  is  hardly  probable  that  a  great  leader  like  Moses 
remained  unaffected  by  the  higher  conceptions  tending  towards 
monotheism  which  prevailed  in  the  great  empires  on  the  Nile  and 
on  the  Euphrates.  In  Egypt  we  know  that  Amenophis  IV. 
came  under  this  monotheistic  movement,  and  attempted  to 
suppress  all  other  cults  except  that  of  the  sun-deity,  of  which  he 

2  Cf.  Zimmern  in  Z.D.M.G.  (1904),  pp.  199  foil.,  458  foil.  This 
view  is  based  on  Dr  Pinches's  discovered  list  in  which  Sapatti  is  called 
the  isth  day  (Proc.  of  the  Soc.  of  Biblical  Arch.,  p.  51  foil.).  See 
A.  Jeremias,  Das  A.  T.  im  Lichte  des  alien  Orients  (2nd  ed.),  pp.  182- 
187.  Marti,  in  his  stimulating  work  Religion  des  A.T.,  pp.  5,  72, 
advocates  the  exclusive  reference  of  the  word  Sabbath  to  the  full 
moon  until  the  time  of  Ezekiel  on  the  basis  of  Meinhold's  arguments 
in  Sabbat  u.  Woche  im  A.T.  The  latter  regards  Ezekiel  as  the 
organizer  of  the  Jewish  community  and  the  originator  of  the  sanctity 
of  the  Sabbath  as  a  seventh  day  (Ezek.  xlvi.  i ;  cf.  Ezek.  xx.  12,  13, 
16,  20,  24,  xxii.  8,  26,  xxiii.  38,  in  which  the  reproaches  for  the 
profanation  or  neglect  of  the  Sabbath  in  no  way  sustain  Meinhold's 
view).  In  opposition  to  Meinhold,  see  Lotz  in  P.R.E.  (3rd  ed.,  art. 
"  Sabbath,"  vol.  xvii.  pp.  286-289).  To  this  Meinhold  replies  in 
Z.A.T.W.  (1909),  p.  81  f.  Cf.  also  Hehn,  Siebenzahl  und  Sabbat. 
While  admitting  that  a  special  significance  may  have  been  attached 
in  pre-exilian  times  to  the  full-moon  Sabbath,  and  that  the  latter 
may  have  been  specially  intended  in  the  combination  "  new  moon 
and  Sabbath"  in  the  8th-century  prophets  (Hos.  ii.  13;  Amos 
viii.  5 ;  Lsa.  i.  13),  we  are  not  prepared  to  deny  that  the  institution  of 
a  seventh-day  Sabbath  was  an  ancient  pre-exilian  tradition.  The 
sacredness  of  the  number  seven  is  based  on  the  seven  planetary 
deities  to  whom  each  day  of  the  week  was  respectively  dedicated, 
i.e.  was  astral  in  origin.  Cf.  C.O.T.  i.  18  foil.,  and  Winckler, 
Religionsgeschichtlicher  u.  geschichtlicher  Orient,  p.  39.  See  also  K.A.T. 
(3rd  ed.),  pp.  620-626.  In  the  Old  Testament  the  sanctity  of  the 
number  seven  is  clearly  fundamental  (e.g.  in  the  Nif'al  form  nisba', 
"  to  swear,"  in  the  derivative  subst.  for  "  oath,"  in  Beer-sheba",  &c.). 
The  seventh  day  of  rest  was  parallel  to  the  seventh  year  of  release 
and  of  the  fallow  field.  It  is,  therefore,  impossible  to  detach  Ex. 
xxiii.  12  from  Ex.  xxi.  2,  xxiii.  10  foil.;  cf.  Ex.  xxxiv.  21.  We 
therefore  hold  that  the  law  of  the  seventh-day  Sabbath  goes  back 
to  the  Mosaic  age.  The  general  coincidence  of  the  Sabbath  or 
seventh  day  with  the  easily  recognized  first  quarter  and  full  moon 
established  its  sacred  character  as  lunar  as  well  as  planetary. 


HEBREW  RELIGION 


179 


was  a  devoted  worshipper.  We  also  know  that  between  2000 
and  1400  B.C.  the  Babylonian  language  as  well  as  Babylonian 
civilization  and  ideas  spread  over  Palestine  (as  the  Tell  el  Amarna 
tables  clearly  testify).  The  ancient  Babylonian  psalms  clearly 
reveal  that  the  highest  minds  were  moving  out  of  polytheism  to  a 
monotheistic  identification  of  various  deities  as  diverse  phases  of 
one  underlying  essence.  A  remarkable  Babylonian  tablet  dis- 
covered by  Dr  Pinches  represents  Marduk.  the  god  of  light,  as 
identified  in  his  person  with  all  the  chief  deities  of  Babylonia, 
who  are  evidently  regarded  as  his  varying  manifestations.1 

Through  the  influence  of  Mosaic  teaching  and  law  a  definitely 
ethical  character  was  ascribed  to  Yahweh.  It  was  His  "  finger  " 
that  wrote  the  brief  code  which  has  come  down  to  us  in  the 
decalogue.  At  first,  as  Erdmanns  suggests,  it  may  have  con- 
sisted of  only  seven  commands.  So  also  Kautzsch,  ibid.  p.  634. 
The  most  strongly  distinguishing  feature  of  the  code  is  the  rigid 
exclusion  of  the  worship  of  other  gods  than  Yahweh.  Moreover, 
the  definitely  ethical  character  of  the  religion  of  Yahweh  estab- 
lished by  Moses  is  exhibited  in  the  strict  exclusion  of  all  sexual 
impurity  in  His  worship.  Unlike  the  Canaanite  Baal,  Yahweh 
hasnofemale  consort,  and  this  remained  throughouta  distinguish- 
ing trait  of  the  original  and  unadulterated  Hebrew  religion  (see 
Bathgen,  Beitrdge,  p.  265).  Indeed,  Hebrew,  unlike  Assyrian 
or  Phoenician,  has  no  distinctive  form  for  "  goddess.-"  From 
first  to  last  the  true  religion  of  Yahweh  was  pure  of  sexual  taint. 
The  kedeshlm  and  kedeshoth,  the  male  and  female  priest  attend- 
ants in  the  Baal  and  'Ashtoreth  shrines  (cf.  the  kadishtu  of  the 
temples  of  the  Babylonian  Ishtar)  were  foreign  Canaanite 
elements  which  became  imported  into  Hebrew  worship  during 
the  period  of  the  Hebrew  settlement  in  Canaan. 

Lastly,  the  earliest  codes  of  Hebrew  legislation  (Ex.  xxi.- 
xxiii.)  bear  the  distinct  impress  of  the  high  ethical  character  of 
Yahweh's  requirements  originally  set  forth  by  Moses.  Of  this 
tradition  the  Naboth  incident  in  the  time  of  Ahab  furnishes  a 
clear  example  which  brings  to  light  the  contrast  between  the 
Tyrian  Baal-cult,  which  was  scarcely  ethical,  and  of  which 
Jezebel  and  Ahab  were  devotees,  and  the  moral  requirements  of 
the  religion  of  Yahweh  of  which  Elijah  was  the  prophet  and  im- 
passioned exponent.  It  was  this  definite  basis  of  ethical  Mosaic 
religion  to  which  the  prophets  of  the  8th  century  appealed,  and 
apart  from  which  their  denunciations  become  meaningless.  To 
this  early  standard  of  life  and  practice  Ephraim  was  faithless  in 
the  days  of  the  prophet  Hosea  (see  his  oracles  passim — especially 
chaps,  i.-iv.  and  xiv.),  and  Judah  in  the  time  of  Isaiah  turned  a 
deaf  ear  (Isa.  i.  2-4,  21). 

4.  Influence  of  Canaan. — The  entrance  of  Israel  into  Canaan 
marks  the  beginning  of  a  new  epoch  in  the  development  of 
Israel's  religious  life.  For  it  involved  a  transition  from  the  simple 
nomadic  relations  to  those  of  the  agricultural  and  more  highly 
civilized  Canaanite  life.  This  subject  has  been  recently  treated 
with  admirable  clearness  by  Marti  in  his  useful  treatise  Die 
Religion  des  A.T.  (1006),  pp.  25-41. 

It  is  in  the  festivals  of  the  annual  calendar  that  this  agricultural 
impress  is  most  fully  manifested.  To  the  original  nomadic 
Pesah  (Passover) — sacrifice  of  a  lamb — there  was  attached  a 
distinct  and  agricultural  festival  of  unleavened  cakes  (massoth) 
which  marks  the  beginning  of  the  corn  harvest  in  the  middle  of 
the  month  Abib  (the  name  of  which  points  to  its  Canaanite  and 

1  The  tablet  is  neo- Babylonian  and  published  by  Dr  Pinches  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Victoria  Institute,  and  is  cited  by  Professor  Fried. 
Delitzsch  in  the  notes  appended  to  his  first  lecture  Babel  u.  Bibel 
(5th  German  ed.,  p.  81  ad  fin.  and  p.  82).  On  this  subject  of  Baby- 
lonian influence  over  Israel  see  Jeremias,  Monotheistische  Stromungen 
innerhalb  der  babylonischen  Religion,  and  E.  Baentsch,  Altorienta- 
lischer  u.  israelitischer  Monotheismus.  The  text  and  rendering  of 
the  passage  are  doubtful  in  the  cuneiform  letter  discovered  by 
Sellin  in  Ta'annek  (biblical  Ta'anach,  near  Megiddo)  addressed  by 
Alji-jawi  (?  Aljijah)  to  Ishtar-wasur,  in  which  the  following  remark- 
able phrases  are  read:  "  May  the  Lord  of  the  gods  protect  thy  life. 
.  .  .  Above  thy  head  is  one  who  is  above  the  towns.  See  now 
whether  he  will  show  thee  good.  When  he  reveals  his  face,  then 
will  they  be  put  to  shame  and  the  victory  will  be  complete."  The 
letter  appears  to  belong  to  about  1400  B.C.  See  A.  Jeremias,  Das 
A.T.  int  Lichte  des  alien  Orients  (2nd  ed.),  pp.  315,  316,  323.  Sellin, 
Ertrag  der  Ausgrabungen  im  Orient. 


agricultural  origin).  The  close  of  the  corn-harvest  was  marked 
by  the  festival  Shabhuoth  (weeks)  or  Kd;ir  (harvest)  held  seven 
weeks  after  massoth.  The  last  and  most  characteristic 
festival  of  Canaanite  life  was  that  of  Asiph  or  "  ingathering  " 
which  after  the  Deuteronomic  reformation  (621  B.C.)  had  made 
a  single  sanctuary  and  therefore  a  considerable  journey  with  a 
longer  stay  necessary,  came  to  be  called  Succdth  or  booths. 
This  was  the  autumn  festival  held  at  the  close  of  September  or 
beginning  of  October.  It  marked  the  close  of  the  year's  agricul- 
tural operations  when  the  olives  and  grapes  had  been  gathered 
[Ex.  xxiii.  14-17  (E),  xxxiv.  18,  22,  23  (])];  see  FEASTS, 
PASSOVER,  PENTECOST  and  TABERNACLES.  Another  special 
characteristic  of  Israel's  religion  in  Canaan  was  the  considerable 
increase  of  sacrificial  offerings.  Animal  sacrifices  became  much 
more  frequent,  and  included  not  only  the  bloody  sacrifice 
(Zebah)  but  also  burnt  offerings  (kalil,  'olah)  whereby  the  whole 
animal  was  consumed  (see  SACRIFICE).  But  we  have  in  addition 
to  the  animal  sacrifices,  vegetable  offerings  of  meal,  oil  and  cakes 
(massoth,  ashlshah  and  kawwan,  which  last  is  specially  connected 
with  the  'Ashtoreth  cult:  Jer.  vii.  18,  xliv.  19),  as  well  as  the 
"  bread  of  the  Presence  "  (lehem  happanim),  i  Sam.  xxi.  6. 
Whether  the  primitive  rite  of  water-o/erings  (i  Sam.  vii.  6; 
2  Sam.  xxiii.  16)  belonged  to  early  nomadic  Israel  (as  seems 
probable)  it  is  not  possible  to  determine  with  any  certainty. 

Again,  the  conception  of  Yahweh  suffered  modification. 
In  the  desert  he  was  worshipped  as  an  atmospheric  deity,  who 
manifested  himself  in  thunder  and  lightning,  whose  abode  was 
in  the  sky,  whose  sanctuary  was  on  the  mountain  summit  of 
Horeb-Sinai,  and  whose  movable  palladium  was  the  ark  of  the 
covenant.  But  when  the  nomadic  clans  of  Israel  came  to  occupy 
the  settled  abodes  of  the  agricultural  Canaanites  who  had  a 
stake  in  the  soil  which  they  cultivated,  these  conditions  evidently 
reacted  on  their  religion.  Now  the  local  Baal  was  the  divine 
owner  of  the  fertile  spot  where  his  sanctuary  (qodesh)  was  marked 
by  the  upright  stone  pillar,  the  symbol  of  his  presence,  on  which 
the  blood  of  the  slaughtered  victim  was  smeared.  To  this  Baal 
the  productiveness  of  the  soil  was  due.  Consequently  it  was 
needful  to  secure  his  favour,  and  in  order  to  gain  this,  gifts  were 
made  to  him  by  the  local  resident  population  who  depended 
on  the  produce  of  the  land  (see  BAAL,  especially  ad  init.).  Now 
when  the  Hebrews  succeeded  to  these  agricultural  conditions 
and  acquired  possession  of  the  Canaanite  abodes,  they  naturally 
fell  into  the  same  cycle  of  religious  ideas  and  tradition.  Yahweh 
ceased  to  be  exclusively  regarded  as  god  of  the  atmosphere, 
worshipped  in  a  distant  mountain,  Horeb-Sinai,  situated  in  the 
south  country  (negebh)  ,and  moving  in  the  clouds  of  heaven  before 
the  Israelites  in  the  desert,  but  he  came  to  be  associated  with 
Israel's  life  in  Canaan.  He  manifested  His  presence  either  by  a 
signal  victory  over  Israel's  foes  (Josh.  x.  10,  n ;  i  Sam.  vii.  10-12) 
or  by  a  thunderstorm  (i  Sam.  xii.  18)  or  through  a  dream  (Gen. 
xxviii.  16  foil. ;  cf.  i  Kings  iii.  5  foil.)  at  a  sacred  spot  like  Bethel. 
Accordingly,  whenever  His  presence  and  power  were  displayed  in 
places  where  the  Canaanite  Baal  had  been  worshipped,  they  came 
to  be  attached  to  these  spots.  He  had  "  put  his  name,"  i.e. 
power  and  presence  (numen)  there,  and  the  same  festivals  and 
sacrifices  which  had  previously  been  devoted  to  the  cult  of 
the  Canaanite  Baal  were  now  annexed  to  the  service  of  Yahweh, 
the  war-god  of  the  conquering  race.  The  process  of  transference 
was  facilitated  by  two  potent  causes:  (a)  Both  Canaanite  and 
Hebrew  spoke  a  common  language;  (b)  the  name  Baal  is  not  in 
reality  an  individual  proper  name  like  Kemosh  (Chemosh), 
Ramman  or  Hadad,  but  is,  like  El  (Ilu  )"  god,"  an  appellative 
meaning  "  lord,"  "  owner  "  or  "  husband."  The  name  Baal 
might  therefore  be  used  for  any  deity  such  as  Milk  (Milcom) 
or  Shemesh  ("  sun  ")  who  was  the  divine  owner  of  the  spot. 
It  was  simply  a  covering  epithet,  and  like  the  word  "  god  " 
could  be  transferred  from  one  deity  to  another.  In  this  way 
Yahweh  came  to  be  called  the  Baal  or  "  lord  "  of  any  sacred 
place  where  the  armies  of  Israel  by  their  victories  attested 
"  his  mighty  hand  and  outstretched  arm."  (See  Kautzsch  in 
Hastings's  D.B.,  extra  vol.,  p.  645  foil.) 

Such  was  the  path  of  syncretism,  and  it  was  fraught  with 


i8o 


HEBREW  RELIGION 


peril  to  the  older  and  purer  faith.  For  when  Yahweh  gradually 
became  Israel's  local  Baal  he  became  worshipped  like  the  old 
Canaanite  deity,  and  all  the  sensuous  accompaniments  of 
Kedeshoth,1  as  well  as  the  presence  of  the  asherah  or  sacred 
pole,  became  attached  to  his  cult.  But  the  symbol  carried 
with  it  the  numen  of  the  goddess  symbolized,  and  there  can  be 
little  doubt  that  Asherah  came  to  be  regarded  as  Yahweh's 
consort.  In  the  days  of  Manasseh  syncretism  went  on  unchecked 
even  in  the  Jerusalem  temple  and  its  precincts,  and  it  was  not 
till  the  year  of  Josiah's  reformation  (621  B.C.)  that  the  Kedeshlm 
and  Kedeshoth  as  well  as  the  Asherah  were  banished  for  ever 
from  Yahweh's  sanctuary  (2  Kings  xxi.  7,  xxiii.  7),  which  their 
presence  had  profaned. 

Now  local  worship  means  the  differentiation  of  the  personality 
worshipped  in  the  varied  local  shrines,  in  other  words  Baalim 
or  Baals.  Just  as  we  have  in  Assyria  an  Ishtar  of  Arbela  and 
an  Ishtar  of  Nineveh  (treated  in  Assur-bani-pal's  (Rassam) 
cylinder2  like  two  distinct  deities),  as  we  have  local  Madonnas 
in  Roman  Catholic  countries,  so  must  it  have  been  with  the  cults 
of  Yahweh  in  the  regal  period  carried  on  in  the  numerous  high 
places,  Bethel,  Shechem,  Shiloh  (till  its  destruction  in  the 
days  of  EH)  and  Jerusalem.  Each  in  turn  claimed  that  Yahweh 
had  placed  his  name  (i.e.  personal  presence  and  power  or  numen) 
there.  Each  had  a  Yahweh  of  its  own. 

On  the  other  hand,  old  deities  still  lurked  in  old  spots  which 
had  been  for  centuries  their  abode.  It  was  no  easy  task  to 
establish  Yahweh  in  permanent  possession  of  the  new  lands 
conquered  by  the  Hebrew  settlers.  The  old  gods  were  not  to 
be  at  once  discrowned  of  might.  Of  this  we  have  a  vivid  example 
in  the  episode  2  Kings  xviii.  24-28.  The  inhabitants  of  Babylonia 
and  other  regions  whom  the  Assyrian  kings  had  settled  in 
Ephraim  after  721  B.C.  (cf.  Ezra  iv.  10)  are  described  as  suffering 
from  the  depredations  of  lions,  and  a  priest  from  the  deported 
Ephraimites  is  sent  to  them  to  teach  them  the  worshipof  Yahweh, 
the  god  of  the  land.  Similarly  in  the  earlier  pre-exilian  period 
of  Israel's  occupation  of  Canaanite  territory  the  Hebrews  were 
always  subject  to  this  tendency  to  worship  the  old  Baal  or 
'Ashtoreth  (the  goddess  who  made  the  cattle  and  flocks  prolific).3 
A  few  years  of  drought  or  of  bad  seasons  would  make  a  Hebrew 
settler  betake  himself  to  the  old  Canaanite  gods.  Even  in  the 
days  of  Hosea  the  rivalry  between  Yahweh  and  the  old  Canaanite 
Baal  still  continued.  The  prophet  reproaches  his  Ephraimite 
countrymen  for  going  after  their  "  lovers,"  the  old  local  Baals 
who  were  supposed  to  have  bestowed  on  them  the  bread,  water, 
wool,  flax  and  oil,  and  for  not  knowing  that  "  it  is  I  (Yahweh) 
who  have  bestowed  on  her  (i.e.  Israel)  the  corn,  the  new  wine 
and  the  oil,  and  have  bestowed  on  her  silver  and  gold  in  abund- 
ance which  they  have  wrought  into  a  Baal  image  "  (Hos.  ii.  10). 

External  danger  from  a  foreign  foe,  such  as  Midian  or  the 
Philistines,  at  once  brought  into  prominence  the  claim  and  power 
of  Yahweh,  Israel's  national  war-god  since  the  great  days  of 
the  exodus.  The  religion  of  Yahweh  (as  Wellhausen  said) 
meant  patriotism,  and  in  war-time  tended  to  weld  the  participat- 
ing tribes  into  a  national  unity.  The  book  of  Judges  with  its 
"  monotonous  tempo — religious  declension,  oppression,  repent- 
ance, peace,"  to  which  Wellhausen 4  refers  as  its  ever-recurring 
cycle,  makes  us  familiar  with  these  alternating  phases  of  action 
and  reaction.  Times  of  peace  meant  national  disintegration 
and  the  lapse  of  Israel  into  the  Canaanite  local  cults,  which  is 
interpreted  by  the  redactor  as  the  prophets  of  the  8th  century 
would  have  interpreted  it,  viz.  as  defection  from  Yahweh.  On 
the  other  hand,  times  of  war  against  a  foreign  foe  meant  on 
the  religious  side  the  unification,  partial  or  complete,  of  the 

1  The  allusion  in  Amos  ii.  7;  Hos.  iv.  13,  14  is  sufficiently  explicit; 
cf.  Jer.  ii.  20-23,  >"•  6-n,  v.  7,  8.  The  practice  is  prohibited  in 
Deut.  xxiii.  17. 

1  Column  i.  15,  16,  42,  43,  ii.  128,  iii.  30,  31,  iv.  47,  48,  &c. 
Probably  we  should  regard  them  as  differentiated  hypostases. 

*  Hence  the  'Ashtaroth  or  offspring  of  flocks  in  Deut.  vii.  13, 
xxviii.  18.  A  like  function  belonged  to  the  Babylonian  Ishtar. 
See  "  Descent  of  Ishtar  to  Hades,"  Rev.  lines  6-10,  where  universal 
non-intercourse  of  sexes  follows  Ishtar's  departure  from  earth  to 
Hades. 

4  Proleg.  Gesch.  Israels  (2nd  ed.),  p.  240  foil.,  cf .  p.  258. 


Israelite  tribes  by  the  rallying  cry  "  the  sword  of  Yahweh  " 
(Judges  vii.  20).  In  this  way  'Ophrah  became  the  centre  of 
the  coalition  under  Gideon  in  the  tribe  of  Manasseh.  Its  im- 
portance is  attested  by  Judges  viii.  22-28,  and  we  may  disregard 
the  "  snare "  which  the  Deuteronomic  writer  condemns  in 
accordance  with  the  later  canons  of  orthodoxy.  What  'Ophrah 
became  on  a  small  scale  in  the  days  of  Gideon,  Jerusalem  became 
on  a  larger  scale  in  the  days  of  David  and  his  successors.  It  was 
the  religious  expression  of  the  unity  of  Israel  which  the  life  and 
death  struggle  with  the  Philistines  had  gradually  wrought  out. 

Despite  the  capture  of  the  ark  after  the  disastrous  battle 
of  Shiloh,  Yahweh  had  in  the  end  shown  himself  through  a 
destructive  plague  superior  in  might  to  the  Philistine  Dagon. 
There  are  indeed  abundant  indications  that  prove  that  in  the 
prevalent  popular  religion  of  the  regal  period  monotheistic 
conceptions  had  no  place.  Yahweh  was  god  only  of  Israel  and 
of  Israel's  land.  An  invasion  of  foreign  territory  would  bring 
Israel  under  the  power  of  its  patron-deity.  The  wrath  with 
which  the  Israelite  armies  believed  themselves  to  be  visited 
(probably  an  outbreak  of  pestilence)  when  the  king  of  Moab 
was  reduced  to  his  last  extremity,  was  obviously  the  wrath  of 
Chemosh  the  god  of  Moab,  which  the  king's  sacrifice  of  his  only 
son  had  awakened  against  the  invading  army  (2  Kings  iii.  27). 
In  other. words,  the  ordinary  Israelite  worshipper  of  Yahweh 
was  at  this  time  far  removed  from  monotheism,  and  still  remained 
in  the  preliminary  stage  of  henotheism,  which  regarded  Yahweh 
as  sole  god  of  Israel  and  Israel's  land,  but  at  the  same  time 
recognized  the  existence  and  power  of  the  deities  of  other  lands 
and  peoples.  Of  this  we  have  recurring  examples  in  pre-exilian 
Hebrew  history.  See  i  Sam.  xxvi.  19;  Judges  xi.  23,  24; 
Ruth  i.  16. 

5.  Characteristics  and  Constituent  Elements. — It  is  only  possible 
here  to  refer  in  briefest  enumeration  to  the  material  and  external 
objects  and  forms  of  popular  Hebrew  religion.  These 
were  of  the  simplest  character.  The  upright  stone 
(or  massebah)  was  the  material  symbol  of  deity 
on  which  the  blood  of  sacrifice  was  smeared,  and  in  which  the 
numen  of  the  god  resided.  It  is  probable  that  in  some  primitive 
sanctuaries  no  real  distinction  was  made  between  this  stone- 
pillar  and  the  altar  or  place  where  the  animal  was  slaughtered. 
In  ordinary  pre-exilian  high  places  the  custom  described  in  the 
primitive  compend  of  laws  (Ex.  xx.  24)  would  be  observed. 
A  mound  of  earth  was  raised  which  would  serve  as  a  platform 
on  which  the  victim  would  be  slaughtered  in  the  presence  of 
the  concourse  of  spectators.  In  the  more  important  shrines, 
as  at  Jerusalem  or  Samaria,  there  would  be  an  altar  of  stone 
or  of  bronze.  Another  accompaniment  of  the  sanctuary  would 
be  the  sacred  tree — most  frequently  a  terebinth  (cf.  Judges  ix. 
37  "  terebinth  of  soothsayers  "),  or  it  might  be  a  palm  tree 
(cf.  "  palm  tree  of  Deborah  "  in  Judges  iv.  5),  or  a  tamarisk 
('eshel),  or  pomegranate(rww«on),as  at  the  high  place  in  Gibeah 
where  Saul  abode.  Moreover,  we  have  frequent'  references  to 
sacred  springs,  as  that  of  Beer-sheba,  '  Enharod  ('eyn-harod) 
(Judges  vii.  i;  cf.  also  Judges  19,  ' En-ha^ore  ['eyn-haqqore']). 
(On  this  subject  of  holy  trees,  holy  waters  and  holy  stones, 
consult  article  TREE- WORSHIP,  and  Robertson  Smith's  Religion 
of  the  Semites,  2nd  ed.,  pp.  165-197.) 

The  wide  prevalence  of  magic  and  soothsaying  may  be 
illustrated  from  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
as  well  as  from  the  pre-exilian  prophets.  The  latter  indeed 
tolerated  the  qosem  (soothsayer)  as  they  did  the  seer  (ro'eh). 
The  rhabdomancy  denounced  by  Hosea  (iv.  12)  was  associated 
with  idolatry  at  the  high  places.  But  the  arts  of  the  necromancer 
were  always  and  without  exception  treated  as  foreign  to  the 
religion  of  Yahweh.  The  necromancer  of  ba'al  'obh'  was  held 
to  be  possessed  of  the  spirit  who  spoke  through  him  with  a 
hollow  voice.  Indeed  both  necromancer  and  the  spirit  that 
possessed  him  were  sometimes  identified,  and  the  former  was 
simply  called  obh.  It  is  probable  that  necromancy,  like  the 
worship  of  Asherah  and  'Ashtoreth,  as  well  as  the  cult  of  graven 
images,  was  a  Canaanite  importation  into  Israel's  religious 
practices.  (See  Marti,  Religion  des  A.T.,  p.  32.) 


HEBREW  RELIGION 


181 


Priest- 
hood. 


The  history  of  the  rise  of  the  priesthood  in  Israel  is  exceedingly 
obscure.  In  the  nomadic  period  and  during  the  earlier  years  of 
the  settlement  of  Israel  in  Canaan  the  head  of  every 
family  could  offer  sacrifices.  In  the  primitive  codes, 
Ex.  xx.  22-xxiii.  19  (E),  xxxiv.  10-28  (J),  we  have 
no  allusion  to  any  separate  order  of  men  who  were  qualified  to 
offer  sacrifices.  In  Ex.  xxiv.  5  (E)  we  read  that  Moses  simply 
commissioned  young  men  to  offer  sacrifices.  On  the  other  hand 
the  addendum  to  the  book  of  Judges,  chaps,  xvii.,  xviii.  (which 
Budde,  Moore  and  other  critics  consider  to  belong  to  the  two 
sources  of  the  narratives  in  Judges,  viz.  J1  as  well  as  E),  makes 
reference  to  a  Levite  of  Bethlehem-Judah,  expressly  stated 
in  xvii.  7  as  belonging  to  a  clan  of  Judah.  This  man  Micah  took 
into  his  household  as  priest.  This  narrative  has  all  the  marks 
of  primitive  simplicity.  There  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that 
the  Levite  here  was  member  of  a  priestly  tribe  or  order,  and  this 
view  is  confirmed  by  the  discovery  of  what  is  really  the  same 
word  in  south  Arabian  inscriptions.2  The  narrative  is  of  some 
value  as  it  shows  that  while  it  was  possible  to  appoint  any  one 
as  a  priest,  since  Micah,  like  David,  appointed  one  of  his  own 
sons  (xvii.  5),  yet  a  special  priest-tribe  or  order  also  existed, 
and  Micah  considered  that  the  acquisition  of  one  of  its  members 
was  for  his  household  a  very  exceptional  advantage:  "  Now 

1  know  that  Yahweh  will  befriend  me  because  I  have  the  Levite 
as  priest."  3  In  other  words  a  priest  who  was  a  Levite  possessed 
a  superior  professional  qualification.     He  is  paid  ten  shekels 
per  annum,  together  with  his  food  and  clothing,  and  is  dignified 
by  the  appellation  "  father  "  (cf.  the  like  epithet  of  "  mother  " 
applied   to   the  prophetess   Deborah,   Judges   v.    7;   see   also 

2  Kings  ii.  12,  vi.  21,  xiii.  14).    This  same  narrative  dwells  upon 
the  graven  images,  ephod  and  teraphim,  as  forming  the  apparatus 
of  religious  ceremonial  in  Micah's  household.    Now  the  ephod 
and  teraphim  are  constantly  mentioned  together  (cf.  Hos.  iii.  4) 
and  were  used  in  divination.    The  former  was  the  plated  image 
of  Yahweh  (cf.  Judges  viii.  26,  27)  and  the  latter  were  ancestral 
images  (see  Marti,  op.  cit.  pp.   27,   29;  Harper,  Int.  Comm. 
"  Amos  and  Hosea,"  p.  222).    In  other  words  the  function  of 
the  priest  was  not  merely  sacrificial  (a  duty  which  Kautzsch 
unnecessarily  detaches  from  the  services  which  he  originally 
rendered),  nor  did  he  merely  bear  the  ark  of  the  covenant  and 
take  charge  of  God's  house;  but  he  was  also  and  mainly  (as  the 
Arabic  name  kahin  shows)  the  soothsayer  who  consulted  the  ephod 
and  gave  the  answers  required  on  the  field  of  battle  (see  i  Sam. 
and  2  Sam.  passim)  and  on  other  occasions.     This  is  clearly 
shown  in  the  "  blessing  of  Moses  "  (Deut.  xxxiii.  8),  where  the 
Levite  is  specially  associated  with  another  apparatus  of  inquiry, 
viz.  the  sacred  lots,  Urim  and  Thummim.    The  true  character 
of  Urim  (as  expressing  "  aye  ")  and  Thummim  (as  expressing 
"  nay  "  )  is  shown  by  the  reconstructed  text  of  i  Sam.  xiv.  41 
on  the  basts  of  the  Septuagint.    See  Driver  ad  loc. 

The  chief  and  most  salient  characteristic  of  the  worship  of 
the  high  places  was  geniality.    The  sacrifice  was  a  feast  of  social 
communion  between  the  deity  and  his  worshippers, 
and  knit  botn  deitv  and  clan-members  together  in 
ship.  the  bonds  of  a  close  fellowship.    This  genial  aspect 

of  Hebrew  worship  is  nowhere  depicted  more  graphic- 
ally than  in  the  old  narrative  (a  J  section  =  Budde's  G)  i  Sam. 
ix.  19-24,  where  a  day  of  sacrifice  in  the  high  place  is  described. 
Saul  and  his  attendant  are  invited  by  the  seer-priest  Samuel 
into  the  banqueting  chamber  (lishkah)  where  thirty  persons 
partake  of  the  sacrificial  meal.  It  was  the  'dsiph  or  festival 
of  ingathering,  when  the  agricultural  operations  were  brought 
to  a  close,  which  exhibited  these  genial  features  of  Canaanite- 
Hebrew  life  most  vividly.  References  to  them  abound  in  pre- 
exilian  literature:  Judges  xxi.  21  (cf.  ix.  27);  Amos  viii.  i  foil.; 
Hos.  ix.  i  foil.,  Jer.  xxxi.  4;  Isa.  xvi.  10  (Jer.  xlviii.  33). 
These  festivals  formed  the  veins  and  arteries  of  ancient  Hebrew 

1  Internal.  Crit.  Commentary,  Judges,  Introd.  p.  xxx.,  also  p.  367 
foil. 

2  m1?    "priest,"  nm1?   "priestess";    see   Hommel,   Sud-arabische 
Chrestomathie,  p.  127;  Ancient  Hebrew  Tradition,  p.  278  foil. 

3  Moore  regards  this  verse  as  belonging  to  the  J  or  older  document, 
op.  cit.  p.  367. 


clan  and  tribal  life.4  Wellhausen's  characterization  of  the 
Arabian  hajj&  applies  with  equal  force  to  the  Hebrew  hagg 
(festival) :  "  They  formed  the  rendezvous  of  ancient  life.  Here 
came  under  the  protection  of  the  peace  of  God  the  tribes  and 
clans  which  otherwise  lived  apart  from  one  another  and  only 
knew  peace  and  security  within  their  own  frontiers."  i  Sam. 
xx.  28  foil,  indicates  the  strong  claims  on  personal  attendance 
exercised  on  each  individual  member  by  the  local  clan  festival 
at  Bethlehem-Judah. 

It  is  easy  to  discern  from  varied  allusions  in  the  Old  Testament 
that  the  Canaanite  impress  of  sensuous  life  clung  to  the  autumnal 
vintage  festivals.  They  became  orgiastic  in  character  and 
scenes  of  drunkenness,  cf.  Judges  ix.  27;  i  Sam.  14-16;  Isa. 
xxviii.  7,  8.  Against  this  tendency  the  Nazirite  order  and 
tradition  was  a  protest.  Cf.  Amos  ii.  n  foil.;  Judges  xiii.  7,  14. 
As  certain  sanctuaries,  Shiloh,  Shechem,  Bethel,  &c.,  grew  in 
importance,  the  priesthoods  that  officiated  at  them  would  acquire 
special  prestige.  Eli,  the  head  priest  at  Shiloh  in  the  early  youth 
of  Samuel,  held  an  important  position  in  what  was  then  the 
chief  religious  and  political  centre  of  Ephraim;  and  the  office 
passed  by  inheritance  to  the  sons  in  ordinary  cases.  In  the  regal 
period  the  royal  residence  gave  the  priesthood  of  that  place  an 
exceptional  position.  Thus  Zadok,  who  obtained  the  priestly 
office  at  Jerusalem  in  the  reign  of  Solomon  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  sons,  was  regarded  in  later  days  as  the  founder  of  the  true 
and  legitimate  succession  of  the  priesthood  descended  from  Levi 
(Ezek.  xl.  46,  xliii.  19,  xliv.  15;  cf.  i  Kings  ii.  27,  35).  His 
descent,  however,  from  Eleazar,  the  elder  brother  of  Aaron, 
can  only  be  regarded  as  the  later  artificial  construction  of  the 
post-exilian  chronicler  (i  Chron.  vi.  4-15,  50-53,  xxiv.  i  foil.), 
who  was  controlled  by  the  traditions  which  prevailed  in  the  4th 
century  B.C.  and  after. 

6.  The  Prophets. — The  rise  of  the  order  of  prophets,  who 
gradually  emerged  out  of  and  became  distinct  from  the  old 
Hebrew  "  seer  "  or  augur  (i  Sam.  ix.  g),6  marks  a  new  epoch 
in  the  religious  development  of  the  Hebrews.  Over  the  successive 
stages  of  this  growth  we  pass  lightly  (see  PROPHET).  The  life- 
and-death  struggle  between  Israel  and  the  Philistines  in  the  reign 
of  Saul  called  forth  under  Samuel's  leadership  a  new  order  of 
"  men  of  God,"  who  were  called  "  prophets  "  or  divinely  inspired 
speakers.7  These  men  were  distributed  in  various  settlements, 
and  their  exercises  were  usually  of  an  ecstatic  character.  The 
closest  modern  analogy  would  be  the  orders  of  dervishes  in 
Islam.  Probably  there  was  little  externally  to  distinguish  the 
prophet  of  Yahweh  in  the  days  of  Samuel  from  the  Canaanite- 
Phoenician  prophets  of  Baal  and  Asherah  (i  Kings  xviii.  19,  26, 
28),  for  the  practices  of  both  were  ecstatic  and  orgiastic  (cf. 
i  Sam.  x.  5  foil.,  xviii.  10,  xix.  23  foil.).  The  special  quality  which 
distinguished  these  prophetic  gilds  or  companies  was  an  intense 
patriotism  combined  with  enthusiastic  devotion  to  the  cause 
of  Yahweh.  This  necessarily  involved  in  that  primitive  age  an 
extreme  jealousy  of  foreign  importations  or  innovations  in 
ritual.  It  is  obvious  from  numerous  passages  that  these  pro- 
phetic gilds  recognized  the  superior  position  and  leadership  of 
Samuel,  or  of  any  other  distinguished  prophet  such  as  Elijah 
or  Elisha.  Thus  i  Sam.  xix.  20,  23  et  seq.  show  that  Samuel 
was  regarded  as  head  of  the  prophetic  settlement  at  Naioth. 
With  reference  to  Elijah  and  Elisha,  see  2  Kings  ii.  3,  5,  15, 
iv.  i,  38  et  seq.,  vi.  i  et  seq.  There  cannot  be  any  doubt  that 

4  Similarly  in  ancient  Greece.  See  the  instructive  passage  in 
Aristotle,  Nic.  Eth.  viii.  q  (4,  5),  on  the  relation  of  Greek  sacrifices 
and  festivals  to  Koivwvlai  and  politics:  oj  yap  dpxeuat  Ovalat  xal 
(Hivo&oi  <t>alvovr(u  ylyvfoOai  /j«-d  rds  TUT  Kapruv  <rvynt>ni5as  olov  drapxai ; 
cf.  Grote  on  Pan-Hellenic  festivals,  History  of  Greece,  vol.  iiij  ch. 
28. 

6  Wellhausen,  Reste  arabischtn  Heidentums  (2nd  ed.),  p.  89. 

'  Though  this  be  an  interpolated  gloss  (Thenius,  Budde),  it  states 
a  significant  truth  as  Kautzsch  clearly  shows,  op.  cit.  p.  672.  _In 
Micah  iii.  7  the  fyozeh  is  mentioned  in  a  sense  analogous  totnero'eft 
or  "  seer,"  and  coupled  with  the  qosem  or  "  soothsayer,"  viz.  as 
spurious;  cf.  Deut.  xviii.  10. 

7  No    better    derivation    is    forthcoming    of    the    word    nabhi , 
"  prophet,"  than  that  it  is  a  Ka^fl  form  of  the  root  ndM  =  Assyr. 
nabii,  "  speak." 


182 


HEBREW  RELIGION 


such  enthusiastic  devotees  of  Yahweh,  in  days  when  religion 
meant  patriotism,  did  much  to  keep  alive  the  flame  of  Israel's 
hope  and  courage  in  the  dark  period  of  national  disaster.  It  is 
significant  that  Saul  in  his  last  unavailing  struggle  against  the 
overwhelming  forces  of  the  Philistines  sought  through  the  medium 
of  a  sorceress  for  an  interview  with  the  deceased  prophet  Samuel. 
It  was  the  advice  of  Elisha  that  rescued  the  armies  of  Jehoram 
and  Jehoshaphat  in  their  war  against  Moab  when  they  were 
involved  in  the  waterless  wastes  that  surrounded  them  (2  Kings 
iii.  14  foil.).  We  again  find  Elisha  intervening  with  effect  on 
behalf  of  Israel  in  the  wars  against  Syria,  so  that  his  fame  spread 
to  Syria  itself  (2  Kings  v.-viii.  7  foil.).  Lastly  it  was  the  fiery 
counsels  of  the  dying  prophet,  accompanied  by  the  acted  magic 
of  the  arrow  shot  through  the  open  window,  and  also  of  the 
thrice  smitten  floor,  that  gave  nerve  and  courage  to  Joash,  king 
of  Israel,  when  the  armies  of  Syria  pressed  heavily  on  the  northern 
kingdom  (2  Kings  xiii.  14-19). 

We  see  that  the  prophet  had  now  definitely  emerged  from  the 
old  position  of  "  seer."  Prophetic  personality  now  moved  in  a 
larger  sphere  than  that  of  divination,  important  though  that 
function  be  in  the  social  life  of  the  ancient  state1  as  instrumental 
in  declaring  the  will  of  the  deity  when  any  enterprise  was  on 
foot.  For  the  prophet's  function  became  in  an  increasing  degree 
a  function  of  mind,  and  not  merely  of  traditional  routine  or 
mechanical  technique,  like  that  of  the  diviner  with  his  arrows 
or  his  lots  which  he  cast  in  the  presence  of  the  ephod  or  plated 
Yahweh  image.  The  new  name  nabhi'  became  necessary  to 
express  this  function  of  more  exalted  significance,  in  which  human 
personality  played  its  larger  role.  Even  as  early  as  the  time  of 
David  it  would  seem  that  Nathan  assumed  this  more  developed 
function  as  interpreter  of  Yahweh's  righteous  will  to  David. 
But  both  in  2  Sam.  xii.  1-15  as  well  as  in  2  Sam.  vii.  we  have 
sections  which  are  evidently  coloured  by  the  conceptions  of  a 
later  time.  We  stand  on  safer  ground  when  we  come  to  Elijah's 
bold  intervention  on  behalf  of  righteousness  when  he  declared 
in  the  name  of  Yahweh  the  divine  judgment  on  Ahab  and  his 
house  for  the  judicial  murder  of  Naboth.  We  here  observe  a 
great  advance  in  the  vocation  of  the  prophet.  He  becomes  the 
interpreter  and  vindicator  of  divine  justice,  the  vocal  exponent 
of  a  nation's  conscience.  For  Elijah  was  in  this  case  obviously 
no  originator  or  innovator.  He  represents  the  old  ethical 
Mosaism,  which  had  not  disappeared  from  the  national  con- 
sciousness, but  still  remained  as  the  moral  pre-supposition  on 
which  the  prophets  of  the  following  century  based  their  appeals 
and  denunciations.  It  is  highly  significant  that  Elijah,  when 
driven  from  the  northern  kingdom  by  the  threats  of  the  Tyrian 
Jezebel,  retreats  to  the  old  sanctuary  at  Horeb,  whence  Moses 
derived  his  inspiration  and  his  Torah. 

We  have  hitherto  dealt  with  isolated  examples  of  prophetism 
and  its  rare  and  distinguished  personalities.  The  ordinary 
Hebrew  nabhi'  still  remained  not  the  reflective  visionary,  stirred 
at  times  by  music  into  strange  raptures  (2  Kings  iii.  15),  but  the 
ecstatic  and  orgiastic  dervish  who  was  meshuggah  or  "  frenzied," 
a  term  which  was  constantly  applied  to  him  from  the  days  of 
Elisha  to  those  of  Jeremiah  (2  Kings  ix.  n;  in  Hos.  ix.  7  and 
Jer.  xxix.  26  it  is  regarded  as  a  term  of  reproach).  It  is  only  in 
rare  instances  that  some  exalted  personality  is  raised  to  a  higher 
level.  Of  this  we  have  an  interesting  example  in  the  vivid 
episode  that  preceded  the  battle  of  Ramoth-Gilead  described 
in  i  Kings  xxii.,  when  Micaiah  appears  as  the  true  prophet  of 
Yahweh,  who  in  his  rare  independence  stands  in  sharp  contrast 
with  the  conventional  court  prophets,  who  prophesied  then,  as 
their  descendants  prophesied  more  than  two  centuries  later, 
smooth  things. 

It  is  not,  however,  till  the  8th  ceijtury  that  prophecy  attained 
its  highest  level  as  the  interpreter  of  God's  ways  to  men.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  for  the  first  time  unfolded  the  true 
character  of  Yahweh,  implicit  in  the  old  Mosaic  religion  and 
submerged  in  the  subsequent  centuries  of  Israel's  life  in  Canaan, 
but  now  at  length  made  clear  and  explicit  to  the  mind  of  the 

1  In  Isa.  iii.  2  the  soothsayer  is  placed  on  a  level  with  the  judge, 
prophet  and  elder. 


nation.  It  became  now  detached  from  the  limitations  of  nation- 
alism and  local  association  with  which  it  had  been  hitherto 
circumscribed. 

Even  Elisha,  the  greatest  prophet  of  the  gth  century,  had 
remained  within  these  national  limitations  which  characterized 
the  popular  conceptions  of  Yahweh.  Yahweh  was  Israel's  war- 
god.  His  power  was  asserted  in  and  from  Canaanite  soil.  If 
Naaman  was  to  be  healed,  it  could  only  be  in  a  Palestinian  river, 
and  two  mules'  load  of  earth  would  be  the  only  permanent 
guarantee  of  Yahweh's  effective  blessing  on  the  Syrian  general 
in  his  Syrian  home. 

That  larger  conceptions  prevailed  in  some  of  the  loftier  minds 
of  Israel,  and  may  be  held  to  have  existed  even  as  far  back  as 
the  age  of  Moses,  is  a  fact  which  the  Yahwistic  cosmogony  in 
Gen.  ii.  46-9  (which  may  have  been  composed  in  the  9th  century 
B.C.)  clearly  suggests,  and  it  is  strongly  sustained  by  the  over- 
whelming evidence  of  the  powerful  influence  of  Babylonian 
culture  in  the  Palestinian  region  during  the  centuries  2000- 
1400  B.C.2  Probably  in  our  modern  construction  of  ancient 
Hebrew  history  sufficient  consideration  has  not  been  given  to  the 
inevitable  coexistence  of  different  types  and  planes  of  thought, 
each  evolved  from  earlier  and  more  primordial  forms.  In  other 
words  we  have  to  deal  not  with  one  evolution  but  with 
evolutions. 

The  existence  of  the  purer  and  larger  conception  of  Yahweh's 
character  and  power  before  the  advent  of  Amos  indicates  that 
the  transition  from  the  past  was  not  so  sudden  as  Wellhausen's 
graphic  portrayal  in  the  gth  edition  of  this  Encyclopaedia  (art. 
ISRAEL)  would  have  led  us  to  suppose.  There  were  pre-existent 
ideas  upon  which  that  prophet's  epoch-making  message  was 
based.  Yet  this  consideration  should  in  no  way  obscure  the  fact 
that  the  prophet  lived  and  worked  in  the  all-pervading  atmosphere 
of  the  popular  syncretic  Yahweh  religion,  intensely  national 
and  local  in  its  character.  In  Wellhausen's  words,  each  petty 
state  "  revolved  on  its  own  axis  "  of  social-religious  life  till  the 
armies  of  Tiglath-Pileser  III.  broke  up  the  security  within  the 
Canaanite  borders.  According  to  the  dominating  popular 
conception,  the  destruction  of  the  national  power  by  a  foreign 
army  meant  the  overthrow  of  the  prestige  of  the  national  deity 
by  the  foreign  nation's  god.  If  Assyria  finally  overthrew  Israel 
and  carried  off  Yahweh's  shrine,  Assur  (Asur),  the  tutelary 
deity  of  Assyria,  was  mightier  than  Yahweh.  This  was  precisely 
what  was  happening  among  the  northern  states,  and  Amos 
foresaw  that  this  might  eventually  be  Israel's  doom.  Rabshakeh's 
appeal  to  the  besieged  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  was  based  on 
these  same  considerations.  He  argued  from  past  history  that 

2  Kautzsch,  in  his  profoundly  learned  article  on  the  "  Religion 
of  Israel,"  to  which  frequent  reference  has  been  made,  exhibits  (pp. 
669-671)  an  excess  of  scepticism,  in  our  opinion,  towards  the  views 
propounded  by  Gunkel  in  1895  (Schopfung  und  Chaos)  respecting 
the  intimate  connexion  between  the  early  Hebrew  cosmogonic  ideas 
and  those  of  Babylonia.  Stade  indeed  (Z.A.T.W.,  1903,  pp.  176- 
178)  maintained  that  the  conception  of  Yahweh  as  creator  of  the 
world  could  not  have  arisen  till  after  the  middle  of  the  8th  century 
as  the  result  of  prophetic  teaching,  and  that  it  was  not  till  the  time 
of  Ezekiel  that  Babylonian  conceptions  entered  the  world  of  Hebrew 
thought  in  any  fulness.  Such  a  theory  appears  to  ignore  the  remark- 
able results  of  archaeology  since  1887.  At  that  time  Stade's  position 
might  have  appeared  reasonable.  It  was  the  conclusion  to  which 
Wellhausen's  brilliant  literary  analysis,  when  not  supplemented 
by  the  discoveries  at  Tell  el-Amarna  and  Tell  el-Hesi,  appeared  to 
many  scholars  (by  no  means  all)  inevitably  to  conduct  us.  But  the 
years  1887  to  1891  opened  many  eyes  to  the  fact  that  the  Hebrews 
lived  their  life  on  the  great  highways  of  intercourse  between  Egypt 
on  the  one  hand,  and  Babylonia,  Assyria  and  the  N.  Palestinian 
states  on  the  other,  and  that  they  could  scarcely  have  escaped  the 
all-pervading  Babylonian  influences  of  2000-1400  B.C.  It  is  now 
becoming  clearer  every  day,  especially  since  the  discovery  of  the 
laws  of  Khammurabi,  that,  if  we  are  to  think  sanely  about  Hebrew 
history  before  as  well  as  after  the  exile,  we  can  only  think  of  Israel 
as  part  of  the  great  complex  of  Semitic  and  especially  Canaanite 
humanity  that  lived  its  life  in  western  Asia  between  2000  and  600 
B.C.;  and  that  while  the  Hebrew  race  maintained  by  the  aid  of 
prophetism  its  own  individual  and  exalted  place,  it  was  not  less 
susceptible  then,  than  it  has  been  since,  to  the  moulding  influences  of 
great  adjacent  civilizations  and  ideas.  Cf.  C.  H.  W.  Johns  in  Inter- 
preter, pp.  300-304  (in  April  1906),  on  prophetism  in  Babylonia. 


HEBREW  RELIGION 


183 


Yahweh  would  be  powerless  in  the  presence  of  Ashur  (2  Kings 
xviii.  33-35)- 

This  problem  of  religion  was  solved  by  Amos  and  by  the 
prophets  who  succeeded  him  through  a  more  exalted  conception 
of  Yahweh  and  His  sphere  of  working,  which  tended  to  detach 
Him  from  His  limited  realm  as  a  national  deity.  Amos  exhibited 
Him  to  his  countrymen  as  lord  of  the  universe,  who  made  the 
seven  stars  and  Orion  and  turns  the  deep  midnight  darkness  into 
morning.  He  calls  to  the  waters  of  the  sea  and  pours  them  on 
the  earth's  surface  (chap.  v.  8).  Such  a  universal  God  of  the 
world  would  hardly  make  Israel  His  exclusive  concern.  Thus 
He  not  only  brought  the  Israelites  out  of  Egypt,  but  also  the 
Philistines  from  Caphtor  and  the  Syrians  from  Kir  (ix.  7).  But 
Amos  went  beyond  this.  Yahweh  was  not  only  the  lord  of  the 
universe  and  possessed  of  sovereign  power.  The  prophet  also 
emphasized  with  passionate  earnestness  that  Yahweh  was  a  God 
whose  character  was  righteous,  and  God's  demand  upon  His 
people  Israel  was  not  for  sacrifices  but  for  righteous  conduct. 
Sacrifice,  as  this  prophet,  like  his  successor  Jeremiah,  insisted 
(Amos  v.  25;  cf.  Jer.  vii.  22)  played  no  part  in  Mosaic  religion. 
In  words  which  evidently  impressed  his  younger  contemporary 
Isaiah  (cf.  esp.  Is.  chap.  i.  11-17),  Amos  denounced  the  non- 
ethical  ceremonial  formalism  of  his  countrymen  which  then 
prevailed  (chap.  v.  21  foil.): — 

"  I  hate,  I  contemn  your  festivals  and  in  your  feasts  I  delight  not; 
for  when  you  offer  me  your  burnt-offerings  and  gifts,  I  do  not  regard 
them  with  favour  and  your  fatted  peace-offerings  I  will  not  look  at. 
Take  away  from  me  the  clamour  of  your  songs;  and  the  music  of 
your  viols  I  will  not  hear.  But  let  judgment  roll  down  like  waters 
and  justice  like  a  perennial  brook." 

In  the  younger  contemporary  prophet  of  Ephraim,  Hosea, 
the  stress  is  laid  on  the  relation  of  love  (hesed)  between  Yahweh, 
the  divine  husband,  and  Israel,  the  faithless  spouse.  Israel's 
faithlessness  is  shown  in  idolatry  and  the  prevailing  corruption 
of  the  high  places  in  which  the  old  Canaanite  Baal  was  worshipped 
instead  of  Yahweh.  It  is  shown,  moreover,  in  foreign  alliances. 
Compacts  with  a  powerful  foreign  state,  under  whose  aegis 
Israel  was  glad  to  shelter,  involved  covenants  sealed  by  sacrificial 
rites  in  which  the  deity  or  deities  of  the  foreign  state  were  involved 
as  well  as  Yahweh,  the  god  of  the  weaker  vassal-state.  And  so 
Yahweh's  honour  was  compromised.  While  these  aspects  of 
Israel's  relation  to  Yahweh  are  emphasized  by  the  Ephraimite 
prophet,  the  larger  conceptions  of  Yahweh's  character  as  universal 
Lord  and  the  God  of  righteousness,  whose  government  of  the 
world  is  ethical,  emphasized  by  the  prophet  of  Tekoah,  are 
scarcely  presented. 

In  Isaiah  both  aspects — divine  universal  sovereignty  and 
justice,  taught  by  Amos,  and  divine  loving-kindness  to  Israel 
and  God's  claims  on  His  people's  allegiance,  taught  by  Hosea — 
are  fully  expressed.  Yahweh's  relation  of  love  to  Israel  is 
exhibited  under  the  purer  symbol  of  fatherhood  (Isa.  i.  2-4),  a 
conception  which  was  as  ancient  and  familiar  as  that  of  husband, 
though  perhaps  the  latter  recurs  more  frequently  in  prophecy 
(Isa.  i.  21 ;  Ezek.  xvi.  &c.).  Even  more  insistently  does  Isaiah 
present  the  great  truth  of  God's  universal  sovereignty.  As  with 
his  elder  contemporary,  the  foreign  peoples — (but  in  Isaiah's 
oracles  Assyria  and  Egypt  as  well  as  the  Palestinian  races) — 
come  within  his  survey.  The ' '  fullness  of  the  earth  "  is  Yahweh 's 
glory  (vi.  3)  and  the  nations  of  the  earth  are  the  instruments  of  His 
irresistible  and  righteous  will.  Assyria  is  the  "  bee  "  and  Egypt 
the  "  fly  "  for  which  Yahweh  hisses.  Assyria  is  the  "  hired  razor  " 
(Isa.  vii.  18,  19),  or  the  "  rod  of  His  wrath,"  for  the  chastise- 
ment of  Israel  (x.  5).  But  the  instrument  unduly  exalts  itself, 
and  Assyria  itself  shall  suffer  humiliation  at  the  hands  of  the 
world's  divine  sovereign  (x.  7-15). 

And  so  the  old  limitations  of  Israel's  popular  religion, — the 
same  limitations  that  encumbered  also  the  religions  of  all  the 
neighbouring  races  that  succumbed  in  turn  to  Assyria's  in- 
vincible progress, — now  began  to  disappear.  Therefore,  while 
every  other  religion  which  was  purely  national  was  extinguished 
in  the  nation's  overthrow,  the  religion  of  Israel  survived  even 
amid  exile  and  dispersion.  For  Amos  and  Isaiah  were  able  to 


single  out  those  loftier  spiritual  and  ethical  elements  which  lay 
implicit  in  Mosaism  and  to  lift  them  into  their  due  place  of 
prominence.  National  sacra  and  the  ceremonial  requirements 
were  made  to  assume  a  secondary  r61e  or  were  even  ignored.1 
The  centre  of  gravity  in  Hebrew  religion  was  shifted  from 
ceremonial  observance  and  local  sacra  to  righteous  conduct. 
Religion  and  righteousness  were  henceforth  welded  into  an 
indissoluble  whole.  The  religion  of  Yahweh  was  no  longer  to 
rest  upon  the  narrow  perishable  basis  of  locality  and  national 
sacra,  but  on  the  broad  adamantine  foundations  of  a  universal 
divine  sovereignty  over  all  mankind  and  of  righteousness  as 
the  essential  element  in  the  character  of  Yahweh  and  in  his 
claims  on  man.  This  was  the  "  corner-stone  of  precious  solid 
foundation  ":  "I  will  make  judgment  the  measuring-line  and 
righteousness  the  plummet  "  (Isa.xxviii.  16, 17).  The  religion  of 
the  Hebrew  race — properly  the  Jews — now  enters  on  a  new 
stage,  for  it  should  be  observed  that  it  was  Amos,  Isaiah  and 
Micah — prophets  of  Judah — who  laid  the  actual  foundations. 
The  latter  half  of  the  8th  century,  which  witnessed  a  rapid 
succession  of  reigns  in  the  northern  kingdom  accompanied  by 
dismemberment  of  its  territory  and  final  overthrow,  witnessed 
also  the  humiliating  vassalage  and  religious  decline  of  the  kingdom 
of  Judah.  Unlike  Amos  and  Micah,  Isaiah  was  not  only  the 
prophet  of  denunciation  but  also  the  prophet  of  hope.  Though 
Yahweh's  chastisements  on  Ephraim  and  Judah  would  continue 
to  fall  till  scarcely  a  remnant  was  left  (Isa.  vi.  13,  LXX.),  yet  all 
was  not  to  be  lost.  A  remnant  of  the  people  was  to  return,  i.e. 
bs  converted  to  Yahweh.  The  name  given  to  an  infant  child — 
Immanuel — was  to  become  the  mystic  symbol  of  a  growing  hope. 
God's  presence  was  to  abide  in  Jerusalem,  and,  as  the  century 
drew  near  its  close,  "  Immanuel  "  became  the  watchword  and 
talisman  of  a  strong  faith  that  God  would  never  permit  Jerusalem 
to  be  captured  by  the  Assyrians.  In  fact  it  is  not  improbable 
that  the  words  of  consolation  uttered  by  the  prophet  (Isa.  viii. 
9-10)  in  the  dark  days  of  Ahaz  (735-734  B.C.)  were  among  the 
oracles  which  God  commanded  Isaiah  "  to  seal  up  among  his 
disciples  "  (verse  16),  and  that  they  were  quoted  once  more  with 
effect  as  the  armies  of  Sennacherib  closed  around  Jerusalem. 
The  talismanic  name  Immanuel  became  the  nucleus  out  of  which 
the  later  Messianic  prophecies  of  Isaiah  grew.  To  this  age  alone 
can  we  probably  assign  Isa.  Lx.  1-7,  xi.  1-9,  xxxii.  1-3.  The  hopes 
expressed  in  the  word  Immanuel,  "  God  with  us,"  were  to  become 
embodied  in  a  personality  of  the  royal  seed  of  David,  an  ideal 
righteous  ruler  who  was  to  bring  peace  to  the  war-distraught 
realm.  Thus  Isaiah  became  in  that  troubled  age  the  true  founder 
of  Messianic  prophecy.  The  strange  contrast  between  the  succes- 
sion of  dynasties  and  kings  cut  off  by  assassination  in  the  northern 
kingdom,  ending  in  the  tragic  overthrow  of  721  B.C.,  and  the 
persistent  succession  through  three  centuries  of  the  seed  of  David 
on  the  throne  of  Jerusalem,  as  well  as  the  marvellous  escape 
of  Jerusalem  in  701  B.C.  from  the  fate  of  Samaria,  must  have 
invested  the  seed  of  David  in  the  eyes  of  all  thoughtful  observers 
with  a  mysterious  and  divine  significance.  The  Messianic 
prophecies  of  Isaiah,  the  prophet  of  faith  and  deliverance,  were 
destined  to  reverberate  through  all  subsequent  centuries.  We 
hear  the  echoes  in  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  and  lastly  in  Haggai 
in  ever  feebler  tones,  and  they  were  destined  to  reawaken  in 
the  Psalter  (Pss.  ii.  and  Ixxii.),  in  the  psalms  of  Solomon  and  in 
the  days  of  Christ.  See  MESSIAH  (and  also  the  article  "  Messiah  " 
in  Hastings 's  Diet,  of  Christ  and  the  Gospels). 

The  next  notable  contribution  to  the  permanent  growth  of 
Hebrew  prophetic  religion  was  made  about  a  century  after  the 
lifetime  of  Isaiah  by  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel.  The  reaction  into 
idolatry  and  Babylonian  star  worship  in  the  long  reign  of 
Manasseh  synchronized  and  was  connected  with  vassalage 

'There  is  some  danger  in  too  strictly  construing  the  language 
of  the  prophets  and  also  the  psalmists.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed 
that  either  Amos  or  Isaiah  would  have  countenanced  the  total 
suppression  of  all  sacrificial  observance.  It  was  the  existing  cere- 
monial observance  divorced  from  the  ethical  piety  that  they  denounced. 
The  speech  of  prophecy  is  poetical  and  rhetorical,  not  strictly  defined 
and  logical  like  that  of  a  modern  essayist.  See  Moore  in  Encyc. 
Bibl.,  '"Sacrifice,"  col.  4222. 


184 


HEBREW  RELIGION 


to  Assyria,  while  the  reformation  in  the  reign  of  Josiah  (621  B.C.) 
is  conversely  associated  with  the  decay  of  Assyrian  power  after 
the  death  of  Assur-bani-pal.  That  reformation  failed  to  effect 
its  purifying  mission.  The  hurt  of  the  daughter  of  God's  people 
was  but  lightly  healed  (Jer.  vi.  14,  15;  cf.  viii.  u,  12).  No 
possibility  of  recovery  now  remained  to  the  diseased  Hebrew 
state.  The  outlook  appeared  indeed  far  darker  to  Jeremiah 
than  it  seemed  more  than  a  century  before  to  Isaiah  in  the 
evil  days  of  Jotham  and  Ahaz,  "  when  the  whole  head  was  sick 
and  the  whole  heart  faint "  (Isa.  i.  5).  Jeremiah  foresaw 
that  there  was  now  no  possibility  of  recovery.  The  Hebrew 
state  was  doomed  and  even  its  temple  was  to  be  destroyed.  This 
involved  an  entire  reconstruction  of  theological  ideas  which 
went  beyond  even  the  reconstructions  of  Amos  and  Isaiah.  In 
the  old  religion  the  race  or  clan  was  the  unit  of  religion  as  well 
as  of  social  life.  Properly  speaking,  the  individual  was  related 
to  God  only  through  the  externalities  of  the  clan  or  tribal  life, 
its  common  temple  and  its  common  sacra.  But  now  that  these 
external  bases  of  the  old  religion  were  to  be  swept  away,  a 
reconstruction  of  religious  ideas  became  necessary.  For  the 
external  supports  which  had  vanished  Jeremiah  substituted  a 
basis  which  was  internal,  personal  and  spiritual  (i.e.  ethical). 
In  place  of  the  old  covenant  based  on  external  observance, 
which  had  been  violated,  there  was  to  be  a  new  covenant  which 
was  to  consist  not  in  outward  prescription,  but  in  the  law  which 
God  would  place  in  the  heart  (Jer.  xxxi.  30-33).  This  was  to 
take  place  by  an  act  of  divine  grace  (Jer.  xxiv.  5  foil.) :  "  I 
will  give  them  an  heart  to  know  me  that  I  am  the  Lord  "  (verse 
7).  Ezekiel,  who  borrowed  both  Jeremiah's  language  and 
ideas,  expresses  the  same  thought  in  the  well-known  words  that 
Yahweh  would  give  the  people  instead  of  a  heart  of  stone  a  heart 
of  flesh  (Ezek.  xi.  19,  20,  xx.  40  foil.,  xxxvi.  25-27),  and  would 
shame  them  by  his  loving-kindness  into  repentance,  and  there 
"  shall  ye  remember  your  ways  and  all  your  doings  wherein 
ye  have  been  denied  and  ye  shall  loathe  yourselves  in  your 
own  sight  "  (xx.  43). 

Personal  religion  now  became  an  important  element  in  Hebrew 
piety  and  upon  this  there  logically  followed  the  idea  of  personal 
responsibility.  The  solidarity  of  race  or  family  was  expressed 
in  the  old  tradition  reflected  in  Deut.  v.  9,  10,  that  God  would 
visit  the  sins  of  the  fathers  upon  the  children,  and  it  lived  on 
in  later  Judaism  under  exaggerated  forms.  The  hopes  of  the 
individual  Jew  were  based  on  the  piety  of  holy  ancestors.  "  We 
have  Abraham  as  our  father."  But  Ezekiel  expressed  the  strong 
reaction  which  had  set  in  against  this  belief  in  its  older  forms. 
He  denies  that  the  individual  ever  dies  for  the  sins  of  the  father. 
"  The  soul  that  sinneth,  it  (the  pronoun  emphasized  in  the 
original)  shall  die "  (Ezek.  xviii.  4).  Neither  Noah,  Daniel 
nor  Job  could  have  rescued  by  his  righteousness  any  but  his 
own  soul  (xiv.  14).  And  as  a  further  consequence  individual 
freedom  is  strongly  asserted.  It  is  possible  for  every  sinner 
to  turn  to  God  and  escape  punishment,  and  conversely  for  a 
righteous  man  to  backslide  and  fall.  In  the  presence  of  these 
awful  truths  which  Ezekiel  preached  of  individual  freedom  and 
of  impending  judgment,  the  prophet  is  weighted  with  a  heavy 
responsibility.  It  is  his  duty  to  warn  every  individual,  for  no 
sinner  is  to  be  punished  without  warning  (Ezek.  iii.  16  foil, 
xxxiii.). 

The  closing  years  of  the  Judaean  kingdom  and  the  final 
destruction  of  the  temple  (586  B.C.)  shattered  the  Messianic 
ideals  cherished  in  the  evening  of  Isaiah's  lifetime  and  again  in 
the  opening  years  of  the  reign  of  Josiah.  The  untimely  death 
of  that  monarch  upon  the  battlefield  of  Megiddo  (608  B.C.), 
followed  by  the  inglorious  reigns  of  the  kings  who  succeeded 
him,  who  became  puppets  in  turn  of  Egypt  or  of  Babylonia, 
silenced  for  a  while  the  Messianic  hopes  for  a  future  king  or  line 
of  kings  of  Davidic  lineage  who  would  rule  a  renovated  kingdom 
in  righteousness  and  peace.  Even  in  the  darkness  of  the  exile 
period  hopes  did  not  die.  Yet  they  no  longer  remained  the  same. 
In  the  Deutero-Isaiah  (chaps,  xl.-lv.)  we  have  no  longer  a 
Jewish  but  a  foreign  messiah.  The  onward  progress  of  the 
Persian  Cyrus  and  his  anticipated  conquest  of  Babylonia  marked 


him  out  as  Yahweh's  anointed  instrument  for  effecting  the 
deliverance  of  exiled  Israel  and  their  restoration  to  their  old  home 
and  city  (Isa.  xli.  2,  xliv.  24,  xlv.).  This  was,  however,  but  a 
subsidiary  issue  and  possesses  no  permanent  spiritual  significance.  • 
Of  far  more  vital  importance  is  the  conception  of  Israel  as  God's 
suffering  servant.  This  is  not  the  place  to  enter  into  the  pro- 
longed controversy  as  to  the  real  significance  of  this  term, 
whether  it  signifies  the  nation  Israel  or  the  righteous  community 
only,  or  finally  an  idealized  prophetic  individual  who,  like  the 
prophet  Jeremiah,  was  destined  to  suffer  for  the  well-being  of 
his  people.  Duhm,  in  his  epoch-making  commentary,  distin- 
guishes on  the  grounds  of  metre  and  contents  the  four  servant- 
passages,  in  the  last  of  which  (Iii.  i3-liii.  12)  the  ideal  suffering 
servant  of  Yahweh  is  portrayed  most  definitely  as  an  individual. 
In  the  "  servant-passages  "  he  is  innocent,  while  in  the  rest  of 
the  Deutero-Isaiah  he  appears  as  by  no  means  faultless,  and 
the  personal  traits  are  not  prominent.  These  views  of  Duhm, 
in  which  a  severe  distinction  is  thus  drawn  between  the  repre- 
sentation of  Yahweh's  servant  in  the  servant-passages,  and  that 
which  meets  us  in  the  rest  of  the  Deutero-Isaiah,  have  been 
challenged  by  a  succession  of  critics.1  It  is  only  necessary  for 
us  to  take  note  of  the  ideal  in  its  general  features.  It  probably 
arose  from  the  fact  that  the  calamities  from  which  Israel  had 
suffered  both  before  and  during  the  exile  had  drawn  the  reflective 
minds  of  the  race  to  the  contemplation  of  the  problem  of  suffering. 
The  "  servant  of  Yahweh  "  presents  one  aspect  of  the  problem 
and  its  attempted  solution,  the  book  of  Job  another,  while  in 
the  Psalms,  e.g.  Pss.  xxii.,  xlii.-xliii.,  Ixxiii.,  Ixxvii.,  other 
phases  of  the  problem  are  presented.  In  the  Deutero-Isaiah 
the  meaning  of  Israel's  sufferings  is  exhibited  as  vicarious.  Israel 
is  suffering  for  a  great  end.  He  suffers,  is  despised,  rejected, 
chastened  and  afflicted  that  others  may  be  blessed  and  be  at 
peace  through  his  chastisement.  This  noble  conception  of 
Israel's  great  destiny  is  conveyed  in  Isa.  xlix.  6,  in  words  which 
may  be  regarded  as  perhaps  the  noblest  utterance  in  Hebrew 
prophecy:  "  To  establish  the  tribes  of  Jacob  and  bring  back 
the  preserved  of  Israel  is  less  important  than  being  my  servant. 
Yea,  I  will  make  you  a  light  to  the  Gentiles  that  my  salvation 
may  be  unto  the  end  of  the  earth."2  This  passage,  which 
belongs  to  the  second  of  the  brief  "  servant-songs,"  sets  the 
mission  of  Israel  in  its  true  relation  to  the  world.  It  is  the 
necessary  corollary  to  the  teaching  of  Amos,  that  God  is  the 
righteous  lord  of  all  the  world.  If  Jerusalem  has  been  chosen 
as  His  sanctuary  and  Israel  as  His  own  people,  it  is  only  that 
Israel  may  diffuse  God's  blessings  in  the  world  even  at  the  cost 
of  Israel's  own  humiliation,  exile  and  dispersion. 

The  Deutero-Isaiah  closes  a  great  prophetic  succession,  which 
begins  with  Amos,  continues  in  Isaiah  in  even  greater  splendour 
with  the  added  elements  of  hope  and  Messianic  expectation,  and 
receives  further  accession  in  Jeremiah  with  his  special  teaching 
on  inward  spiritual  and  personal  religion  which  constituted  the 
new  covenant  of  divine  grace.  Finally  the  Deutero-Isaiah 
conveyed  to  captive  Israel  the  message  of  Yahweh's  unceasing 
love  and  care,  and  the  certainty  of  their  return  to  Judaea  and 
the  restoration  of  the  national  prosperity  which  Ezekiel  had 
already  announced  in  the  earlier  period  of  the  exile.  To  this 
is  united  the  noble  ideal  of  the  suffering  servant,  which  serves 
both  as  a  contribution  to  the  great  problem  of  suffering  as 
purifying  and  vicarious  and  as  the  interpretation  to  the  mind 
of  the  nation  itself  of  that  nation's  true  function  in  the  future, 
a  lesson  which  the  actual  future  showed  that  Israel  was  slow 
to  receive.  Nowhere  in  the  Old  Testament  does  the  doctrine 
taught  by  Amos  of  Yahweh's  universal  power  and  sovereignty 

1  Viz.    Budde   in   Die  so-genannten   Ebed-Jahweh   Lieder  u.   die 
Bedeutung  des  Knechtes  Jahwehs  in  Jes.  xl.-lv.  (Giessen,  1900);  Karl 
Marti  in  his  well-known  commentary  on  Isaiah,  and  F.  Giesebrecht, 
Der  Knecht  Jahives  des  Deuterojesaja.     The  special  servant-songs 
which  Duhm  asserts  can  be  readily  detached  from  the  texture  of  the 
Deutero-Isaiah  without  disturbance  to  its  integrity  are  Isa.  xlii.  1-4, 
xlix.  1-6,  i.  4-9,  Hi.  13-liii.  12. 

2  We  have  here  followed  Dillmann's  construction  of  a  difficult 
passage  which  Duhm  attempts  to  simplify  by  omission  of  the  com- 
plicating clause  without  altering  the  general  sense. 


HEBREW  RELIGION 


185 


receive  ampler  and  more  splendid  exposition  than  in  the  great 
lyrical  passages  of  chap.  xl.  It  marks  the  highest  point  to  which 
the  Hebrew  race  attained  in  its  progress  from  henotheism  to 
monotheism.  Here  again  we  see  the  wholesome  influences  of  the 
exile.  The  Jew  had  passed  from  the  narrow  confines  of  his 
homeland  into  a  wider  world,  and  this  larger  vision  of  human 
life  reacted  on  the  prophet's  theology.  This  closes  the  evolution 
of  Hebrew  prophetism.  What  immediately  follows  is  on  a 
descending  slope  with  some  striking  exceptions,  e.g.  the  book 
of  Job  and  the  book  of  Jonah. 

7.  Deuteronomic  Legalism. — The  book  of  Deuteronomy  was 
the  product  of  prophetic  teaching  operating  on  traditional 
custom,  which  was  represented  in  its  essential  features  by 
the  two  codes  of  legislation  contained  in  Ex.  xx.  24-xxiii.  19 
(E)  and  Ex.  xxxiv.  10-26  (J),  but  had  also  become  tainted 
and  corrupted  by  centuries  of  Canaanite  influence  and  practice 
which  especially  infected  the  cult  of  the  high  places.  The 
existence  of  "  high  places  "  is  presupposed  in  those  two  ancient 
codes  and  is  also  presumed  in  the  narratives  of  the  documents 
E  and  J  which  contain  them.  But  the  prevalence  of  the  worship 
of  "  other  gods  "  and  of  graven  images  in  these  "  high  places," 
and  the  moral  debasement  of  life  which  accompanied  these  cults, 
made  it  clear  that  the  "  high  places  "  were  sources  of  grave 
injury  to  Israel's  social  life.  In  all  probability  the  reformation 
instituted  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  to  which  2  Kings  xviii.  4 
(cf.  verse  22)  refers,  was  only  partial.  It  is  hardly  possible  that 
all  the  high  places  were  suppressed.  The  idolatrous  reaction 
in  the  reign  of  Manasseh  appears  to  have  restored  all  the  evils 
of  the  past  and  added  to  them.  Another  and  more  drastic 
reform  than  that  which  had  been  previously  initiated  (probably 
at  the  instigation  of  Isaiah  and  Micah)  now  became  necessary 
to  save  the  state.  It  is  universally  held  by  critics  that  our  present 
book  of  Deuteronomy  (certainly  chaps,  xii.-xxvi.)  is  closely 
connected  with  the  reformation  in  the  reign  of  Josiah.  It  is 
quite  clear  that  many  provisions  in  the  old  codes  of  J  and  E 
expanded  lie  at  the  basis  of  the  book  of  Deuteronomy.  But 
new  features  were  added.  We  note  for  the  first  time  definite 
regulations  respecting  Passover  and  the  close  union  of  that 
celebration  with  Massoth  or  "  unleavened  bread."  We  note 
the  laws  respecting  the  clean  and  unclean  animals  (certainly 
based  on  ancient  custom).  Moreover,  the  prohibitions  are 
strengthened  and  multiplied.  In  addition  to  the  bare  interdict 
of  the  sorceress  (Ex.  xxii.  18),  of  stone  pillars  to  the  Canaanite 
Baal,  of  the  Asherah-pole,  molten  images  and  the  worship  of 
other  gods  than  Yahweh  (Ex.  xxxiv.  13-17),  we  now  have  the 
strict  prohibition  of  any  employment  whatever  of  the  stone- 
symbol  (Mas$ebhah),  and  of  all  forms  of  sorcery,  soothsaying 
and  necromancy  (Deut.  xviii.  10,  n.  Respecting  the  stone- 
pillar  see  xvi.  22).  But  of  much  more  far-reaching  importance 
was  the  law  of  the  central  sanctuary  which  constantly  meets  us 
in  Deuteronomy  in  the  reference  to  "  the  place  (i.e.  Jerusalem) 
which  Yahweh  you,r  God  shall  choose  out  of  all  your  tribes  to 
put  His  name  there  "  (xii.  5,  xvi.  5,  n,  16,  xxvi.  2).  There 
alone  all  offerings  of  any  kind  were  to  be  presented  (xii.  6,  7, 
xvi.  7).  By  this  positive  enactment  all  the  high  places  outside 
the  one  sanctuary  in  Jerusalem  became  illegitimate.  A  further 
consequence  directly  followed  from  the  limitation  as  to  sanctuary, 
viz.  limitation  as  to  the  officiating  ministers  of  the  sanctuary. 
In  the  "  book  of  the  covenant  "  (Ex.  xx.  22-xxii.  19),  as  we 
have  already  seen,  and  in  the  general  practice  of  the  regal 
period,  there  was  no  limitation  as  to  the  priesthood,  but  a  definite 
order  of  priesthood,  viz.  Levites,  existed,  to  whom  a  higher 
professional  prestige  belonged.  As  it  was  impossible  to  find  a 
place  for  the  officiating  priests  of  the  high  places,  non-levitical 
as  well  as  levitical,  in  the  single  sanctuary,  it  became  necessary 
to  restrict  the  functions  of  sacrifice  to  the  Levites  only  as  well 
as  to  the  existing  official  priesthood  of  the  Jerusalem  temple 
(see  PRIEST).  Doubtless  such  a  reform  met  with  strong  resistance 
from  the  disestablished  and  vested  interests,  but  it  was  firmly 
supported  by  royal  influence  and  by  the  Jerusalem  priesthood 
as  well  as  by  the  true  prophets  of  Yahweh  who  had  protested 
against  the  idolatrous  usages  and  corruptions  of  the  high  places. 


The  strong  impress  of  Hebrew  prophecy  is  to  be  found  in 
the  deeply  marked  ethical  spirit  of  the  Deuteronomic  legislation. 
Love  to  God  and  love  to  man  is  stamped  on  a  large  number 
of  its  provisions.  Love  to  God  is  emphasized  in  Deut.  vi.  5, 
while  love  to  man  meets  us  in  the  constant  reference  to  the 
fatherless  and  the  widow  (cf.  especially  Deut.  xvi.).  This  note 
of  philanthropy  is  frequently  found  as  a  mitigating  element 
(e.g.  in  the  laws  respecting  slavery  and  war)'  that  subdues  or 
even  removes  the  harshness  of  earlier  laws  or  usages.  It  should 
be  noted,  however,  that  the  spirit  of  brotherly  love  was  confined 
within  national  barriers.  It  did  not  operate  as  a  rule  beyond 
the  limits  of  race. 

The  book  of  Deuteronomy,  in  conjunction  with  the  reformation 
of  Josiah's  reign  (which  synchronizes  with  the  rapid  decline 
of  Assyria  and  the  reviving  prestige  of  Yahweh),  appeared  to 
mark  the  triumph  of  the  great  prophetic  movement.  It  became 
at  once  a  codified  standard  of  purer  religious  life  and  ultimately 
served  as  a  beacon  of  light  for  the  future.  But  there  was  shadow 
as  well  as  light.  We  note  (a)  that  though  the  book  of  Deuteronomy 
bears  the  prophetic  impress,  the  priestly  impress  is  perhaps  more 
marked.  The  writer  "  evinces  a  warm  regard  for  the  priestly 
tribe;  he  guards  its  privileges  (xviii.  1-8),  demands  obedience 
for  its  decisions  (xxiv.  8;  cf.  xvii.  10-12)  and  earnestly  commends 
its  members  to  the  Israelites'  benevolence  (xii.  18-19,  xiv.  27-29, 
&c.)."2  (b)  In  many  passages  Jewish  particularism  is  painfully 
manifest.  Yahweh's  care  for  other  peoples  does  not  appear. 
The  flesh  of  a  dead  (unslaughtered)  beast  is  not  to  be  eaten,  but 
it  may  be  given  to  the  "  stranger  within  the  gates  "!  (Deut. 
xiv.  2i).s  (c)  Prophetic  religion  was  a  religion  of  the  spirit 
which  came  to  the  messenger  (Isa.  Ixi.  i)  and  expressed  itself 
as  a  word  of  instruction  of  Yahweh  (torah) ;  see  Isa.  i.  10.  Now 
when  the  Hebrew  religion  was  reduced  to  written  form  it  began  to 
be  a  book-religion,  and  since  the  book  consisted  of  fixed  rules  and 
enactments,  religion  began  to  acquire  a  stereotyped  character. 
It  will  be  seen  in  the  sequel  that  this  was  destined  to  be  the  grow- 
ing tendency  of  Jewish  religious  life — to  conform  itself  to 
prescribed  rules,  in  other  words,  it  became  legalism.  (d)  Lastly, 
the  old  genial  life  of  the  high  places,  in  which  the  "  new  moon  " 
or  Sabbath  or  the  annual  festival  was  a  sacrificial  feast  of  com- 
munion, in  which  the  members  of  the  local  community  or  clan 
enjoyed  fellowship  with  one  another — all  this  picturesque 
life  ceased  to  be.  And  though  there  was  positive  gain  in  the 
removal  of  idolatrous  and  corrupt  modes  of  worship,  there  was 
also  positive  loss  in  the  disappearance  of  this  old  genial  phase 
of  Hebrew  social  life  and  worship.  It  involved  a  vast  difference 
to  many  a  Judaean  village  when  the  festival  pilgrimage  was  no 
longer  made  to  the  familiar  local  sanctuary  with  its  hoary 
associations  of  ancient  heroic  or  patriarchal  story,  but  to  a 
distant  and  comparatively  unfamiliar  city  with  its  stately 
shrine  and  priesthood. 

8.  Ezekiel's  System. — Ezekiel  was  the  successor  of  Jeremiah 
and  inherited  his  conceptions.  But  though  the  younger  prophet 
adopted  the  ideas  respecting  personal  religion  and  individual 
responsibility  from  the  elder,  the  characters  of  the  two  men 
were  very  different.  Jeremiah,  when  he  foretold  the  destruction 
of  the  external  state  and  temple  ritual,  found  no  resource  save 
in  a  reconstruction  that  was  internal  and  spiritual.  In  this 
he  was  true  to  his  prophetic  impulse  and  genius.  But  Ezekiel 
was,  as  Wellhausen  well  describes  him,  "  a  priest  in  prophet's 
mantle."  While  Jeremiah's  tendency  was  spiritual  and  ideal, 
Ezekiel's  was  constructive  and  practical.  He  was  the  first  to 
foretell  with  clearness  the  return  of  his  people  from  captivity 
foreshadowed  by  Jeremiah,  and  he  set  himself  the  task  even  in 

1  Thus  in  comparison  with  the  "  book  of  the  covenant,"  Deuter- 
onomy adds  the  stipulation  in  reference  to  the  release  of  the  slave; 
that  his  master  was  to  provide  him  liberally  from  his  flocks,  his  corn 
and  his  wine  (Deut.  xv.  13,  14).  See  Hastings's  D.B.,  arts.  "  Ser- 
vant," "  Slave,"  p.  464,  where  other  examples  may  be  found.  In 
war  fruit-trees  are  to  pe  spared  (Deut.  xx.  19  foil.),  whereas  the 
old  universal  practice  is  the  barbarous  custom  Elisha  commended 
(2  Kings  iii.  19)  of  ruthlessly  destroying  them. 

1  Drivers  .Internal.  Commentary  on  Deuteronomy,  Introd.  p.  xxx. 

1  It  should  be  noted  that  in  P  (Code  of  Holiness)  Lev.  xvii.  15  foil 
the  resident  alien  (ger)  is  placed  on  an  equality  with  the  Jew. 


i86 


HEBREW  RELIGION 


the  midnight  darkness  of  Israel's  exile  to  prepare  for  the  nation's 
renewed  life.  The  external  bases  of  Israel's  religion  had  been 
swept  away,  and  in  exchange  for  these  Jeremiah  had  led  his 
countrymen  to  the  more  permanent  internal  grounds  of  a 
spiritual  renewal.  But  a  religion  could  not  permanently  subsist 
in  this  world  of  space  and  time  without  some  external  concrete 
embodiment.  It  was  the  task  of  Ezekiel  to  take  up  once  more 
the  broken  threads  of  Israel's  religious  traditions,  and  weave 
them  anew  into  statelier  forms  of  ritual  and  national  polity. 
The  priest-prophet's  keen  eye  for  detail,  manifested  in  the 
elaborate  vision  of  the  wheels  and  living  creatures  (Ezek.  i.) 
and  in  his  lamentation  on  Tyre  (chap,  xxvii.),  is  also  exhibited 
in  the  visions  contained  in  chaps,  xl.-xlviii.,  which  describe  the 
ideal  reconstructed  temple  and  theocracy  of  the  restored  Israel. 
The  foreground  is  filled  by  the  temple  and  its  precincts.  The 
officiating  priests  are  now  the  descendants  of  the  line  of  Zadok 
belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Levi.  Thus  the  priesthood  is  still 
further  restricted  as  compared  with  the  restriction  already 
noted  in  the  Deuteronomic  legislation.  It  is  the  sons  of  Zadok 
only  that  have  any  right  to  offer  sacrifice  at  the  altar  of  burnt 
offering  (xliii.  19,  xliv.  15  foil.).  The  Levites,  who  formerly 
ministered  in  the  high  places,  now  discharge  the  subordinate 
offices  of  gate-keepers  and  slaughterers  of  the  sacrificial 
victims. 

Another  element  in  this  ideal  scheme  which  comes  into 
prominence  is  the  sharp  distinction  between  holy  and  profane. 
The  word  holiness  (qodesh)  in  primitive  Hebrew  usage  partook 
of  the  nature  of  taboo,  and  came  to  be  applied  to  whatever, 
whether  thing  or  person,  stood  in  close  relation  to  deity  and 
belonged  to  him,  and  could  not,  therefore,  be  used  or  treated  like 
other  objects  not  so  related,  and  so  was  separated  or  stood  apart. 
The  idea  underlying  the  word,  which  to  us  is  invested  with  deep 
ethical  meaning,  had  only  this  non-ethical,  ritual  significance 
in  Ezekiel.  Unlike  the  old  temple  and  city,  the  ideal  temple 
of  Ezekiel  is  entirely  separate  from  the  city  of  Jerusalem.  In 
the  immediate  surroundings  of  the  temple  there  is  an  open  space. 
Then  come  two  concentric  forecourts  of  the  temple.  The  temple 
stands  in  the  midst  of  what  is  called  the  gizrah  or  space  severed 
off.  The  outer  court  lies  higher  than  the  open  space,  the  inner 
court  higher  still,  and  the  temple-building  in  the  centre  highest 
of  all.  No  heathen  may  tread  the  outer  court,  no  layman  the 
inner  court,  while  the  holiest  of  all  may  not  be  trodden  even 
by  the  priest  Ezekiel  but  only  by  the  angel  who  accompanies 
him.  "  The  temple-house  has  a  graduated  series  of  compartments 
increasing  in  sanctity  inwards  "  (Davidson).  In  the  innermost 
the  presence  of  Yahweh  abides. 

We  are  here  moving  in  a  realm  of  ideas  prevailing  in 
ancient  Israel  respecting  holiness,  uncleanness  and  sin,  which  are 
ceremonial  and  not  ethical;  see  especially  Robertson  Smith's 
Religion  of  the  Semites,  2nd  ed.,  p.  446  foil,  (additional  note  B.) 
on  holiness,  uncleanness  and  taboo.  It  is,  of  course,  true  that 
the  ethical  conception  of  sin  as  violation  of  righteousness  and 
an  act  of  rebellion  against  the  divine  righteous  will  had  been 
developed  since  the  days  of  Amos  and  Isaiah;  but,  as  we  have 
already  observed,  cultus  and  prophetic  teaching  were  separated 
by  an  immense  gulf,  and  in  spite  of  the  reformation  of  621  B.C. 
still  remain  separated.  In  the  sacrificial  system  of  sin-offerings 
(haltdlh  and1 'ashdni)  we  have  to  do  with  sin  as  ceremonial  violation 
and  neglect  (frequently  involuntary),  or  violation  of  holiness  in 
the  old  sense  of  the  term  or  as  personal  uncleanness  (touching  a 
corpse,  eating  unclean  food,  sexual  impurity,  &c.).  In  the 
historical  evolution  of  Hebrew  sacrifice  it  is  remarkable  how 
long  this  non-ethical  and  primitive  survival  of  old  custom  still 
survived,  even  far  into  post-exilian  times.  (See  SACRIFICE; 
also  Moore's  art.  "  Sacrifice  "  in  Ency.  Bibl.) 

One  conspicuous  feature  of  Ezekiel's  system  is  the  predomin- 
ance of  piacular  sacrifice.  It  undoubtedly  existed  in  pre-exilian 
Israel,  especially  in  times  of  crisis  or  calamity,  for  the  appease- 
ment of  an  offended  deity  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  18  foil.),  and  in  Deut. 
xxi.  1-9,  we  have  details  of  the  purificatory  rite  which  was 
necessary  when  human  blood  was  shed;  but  now  and  in  the 
future  propitiatory  sacrifice  and  ideas  of  propitiation  began  to 


overshadow  all  the  other  forms  of  sacrifice  and  their  ideas. 
Ezekiel  prescribes  a  half-yearly  ritual  of  sin-offering  whereby 
atonement  was  to  be  made  (xlv.  18-20).  We  shall  see  subsequently 
to  what  great  institution  this  led  the  way. 

Ezekiel's  system  constituted  an  ecclesiastical  in  place  of  a 
political  organization,  a  church-state  in  place  of  a  nation.  We 
clearly  discern  how  this  reacted  on  his  Messianic  conceptions. 
In  his  earlier  oracles  (xxxiv.  23  foil.)  we  find  one  shepherd  ruling 
over  united  Israel,  viz.  Yahweh's  servant  David,  whereas  in  the 
ideal  scheme  detailed  in  chap.  xl.  et  seq.  the  r61e  of  the  prince 
as  a  ruler  is  a  very  shadowy  one.  The  prince,  it  is  true,  has  a 
central  domain,  but  his  functions  are  ecclesiastical  and  sub- 
ordinate and  his  powers  strictly  limited  (xlvi.  3-8,  12,  16-18). 

Thus  the  exile  period  marks  the  parting  of  the  ways  in  the 
development  of  Hebrew  religion.  In  the  Deutero-Isaiah  we 
reach  the  highest  point  in  the  evolution  of  prophetism.  It  is 
true  that  we  have  some  noble  resounding  echoes  in  the  lyrical 
passages  Ix.-lxii.  in  the  Trito-Isaiah  during  the  post-exilian 
period,  and  in  such  psalm  literature  as  Pss.  xxii.,  xxxvii.,  1., 
Ixii.,  cvii.,  cxlv.  9-12  and  others;  and  also  in  Isa.  xxxv.,  which 
is  obviously  a  lyrical  reproduction  of  earlier  literature.  But 
it  cannot  be  said  that  we  possess  in  later  literature  any  fresh 
contribution  to  the  conception  of  God  or  any  presentation  of  a 
higher  ideal  of  human  life1  or  national  destiny  than  that  which 
meets  us  in  chap.  xl.  or  in  the  servant-passages  of  the  Deutero- 
Isaiah.  It  may  with  truth  be  said  that  after  Jeremiah  we 
discern  the  parting  of  the  ways.  The  first  is  represented  by  the 
Deutero-Isaiah,  who  constitutes  the  climax  and  close  of  Hebrew 
prophetism,  which  is  henceforth  (with  the  possible  exception 
of  the  Trito-Isaiah,  Malachi  and  Jonah,  who  reproduce  some 
features  of  the  earlier  prophecy)  a  virtually  arrested  development. 
The  second  path  is  that  which  is  traced  out  by  the  priest-prophet 
Ezekiel,  and  is  that  of  legalism.  which  was  destined  to  secure  a 
permanent  place  in  the  life  and  literature  of  the  Jewish  people. 
It  is  essentially  the  path  which  may  be  summed  up  in  the  word 
Judaism,  though,  as  will  be  shown  in  the  sequel,  Judaism  came 
to  include  many  other  factors.  The  statement,  however,  remains 
virtually  true,  since  Judaism  is  mainly  constituted  by  the  body 
of  legal  precepts  called  the  Torah,  and,  moreover,  by  the  post- 
exilian  Torah. 

p.  Post-exilian  Law — The  Priestercodex? — The  oracles  of 
Malachi  clearly  reveal  the  continued  influence  of  the  book  of 
Deuteronomy  in  his  day.  But  the  new  conditions  created  by 
the  return  of  the  exiles  and  the  germinating  influence  of  Ezekiel's 
ideas  developed  a  process  of  new  legislative  construction.  The 
code  of  holiness  (Lev.  xvii.-xxvi.)  is  the  most  obvious  product 
of  that  influence.  The  ideas  of  expiation  and  atonement  so 
prevalent  in  Ezekiel's  scheme,  which  there  find  expression  in  the 
half-yearly  sacrificial  celebrations,  are  expressed  in  Lev.  xvi.  in 
the  single  annual  great  fast  of  atonement.  It  is  impossible  to  enter 
here  into  the  numerous  details  of  that  impressive  ceremonial. 
Two  special  features,  however,  which  characterize  the  celebration 
should  here  be  noted:  (a)  The  person  of  the  high  priest,  who  is 
throughout  the  entire  drama  the  chief  and  indeed  the  sole  actor. 
This  supreme  official,  who  was  destined  ultimately  to  take  the 
place  of  the  king  in  the  church-nation  of  post-exilian  Judaism, 
is  mentioned  for  the  first  time  in  Zech.  iii.  i  3  (in  the  person  of 
Joshua) .  In  the  Priestercodex  he  stands  at  the  head  of  the  priests, 
who  are,  in  the  post-exilian  system,  the  sons  of  Aaron  and 
possessed  the  sole  right  to  offer  the  temple  sacrifices.  On  the 
great  day  of  atonement  the  high  priest  appears  in  a  vicarious 
and  representative  capacity,  and  offers  on  behalf  of  the  whole 
nation  which  he  was  considered  to  embody  in  his  sacred  person. 
(b)  The  rite  of  the  goal  devoted  to  Azazel.  There  can  be  little 

1  We  shall  have  to  note  the  emergence  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
resurrection  of  the  righteous  in  later  Judaism,  which  is  obviously  a 
fresh  contribution  of  permanent  value  to  Hebrew  doctrine.     On 
the  other  hand,  the  doctrine  of  pre-existence  is  speculative  rather  than 
religious,  and  applies  to  institutions  rather  than  persons. 

2  The  legislative  portions  are  mainly  comprised  in  Ex.  xxxv.- 
end,  Leviticus  entire  and  Num.  i.-x. 

3  But  this  term   (literally  the  chief  priest)   was  already  in  use 
during  the  regal  period  to  designate  the  head  priest  of  an  important 
sanctuary  such  as  Jerusalem  (2  Kings  xii.  n). 


HEBREW  RELIGION 


187 


doubt  that  Azazel  was  an  evil  demon  (like  an  Arabic  Jinn)  of 
the  desert.  The  goat  set  apart  for  Azazel  was  in  the  concluding 
part  of  the  ceremonial  brought  before  the  high  priest,  who  laid 
both  his  hands  upon  it  and  confessed  over  it  the  sins  of  the 
people.  It  was  then  carried  off  by  an  appointed  person  to  a 
lonely  spot  and  there  set  free. 

In  later  post-exilian  times  this  great  day  of  atonement  became 
to  an  increasing  degree  a  day  of  humiliation  for  sin  and  penitent 
sorrow,  accompanied  by  confession;  and  the  sins  confessed  were 
not  only  of  a  purely  ceremonial  character,  whether  voluntary 
or  inadvertent,  but  also  sins  against  righteousness  and  the 
duties  which  we  owe  to  God  and  man.  This  element  of  public 
confession  for  sin  became  more  prominent  in  the  days  when 
synagogal  worship  developed,  and  prayer  took  the  place  of  the 
sacrificial  offerings  which  could  only  be  offered  in  the  Jerusalem 
temple.  The  development  of  the  priestly  code  of  legislation 
(Priestercodex)  was  a  gradual  process,  and  probably  occupied 
a  considerable  part  of  the  sth  century  B.C.  The  Hebrew  race 
now  definitely  entered  upon  the  new  path  of  organized  Jewish 
legalism  which  had  been  originally  marked  out  for  it  by  Ezekiel 
in  the  preceding  century.  It  became  a  holy  people  on  holy 
ground.  Circumcision  and  Sabbath,  separation  from  marriage 
with  a  foreigner,  which  rendered  a  Jew  unclean,  as  well  as  strict 
conformity  to  the  precepts  of  the  Torah,  constituted  hence- 
forth an  adamantine  bond  which  was  to  preserve  the  Jewish 
communities  from  disintegration. 

10.  The  later  Post-exilian  Developments  in  Jewish  Religion. — 
These  may  be  briefly  referred  to  under  the  following  aspects: 

(a)  Codified  law  and  the  written  record  of  the  patriarchal 
history,  as  well  as  the  life  and  work  of  the  lawgiver  Moses  (to 
whom  the  entire  body  of  law  came  to  be  ascribed),  assumed  an 
ever  greater  importance.  The  reverence  felt  for  the  canonized 
Torah  or  law  (the  Pentateuch  or  so-called  five  books  of  Moses) 
grew  even  into  worship.  Of  this  spirit  we  find  clear  expression 
in  some  of  the  later  psalms,  e.g.  the  elaborate  alphabetic  Ps.  cxix. 
and  the  latter  portion  of  Ps.  xix.  There  were  various  causes 
which  combined  to  enhance  the  importance  of  the  written  Torah 
(the  "  instruction  "  par  excellence  communicated  by  God  through 
Moses).  Chief  among  these  were  (i)  The  conception  of  God  as 
transcendent.  We  have  taken  due  note  of  Amos,  who  unfolded 
the  character  of  Yahweh  as  universal  righteous  sovereign;  and 
also  the  sublime  portrayal  of  His  exalted  nature  in  Isa.  xl. 
(verse  15;  cf.  22-26,  and  Job  xxxvi.  22-xlii.  6).  The  intellectual 
influence  of  Greece,  manifested  in  Alexandrian  philosophy, 
tended  to  remove  God  still  further  from  the  human  world  of 
phenomena  into  that  of  an  inaccessible  transcendental  abstrac- 
tion. Little,  therefore,  was  possible  for  the  Jew  save  strict  per- 
formance of  the  requirements  of  the  Torah,  once  for  all  given 
to  Moses  on  Sinai,  and,  in  his  approach  to  the  awful  and  unknown 
mystery,  to  rely  on  ceremonial  and  ascetic  performances  (see 
Wendt's  Teaching  of  Jesus,  i.  55  foil.).  The  same  tendency 
led  the  pious  worshippers  to  avoid  His  awful  name  and  to  sub- 
stitute Adonai  in  their  scriptures  or  to  use  in  the  Mishna  the 
term  "  name  "  (shem)  or  "  heaven."  (2)  The  Maccabean  conflic 
(165  B.C.)  tended  to  accentuate  the  national  sentiment  of  anta 
gonism  to  Hellenic  influence.  The  Hasldim  or  pious  devotees 
who  arose  at  that  time,  were  the  originators  of  the  Pharisaic 
movement  which  was  conservative  as  well  as  national,  and  laic 
stress  on  the  strict  performance  of  the  law. 

(b)  Eschatology  in  the  Judaism  of  the  Greek  period  began  ti 
assume  a  new  form.  The  pre-exilian  prophets  (especially  Isaiah 
spoke  of  the  forthcoming  crisis  in  the  world's  history  as  a  daj 
of  the  Lord."  These  were  usually  regarded  as  visitations  o 
chastisement  for  national  sins  and  vindications  of  divin 
righteousness  or  judgments,  i.e.  assertions  of  God's  power  a 
judge  (shophet).  By  the  older  prophets  this  judgment  of  Go< 
or  "  day  of  Yahweh  "  was  never  held  to  be  far  removed  fron 
the  horizon  of  the  present  or  the  world  in  which  they  lived.  Bu 
now  as  we  enter  the  Greek  period  (320  B.C.  and  onwards)  ther 
is  a  gradual  change  from  prophecy  to  apocalyptic.  "  It  may  b 
asserted  in  general  terms  that  whereas  prophecy  foretells 
definite  future  which  has  its  foundation  in  the  present,  apoca 


yptic  directs  its  anticipations  solely  and  simply  to  the  future, 
o  a  new  world-period  which  stands  sharply  contrasted  with  the 
resent.    The  classical  model  for  all  apocalyptic  is  to  be  found  in 
Dan.  vii.     It  is  only  after  a  great  war  of  destruction,  a  day  of 
Yahweh's  great  judgment,  that  the  dominion  of  God  will  begin  " 
Bousset) .     Ezek.  xxxviii.  and  xxxix.  clearly  bear  the  apocalyptic 
haracter;  so  also  Isa.   xxxiv.   and  notably  Isa.    xxiv.-xxvii. 
Apocalyptic,  as  Baldensperger  has  shown,  formed  a  counterpoise 
o  the  normal  current  of  conformity  to  law.     It  arose  from  a 
piritual  movement  in  answer  to  the  yearning  of  the  heart: 
'  O  that  Thou  mightest  rend  the  heavens  and  come  down  and 
he  mountains  quake  at  Thy  presence!"     (Isa.  Ixiv.  i  [Heb. 
xiii.  19]);  and  it  was  intended  to  meet  the  craving  of  souls  sick 
with  waiting  and  disappointment.    The  present  outlook  was 
wpeless,  but  in  the  enlarged  horizon  of  time  as  well  as  space  the 
houghts  of  some  of  the  most  spiritual  minds  in  Judaism  were 
directed  to  the  transcendent  and  ultimate.     The  present  world 
was  corrupt  and  subject  to  Satan  and  the  powers  of  darkness. 
This  they  called  "  the  present  aeon  "  (age).     Their  hopes  were 
herefore  directed  to  "  the  coming  aeon."     Between  the  two 
aeons  there  would  take  place  the  advent  of  the  Messiah,  who 
would  lead  the  struggle  with  evil  powers  which  was  called  "  the 
agonies  of  the  Messiah."    This  terrible  intermezzo  was  no  longer 
terrestrial,  but  was  a  cosmic  and  universal  crisis  in  which  the 
Messiah  would  emerge  victorious  from  the  final  conflict  with  the 
icathen  and  demonic  powers.     This  victory  inaugurates  the 
entrance  of  the  "  aeon  to  come,"  in  which  the  faithful  Jews 
would  enter  their  inheritance.     In  this  way  we  perceive  the 
transformation  of  the  old  Messianic  doctrine  through  apocalyptic. 
3f  apocalyptic  literature  we  have  numerous  examples  extending 
Tom  the  2nd  century  B.C.  to  the  2nd  century  A.D.     (See  especially 
Charles's  Book  of  Enoch.) 

The  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  the  righteous  to  life  in  the 
tieavenly  world  became  engrafted  on  to  the  old  doctrine  of  Sheol, 
or  the  dark  shadowy  underworld  (Hades),  where  life  was  joyless 
and  feeble,  and  from  which  the  soul  might  be  for  a  brief  space 
summoned  forth  by  the  arts  of  the  necromancer.  The  most 
vivid  portraiture  of  Sheol  is  to  be  found  in  the  exilian  passage 
Isa.  xiv.  9-20  (cf.  Job  x.  21-22).  With  this  also  compare  the 
Babylonian  Descent  of  Ishtar  to  Hades.  The  added  conception 
of  the  resurrection  of  the  righteous  does  not  appear  in  the  world 
of  Jewish  thought  till  the  early  Greek  period  in  Isa.  xxvi.  19. 
R.  H.  Charles  thinks  that  in  this  passage  the  idea  of  resurrection 
is  of  purely  Jewish  and  not  of  Mazdaan  (or  Zoroastrian)  origin, 
but  it  is  otherwise  with  Dan.  xii.  2 ;  see  his  Eschatology,  Hebrew, 
Jewish  and  Christian.  Corresponding  to  heaven,  the  abode  of 
the  righteous,  we  have  Ce-henna  (originally  Ce-Hinnom,  the 
scene  of  the  Moloch  rites  of  human  sacrifice),  the  place  of  punish- 
ment after  death  for  apostate  Jews. 

(c)  Doctrine  of  Angels  and  of  Hyposlases. — In  the  writings 
of  the  pre-exilian  period  we  have  frequent  references  to  super- 
natural personalities  good  and  bad.  It  is  only  necessary  to 
refer  to  them  by  name.  Sebaoth,  or  "  hosts,"  attached  to  the 
name  of  Yahweh,  denoted  the  heavenly  retinue  of  stars.  The 
seraphim  were  burning  serpentine  forms  who  hovered  above 
the  enthroned  Yahweh  and  chanted  the  Trisagion  in  Isaiah's 
consecration  vision  (Isa.  vi.).  We  have  also  constant  references 
to  "  angels  "  (malachlm)  of  God,  divine  messengers  who  represent 
Him  and  may  be  regarded-  as  the  manifestation  of  His  power 
and  presence.  This  especially  applies  to  the  "  angel  of  Yahweh  " 
or  angel  of  His  Presence  [Ex.  xxiii.  20,  23  (E).  Note  in  Ex. 
xxxiii.  14  (J)  he  is  called  "my  face"  or  "presence"1  (cf. 
Isa.  Ixiii.  9)].  We  also  know  that  from  earliest  times  Israel 
believed  in  the  evil  as  well  as  good  spirits.  Like  the  Arabs  they 
held  that  demons  became  incorporate  in  serpents,  as  in  Gen.  iii. 
The  nephUlm  were  a  monstrous  brood  begotten  of  the  inter- 
course of  the  supernatural  beings  called  "  sons  of  God  "  with  the 
women  of  earth.  We  also  read  of  the  "  evil  spirit  "  that  came 
upon  Saul.  Contact  with  Babylonia  tended  to  stimulate  the 

1  Cf.  the  Phoenician  parallel  of  "  Face  of  Baal,"  worshipped  as 
Tanit,  "queen  of  Heaven"  (Bathgen,  Beitrdge  zur  Semit.  Religions- 
geschichte,  p.  55  foil.);  also  the  place  Penuel  (face  of  God). 


i88 


HEBREWS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE 


angelology  and  demonology  of  Israel.  The  Hebrew  word  shed  or 
"  demon  "  is  no  more  than  a  Babylonian  loan  word,  and  came 
to  designate  the  deities  of  foreign  peoples  degraded  into  the 
position  of  demons.1  LUith,  the  blood-sucking  night-hag  of 
the  post-exilian  Isa.  xxxiv.  14,  is  the  Babylonian  Lildtu. 
Whether  the  se'irim  or  shaggy  satyrs  (Isa.  xiii.  31;  Lev.  xvii.  7) 
and  Azazel  were  of  Babylonian  origin  it  is  difficult  to  determine. 
The  emergence  of  Satan  as  a  definite  supernatural  personality, 
the  head  or  prince  of  the  world  of  evil  spirits,  is  entirely  a  pheno- 
menon of  post-exilian  Judaism.  He  is  portrayed  as  the  arch- 
adversary  and  accuser  of  man.  It  is  impossible  to  deny  Persian 
influence  in  the  development  of  this  conception,  and  that  the 
Persian  Ahriman  (Angromainyu) ,  the  evil  personality  opposed  to 
the  good,  Ahura  Mazda,  moulded  the  Jewish  counterpart,  Satan. 
But  in  Judaism  monotheistic  conceptions  reigned  supreme,  and 
the  Satan  of  Jewish  belief  as  opposed  to  God  stops  short  of  the 
dualism  of  Persian  religion.  Of  this  we  see  evidence  in  the 
multiplication  of  Satans  in  the  Book  of  Enoch.  In  the  Book  of 
Jubilees  he  is  called  maslema.'J  J.Q  later  Judaism  Sammael  is 
the  equivalent  of  Satan.  Persian  influence  is  also  responsible 
for  the  vast  multiplication  of  good  spirits  or  angels,  Gabriel, 
Raphael,  Michael,  &c.,  who  play  their  part  in  apocalyptic  works, 
such  as  the  Book  of  Daniel  and  the  Book  of  Enoch. 

Probably  the  transcendent  nature  of  the  deity  in  the  Judaism 
of  this  later  period  made  the  interposition  of  mediating  spirits  an 
intellectual  necessity  (cf.  Ps.  civ.  4).  It  also  stimulated  the 
creation  of  divine  hypostases.  First  among  these  may  be  men- 
tioned Wisdom.  The  roots  of  this  conception  belong  to  pre-exilian 
times,  in  which  the  "  word  "  of  divine  denunciation  was  regarded 
as  a  quasi-material  thing.  (It  is  hurled  against  offending 
Israel,  Isa.  ix.  8.)  In  the  post-exilian  cosmogony  it  is  the  divine 
word  or  fiat  that  creates  the  world  (Gen.  i.;  cf.  Ps.  xxxiii.  6,  9). 
Out  of  these  earlier  conceptions  the  idea  of  the  divine  wisdom 
(Heb.  hokhmah)  gradually  arose  during  the  Persian  period. 
The  expression  "  wisdom,"  as  it  is  employed  in  the  locus  classicus, 
Prov.  viii.,  connotes  the  contents  of  the  Divine  reason — His 
conscious  life,  out  of  which  created  things  emerge.  This  wisdom 
is  personified.  It  dwelt  with  God  (Prov.  viii.  22  foil.)  before  the 
world  was  made.  It  is  the  companion  of  His  throne,  and  by  it 
He  made  the  world  (Prov.  iii.  19,  viii.  27;  cf.  Ps.  civ.  24).  It, 
moreover,  enters  into  the  life  of  the  world  and  especially  man 
(Prov.  viii.  31).  This  conception  of  wisdom  became  still  further 
hypostatized.  It  becomes  redemptive  of  man.  In  the  Wisdom 
of  Solomon  it  is  the  sharer  of  God's  throne  (irapeSpos),  the 
effulgence  of  the  eternal  light  and  the  outflow  of  His  glory 
(Wisd.  vii.  25,  viii.  3  foil.,  ix.  4,  9);  "  Them  that  love  her  the 
Lord  doth  love  "  (Ecclesiasticus  iv.  14).  This  group  of  ideas 
culminated  in  the  Logos  of  Philo,  expressing  the  world  of  divine 
ideas  which  God  first  of  all  creates  and  which  becomes  the 
mediating  and  formative  power  between  the  absolute  and  trans- 
cendent deity  and  passive  formless  matter,  transmuted  thereby 
into  a  rational,rordered  universe. 

In  later  Jewish  literature  we  meet  with  further  examples  of 
similar  hypostases  in  the  form  of  Memra,  Melatron,  Shechinah, 
Holy  Spirit  and  Bath  kol. 

(d)  The  doctrine  of  pre-existence  is  another  product  of  the 
speculative  tendency  of  the  Jewish  mind.  The  Messiah's  pre- 
existent  state  before  the  creation  of  the  world  is  asserted  in  the 
Book  of  Enoch  (xlviii.  6,  7).  Pre-existence  is  also  asserted  of 
Moses  and  of  sacred  institutions  such  as  the  New  Jerusalem,  the 
Temple,  Paradise,  the  Torah,  &c.  (Apocal.  of  Baruch  iv.  3-lix.  4; 
Assumptio  Mosis  i.  14,  17)  Edersheim's  Life  and  Times  of  the 
Messiah,  i.  175  and  footnote  i. 

ii.  Christ  resumes  the  Broken  Tradition  of  Prophelism. — The 
Psalms  of  Solomon  and  the  synoptic  Gospels  (70  B.C.-A.D.  100) 
clearly  reveal  the  powerful  revival  of  Messianic  hopes  of  a 
national  deliverer  of  the  seed  of  David.  This  Messianic  expecta- 
tion had  been  a  fermenting  leaven  since  the  great  days  of  Judas 
Maccabaeus.  The  conceptions  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  however, 
were  not  the  Messianic  conceptions  of  his  fellow-countrymen,  but 

1  Deut.  xxxii.  17;  Ps.  cvi.  37.  Baal  Zebub  of  the  Philistine 
Ekron  became  the  Beelzebub  who  was  equivalent  to  Satan. 


of  the  spiritual  "  son  of  man  "  destined  to  found  a  kingdom  of 
God  which  was  righteousness  and  peace.  The  Torah  of  Jesus  was 
essentially  prophetic  and  in  no  sense  priestly  or  legal.  The 
arrested  prophetic  movement  of  Jeremiah  and  Deutero-Isaiah 
reappears  in  John  the  Baptist  and  Jesus  after  an  interval  of  more 
than  five  centuries.  The  new  covenant  of  redeeming  grace — the 
righteousness  which  is  in  the  heart  and  not  in  externalities  of 
legal  observance  or  ceremonial — are  once  more  proclaimed,  and 
the  exalted  ideals  of  the  suffering  servant  of  Isa.  xlix.  6  and 
Isa.  liii.  (nearly  suppressed  in  the  Targum  of  Jonathan)  are 
reasserted  and  vindicated  by  the  words  and  life  of  Jesus.  Like 
Jeremiah  He  foretold  the  destruction  of  the  temple  and  suffered 
the  extreme  penalties  of  anti-patriotism.  And  thus  Israel's  old 
prophetic  Torah  was  at  length  to  achieve  its  victory,  for  after  Jesus 
came  St  Paul.  "  Many  shall  come  from  the  east  and  the  west 
and  sit  down  with  Abraham,  Isaac  and  Jacob  in  the  kingdom  of 
heaven  "  (Matt.  viii.  n,  12).  The  fetters  of  nationalism  were  to 
be  broken,  and  the  Hebrew  religion  in  its  essential  spiritual 
elements  was  to  become  the  heritage  of  all  humanity. 

AUTHORITIES. — i.  On  Semitic  religion  generally:  Wellhausen's 
Reste  des  arabischen  Heidentums  (2nd  ed.)  and  Robertson  Smith's 
Religion  of  the  Semites  (2nd  ed.)  are  chiefly  to  be  recommended. 
Barton's  Semitic  Origins  is  extremely  able,  but  his  doctrine  of  the 
derivation,  of  male  from  original  female  deities  is  pushed  to  an 
extreme.  Bathgen's  Beitrage  zur  semitischen  Religions geschichte 
(1888)  is  most  useful,  and  contains  valuable  epigraphic  material. 
Baudissin's  Studien  zur  semitischen  Religionsgeschichte  (1876)  is  still 
valuable.  See  also  Kuenen's  National  Religions  and  Universal 
Religions  (Hibbert  lectures)  and  Lagrange's  Etudes  surles  religions 
semitiques  (2nd  ed.). 

2.  On  Hebrew  religion  in  particular :  specially  full  and  helpful  is 
Kautzsch's  article  "  Religion  of  Israel  "  in  Hastings's  D.B.,  extra 
vol.;  Marti's  recent  Religion  des  A.T.  (1906)  and  his  Geschichte  der 
israelitischen  Religion,  are  clear,   compact  and   most  serviceable, 
and  the  former  work  presents  the  subject  in  fresh  and  suggestive 
aspects.     Wellhausen's  Prolegomena,  and  Judische  Geschichte  should 
be  read  both  for  criticism  and  Hebrew  history  generally.     Duhm's 
Theologie  der  Propheten  and  Robertson  Smith's  Prophets  of  Israel 
should  also  be  consulted.     Strongly  to  be  recommended  are  Smend, 
Lehrbuch  der  alttestamentlichen  Religionsgzschichte  •  Bennett,   Theo- 
logy of  the  Old  Testament  and  Religion  of  the  Post-Exilic  Prophets; 
A.  B.  Davidson,  The  Theology  of  the  Old  Testament,  as  well  as  the 
sections  devoted  to  "  Sacralaltertiimer  "  in  the  Hebrdische  Archdo- 
logie  both  of  Benzinger  and  also  of  Nowack.     Budde's  Die  Religion 
des   Volkes  Israel  bis  zur    Verbannung,   as   well  as  Addis's  recent 
Hebrew  Religion  (1906),  is  a  most  careful  and  scholarly  compendium. 
Harper's  Introd.  to  his  Commentary  on  Amos  and  Hosea  (I.  and  T. 
Clark)  contains  a  useful  survey  of  the  history  of  Hebrew  religion 
before  the   8th   century.     Buchanan   Gray's   Divine  Discipline  of 
Israel,  and  A.  S.  Peake's  Problem  of  Suffering  in  the  O.  T. ,  are  sugges- 
tive.    See  also  S.  A.  Cook,  Religion  of  A  ncient  Palestine. 

3.  On  the  history  of  Judaism  till  the  time  of  Christ,  Schurer's 
Geschichte  des  judischen  Volkes  im  Zeitalter  Christi  (3rded.),  vol.  ii.  and 
in  part  vol.  iii.,  are  indispensable.     Bousset's  Religion  des  Judentums 
(2nd  ed.),  and  Volz,  Die  judische  Eschatologie  von  Daniel  bis  Akiba, 
are  highly  to  be  commended.     Weber's  Judische  Theologie  is  a  usef  ul 
compendium  of  the  theology  of  later  Judaism. 

4.  On  the  special  department  of  eschatology  the  standard  works 
are  R.  H.  Charles,  Eschatology,  Hebrew,  Jewish  and  Christian,  and 
Schwally,  Das  Leben  nach  dem  Tode,  as  well  as  Gressmann's  suggestive 
work   Der    Ursprung  der  israelitisch-jiidischen  Eschatologie,   which 
contains,    however,    much    that    is    speculative.     On    apocalyptic 
generally  the  introductions  to  Charles's  Book  of  Enoch,  Apocalypse 
of  Baruch,  Ascension  of  Isaiah  and  Book  of  Jubilees,  should  be 
carefully  noted.     See  also  ESCHATOLOGY. 

5.  On  the  religion  of  Babylonia,  Jastrow's  work  is  the  standard 
one.     Zimmern's  Heft  ii.  in  K.A.T.  (3rd  ed.)  is  specially  important 
to  the  Old  Testament  student.     See  also  W.  Schrank,  Babylonische 
Suhnriten.  (O.  C.  W.) 

HEBREWS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE,  one  of  the  books  of  the  New 
Testament.  In  the  oldest  MSS.  it  bears  no  other  title  than  "  To 
Hebrews."  This  brief  heading  embraces  all  that  on  which 
Christian  tradition  from  the  end  of  the  2nd  century  was  un- 
animous; and  it  says  no  more  than  that  the  readers  addressed 
were  Christians  of  Jewish  extraction.  This  would  be  no  sufficient 
address  for  an  epistolary  writing  (xiii.  22)  directed  to  a  definite 
circle  of  readers,  to  whose  history  repeated  reference  is  made, 
and  with  whom  the  author  had  personal  relations  (xiii.  19,  23). 
Probably,  then,  the  original  and  limited  address,  or  rather  saluta- 
tion, was  never  copied  when  this  treatise  in  letter  form,  like  the 
epistle  to  the  Romans,  passed  into  the  wider  circulation  which 


HEBREWS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE 


189 


its  contents  merited.  In  any  case  the  Roman  Church,  where  the 
first  traces  of  the  epistle  occur, about  A.D.  96  (i  Clement),  had 
nothing  to  contribute  to  the  question  of  authorship  except  the 
negative  opinion  that  it  was  not  by  Paul  (Euseb.  Red.  Hist. 
iii.  3) :  yet  this  central  church  was  in  constant  connexion  with 
provincial  churches. 

The  earliest  positive  traditions  belong  to  Alexandria  and  N. 
Africa.  The  Alexandrine  tradition  can  be  traced  back  as  far  as  a 
teacher  of  Clement,  presumably  Pantaenus  (Euseb.  Ecd.  Hist. 
vi.  14),  who  sought  to  explain  why  Paul  did  not  name  himself  as 
usual  at  the  head  of  the  epistle.  Clement  himself,  taking  it  for 
granted  that  an  epistle  to  Hebrews  must  have  beeen  written  in 
Hebrew,  supposes  that  Luke  translated  it  for  the  Greeks.  Origen 
implies  that  "  the  men  of  old  "  regarded  it  as  Paul's,  and  that 
some  churches  at  least  in  his  own  day  shared  this  opinion.  But 
he  feels  that  the  language  is  un-PauIine,  though  the  "  admirable  " 
thoughts  are  not  second  to  those  of  Paul's  unquestioned  writings. 
Thus  he  is  led  to  the  view  that  the  ideas  were  orally  set  forth  by 
Paul,  but  that  the  language  and  composition  were  due  to  some  one 
giving  from  memory  a  sort  of  free  interpretation  of  his  teacher's 
mind.  According  to  some  this  disciple  was  Clement  of  Rome; 
others  name  Luke;  but  the  truth,  says  Origen,  is  known  to 
God  alone  (Euseb.  vi.  25,  cf.  iii.  38).  Still  from  the  time  of 
Origen  the  opinion  that  Paul  wrote  the  epistle  became  prevalent 
in  the  East.  The  earliest  African  tradition,  on  the  other  hand, 
preserved  by  Tertullian1  (De  pudicilia,  c.  20),  but  certainly  not 
invented  by  him,  ascribed  the  epistle  to  Barnabas.  Yet  it  was 
perhaps,  like  those  named  by  Origen,  only  an  inference  from  the 
epistle  itself,  as  if  a  "  word  of  exhortation  "  (xiii.  22)  by  the  Son 
of  Exhortation  (Acts  iv.  36 ;  see  BARNABAS).  On  the  whole,  then, 
the  earliest  traditions  in  East  and  West  alike  agree  in  effect,  viz. 
that  our  epistle  was  not  by  Paul,  but  by  one  of  his  associates. 

This  is  also  the  twofold  result  reached  by  modern  scholarship 
with  growing  clearness.  The  vacillation  of  tradition  and  the 
dissimilarity  of  the  epistle  from  those  of  Paul  were  brought  out 
with  great  force  by  Erasmus.  Luther  (who  suggests  Apollos) 
and  Calvin  (who  thinks  of  Luke  or  Clement)  followed  with  the 
decisive  argument  that  Paul,  who  lays  such  stress  on  the  fact  that 
his  gospel  was  not  taught  him  by  man  (Gal.  i.),  could  not  have 
written  Heb.  ii.  3.  Yet  the  wave  of  reaction  which  soon  over- 
whelmed the  freer  tendencies  of  the  first  reformers,  brought 
back  the  old  view  until  the  revival  of  biblical  criticism  more  than 
a  century  ago.  Since  then  the  current  of  opinion  has  set  irrevoc- 
ably against  any  form  of  Pauline  authorship.  Its  type  of  thought 
is  quite  unique.  The  Jewish  Law  is  viewed  not  as  a  code  of 
ethics  or  "  works  of  righteousness,"  as  by  Paul,  but  as  a  system 
of  religious  rites  (vii.  n)  shadowing  forth  the  way  of  access  to 
God  in  worship,  of  which  the  Gospel  reveals  the  archetypal 
realities  (ix.  i,  n,  15,  23  f.,  x.  i  ff.,  19  ff.).  The  Old  and  the 
New  Covenants  are  related  to  one  another  as  imperfect  (earthly) 
and  perfect  (heavenly)  forms  of  the  same  method  of  salvation, 
each  with  its  own  type  of  sacrifice  and  priesthood.  Thus  the 
conception  of  Christ  as  High  Priest  emerges,  for  the  first  time, 
as  a  central  point  in  the  author's  conception  pf  Christianity. 
The  Old  Testament  is  cited  after  the  Alexandrian  version  more 
exclusively  than  by  Paul,  even  where  the  Hebrew  is  divergent. 
Nor  is  this  accidental.  There  is  every  appearance  that  the 
author  was  a  Hellenist  who  lacked  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew 
text,  and  derived  his  metaphysic  and  his  allegorical  method 
from  the  Alexandrian  rather  than  the  Palestinian  schools. 
Yet  the  epistle  has  manifest  Pauline  affinities,  and  can  hardly 
have  originated  beyond  the  Pauline  circle,  to  which  it  is  referred 
not  only  by  the  author's  friendship  with  Timothy  (xiii.  23), 
but  by  many  echoes  of  the  Pauline  theology  and  even,  it  seems, 
of  passages  in  Paul's  epistles  (see  Holtzmann,  Einleitung  in  das 
N.T.,  1892,  p.  298).  These  features  early  suggested  Paul  as  the 
author  of  a  book  which  stood  in  MSS.  immediately  after  the 
epistles  of  that  apostle,  and  contained  nothing  in  its  title  to 

'Also  in  Codex  Claromontanus,  the  Tractatus  de  libris  (x.), 
Philastrius  of  Brescia  (c.  A.D.  380),  and  a  prologue  to  the  Catholic 
Epistles  (Revue  benedictinc,  xxiii.  82  ff.).  It  is  defended  in  a  mono- 
graph by  H.  H.  B.  Ayles  (Cambridge,  1899). 


distinguish  it  from  the  preceding  books  with  like  headings, 
"  To  the  Romans,"  "  To  the  Corinthians,"  and  the  like.  A 
similar  history  attaches  to  the  so-called  Second  Epistle  of  Clement 
(see  CLEMENTINE  LITERATURE). 

Everything  turns,  then,  on  internal  criticism  of  the  epistle, 
working  on  the  distinctive  features  already  noticed,  together 
with  such  personal  allusions  as  it  affords.  As  to  its  first  readers, 
with  whom  the  author  stood  in  close  relations  (xiii.  19,  23,  cf.  vi. 

10,  x.  32-34),  it  used  generally  to  be  agreed  that  they  were 
"  Hebrews  "  or  Christians  of  Jewish  birth.     But,  for  a  generation 
or  so,  it  has  been  denied  that  this  can  be  inferred  simply  from 
the  fact  that  the  epistle  approaches  all  Christian  truth  through 
Old  Testament  forms.     This,  it  is  said,  was  the  common  method 
of  proof,  since  the  Jewish  scriptures  were  the  Word  of  God  to 
all  Christians  alike.     Still  it  remains  true  that  the  exclusive 
use  of  the  argument  from  Mosaism,  as  itself  implying  the  Gospel 
of  Jesus  the  Christ  as  final  cause  (reXos),  does  favour  the  view 
that  the  readers  were  of  Jewish  origin.     Further  there  is  no 
allusion  to  the  incorporation  of  "  strangers  and  foreigners  "  (Eph. 

11.  19)  with  the  people  of  God.     Yet  the  readers  are  not  to  be 
sought  in  Jerusalem  (see  e.g.  ii.  3),  nor  anywhere  in  Judaea 
proper.     The  whole  Hellenistic  culture  of  the  epistle  (let  alone 
its  language),  and  the  personal  references  in  it,  notably  that  to 
Timothy  in  xiii.  23,  are  against  any  such  view:  while  the  doubly 
emphatic  "  all  "  in  xiii.  24  suggests  that  those  addressed  were 
but  part  of  a  community  composed  of  both  Jews  and  Gentiles. 
Caesarea,  indeed,  as  a  city  of  mixed  population  and  lying  just 
outside  Judaea  proper — a  place,  moreover,  where  Timothy  might 
have  become  known  during  Paul's  two  years'  detention  there — 
would  satisfy  many  conditions  of  the  problem.     Yet  these  very 
conditions  are  no  more  than  might  exist  among  intensely  Jewish 
members  of  the  Dispersion,  like  "  the  Jews  of  Asia  "  (cf .  Sir  W.M. 
Ramsay,  The  Letters  to  the  Seven  Churches,  155  f.),  whose  zeal  for 
the  Temple  and  the  Mosaic  ritual  customs  led  to  Paul's  arrest  in 
Jerusalem  (Acts  xix.  27  f.,  cf.  20  f.),  in  keeping  both  with  his 
former  experiences  at  their  hands  and  with  his  forebodings  re- 
sultingtherefrom(xx.  19,  22-24).   Our"Hebrews"  hadobviously 
high  regard  for  the  ordinances  of  Temple  worship.     But  this  was 
the  case  with  the  dispersed  Jews  generally,  who  kept  in  touch 
with  the  Temple,  and  its  intercessory  worship  for  all  Israel,  in 
every  possible  way;  in  token  of  this  they  sent  with  great  care 
their  annual  contribution  to  its  services,  the  Temple   tribute. 
This  bond  was  doubtless  preserved  by  Christian  Hellenists, 
and  must  have  tended  to  continue  their  reliance  on  the  Temple 
services  for  the  forgiveness  of  their  recurring  "  sins  of  ignorance  " 
— subsequent  to  the  great  initial  Messianic  forgiveness  coming 
with  faith  in  Jesus.     Accordingly  many  of  them,  while  placing 
their  hope  for  the  future  upon  Messiah  and  His  eagerly  expected 
return  in  power,  might  seek  assurance  of  present  forgiveness 
of  daily  offences  and  cleansing  of  conscience  in  the  old  mediatorial 
system.    In  particular  the  annual  Day  of  Atonement  would  be 
relied  on,  and  that  in  proportion  as  the  expected  Parousia 
tarried,  and  the  first  enthusiasm  of  a  faith  that  was  largely 
eschatological  died  away,  while  ever-present  temptation  pressed 
the  harder  as  disappointment  and  perplexity  increased. 

Such  was  the  general  situation  of  the  readers  of  this  epistle, 
men  who  rested  partly  on  the  Gospel  and  partly  on  Judaism. 
For  lack  of  a  true  theory  as  to  the  relation  between  the  two, 
they  were  now  drifting  away  (ii.  i)  from  effective  faith  in  the 
Gospel,  as  being  mainly  future  in  its  application,  while  Judaism 
was  a  very  present,  concrete,  and  impressive  system  of  religious 
aids— to  which  also  their  sacred  scriptures  gave  constant  witness. 
The  points  at  which  it  chiefly  touched  them  may  be  inferred 
from  the  author's  counter-argument,  with  its  emphasis  in  the 
spiritual  ineffectiveness  of  the  whole  Temple-system,  its  high- 
priesthood  and  its  supreme  sacrifice  on  the  Day  of  Atonement. 
With  passionate  earnestness  he  sets  over  against  these  his 
constructive  theory  as  to  the  efficacy,  the  heavenly  yet  unseen 
reality,  of  the  definitive  "  purification  of  sins  "  (i.  3)  and  per- 
fected access  to  God's  inmost  presence,  secured  for  Christians  as 
such  by  Jesus  the  Son  of  God  (x.  9-22),  and  traces  their  moral 
feebleness  and  slackened  zeal  to  want  of  progressive  insight 


i  go 


HEBREWS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE 


into  the  essential  nature  of  the  Gospel  as  a  "  new  covenant," 
moving  on  a  totally  different  plane  of  religious  reality  from  the 
now  antiquated  covenant  given  by  Moses  (viii.  13). 

The  following  plan  of  the  epistle  may  help  to  make  apparent 
the  writer's  theory  of  Christianity  as  distinct  from  Judaism, 
which  is  related  to  it  as  "  shadow  "  to  reality: 

Thesis:  The  finality  of  the  form  of  religion  mediated  in  God's 
Son,  i.  1-4. 

i.  The  supreme  excellence  of  the  Son's  Person  (i.  5-iii.  6),  as 
compared  with  (a)  angels,  (6)  Moses. 
Practical  exhortation,  iii.  7-iv.  13,  leading  up  to: 
ii.    The   corresponding   efficacy   of   the    Son's    High-priesthood 
(iv.  I4~ix.). 

(1)  The  Son  has  the  qualifications  of  all  priesthood,  especially 

sympathy. 

Exhortation,  raising  the  reader's  thought  to  the  height 
of  the  topic  reached  (v.  ll-vi.  20). 

(2)  The  Son  as  absolute  high  priest,  in  an  order  transcending 

the  Aaronic  (vii.)  and  relative  to  a  Tabernacle  of  ministry 
and  a  Covenant  higher  than  the  Mosaic  in  point  of  reality 
and  finality  (viii.,  ix.). 

(3)  His  Sacrifice,  then,  is  definitive  in  its  effects  (T«-«Xeiu«), 

and  supersedes  all  others  (x.  1-18). 

iii.  Appropriation  of  the  benefits  of  the  Son's  high-priesthood,  by 
steadfast  faith,  the  paramount  duty  (x.  icj-xii.).  More 
personal  epilogue  (xiii.). 

As  lack  of  insight  lay  at  the  root  of  their  troubles,  it  was  not 
enough  simply  to  enjoin  the  moral  fidelity  to  conviction  which 
is  three  parts  of  faith  to  the  writer,  who  has  but  little  sense 
of  the  mystical  side  of  faith,  so  marked  in  Paul.  There  was 
need  of  a  positive  theory  based  on  real  insight,  in  order  to  inspire 
faith  for  more  strenuous  conflict  with  the  influences  tending  to 
produce  the  apostasy  from  Christ,  and  so  from  "  the  living 
God,"  which  already  threatened  some  of  them  (iii.  12).  Such 
"  apostasy  "  was  not  a  formal  abjuring  of  Jesus  as  Messiah, 
but  the  subtler  lapse  involved  in  ceasing  to  rely  on  relation  to 
Him  for  daily  moral  and  religious  needs,  summed  up  in  purity 
of  conscience  and  peace  before  God  (x.  19-23,  xiii.  20  f.).  This 
"  falling  aside  "  (vi.  5,  cf.  xii.  12  f.),  rather  than  conscious 
"  turning  back,"  is  what  is  implied  in  the  repeated  exhortations 
which  show  the  intensely  practical  spirit  of  the  whole  argument. 
These  exhortations  are  directed  chiefly  against  the  dullness  of 
spirit  which  hinders  progressive  moral  insight  into  the  genius 
of  the  New  Covenant  (v.  n-vi.  8),  and  which,  in  its  blindness 
to  the  full  work  of  Jesus,  amounts  to  counting  His  blood  as  devoid 
of  divine  efficacy  to  consecrate  the  life  (x.  26,  29),  and  so  to  a 
personal  "  crucifying  anew  "  of  the  Son  of  God  (vi.  6).  The 
antidote  to  such  "  profane  "  negligence  (ii.  i,  3,  xii.  12  f.,  15-17) 
is  an  earnestness  animated  by  a  fully-assured  hope,  and  sustained 
by  a  "  faith  "  marked  by  patient  waiting  (/taKpodvuia)  for 
the  inheritance  guaranteed  by  divine  promise  (x.  ii  f.).  The 
outward  expression  of  such  a  spirit  is  "  bold  confession,"  a 
glorying  in  that  Hope,  and  mutual  encouragement  therein 
(iii.  6,12  f .) ;  while  the  sign  of  its  decay  is  neglect  to  assemble 
together  for  mutual  stimulus,  as  if  it  were  not  worth  the  odium 
and  opposition  from  fellow  Jews  called  forth  by  a  marked 
Christian  confession  (x.  23-25,  xii.  3) — a  very  different  estimate 
of  the  new  bond  from  that  shown  by  readiness  in  days  gone  by  to 
suffer  for  it  (x.  32  ff.).  Their  special  danger,  then,  the  sin  which 
deceived(iii.  13)  the  more  easily  that  it  represented  the  line  of  least 
resistance  (perhaps  the  best  paraphrase  of  eiwepioraTOS  djuaprta 
in  xii.  i),  was  the  exact  opposite  of  "  faith  "  as  the  author  uses 
it,  especially  in  the  chapter  devoted  to  its  illustration  by  Old 
Testament  examples.  His  readers  needed  most  the  moral 
heroism  of  fidelity  to  the  Unseen,  which  made  men  "despise 
shame  "  due  to  aught  that  sinners  in  their  unbelief  might  do  to 
them  (xii.  2-11,  xiii.  5  f.) — and  of  which  Jesus  Himself 
was  at  once  the  example  and  the  inspiration.  To  quicken  this 
by  awakening  deeper  insight  into  the  real  objects  of  "  faith," 
as  these  bore  on  their  actual  life,  he  develops  his  high  argument 
on  the  lines  already  indicated. 

Their  situation  was  so  dangerous  just  because  it  combined 
inward  debility  and  outward  pressure,  both  tending  to  the  same 
result,  viz.  practical  disuse  of  the  distinctively  Christian  means 
of  grace,  as  compared  with  those  recognized  by  Judaism,  and 


such  conformity  to  the  latter  as  would  make  the  reproach  oi 
the  Cross  to  cease  (xiii.  13,  cf.  xi.  26).  This  might,  indeed, 
relieve  the  external  strain  of  the  contest  (&yuiv  xii.  i),  which 
had  become  well-nigh  intolerable  to  them.  But  the  practical 
surrender  of  what  was  distinctive  in  their  new  faith  meant  a 
theoretic  surrender  of  the  value  once  placed  on  that  element, when 
it  was  matter  of  a  living  religious  experience  far  in  advance  of 
what  Judaism  had  given  them  (vi.  4  ff.,  x.  26-29).  This  twofold 
infidelity,  in  thought  and  deed,  God,  the  "  living  "  God  of  pro- 
gress from  the  "  shadow  "  to  the  substance,  would  require  at 
their  hands  (x.  30  f.,  xii.  22-29).  For  it  meant  turning  away 
from  an  appeal  that  had  been  known  as  "  heavenly,"  for  some- 
thing inferior  and  earthly  (xii.  25);  from  a  call  sanctioned  by 
the  incomparable  authority  of  Him  in  whom  it  had  reached 
men,  a  greater  than  Moses  and  all  media  of  the  Old  Covenant, 
even  the  Son  of  God.  Thus  the  key  of  the  whole  exhortation 
is  struck  in  the  opening  words,  which  contrast  the  piecemeal 
revelation  "  to  the  fathers  "  in  the  past,  with  the  complete  and 
final  revelation  to  themselves  in  the  last  stage  of  the  existing 
order  of  the  world's  history,  in  a  Son  of  transcendent  dignity 
(i.  i  ff.,  cf.  ii.  i  ff.,  x.  28  f.,  xii.  18  ff.).  This  goes  to  the  root 
of  their  difficulty,  ambiguity  as  to  the  relation  of  the  old  and 
the  new  elements  in  Judaeo-Christian  piety,  so  that  there  was 
constant  danger  of  the  old  overshadowing  the  new,  since  national 
Judaism  remained  hostile.  At  a  stroke  the  author  separates 
the  new  from  the  old,  as  belonging  to  a  new  "  covenant  "  or 
order  of  God's  revealed  will.  It  is  a  confusion,  resulting  in  loss, 
not  in  gain,  as  regards  spiritual  power,  to  try.  to  combine  the 
two  types  of  piety,  as  his  readers  were  more  and  more  apt  to  do. 
There  is  no  use,  religiously,  in  falling  back  upon  the  old  forms, 
in  order  to  avoid  the  social  penalties  of  a  sectarian  position 
within  Judaism,  when  the  secret  of  religious  "  perfection  "  or 
maturity  (vi.  i,  cf.  the  frequent  use  of  the  kindred  verb)  lies 
elsewhere.  Hence  the  moral  of  his  whole  argument  as  to  the 
two  covenants,  though  it  is  formulated  only  incidentally  amid 
final  detailed  counsels  (xiii.  13  f.)  is  to  leave  Judaism,  and  adopt 
a  frankly  Christian  standing,  on  the  same  footing  with  their 
non-Jewish  brethren  in  the  local  church.  For  this  the  time 
was  now  ripe;  and  in  it  lay  the  true  path  of  safety — eternal 
safety  as  before  God,  whatever  man  might  say  or  do  (xiii.  5  f.). 

The  obscure  section,  xiii.  9  f.,is  to  be  taken  as  "only  a  symptom 
of  the  general  retrogression  of  religious  energy  "  (Julicher), 
and  not  as  bearing  directly  on  the  main  danger  of  these 
"  Hebrews."  The  "  foods  "  in  question  probably  refer  neither 
to  temple  sacrifices  nor  to  the  Levitical  laws  of  clean  and  unclean 
foods,  nor  yet  to  ascetic  scruples  (as  in  Rom.  xiv.,  Col.  ii.  20  ff.), 
but  rather  to  some  form  of  the  idea,  found  also  among  the 
Essenes,  that  food  might  so  be  partaken  of  as  to  have  the  value 
of  a  sacrifice  (see  verse  15  foil.)  and  thus  ensure  divine  favour. 
Over  against  this  view,  which  might  well  grow  up  among  the 
Jews  of  the  Dispersion  as  a  sort  of  substitute  for  the  possibility 
of  offering  sacrifices  in  the  Temple — but  which  would  be  a  lame 
addition  to  the  Christianity  of  their  own  former  leaders  (xiii. 
7  f.) — the  author  first  points  his  readers  to  its  refutation  from 
experience,  and  then  to  the  fact  that  the  Christian's  "  altar  " 
or  sacrifice  (i.e.  the  supreme  sin-offering)  is  of  the  kind  which 
the  Law  itself  forbids  to  be  associated  with  "  eating."  If 
Christians  wish  to  offer  any  special  sacrifice  to  God,  let  it  be  that 
of  grateful  praise  or  deeds  of  beneficence  (15  f.). 

In  trying  further  to  define  the  readers  addressed  in  the  epistle, 
one  must  note  the  stress  laid  on  suffering  as  part  of  the  divinely 
appointed  discipline  of  sonship  (ii.  10,  v.  8,  xii.  7  f.),  and  the  way 
in  which  the  analogy  in  this  respect  between  Jesus,  as  Messianic 
Son,  and  those  united  to  Him  by  faith,  is  set  in  relief.  He  is 
not  only  the  inspiring  example  for  heroic  faith  in  the  face  of 
opposition  due  to  unbelievers  (xii.  3  ff.),  but  also  the  mediator 
qualified  by  his  very  experience  of  suffering  to  sympathize  with 
His  tried  followers,  and  so  to  afford  them  moral  aid  (ii.  17  f., 
v.  8  f.,  cf.  iv.  15).  This  means  that  suffering  for  Christianity, 
at  least  in  respect  of  possessions  (xiii.  5  f.,  cf.  x.  34)  and  social 
standing,  was  imminent  for  those  addressed:  and  it  seems 
as  if  they  were  mostly  men  of  wealth  and  position  (xiii.  1-6, 


HEBRIDES 


191 


vi.  10  f.,  x.  34),  who  would  feel  this  sort  of  trial  acutely  (cf. 
Jas.  i.  10).  Such  men  would  also  possess  a  superior  mental 
culture  (cf.  v.  n  f.),  capable  of  appreciating  the  form  of  an 
epistle  "  far  too  learned  for  the  average  Christian  "  (Julicher), 
yet  for  which  its  author  apologizes  to  them  as  inadequate 
(xiii.  22).  It  was  now  long  since  they  themselves  had  suffered 
seriously  for  their  faith  (x.  32  f.);  but  others  had  recently  been 
harassed  even  to  the  point  of  imprisonment  (xiii.  3);  and  the 
writer's  very  impatience  to  hurry  to  their  side  implies  that  the 
crisis  was  both  sudden  and  urgent.  The  finished  form  of  the 
epistle's  argument  is  sometimes  urged  to  prove  that  it  was 
not  originally  an  epistle  at  all,  written  more  or  less  on  the  spur 
of  the  moment,  but  a  literary  composition,  half  treatise  and  half 
homily,  to  which  its  author — as  an  afterthought — gave  the 
suggestion  of  being  a  Pauline  epistle  by  adding  the  personal 
matter  in  ch.  xiii.  (so  W.  Wrede,  Das  literarische  Rdtsel  des 
Hebriierbriefs,  1906,  pp.  70-73).  The  latter  part  of  this  theory 
fails  to  explain  why  the  Pauline  origin  was  not  made  more 
obvious,  e.g.  in  an  opening  address.  But  even  the  first  part 
of  it  overlooks  the  probability  that  our  author  was  here  only 
fusing  into  a  fresh  form  materials  often  used  before  in  his  oral 
ministry  of  Christian  instruction. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  identify  the  home  of  the 
Hellenistic  Christians  addressed  in  this  epistle.  For  Alexandria 
little  can  be  urged  save  a  certain  strain  of  "  Alexandrine  " 
idealism  and  allegorism,  mingling  with  the  more  Palestinian 
realism  which  marks  the  references  to  Christ's  sufferings,  as  well 
as  the  eschatology,  and  recalling  many  a  passage  in  Philo. 
But  Alexandrinism  was  a  mode  of  thought  diffused  throughout 
the  Eastern  Mediterranean,  and  the  divergences  from  Philo's 
spirit  are  as  notable  as  the  affinities  (cf.  Milligan,  ut  infra,  203  ff.). 
For  Rome  there  is  more  to  be  said,  in  view  of  the  references  to 
Timothy  and  to  "  them  of  Italy  "  (xiii.  23  f.) ;  and  the  theory 
has  found  many  supporters.  It  usually  contemplates  a  special 
Jewish-Christian  house-church  (so  Zahn),  like  those  which  Paul 
salutes  at  the  end  of  Romans,  e.g.  that  meeting  in  the  house  of 
Prisca  and  Aquila  (xvi.  5);  and  Harnack  has  gone  so  far  as  to 
suggest  that  they,  and  especially  Prisca,  actually  wrote  our 
epistle.  There  is,  however,  really  little  that  points  to  Rome  in 
particular,  and  a  good  deal  that  points  away  from  it.  The 
words  in  xii.  4,  "  Not  yet  unto  blood  have  ye  resisted,"  would 
ill  suit  Rome  after  the  Neronian  "bath  of  blood"  in  A.D.  64 
(as  is  usually  held),  save  at  a  date  too  late  to  suit  the  reference 
to  Timothy.  Nor  does  early  currency  in  Rome  prove  that  the 
epistle  was  written  to  Rome,  any  more  than  do  the  words  "  they 
of  Italy  salute  you."  This  clause  must  in  fact  be  read  in  the 
light  of  the  reference  to  Timothy,  which  suggests  that  he  had 
been  in  prison  in  Rome  and  was  about  to  return,  possibly  in  the 
writer's  company,  to  the  region  which  was  apparently  the 
headquarters  of  both.  Now  this  in  Timothy's  case,  as  far  as 
we  can  trace  his  steps,  was  Ephesus;  and  it  is  natural  to  ask 
whether  it  will  not  suit  all  the  conditions  of  the  problem.  It 
suits  those  of  the  readers,1  as  analysed  above;  and  it  has  the 
merit  of  suggesting  to  us  as  author  the  very  person  of  all  those 
described  in  the  New  Testament  who  seems  most  capable  of  the 
task,  Apollos,  the  learned  Alexandrian  (Acts  xviii.  24  ff.), 
connected  with  Ephesus  and  with  Paul  and  his  circle  (cf.  i  Cor. 
xvi.  12),  yet  having  his  own  distinctive  manner  of  presenting 
the  Gospel  (i  Cor.  iv.  6).  That  Apollos  visited  Italy  at  any  rate 
once  during  Paul's  imprisonment  in  Rome  is  a  reasonable 
inference  from  Titus  iii.  13  (see  PAUL);  and  if  so,  it  is  quite 
natural  that  he  should  be  there  again  about  the  time  of  Paul's 
martyrdom.  With  that  event  it  is  again  natural  to  connect 
Timothy's  imprisonment,  his  release  from  which  our  author 
records  in  closing;  while  the  news  of  Jewish  success  in  Paul's 
case  would  enhance  any  tendency  among  Asian  Jewish  Christians 
to  shirk  "  boldness  "  of  confession  (x.  23,  35,  38  f.),  in  fear  of 

1  i.e.  a  house-church  of  upper-class  Jewish  Christians,  not  fully 
in  touch  with  the  attitude  even  of  their  own  past  and  present 
"  leaders  "  (xiii.  7,  17),  as  distinct  from  the  local  church  generally 
(xiii.  24).  The  Gospel  had  reached  them,  as  also  the  writer  himself 
(cf.  Acts  xviii.  25),  through  certain  hearers  of  the  Lord  (ii.  3),  not 
necessarily  apostles. 


further  aggression  from  their  compatriots.  On  the  chronology 
adopted  in  the  article  PAUL,  this  would  yield  as  probable  date 
for  the  epistle  A.D.  61-62.  The  place  of  writing  would  be  some 
spot  in  Italy  ("  they  of  Italy  salute  you  ")  outside  Rome,  probably 
a  port  of  embarkation  for  Asia,  such  as  Brundisium. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  the  epistle  is  of  great  historical  importance, 
as  reflecting  a  crisis  inevitable  in  the  development  of  the  Jewish- 
Christian  consciousness,when  a  definite  choice  between  the  old  and 
the  new  form  of  Israel's  religion  had  to  be  made,  both  for  internal 
and  external  reasons.  It  seems  to  follow  directly  on  the  situation 
implied  by  the  appeal  of  James  to  Israel  in  dispersion,  in  view 
of  Messiah's  winnowing-fan  in  their  midst  (i.  1-4,  ii.  1-7,  v.  1-6, 
and  especially  v.7-n).  It  may  well  be  the  immediate  antecedent 
of  that  revealed  in  i  Peter,  an  epistle  which  perhaps  shows 
traces  of  its  influence  (e.g.  in  i.  2,  "  sprinkling  of  the  blood  of 
Jesus  Christ,"  cf.  Heb.  ix.  13  f.,  x.  22,  xii.  24).  It  is  also  of 
high  interest  theologically,  as  exhibiting,  along  with  affinities 
to  several  types  of  New  Testament  teaching  (see  STEPHEN),  a 
type  all  its  own,  and  one  which  has  had  much  influence  on 
later  Christian  thought  (cf.  Milligan,  ut  infra,  ch.  ix.).  Indeed, 
it  shares  with  Romans  the  right  to  be  styled  "  the  first  treatise 
of  Christian  theology." 

Literature. — The  older  literature  may  be  seen  in  the  great  work  of 
F.  Bleek,  Der  Brief  an  die  Hebraer  (1828-1840),  still  a  valuable 
storehouse  of  material,  while  Bleek's  later  views  are  to  be  found  in 
a  posthumous  work  (Elberfeld,  1868);  also  in  Franz  Delitzsch's 
Commentary  (Edinburgh,  1868).  The  more  recent  literature  is  given 
in  G.  Milligan,  The  Theology  of  the  Epistle  of  the  Hebrews  (1899),  a 
useful  summary  of  all  bearing  on  the  epistle,  and  in  the  large  New 
Testament  Introductions  and  Biblical  Theologies.  See  also  Hast- 
ings's  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  the  Encycl.  Biblica  and  T.  Zahn's  article  in 
Hauck's  Realencyklopadie.  (J.  V.  B.) 

HEBRIDES,  THE,  or  WESTERN  ISLES,  a  group  of  islands  off 
the  west  coast  of  Scotland.  They  are  situated  between  55°  3  5' 
and  58°  30'  N.  and  5°  26'  and  8°  40'  W.  Formerly  the  term 
was  held  to  embrace  not  only  all  the  islands  off  the  Scottish 
western  coast,  including  the  islands  in  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  but 
also  the  peninsula  of  Kintyre,  the  Isle  of  Man  and  the  Isle  of 
Rathlin,  off  the  coast  of  Antrim.  They  have  been  broadly 
classified  into  the  Outer  Hebrides  and  the  Inner  Hebrides,  the 
Minch  and  Little  Minch  dividing  the  one  group  from  the  other. 
Geologically,  they  have  also  been  differentiated  as  the  Gneiss 
Islands  and  the  Trap  Islands.  The  Outer  Hebrides  being  almost 
entirely  composed  of  gneiss  the  epithet  suitably  serves  them, 
but,  strictly  speaking,  only  the  more  northerly  of  the  Inner 
Hebrides  may  be  distinguished  as  Trap  Islands.  The  chief 
islands  of  the  Outer  Hebrides  are  Lewis-with-Harris  (or  Long 
Island),  North  Uist,  Benbecula,  South  Uist,  Barra,  the  Shiants, 
St  Kilda  and  the  Flannan  Isles,  or  Seven  Hunters,  an  unin- 
habited group,  about  20  m.  N.W.  of  Gallon  Head  in  Lewis. 
Of  these  the  Lewis  portion  of  Long  Island,  the  Shiants  and 
the  Flannan  belong  to  the  county  of  Ross  and  Cromarty,  and 
the  remainder  to  Inverness-shire.  The  total  length  of  this 
group,  from  Barra  Head  to  the  Butt  of  Lewis,  is  130  m.,  the 
breadth  varying  from  less  than  i  m.  to  30  m.  The  Inner  Hebrides 
are  much  more  scattered  and  principally  include  Skye,  Small 
Isles  (Canna,  Sanday,  Rum,  Eigg  and  Muck),  Coll,  Tyree, 
Lismore,  Mull,  Ulva,  Staffa,  lona,  Kerrera,  the  Slate  Islands 
(Seil,  Easdale,  Luing,  Shuna,  Torsay),  Colonsay,  Oronsay, 
Scarba,  Jura,  Islay  and  Gigha.  Of  these  Skye  and  Small  Isles 
belong  to  Inverness-shire,  and  the  rest  to  Argyllshire.  The 
Hebridean  islands  exceed  500  in  number,  of  which  one-fifth  are 
inhabited.  Of  the  inhabited  islands  n  belong  to  Ross  and 
Cromarty,  47  to  Inverness-shire,  and  44  to  Argyllshire,  but  of 
this  total  of  102  islands,  one-third  have  a  population  of  only 
10  souls,  or  fewer,  each.  The  population  of  the  Hebrides  in 
1901  numbered  78,947  (or  28  to  the  sq.  m.),  of  whom  41,031 
were  females,  who  thus  exceeded  the  males  by  10%,  and  22,733 
spoke  Gaelic  only  and  47,666  Gaelic  and  English.  The  most 
populous  island  is  Lewis-with-Harris  (32,160),  and  next  to  it 
are  Skye  (13,883),  Islay  (6857)  and  Mull  (4334>- 

Of  the  total  area  of  1,800,000  acres,  or  2812  sq.  m.,  only 
one-ninth  is  cultivated,  most  of  the  surface  being  moorland 
and  mountain.  The  annual  rainfall,  particularly  in  the  Inner 


192 


HEBRON 


Hebrides,  is  heavy  (42^6  in.  at  Stornoway)  but  the  temperature 
is  high,  averaging  for  the  year  47°  F.  Potatoes  and  turnips 
are  the  only  'oot  crops  that  succeed,  and  barley  and  oats  are 
grown  in  some  of  the  islands.  Sheep-farming  and  cattle-raising 
are  carried  on  very  generally,  and,  with  the  fisheries,  provide 
the  main  occupation  of  the  inhabitants,  though  they  profit  not 
a  little  from  the  tourists  who  flock  to  many  of  the  islands  through- 
out the  summer.  The  principal  industries  include  distilling, 
slate-quarrying  and  the  manufacture  of  tweeds,  tartans  and 
other  woollens.  There  are  extensive  deer  forests  in  Lewis-with- 
Harris,  Skye,  Mull  and  Jura.  On  many  of  the  islands  there  are 
prehistoric  remains  and' antiquities  within  the  Christian  period. 
The  more  populous  islands  are  in  regular  communication  with 
certain  points  of  the  mainland  by  means  of  steamers  fromGlasgow, 
Oban  and  Mallaig.  The  United  Free  Church  has  a  strong  hold 
on  the  poeple,  but  in  a  few  of  the  islands  the  Roman  Catholics 
have  a  great  following.  In  the  larger  inhabited  islands  board 
schools  have  been  established.  The  islands  unite  with  the 
counties  to  which  they  belong  in  returning  members  to  parliament 
(one  for  each  shire). 

History. — The  Hebrides  are  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  under  the 
name  of  "E/3ou5ai  and  by  Pliny  under  that  of  Hebudes,  the  modern 
spelling  having,  it  is  said,  originated  in  a  misprint.  By  the 
Norwegians  they  were  called  Sudreyjar  or  Southern  Islands. 
The  Latinized  form  was  Sodorenses,  preserved  to  modern  times 
in  the  title  of  the  bishop  of  Sodor  and  Man.  The  original 
inhabitants  seem  to  have  been  of  the  same  Celtic  race  as  those 
settled  on  the  mainland.  In  the  6th  century  Scandinavian 
hordes  poured  in  with  their  northern  idolatry  and  lust  of  plunder, 
but  in  time  they  adopted  the  language  and  faith  of  the  islanders. 
Mention  is  made  of  incursions  of  the  vikings  as  early  as  793, 
but  the  principal  immigration  took  place  towards  the  end  of 
the  gth  century  in  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  Harald  Fairhair, 
king  of  Norway,  and  consisted  of  persons  driven  to  the  Hebrides, 
as  well  as  to  Orkney  and  Shetland,  to  escape  from  his  tyrannous 
rule.  Soon  afterwards  they  began  to  make  incursions  against 
their  mother-country,  and  on  this  account  Harald  fitted  out  an 
expedition  against  them,  and  placed  Orkney,  Shetland,  the 
Hebrides  and  the  Isle  of  Man  under  Norwegian  government. 
The  chief  seat  of  the  Norwegian  sovereignty  was  Colonsay. 
About  the  year  1095  Godred  Crovan,  king  of  Dublin,  Man  and 
the  Hebrides,  died  in  Islay.  His  third  son,  Olaf,  succeeded  to 
the  government  about  1103,  and  the  daughter  of  Olaf  was 
married  to  Somerled,  who  became  the  founder  of  the  dynasty 
known  as  Lords  of  the  Isles.  Many  efforts  were  made  by  the 
Scottish  monarchs  to  displace  the  Norwegians.  Alexander  II. 
led  a  fleet  and  army  to  the  shores  of  Argyllshire  in  1 249,  but  he 
died  on  the  island  of  Kerrera.  On  the  other  hand,  Haakon  IV., 
king  of  Norway,  at  once  to  restrain  the  independence  of  his 
jarls  and  to  keep  in  check  the  ambition  of  the  Scottish  kings, 
set  sail  in  1263  on  a  great  expedition,  which,  however,  ended 
disastrously  at  Largs.  Magnus,  son  of  Haakon,  concluded  in 
1 266  a  peace  with  the  Scots,  renouncing  all  claim  to  the  Hebrides 
and  other  islands  except  Orkney  and  Shetland,  and  Alexander 
III.  agreed  to  give  him  a  sum  of  4000  merks  in  four  yearly 
payments.  It  was  also  stipulated  that  Margaret,  daughter  of 
Alexander,  should  be  betrothed  to  Eric,  the  son  of  Magnus, 
whom  she  married  in  1281.  She  died  two  years  later,  leaving 
an  only  daughter  afterwards  known  as  the  Maid  of  Norway. 

The  race  of  Somerled  continued  to  rule  the  islands,  and  from 
a  younger  son  of  the  same  potentate  sprang  the  lords  of  Lome, 
who  took  the  patronymic  of  Macdougall.  John  Macdonaldof 
Islay,  who  died  about  1386,  was  the  first  to  adopt  the  title  of 
Lord  of  the  Isles.  He  was  one  of  the  most  potent  of  the  island 
princes,  and  was  married  to  a  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Strathearn, 
afterwards  Robert  II.  His  son,  Donald  of  the  Isles,  was  memor- 
able for  his  rebellion  in  support  of  his  claim  to  the  earldom  of 
Ross,  in  which,  however,  he  was  unsuccessful.  Alexander,  son 
of  Donald,  resumed  the  hereditary  warfare  against  the  Scottish 
crown;  and  in  1462  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  Alexander's 
son  and  successor  John  and  Edward  IV.  of  England,  by  which 
John,  his  son  John,  and  his  cousin  Donald  Balloch,  became 


bound  to  assist  King  Edward  and  James,  earl  of  Douglas,  in 
subduing  the  kingdom  of  Scotland.  The  alliance  seems  to  have 
led  to  no  active  operations.  In  the  reign  of  James  V.  another 
John  of  Islay  resumed  the  title  of  Lord  of  the  Isles,  but  was 
compelled  to  surrender  the  dignity.  The  glory  of  the  lordship 
of  the  isles — the  insular  sovereignty — had  departed.  From 
the  time  of  Bruce  the  Campbells  had  been  gaining  the  ascendancy 
in  Argyll.  The  Macleans,  Macnaughtons,  Maclachlans,  Laments, 
and  other  ancient  races  had  sunk  before  this  favoured  family. 
The  lordship  of  Lome  was  wrested  from  the  Macdougalls  by 
Robert  Bruce,  and  their  extensive  possessions,  with  Dunstaffnage 
Castle,  bestowed  on  the  king's  relative,  Stewart,  and  his  de- 
scendants, afterwards  lords  of  Lome.  The  Macdonalds  of  Sleat, 
the  direct  representatives  of  Somerled,'  though  driven  from 
Islay  and  deprived  of  supreme  power  by  James  V.,  still  kept  a 
sort  of  insular  state  in  Skye.  There  were  also  the  Macdonalds 
of  Clanranald  and  Glengarry  (descendants  of  Somerled),  with 
the  powerful  houses  of  Macleod  of  Dunvegan  and  Macleod  of 
Harris,  M'Neill  of  Barra  and  Maclean  of  Mull.  Sanguinary 
feuds  continued  throughout  the  i6th  and  I7th  centuries  among 
these  rival  clans  and  their  dependent  tribes,  and  the  turbulent 
spirit  was  not  subdued  till  a  comparatively  recent  period.  James 
VI.  made  an  abortive  endeavour  to  colonize  Lewis.  William  III. 
and  Queen  Anne  attempted  to  subsidize  the  chiefs  in  order  to 
preserve  tranquillity,  but  the  wars  of  Montrose  and  Dundee,  and 
the  Jacobite  insurrections  of  1715  and  1745,  showed  how  futile 
were  all  such  efforts.  It  was  not  till  1748,  when  a  decisive 
blow  was  struck  at  the  power  of  the  chiefs  by  the  abolition  of 
heritable  jurisdictions,  and  the  appointment  of  sheriffs  in  the 
different  districts,  that  the  arts  of  peace  and  social  improvement 
made  way  in  these  remote  regions.  The  change  was  great,  and 
at  first  not  unmixed  with  evil.  A  new  system  of  management 
and  high  rents  were  imposed,  in  consequence  of  which  numbers 
of  the  tacksmen,  or  large  tenants,  emigrated  to  North  America. 
The  exodus  continued  for  many  years.  Sheep-farming  on  a  large 
scale  was  next  introduced,  and  the  crofters  were  thrust  into 
villages  or  barren  corners  of  the  land.  The  result  was  that, 
despite  the  numbers  who  entered  the  army  or  emigrated  to 
Canada,  the  standard  of  civilization  sank  lower,  and  the  popula- 
tion multiplied  in  the  islands.  The  people  came  to  subsist 
almost  entirely  on  potatoes  and  herrings;  and  in  1846,  when 
the  potato  blight  began  its  ravages,  nearly  universal  destitution 
ensued — embracing,  over  the  islands  generally,  70%  of  the 
inhabitants.  Temporary  relief  was  administered  in  the  shape 
of  employment  on  roads  and  other  works;  and  an  emigration 
fund  being  raised,  from  4000  to  5000  of  the  people  in  the  most 
crowded  districts  were  removed  to  Australia.  Matters,  however, 
were  not  really  mended,  and  in  1884  a  royal  commission  reported 
upon  the  condition  of  the  crofters  of  the  islands  and  mainland. 
As  a  result  of  their  inquiry  the  Crofters'  Holdings  Act  was  passed 
in  1886,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  some  improvement  was 
evident  and  has  since  been  sustained. 

AUTHORITIES. — Martin  Martin's  Description  of  the  Western  Islands 
of  Scotland  (1703) ;  T.  Pennant's  Tour  in  Scotland  and  Voyage  to  the 
Hebrides  (1774);  James  Boswell's  Tour  to  the  Hebrides  with  Samuel 
Johnson,  LL.D.  (1898);  John  Macculloch's  Geological  Account  of  the 
Hebrides  (1819);  Hugh  Miller's  Cruise  of  the  "  Betsy  "  (1858);  W.  A. 
Smith's  Lewisiana,  or  Life  in  the  Outer  Hebrides  (1874);  Alexander 
Smith,  A  Summer  in  Skye  (1865);  Robert  Buchanan,  The  Hebrid 
Isles  (1883) ;  C.  F.  Gordon-Gumming,  In  the  Hebrides  (1883) ;  Report 
of  the  Crofters'  Commission  (1884);  A.  Goodrich-Freer,  Outer  Isles 
(1902);  and  W.  C.  Mackenzie,  History  of  the  Outer  Hebrides  (1903). 
Their  history  under  Norwegian  rule  is  given  in  the  Chronica  regum 
Manniae  et  insularum,  edited,  with  learned  notes,  from  the  MS.  in 
the  British  Museum  by  Professor  P.  A.  Munch  of  Ghristiania  (1860). 

HEBRON  (mod.  Khultl  er-Rahman,  i.e.  "  the  friend  of  the 
Merciful  One  " — an  allusion  to  Abraham),  a  city  of  Palestine 
some  20  m.  S.  by  S.W.  of  Jerusalem.  The  city,  which  lies  3040  ft. 
above  the  sea,  is  of  extreme  antiquity  (see  Num.  xiii.  22,  and 
Josephus,  War,  iv.  9,  7)  and  until  taken  by  the  Calebites  (Josh.  xv. 
13)  bore  the  name  Kirjath-Arba.  Biblical  traditions  connect  it 
closely  with  the  patriarch  Abraham  and  make  it  a  "  city  of 
refuge."  The  town  figures  prominently  under  David  as  the 
headquarters  of  his  early  rule,  the  scene  of  Abner's  murder 


HECATAEUS  OF  ABDERA— HECATE 


'93 


and  the  centre  of  Absalom's  rebellion.  In  later  days  the  Edom 
ites  held  it  for  a  time,  but  Judas  Maccabaeus  recovered  it 
It  was  destroyed  in  the  great  war  under  Vespasian.  In  A.D.  1 16 
Hebron  became  the  see  of  a  Latin  bishop,  and  it  was  taken  in 
1187  by  Saladin.  In  1834  it  joined  the  rebellion  against  Ibrahim 
Pasha,  who  took  the  town  and  pillaged  it.  Modern  Hebron  rise 
on  the  east  slope  of  a  shallow  valley — a  long  narrow  town  o 
stone  houses,  the  flat  roofs  having  small  stone  domes.  The 
main  quarter  is  about  700  yds.  long,  and  two  smaller  groups  o 
houses  exist  north  and  south  of  this.  The  hill  behind  is  terraced 
and  luxuriant  vineyards  and  fruit  plantations  surround  the  place 
which  is  well  watered  on  the  north  by  three  principal  springs 
including  the  Well  Sirah,  now  'Ain  Sara  (2  Sam.  iii.  26).  Thre< 
conspicuous  minarets  rise,  two  from  the  Haram,  the  other  in 
the  north  quarter.  The  population  (10,000  )  includes  Moslems 
and  about  500  Jews.  The  Bedouins  bring  wool  and  camel's 
hair  to  the  market;  and  glass  bracelets,  lamps  and  leather  water- 
skins  are  manufactured  in  the  town.  The  most  conspicuous 
building  is  the  Haram  built  over  the  supposed  site  of  the  cave  o: 
Machpelah.  It  is  an  enclosure  measuring  112  ft.  east  and  west 
by  198  north  and  south,  surrounded  with  high  rampart  walls  01 
masonry  similiar  in  size  and  dressing  to  that  of  the  Jerusalem 
Haram  walls.  These  ramparts  are  ascribed  by  architectural 
authorities  to  the  Herodian  period.  The  interior  area  is  partly 
occupied  by  a  12th-century  Gothic  church,  and  contains  six 
modern  cenotaphs  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  Sarah,  Rebecca 
and  Leah.  The  cave  beneath  the  platform  has  probably  not 
been  entered  for  at  least  600  years.  The  numerous  traditional 
sites  now  shown  round  Hebron  are  traceable  generally  to  medieval 
legendary  topography;  they  include  the  Oak  of  Mamre  (Gen.  xiii. 
18  R.V.)  which  has  at  various  times  been  shown  in  different 
positions  from  £  to  2  m.  from  the  town. 

There  are  a  British  medical  mission,  a  German  Protestant 
mission  with  church  and  schools,  and,  near  Abraham's  Oak,  a 
Russian  mission.  Since  1880  several  notices  of  the  Haram, 
within  which  are  the  tombs  of  the  Patriarchs,  have  appeared. 

See  C.  R.  Conder,  Pal.  Exp.  Fund,  Memoirs,  iii.  333,  &c.;  Riant, 
Archives  de  I'orient  latin,  ii.  411,  &c.;  Dalton  and  Chaplin,  P.E.F 
Quarterly  Statement  (1897);  Goldziher,  "Das  Patriarchengrab  in 
Hebron,"  in  Zeitschrift  d.  Dn.  Pal.  Vereins,  xvii.  (R.  A.  S.  M.) 

HECATAEUS  OF  ABDERA  (or  of  Teos),  Greek  historian  and 
Sceptic  philosopher,  flourished  in  the  4th  century  B.C.  He 
accompanied  Ptolemy  I.  Soter  in  an  expedition  to  Syria,  and 
sailed  up  the  Nile  with  him  as  far  as  Thebes  (Diogenes  Laertius 
ix.  61).  The  result  of  his  travels  was  set  down  by  him  in  two 
works— AiyuTma/cd  and  Ilept  "Tirep^opeoiv,  which  were  used 
by  Diodorus  Siculus.  According  to  Suidas,  he  also  wrote  a 
treatise  on  the  poetry  of  Hesiod  and  Homer.  Regarding  his 
authorship  of  a  work  on  the  Jews  (utilized  by  Josephus  in  Contra 
Apionem),  it  is  conjectured  that  portions  of  the  AiymnaKa 
were  revised  by  a  Hellenistic  Jew  from  his  point  of  view  and 
published  as  a  special  work. 

Fragments  in  C.  W.  Miiller's  Fragmenta  historicorum  Graecorum. 

HECATAEUS  OF  MILETUS  (6th-Sth  century  B.C.),  Greek 
historian,  son  of  Hegesander,  flourished  during  the  time  of  the 
Persian  invasion.  After  having  travelled  extensively,  he  settled 
in  his  native  city,  where  he  occupied  a  high  position,  and  devoted 
his  time  to  the  composition  of  geographical  and  historical  works. 
When  Aristagoras  held  a  council  of  the  leading  lonians  at 
Miletus,  to  organize  a  revolt  against  the  Persian  rule,  Hecataeus 
in  vain  tried  to  dissuade  his  countrymen  from  the  undertaking 
(Herodotus v. 36, 125).  In4Q4,  when  the  defeated  lonians  were 
obliged  to  sue  for  terms,  he  was  one  of  the  ambassadors  to  the 
Persian  satrap  Artaphernes,  whom  he  persuaded  to  restore  the 
constitution  of  the  Ionic  cities  (Diod.  Sic.  x.  25).  He  is  by  some 
credited  with  a  work  entitled  TTJS  irepioSos  ("Travels  round  the 
Earth  "),  in  two  books,  one  on  Europe,  the  other  on  Asia,  in 
which  were  described  the  countries  and  inhabitants  of  the 
known  world,  the  account  of  Egypt  being  especially  com- 
prehensive; the  descriptive  matter  was  accompanied  by  a 
map,  based  upon  Anaximander's  map  of  the  earth,  which  he 
corrected  and  enlarged.  The  authenticity  of  the  work  is,  however, 
xm.  7 


strongly  attacked  by  J.  Wells  in  the  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies, 
xxix.  pt.  i.  1909.  The  only  certainly  genuine  work  of  Hecataeus 
was  the  Ttv(ri\oyiai  or  'laropiai,  a  systematic  account  of  the 
traditions  and  mythology  of  the  Greeks.  He  was  probably  the 
first  to  attempt  a  serious  prose  history  and  to  employ  critical 
method  to  distinguish  myth  from  historical  fact,  though  he 
accepts  Homer  and  the  other  poets  as  trustworthy  authority. 
Herodotus,  though  he  once  at  least  controverts  his  statements,  is 
indebted  to  Hecataeus  not  only  for  facts,  but  also  in  regard  of 
method  and  general  scheme,  but  the  extent  of  the  debt  depends 
on  the  genuineness  of  the  Fjjs  irtpiodos. 

See  fragments  in  C.  W.  Miiller,  Fragmenta  historicorum  Graecorum,\.  ; 
H.  Berger,  Geschichte  der  wissenschaftlichen  Erdkunde  der  Griechen 
(1903);  E.  H.  Bunbury,  History  of  Ancient  Geography,  i.;  W.  Mure, 
History  of  Greek  Literature,  iy.  ;  especially  J.  V.  Prasek,  Hekataios 
als  Herodots  Quelle  zur  Geschichte  Vorderasiens.  Beitrage  zur  alien 
Geschichte  (Klio),  iv.  193  seq.  (1904),  and  J.  Wells  in  Journ.  Hell. 
Stud.,  as  above. 


HECATE  (Gr.  "EKarf,  "  she  who  works  from  afar  "'),  a  goddess 
in  Greek  mythology.  According  to  the  generally  accepted  view, 
she  is  of  Hellenic  origin,  but  Farnell  regards  her  as  a  foreign 
importation  from  Thrace,  the  home  of  Bendis,  with  whom  Hecate 
has  many  points  in  common.  She  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Iliad 
or  the  Odyssey,  but  in  Hesiod  (Theogony,  409)  she  is  the  daughter 
of  the  Titan  Perses  and  Asterie,  in  a  passage  which  may  be  a 
later  interpolation  by  the  Orphists  (for  other  genealogies  see 
Steuding  in  Roscher's  Lexikon).  She  is  there  represented  as  a 
mighty  goddess,  having  power  over  heaven,  earth  and  sea; 
hence  she  is  the  bestower  of  wealth  and  all  the  blessings  of  daily 
life.  The  range  of  her  influence  is  most  varied,  extending  to  war, 
athletic  games,  the  tending  of  cattle,  hunting,  the  assembly  of 
the  people  and  the  law-courts.  Hecate  is  frequently  identified 
with  Artemis,  an  identification  usually  justified  by  the  assump- 
tion that  both  were  moon-goddesses.  Farnell,  who  regards 
Artemis  as  originally  an  earth-goddess,  while  recognizing  a 
"  genuine  lunar  element  "  in  Hecate  from  the  sth  century, 
considers  her  a  chthonian  rather  than  a  lunar  divinity  (see  also 
Warr  in  Classical  Review,  ix.  390).  He  is  of  opinion  that  neither 
borrowed  much  from,  nor  exercised  much  influence  on,  the  cult 
and  character  of  the  other. 

Hecate  is  the  chief  goddess  who  presides  over  magic  arts  and 
spells,  and  in  this  connexion  she  is  the  mother  of  the  sorceresses 
Circe  and  Medea.     She  is  constantly  invoked,  in  the  well-known 
.dyll  (ii.)  of  Theocritus,  in  the  incantation  to  bring  back  a  woman's 
Pithless  lover.     As  a  chthonian  power,  she  is  worshipped  at  the 
Samothracian  mysteries,  and  is  closely  connected  with  Demeter. 
Alone  of  the  gods  besides  Helios,  she  witnessed  the  abduction  of 
Persephone,  and,  torch  in  hand  (a  natural  symbol  for  the  moon's 
light,  but  see  Farnell),  assisted  Demeter  in  her  search  for  her 
daughter.     On  moonlight  nights  she  is  seen  at  the  cross-roads 
(hence  her  name  rpioSIrw,  Lat.   Trivia)   accompanied  by  the 
dogs  of  the  Styx  and  crowds  of  the  dead.     Here,  on  the  last  day 
of  the  month,  eggs  and  fish  were  offered  to  her.     Black  puppies 
and  she-Iambs  (black  victims  being  offered  to  chthonian  deities) 
were   also   sacrificed    (Schol.    on   Theocritus   ii.    12).     Pillars 
ike  the  Hermae,  called  Hecataea,  stood,  especially  in  Athens, 
at  cross-roads  and  doorways,  perhaps  to  keep  away  the  spirits 
of  evil.     Like  Artemis,  Hecate  is  also  a  goddess  of  fertility, 
presiding  especially  over  the  birth  and  the  youth  of  wild  animals, 
nd  over  human  birth  and  marriage.    She  also  attends  when  the 
oul  leaves  the  body  at  death,  and  is  found  near  graves,  and  on 
he  hearth,  where  the  master  of  the  house  was  formerly  buried. 
t  is  to  be  noted  that  Hecate  plays  little  or  no  part  in  mythological 
egend.     Her  worship  seems  to  have  flourished  especially  in  the 
wilder  parts  of  Greece,  such  as  Samothrace  and  Thessaly,  in 
Caria  and  on  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor.     In  Greece  proper  it 
prevailed  on  the  east  coast  and  especially  in  Aegina,  where 
icr  aid  was  invoked  against  madness. 

In  older  times  Hecate  is  represented  as  single-formed,  clad  in 

1  J.  B.  Bury,  in  Classical  Review,  iii.  p.  41  6,  suggests  that  the  name 

leans  "  dog,"  against  which  see  J.  H.  Vince,  t'6.  iv.  p.  47.     G.  C. 

Varr,  ib.  ix.  390,  takes  the  Hesiodic  Hecate  to  be  a  moon-goddess, 

aughter  of  the  sun-god  Perseus. 


HECATOMB— HECKER 


a  long  robe,  holding  burning  torches;  later  she  becomes  triformis, 
"  triple-formed,"  with  three  bodies  standing  back  to  back — 
corresponding,  according  to  those  who  regard  her  as  a  moon- 
goddess,  to  the  new,  the  full  and  the  waning  moon.  In  her  six 
hands  are  torches,  sometimes  a  snake,  a  key  (as  wardress  of  the 
lower  world),  a  whip  or  a  dagger;  her  favourite  animal  was 
the  dog,  which  was  sacrificed  to  her — an  indication  of  her  non- 
Hellenic  origin,  since  this  animal  very  rarely  fills  this  part  in 
genuine  Greek  ritual. 

See  H.  Steuding  in  Roscher's  Lexikun,  where  the  functions  of 
Hecate  are  systematically  derived  from  the  conception  of  her  as  a 
moon-goddess;  L.  R.  Farnell,  Cults  of  the  Greek  States,  ii.,  where  this 
view  is  examined ;  P.  Paris  in  Daremberg  and  Saglio's  Dictionnaire 
des  antiquites;  O.  Gruppe,  Griechische  Mythologie,  ii.  (1906)  p.  1288. 

HECATOMB  (Gr.  e/caro^Sr;  from  tKariv,  a  hundred,  and 
/Sow,  an  ox),  originally  the  sacrifice  of  a  hundred  oxen  in  the 
religious  ceremonies  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans;  later  a  large 
number  of  any  kind  of  animals  devoted  for  sacrifice.  Figura- 
tively, "hecatomb"  is  used  to  describe  the  sacrifice  or  destruc- 
tion by  fire,  tempest,  disease  or  the  sword  of  any  large  number 
of  persons  or  animals;  and  also  of  the  wholesale  destruction  of 
inanimate  objects,  and  even  of  mental  and  moral  attributes. 

HECATO  OF  RHODES,  Greek  Stoic  philosopher  and  disciple 
of  Panaetius  (Cicero,  De  officiis,  iii.  15).  Nothing  else  is  known 
of  his  life,  but  it  is  clear  that  he  was  eminent  amongst  the  Stoics 
of  the  period.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer,  but  nothing  remains. 
A  list  is  preserved  by  Diogenes,  who  mentions  works  on  Duty, 
Good,  Virtues,  Ends.  The  first,  dedicated  to  Tubero,  is  eulogized 
by  Cicero  in  the  De  officiis,  and  Seneca  refers  to  him  frequently 
in  the  De  beneficiis.  According  to  Diogenes  Laertius,  he  divided 
the  virtues  into  two  kinds,  those  founded  on  scientific  intellectual 
principles  (i.e.  wisdom  and  justice),  and  those  which  have  no 
such  basis  (e.g.  temperance  and  the  resultant  health  and  vigour). 
Cicero  shows  that  he  was  much  interested  in  casuistical  questions, 
as,  for  example,  whether  a  good  man  who  had  received  a  coin 
which  he  knew  to  be  bad  was  justified  in  passing  it  on  to  another. 
On  the  whole,  his  moral  attitude  is  cynical,  and  he  is  inclined 
to  regard  self-interest  as  the  best  criterion.  This  he  modifies 
by  explaining  that  self-interest  is  based  on  the  relationships  of 
life;  a  man  needs  money  for  the  sake  of  his  children,  his  friends 
and  the  state  whose  general  prosperity  depends  on  the  wealth 
of  its  citizens.  Like  the  earlier  Stoics,  Cleanthes  and  Chrysippus, 
he  held  that  virtue  may  be  taught.  (See  STOICS  and  PANAETIUS.) 

HECKER,  FRIEDRICH  FRANZ  KARL  (1811-1881),  German 
revolutionist,  was  born  at  Eichtersheim  in  the  Palatinate  on 
the  a8th  of  September  1811,  his  father  being  a  revenue  official. 
He  studied  law  with  the  intention  of  becoming  an  advocate, 
but  soon  became  absorbed  in  politics.  On  entering  the  Second 
Chamber  of  Baden  in  1842,  he  at  once  began  to  take  part  in  the 
opposition  against  the  government,  which  assumed  a  more  and 
more  openly  Radical  character,  and  in  the  course  of  which  his 
talents  as  an  agitator  and  his  personal  charm  won  him  wide 
popularity  and  influence.  A  speech,  denouncing  the  projected 
incorporation  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein  with  Denmark,  delivered 
in  the  Chamber  of  Baden  on  the  6th  of  February  1845,  spread  his 
fame  beyond  the  limits  of  his  own  state,  and  his  popularity  was 
increased  by  his  expulsion  from  Prussia  on  the  occasion  of  a 
journey  to  Stettin.  After  the  death  of  his  more  moderate- 
minded  friend  Adolf  Sander  (March  gth,  1845),  Hecker's  tone 
towards  the  government  became  more  and  more  bitter.  In 
spite  cf  the  shallowness  and  his  culture  and  his  extremely  weak 
character,  he  enjoyed  an  ever-increasing  popularity.  Even  before 
the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  he  included  Socialistic  claims 
in  his  programme.  In  1847  he  was  temporarily  occupied  with 
ideas  of  emigration,  and  with  this  object  made  a  journey  to 
Algiers,  but  returned  to  Baden  and  resumed  his  former  position 
as  the  Radical  champion  of  popular  rights,  later  becoming 
president  of  the  Volksverein,  where  he  was  destined  to  fall  still 
further  under  the  influence  of  the  agitator  Gustav  von  Strove. 
In  conjunction  with  Struve  he  drew  up  the  Radical  programme 
carried  at  the  great  Liberal  meeting  held  at  Offenburg  on  the 
1 2th  of  September  1847  (entitled  "  Thirteen  Claims  put  forward 


by  the  People  of  Baden").  In  addition  to  the  Offenburg  pro- 
gramme, the  Sturmpetition  of  the  ist  of  March  1848  attempted 
to  extort  from  the  government  the  most  far-reaching  concessions. 
But  it  was  in  vain  that  on  becoming  a  deputy  Hecker  en- 
deavoured to  carry  out  its  impracticable  provisions.  He  had 
to  yield  to  the  more  moderate  majority,  but  on  this  account  was 
driven  still  further  towards  the  Left.  The  proof  lies  in  the  new 
Offenburg  demands  of  the  igth  of  March,  and  in  the  resolution 
moved  by  Hecker  in  the  preliminary  parliament  of  Frankfort  that 
Germany  should  be  declared  a  republic.  But  neither  in  Baden 
nor  Frankfort  did  he  at  any  time  gain  his  point. 

This  double  failure,  combined  with  various  energetic  measures 
of  the  government,  which  were  indirectly  aimed  at  him  (e.g.  the 
arrest  of  the  editor  of  the  Constanzer  Seeblatt,  a  friend  of  Hecker's, 
in  Karlsruhe  station  on  the  8th  of  April),  inspired  Hecker  with 
the  idea  of  an  armed  rising  under  pretext  of  the  foundation  of 
the  German  republic.  The  pth  tc  the  nth  of  April  was  secretly 
spent  in  preliminaries.  On  the  i2th  of  April  Hecker  and  Struve 
sent  a  proclamation  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Seekreis  and  of  the 
Black  Forest  "  to  summon  the  people  who  can  bear  arms  to 
Donaueschingen  at  mid-day  on  the  I4th,  with  arms,  ammunition 
and  provisions  for  six  days."  They  expected  70,000  men,  but 
only  a  few  thousand  appeared.  The  grand-ducal  government 
of  the  Seekreis  was  dissolved,  and  Hecker  gradually  gained 
reinforcements.  But  friendly  advisers  also  joined  him,  pointing 
out  the  risks  of  his  undertaking.  Hecker,  however,  was  not  at 
all  ready  to  listen  to  them;  on  the  contrary,  he  added  to  violence 
an  absurd  defiance,  and  offered  an  amnesty  to  the  German  princes 
on  condition  of  their  retiring  within  fourteen  days  into  private 
life.  The  troops  of  Baden  and  Hesse  marched  against  him, 
under  the  command  of  General  Friedrich  von  Gagern,  and  on 
the  2oth  of  April  they  met  near  Kandern,  where  Gagern  was 
killed,  it  is  true,  but  Hecker  was  completely  defeated. 

Like  many  of  the  revolutionaries  of  that  period,  Hecker  retired 
to  Switzerland.  He  was,  it  is  true,  again  elected  to  the  Chamber 
of  Baden  by  the  circle  of  Thiengen,  but  the  government,  no 
longer  willing  to  respect  his  immunity  as  a  deputy,  refused  its 
ratification.  On  this  account  Hecker  resolved  in  September 
1848  to  emigrate  to  North  America,  and  obtained  possession  of 
a  farm  near  Belleville  in  the  state  of  Illinois. 

During  the  second  rising  in  Baden  in  the  spring  of  1849  he 
again  made  efforts  to  obtain  a  footing  in  his  own  state,  but  with- 
out success.  He  only  came  as  far  as  Strassburg,  but  had  to 
retreat  before  the  victories  of  the  Prussian  troops  over  the  Baden 
insurgents. 

On  his  return  to  America  he  won  some  distinction  during  the 
Civil  War  as  colonel  of  a  regiment  which  he  had  himself  got 
together  on  the  Federal  side  in  1861  and  1864.  It  was  with 
great  joy  that  he  heard  of  the  union  of  Germany  brought  about 
by  the  victory  over  France  in  1870-71.  It  was  then  that 
he  made  his  famous  festival  speech  at  St  Louis,  in  which  he 
gave  an  animated  expression  to  the  enthusiasm  of  the  German 
Americans  for  their  newly-united  fatherland.  He  received  a 
less  favourable  impression  during  a  journey  he  made  in  Germany 
in  1873.  He  died  at  St  Louis  on  the  24th  of  March  1881. 

Hecker  was  always  very  much  beloved  of  all  the  German 
democrats.  The  song  and  the  hat  named  after  him  (the  latter 
a  broad  slouch  hat  with  a  feather)  became  famous  as  the  symbols 
of  the  middle-classes  in  revolt.  In  America,  too,  he  had  won 
great  esteem,  not  only  on  political  grounds  but  also  for  his 
personal  qualities. 

See  F.  Hecker,  Die  Erhebung  des  Volkes  in  Baden  fur  die  deutsche 
RepuUik  (Baden,  1848);  F.  Hecker,  Reden  und  Vorlesungen  (Neer- 
stadt  a.  d.  H.,  1872) ;  F.  v.  Weech,  Badische  Biographien,  iv.  (1891) ; 
L.  Mathy,  Aus  dern  NacUasse  von  K.  Matty,  Brief e  aus  den  Jahren 
1846-1848  (Leipzig,  1898).  (J.  HN.) 

HECKER,  ISAAC  THOMAS  (1810-1888),  American  Roman 
Catholic  priest,  the  founder  of  the  "Paulist  Fathers,"  was 
born  in  New  York  City,  of  German  immigrant  parents,  on  the 
1 8th  of  December  1819.  When  barely  twelve  years  of  age, 
he  had  to  go  to  work,  and  pushed  a  baker's  cart  for  his  elder 
brothers,  who  had  a  bakery  in  Rutgers  Street.  But  he  studied 


HECKMONDWIKE— HECTOR 


at  every  possible  opportunity,  becoming  immersed  in  Kant's 
Critique  of  Pure  Reason,  and  while  still  a  lad  took  part  in  certain 
politico-social  movements  which  aimed  at  the  elevation  of  the 
working  man.  It  was  at  this  juncture  that  he  met  Orestes 
Brownson,  who  exercised  a  marked  influence  over  him.  Isaac 
was  deeply  religious,  a  characteristic  for  which  he  gave  much 
credit  to  his  prayerful  mother,  and  remained  so  amid  all  the 
reading  and  agitating  in  which  he  engaged.  Having  grown 
into  young  manhood,  he  joined  the  Brook  Farm  movement, 
and  in  that  colony  he  tarried  some  six  months.  _  Shortly  after 
leaving  it  (in  1844)  he  was  baptized  into  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  by  Bishop  McCloskey  of  New  York.  One  year  later 
he  was  entered  in  the  novitiate  of  the  Redemptorists  in  Belgium, 
and  there  he  cultivated  to  a  high  degree  the  spirit  of  lofty 
mystical  piety  which  marked  him  through  life. 

Ordained  a  priest  in  London  by  Wiseman  in  1849,  he  returned 
to  America,  and  worked  until  1857  as  a  Redemptorist  missionary. 
With  all  his  mysticism,  Isaac  Hecker  had  the  wide-awake  mind 
of  the  typical  American,  and  he  perceived  that  the  missionary 
activity  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States  must 
remain  to  a  large  extent  ineffective  unless  it  adopted  methods 
suited  to  the  country  and  the  age.  In  this  he  had  the  sympathy 
of  four  fellow  Redemptorists,  who  like  himself  were  of  American 
birth  and  converts  from  Protestantism.  Acting  as  their  agent, 
and  with  the  consent  of  his  local  superiors,  Hecker  went  to  Rome 
to  beg  of  the  Rector  Major  of  his  Order  that  a  Redemptorist 
novitiate  might  be  opened  in  the  United  States,  in  order  thus  to 
attract  American  youths  to  the  missionary  life.  In  furtherance 
of  this  request,  he  took  with  him  the  strong  approval  of  some 
members  of  the  American  hierarchy.  The  Rector  Major,  instead 
of  listening  to  Father  Hecker,  expelled  him  from  the  Order  for 
having  made  the  journey  to  Rome  without  sufficient  authoriza- 
tion. The  outcome  of  the  trouble  was  that  Hecker  and  the  other 
four  American  Redemptorists  were  permitted  by  Pius  IX.  in  1858 
to  form  the  separate  religious  community  of  the  Paulists.  Hecker 
trained  and  governed  this  community  in  spiritual  exercises  and 
mission-preaching  until  his  death  in  New  York  City,  after 
seventeen  years  of  suffering,  on  the  22nd  of  December  1888. 
He  founded  and  was  the  director  of  the  Catholic  Publication 
Society,  was  the  founder,  and  from  1865  until  his  death  the 
editor,  of  the  Catholic  World,  and  wrote  Questions  of  the  Soul 
(1855),  Aspirations  of  Nature  (1857),  Catholicity  in  the  United 
Stales  (1879)  and  The  Church  and  the  Age  (i 


The  name  of  Hecker  is  closely  associated  with  that  of  "  American- 
ism." To  understand  this  movement  it  is  necessary  to  comprehend 
the  tendency  of  events  in  Catholic  Europe  rather  than  in  America 
itself.  The  steady  decline  in  the  power  and  influence  of  French 
Catholicism  since  shortly  after  1870  is  the  most  remarkable  feature 
of  the  history  of  the  Third  Republic.  Not  only  did  the  French  State 
pass  laws  bearing  more  and  more  stringently  on  the  Church,  under 
each  succeeding  ministry,  but  the  bulk  of  the  people  acquiesced  in  the 
policy  of  its  legislators.  The  clergy,  if  not  Catholicism,  was  rapidly 
losing  its  hold  over  the  once  Catholic  nation.  Observing  this  fact, 
and  encouraged  by  the  action  of  Leo  XIII.,  who,  in  1892  called  on 
French  Catholics  loyally  to  accept  the  Republic,  a  body  of  vigorous 
young  French  priests  set  themselves  to  check  the  disaster.  They 
studied  the  causes  which  produced  it.  These  causes,  they  considered 
to  be,  first,  the  clergy's  predominant  sympathy  with  the  monarchists, 
and  in  its  undisguised  hostility  to  the  Republic;  secondly,  the 
Church's  aloofness  from  modern  men,  methods  and  thought.  The 
progressive  party  believed  that  there  was  too  little  cultivation  of 
individual,  independent  character,  while  too  much  stress  was  laid 
upon  what  might  be  called  the  mechanical  or  routine  side  of  religion. 
The  party  perceived,  too,  that  Catholicism  was  making  scarcely 
any  use  of  modern  aggressive  modes  of  propaganda;  that,  for 
example,  the  Church  took  but  an  insignificant  part  in  social  move- 
ments, in  the  organization  of  clubs  for  social  study,  in  the  establishing 
of  settlements  and  similar  philanthropic  endeavour.  Lack  of 
adaptability  to  modern  needs  expresses  in  short  the  deficiencies  in 
Catholicism  which  these  men  endeavoured  to  correct.  They  began 
a  domestic  apostolate  which  had  for  one  of  its  rallying  cries,  "Allans 
au  peuple,''—"  Let  us  go  to  the  people."  They  agitated  for  the 
inauguration  of  social  works,  for  a  more  intimate  mingling  of  priests 
with  the  people,  and  for  general  cultivation  of  personal  initiative, 
both  in  clergy  and  in  laity. 

Not  unnaturally,  they  looked  for  inspiration  to  America.  There 
they  saw  a  vigorous  Church  among  a  free  people,  with  priests 
publicly  respected,  and  with  a  note  of  aggressive  zeal  in  every 


project  of  Catholic  enterprise.  From  the  American  priesthood, 
Father  Hecker  stood  out  conspicuous  for  sturdy  courage,  deep 
interior  piety,  an  assertive  self-initiative  and  immense  love  of  modern 
times  and  modern  liberty.  So  they  took  Father  Hecker  for  a  kind 
of  patron  saint.  His  biography  (New  York,  1891),  written  in  English 
by  the  Paulist  Father  Elliott,  was  translated  into  French  (1897), 
and  speedily  became  the  book  of  the  hour.  Under  the  inspiration 
of  Father  Hecker's  life  and  character,  the  more  spirited  section  of 
the  French  clergy  undertook  the  task  of  persuading  their  fellow- 

Criests  loyally  to  accept  the  actual  political  establishment,  and  then, 
reaking  out  of  their  isolation,  to  put  themselves  in  touch  with  the 
intellectual  life  of  the  country,  and  take  an  active  part  in  the  work  of 
social  amelioration. 

In  1897  the  movement  received  an  impetus — and  a  warning — 
when  Mgr  O'Connell,  former  Rector  of  the  American  College  in 
Rome,  spoke  on  behalf  of  Father  Hecker's  ideas  at  the  Catholic 
Congress  in  Friburg.  The  conservatives  took  alarm  at  what  they 
considered  to  be  symptoms  of  pernicious  modernism  or  "  Liberalism." 
Did  not  the  watchword  "  Allans  au  peuple  "  savour  of  heresy  ? 
Did  it  not  tend  toward  breaking  down  the  divinely  established 
distinction  between  the  priest  and  the  layman,  and  conceding 
something  to  the  laity  in  the  management  of  the  Church  ?  The 
insistence  upon  individual  initiative  was  judged  to  be  incompatible 
with  the  fundamental  principle  of  Catholicism,  obedience  to  authority. 
Moreover,  the  conservatives  were,  almost  to  a  man,  anti-republicans 
who  distrusted  and  disliked  the  democratic  abb6s.  Complaints 
were  sent  to  Rome.  A  violent  polemic  against  the  new  movement 
was  launched  in  Abb6  Maignan  s  Le  pere  Hecker,  est-il  un  saint  ? 
(1898).  Repugnance  to  American  tendencies  and  influences  had  a 
strong  representation  in  the  Curia  and  in  powerful  circles  in  Rome. 
Leo  XIII.  was  extremely  reluctant  to  pronounce  any  strictures 
upon  American  Catholics,  of  whose  loyalty  to  the  Roman  See,  and 
to  their  faith,  he  had  often  spoken  in  terms  of  high  approbation. 
But  he  yielded,  in  a  measure,  to  the  pressure  brought  to  bear  upon 
him,  and,  early  in  February  1899,  addressed  to  Cardinal  Gibbons  the 
Brief  Testem  Benevolentiae.  This  document  contained  a  condem- 
nation of  the  following  doctrines  or  tendencies:  (a)  undue  insistence 
on  interior  initiative  in  the  spiritual  life,  as  leading  to  disobedience; 
(6)  attacks  on  religious  vows,  and  disparagement  of  the  value  in  the 
present  age,  of  religious  orders;  (c)  minimizing  Catholic  doctrine; 
(d)  minimizing  the  importance  of  spiritual  direction.  The  brief  did 
not  assert  that  any  unsound  doctrine  on  the  above  points  had  been 
held  by  Hecker  or  existed  among  Americans.  Its  tenour  was,  that 
if  such  opinions  did  exist,  the  Pope  called  upon  the  hierarchy  to 
eradicate  the  evil.  Cardinal  Gibbons  and  many  other  prelates 
replied  to  Rome.  With  all  but  unanimity,  they  declared  that  the 
incriminated  opinions  had  no  existence  among  American  Catholics. 
It  was  well  known  that  Hecker  never  had  countenanced  the  slightest 
departure  from  Catholic  principles  in  their  fullest  and  most  strict 
application.  The  disturbance  caused  by  the  condemnation  was 
slight;  almost  the  entire  laity,  and  a  considerable  part  of  the  clergy, 
never  understood  what  the  noise  was  about.  The  affair  was  soon 
forgotten,  but  the  result  was  to  strengthen  the  hands  of  the  con- 
servatives in  France.  (J.  J.  F.) 

HECKMONDWIKE,  an  urban  district  in  the  Spen  Valley 
parliamentary  division  of  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  England, 
8  m.  S.S.E.  of  Bradford,  on  the  Lancashire  &  Yorkshire,  Great 
Northern,  and  London  &  North-Western  railways.  Pop.  (1901), 
9459.  Like  the  town  of  Dewsbury,  on  the  south-east,  it  is  an 
important  centre  of  the  blanket  and  carpet  manufactures,  and 
there  are  also  machine  works,  dye  works  and  iron  foundries. 
Coal  is  extensively  wrought  in  the  vicinity. 

HECTOR,  in  Greek  mythology,  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  the 
husband  of  Andromache.  Like  Paris  and  other  Trojans,  he  had 
an  Oriental  name,  Darius.  In  Homer  he  is  represented  as  an 
ideal  warrior,  the  champion  of  the  Trojans  and  the  mainstay  of 
the  city.  His  character  is  drawn  in  most  favourable  colours  as 
a  good  son,  a  loving  husband  and  father,  and  a  trusty  friend. 
His  leave-taking  of  Andromache  in  the  sixth  book  of  the  Iliad, 
and  his  departure  to  meet  Achilles  for  the  last  time,  are  most 
touchingly  described.  He  is  an  especial  favourite  of  Apollo; 
and  later  poets  even  describe  him  as  son  of  that  god.  His  chief 
exploits  during  the  war  were  his  defence  of  the  wounded  Sarpedon, 
his  fight  with  Ajax,  son  of  Telamon  (his  particular  enemy),  and 
the  storming  of  the  Greek  ramparts.  When  Achilles,  enraged 
with  Agamemnon,  deserted  the  Greeks,  Hector  drove  them  back 
to  their  ships,  which  he  almost  succeeded  in  burning.  Patroclus, 
the  friend  of  Achilles,  who  came  to  the  help  of  the  Greeks,  was 
slain  by  Hector  with  the  help  of  Apollo.  Then  Achilles,  to 
revenge  his  friend's  death,  returned  to  the  war,  slew  Hector, 
dragged  his  body  behind  his  chariot  to  the  camp,  and  afterwards 
round  the  tomb  of  Patroclus.  Aphrodite  and  Apollo  preserved 


196 


HECUBA— HEDGES  AND  FENCES 


it  from  corruption  and  mutilation.  Priam,  guarded  by  Hermes, 
went  to  Achilles  and  prevailed  on  him  to  give  back  the  body, 
which  was  buried  with  great  honour.  Hector  was  afterwards 
worshipped  in  the  Troad  by  the  Boeotian  tribe  Gephyraei,  who 
offered  sacrifices  at  his  grave. 

HECUBA  (Gr.  'E/cd/3?7),  wife  of  Priam,  daughter  of  the  Phrygian 
king  Dymas  (or  of  Cisseus,  or  of  the  river-god  Sangarius). 
According  to  Homer  she  was  the  mother  of  nineteen  of  Priam's 
fifty  sons.  When  Troy  was  captured  and  Priam  slain,  she  was 
made  prisoner  by  the  Greeks.  Her  fate  is  told  in  various  ways, 
most  of  which  connect  her  with  the  promontory  Cynossema, 
on  the  Thracian  shore  of  the  Hellespont.  According  to  Euripides 
(in  the  Hecuba),  her  youngest  son  Polydorus  had  been  placed 
during  the  siege  of  Troy  under  the  care  of  Polymestor,  king  of 
Thrace.  When  the  Greeks  reached  the  Thracian  Chersonese 
on  their  way  home  Hecuba  discovered  that  her  son  had  been 
murdered,  and  in  revenge  put  out  the  eyes  of  Polymestor  and 
murdered  his  two  sons.  She  was  acquitted  by  Agamemnon; 
but,  as  Polymestor  foretold,  she  was  turned  into  a  dog,  and  her 
grave  became  a  mark  for  ships  (Ovid,  Metam.  xiii.  399-575; 
Juvenal  x.  271  and  Mayor's  note).  According  to  another  story, 
she  fell  to  the  lot  of  Odysseus,  as  a  slave,  and  in  despair  threw 
herself  into  the  Hellespont ;  or,  she  used  such  insulting  language 
towards  her  captors  that  they  put  her  to  death  (Dictys  Cretensis 
v.  13.  16).  It  is  obvious  from  the  tales  of  Hecuba's  trans- 
formation and  death  that  she  is  a  form  of  some  goddess 
to  whom  dogs  were  sacred;  and  the  analogy  with  Scylla  is 
striking. 

HEDA,  WILLEM  CLAASZ  (c.  i594~c.  1670),  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Haarlem,  was  one  of  the  earliest  Dutchmen  who  devoted 
himself  exclusively  to  the  painting  of  still  life.  He  was  the 
contemporary  and  comrade  of  Dirk  Hals,  with  whom  he  had 
in  common  pictorial  touch  and  technical  execution.  But  Heda 
was  more  careful  and  finished  than  Hals,  and  showed  consider- 
able skill  and  not  a  little  taste  in  arranging  and  colouring 
chased  cups  and  beakers  and  tankards  of  precious  and  inferior 
metals.  Nothing  is  so  appetizing  as  his  "  luncheon,"  with  rare 
comestibles  set  out  upon  rich  plate,  oysters — seldom  without 
the  cut  lemon — bread,  champagne,  olives  and  pastry.  Even 
the  commoner  "  refection  "  is  also  not  without  charm,  as  it 
comprises  a  cut  ham,  bread,  walnuts  and  beer.  One  of  Heda's 
early  masterpieces,  dated  1623,  in  the  Munich  Pinakothek  is 
as  homely  as  a  later  one  of  1651  in  the  Liechtenstein  Gallery  at 
Vienna.  A  more  luxurious  repast  is  a  "  Luncheon  in  the  Augsburg 
Gallery,"  dated  1644.  Most  of  Heda's  pictures  are  on  the 
European  continent,  notably  in  the  galleries  of  Paris,  Parma, 
Ghent,  Darmstadt,  Gotha,  Munich  and  Vienna.  He  was  a 
man  of  repute  in  his  native  city,  and  filled  all  the  offices  of  dignity 
and  trust  in  the  gild  of  Haarlem.  He  seems  to  have  had  con- 
siderable influence  in  forming  the  younger  Franz  Hals. 

HEDDLE,  MATTHEW  FORSTER  (1828-1897),  Scottish 
mineralogist,  was  born  at  Hoy  in  Orkney  on  the  28th  of  April 
1828.  After  receiving  his  early  education  at  the  Edinburgh 
academy,  he  entered  as  a  medical  student  at  the  university  in 
that  city,  and  subsequently  studied  chemistry  and  mineralogy 
at  Klausthal  and  Freiburg.  In  1851  he  took  his  degree  of  M.D. 
at  Edinburgh,  and  for  about  five  years  practised  there.  Medical 
work,  however,  possessed  for  him  little  attraction;  he  became 
assistant  to  Prof.  Connell,  who  held  the  chair  of  chemistry  at 
St  Andrews,  and  in  1862  succeeded  him  as  professor.  This  post 
he  held  until  in  1880  he  was  invited  to  report  on  some  gold  mines 
in  South  Africa.  On  his  return  he  devoted  himself  with  great 
assiduity  to  mineralogy,  and  formed  one  of  the  finest  collections 
by  means  of  personal  exploration  in  almost  every  part  of  Scotland. 
His  specimens  are  now  in  the  Royal  Scottish  Museum  at 
Edinburgh.  It  had  been  his  intention  to  publish  a  comprehensive 
work  on  the  mineralogy  of  Scotland.  This  he  did  not  live  to 
complete,  but  the  MSS.  fell  into  able  hands,  and  The  Mineralogy 
of  Scotland,  in  2  vols.,  edited  by  J.  G.  Goodchild.  was  issued 
in  1901.  Heddle  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Mineralogical 
Society,  and  he  contributed  many  articles  on  Scottish  minerals, 
and  on  the  geology  of  the  northern  parts  of  Scotland,  to  the 


Mineralogical  Magazine,  as  well  as  to  the  Transactions  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh.  He  died  on  the  igth  of  November 
1897. 

See  Dr  Heddle  and  his  Geological  Work  (with  portrait),  by  J.  G. 
Goodchild,  Trans,  Edin.  Geol.  Soc.  (1898)  vii.  317. 

HEDGEHOG,  or  URCHIN,  a  member  of  the  mammalian  order 
Insectivora,  remarkable  for  its  dentition,  its  armature  of  spines 
and  its  short  tail.  The  upper  jaw  is  longer  than  the  lower,  the 
snout  is  long  and  flexible,  with  the  nostrils  narrow,  and  the 
claws  are  long  but  weak.  The  animal  is  about  10  in.  long, 
its  eyes  are  small,  and  the  lower  surface  covered  with  hairs  of 
the  ordinary  character.  The  brain  is  remarkable  for  its  low 
development,  the  cerebral  hemispheres  being  small,  and  marked 
with  but  one  groove,  and  that  a  shallow  one,  on  each  side.  The 
hedgehog  has  the  power  of  rolling  itself  up  into  a  ball,  from 
which  the  spines  stand  out  in  every  direction.  The  spines  are 
sharp,  hard  and  elastic,  and  form  so  efficient  a  defence  that 
there  are  few  animals  able  to  effect  a  successful  attack  on  this 
creature.  The  moment  it  is  touched,  or  even  hears  the  report  of 
a  gun,  it  rolls  itself  up  by  the  action  of  the  muscles  beneath 
the  skin,  while  this  contraction  effects  the  erection  of  the  spines. 
The  most  important  muscle  is  the  orbicularis  panniculi,  which 
extends  over  the  anterior  region  of  the  skull,  as  far  down  the  body 


-_,-.,.         ,    .... 


The  Hedgehog  (Erinaceus  europaeus). 

as  the  ventral  hairy  region,  and  on  to  the  tail,  but  three  other 
muscles  aid  in  the  contraction. 

Though  insectivorous,  the  hedgehog  is  reported  to  have  a 
liking  for  mice,  while  frogs  and  toads,  as  well  as  plants  and  fruits, 
all  seem  to  be  acceptable.  It  will  also  eat  snakes,  and  its  fond- 
ness for  eggs  has  caused  it  to  meet  with  the  enmity  of  game- 
preservers;  and  there  is  no  doubt  it  occasionally  attacks  leverets 
and  game-chicks.  In  a  state  of  nature  it  does  not  emerge  from 
its  retreat  during  daylight,  unless  urged  by  hunger  or  by  the 
necessities  of  its  young.  During  winter  it  passes  into  a  state 
of  hibernation,  when  its  temperature  falls  considerably;  having 
provided  itself  with  a  nest  of  dry  leaves,  it  is  well  protected 
from  the  influences  of  the  rain,  and  rolling  itself  up,  remains 
undisturbed  till  warmer  weather  returns.  In  July  or  August 
the  female  brings  forth  four  to  eight  young,  or,  according  to 
others,  two  to  four  at  a  somewhat  earlier  period;  at  birth  the 
spines,  which  in  the  adult  are  black  in  the  middle,  are  white 
and  soft,  but  soon  harden,  though  they  do  not  attain  their 
full  size  until  the  succeeding  spring. 

The  hedgehog,  which  is  known  scientifically  as  Erinaceus 
europaeus,  and  is  the  type  of  the  family  Erinaceidae,  is  found 
in  woods  and  gardens,  and  extends  over  nearly  the  whole  of 
Europe;  and  has  been  found  at  6000  to  8000  ft.  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  The  adult  is  provided  with  thirty-six  teeth;  in  the 
upper  jaw  are  6  incisors,  2  canines  and  12  cheek-teeth,  and  in 
the  lower  jaw  4  incisors,  2  canines  and  10  cheek-teeth.  The 
genus  is  represented  by  about  a  score  of  species,  ranging  over 
Europe,  Asia,  except  the  Malay  countries,  and  Africa.  (R.  L.*) 

HEDGES  AND  FENCES.  The  object  of  the  hedge  »  or  fence 
(abbreviation  of  "  defence  ")  is  to  mark  a  boundary  or  to  enclose 

1  Hedge  is  a  Teutonic  word,  cf.  Dutch  heg,  Ger.  Heche;  the  ^  root 
appears  in  other  English  words,  e.g.  "  haw,"  as  in  "  hawthorn." 


HEDON— HEDONISM 


197 


an  area  of  land  on  which  stock  is  kept.  The  hedge,  i.e.  a.  row 
of  bushes  or  small  trees,  forms  a  characteristic  feature  of  the 
scenery  of  England,  especially  in  the  midlands  and  south;  it  is 
more  rarely  found  in  other  countries.  Its  disadvantages  as  a 
fence  are  that  it  is  not  portable,  that  it  requires  cutting  and 
training  while  young,  that  it  harbours  weeds  and  vermin  and 
that  it  occupies  together  with  the  ditch  which  usually  borders 
it  a  considerable  space  of  ground,  the  margins  of  which  cannot 
be  cultivated.  For  these  reasons  it  is  to  some  extent  superseded 
by  the  fence  proper,  especially  where  shelter  for  cattle  is  not 
required.  In  Great  Britain  the  hawthorn  (q.v.)  is  by  far  the  most 
important  of  hedge  plants.  Holly  resembles  the  hawthorn 
in  its  amenability  to  pruning  and  in  its  prickly  nature  and 
closeness  of  growth  ,  which  make  it  an  effective  barrier  to,  and 
shelter  for,  stock,  but  it  is  less  hardy  and  more  slow-growing 
than  the  hawthorn.  Hornbeam,  beech,  myrobalan  or  cherry 
plum  and  blackthorn  also  have  their  advantages,  hornbeam 
being  proof  against  great  exposure,  blackthorn  thriving  on  poor 
land  and  possessing  great  impenetrability  and  so  on.  Box,  yew, 
privet  and  many  other  plants  are  used  for  ornamental  hedging; 
in  the  United  States  the  osage  orange  and  honey  locust  are 
favourite  hedge  plants.  As  fences,  wooden  posts  and  rails  and 
stone  walls  may  be  conveniently  used  in  districts  where  the 
requisite  materials  are  plentiful.  But  the  most  modern  form 
of  fence  is  formed  of  wire  strands  either  smooth  or  barbed  (see 
BARBED  WIRE),  strained  between  iron  standards  or  wooden  or 
concrete  posts.  The  wire  may  be  interwoven  with  vertical  strands 
or,  if  necessary,  may  be  kept  apart  by  iron  droppers  between  the 
standards.  Fences  of  a  lighter  description  are  machine-made 
with  pickets  of  split  chestnut  or  other  wood  closely  set,  woven 
with  a  few  strands  of  wire;  they  are  braced  by  posts  at  intervals. 
From  the  fact  that  tramps  and  vagabonds  frequently  sleep 
under  hedges  the  word  has  come  to  be  used  as  a  term  of  contempt, 
as  in  "  hedge-priest,"  an  inferior  and  -illiterate  kind  of  parson 
at  one  time  existing  in  England  and  Ireland,  and  in  "  hedge- 
school,"  a  low  class  school  held  in  the  open  air,  formerly  very 
common  in  Ireland.  From  the  sense  of  "  hedge  "  as  an  enclosure 
or  barrier  the  verb  "to  hedge"  means  to  enclose,  to  form  a 
barrier  or  defence,  to  bound  or  limit.  As  a  sporting  term 
the  word  is  used  in  betting  to  mean  protection  from  loss,  by 
betting  on  both  sides,  by  "laying  off  "  on  one  side,  after  laying 
odds  on  another  or  vice  versa.  The  word  was  early  used 
figuratively  in  the  sense  of  to  avoid  committing  oneself. 

See  articles  in  the  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Agriculture,  vol.  i., 
ed.  by  L.  H.  Bailey  (New  York,  1907);  in  the  Standard  Cyclopaedia 
of  Modern  Agriculture,  ed.  by  R.  P.  Wright  (London,  1908-1909); 
and  in  the  Encyclopaedia  of  Agriculture,  vol.  ii.,  ed.  by  C.  E.  Green 
and  D.  Young  (Edinburgh,  1908). 

HEDON,  a  municipal  borough  in  the  Holderness  parliamentary 
division  of  the  East  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  England,  8  m.  E.  of 
Hull  by  a  branch  of  the  North-Eastern  railway.  Pop.  (1901), 
1010.  It  stands  in  a  low-lying,  flat  district  bordering  the 
Humber.  It  is  2  m.  from  the  river,  but  was  formerly  reached 
by  a  navigable  inlet,  now  dry,  and  was  a  considerable  port. 
There  is  a  small  harbour,  but  the  prosperity  of  the  port  has  passed 
to  Hull.  The  church  of  St  Augustine  is  a  splendid  cruciform 
building  with  central  tower.  It  is  Early  English,  Decorated 
and  Perpendicular,  the  tower  being  of  the  last  period.  The  west 
front  is  particularly  fine,  and  the  church,  with  its  noble  pro- 
portions and  lofty  clerestories,  resembles  a  cathedral  in  miniature. 
There  are  a  manufacture  of  bricks  and  an  agricultural  trade. 
The  corporation  consists  of  a  mayor,  3  aldermen  and  9 
councillors;  and  possesses  a  remarkable  ancient  mace,  of  isth- 
century  workmanship.  Area,  321  acres. 

According  to  tradition  the  men  of  Hedon  received  a  charter 
of  liberties  from  King  jEthelstan,  but  there  is  no  evidence  to 
prove  this  or  indeed  to  prove  any  settlement  in  the  town  until 
after  the  Conquest.  The  manor  is  not  mentioned  in  the 
Domesday  Survey,  but  formed  part  of  the  lordship  of  Holderness 
which  William  the  Conqueror  granted  to  Odo,  count  of  Albemarle. 
A  charter  of  Henry  II.,  which  is  undated,  contains  the  first  certain 
evidence  of  settlement.  By  it  the  king  granted  to  William, 


count  of  Albemarle,  free  borough  rights  in  Hedon  so  that  his 
burgesses  there  might  hold  of  him  as  freely  and  quietly  as  the 
burgesses  of  York  or  Lincoln  held  of  the  king.  An  earlier  charter 
granted  to  the  inhabitants  of  •  York  shows  that  these  rights 
included  a  trade  gild  and  freedom  from  many  dues  not  only  in 
England  but  also  in  France.  King  John  in  1200  granted  a 
confirmation  of  these  liberties  to  Baldwin,  count  of  Albemarle, 
and  Hawisia  his  wife  and  for  this  second  charter  the  burgesses 
themselves  paid  70  marks.  In  1272  Henry  III.  granted  to 
Edmund,  earl  of  Lancaster,  and  Avelina  his  wife,  then  lord  and 
lady  of  the  manor,  the  right  of  holding  a  fair  at  Hedon  on  the 
eve,  day,  and  morrow  of  the  feast  of  St  Augustine  and  for  five 
following  days.  After  the  countess's  death  the  manor  came  to 
the  hands  of  Edward  I.  In  1 280  it  was  found  by  an  inquisition 
that  the  men  of  Hedon  "  were  few  and  poor  "  and  that  if  the  town 
were  demised  at  a  fee-farm  rent  the  town  might  improve.  The 
grant,  however,  does  not  appear  to  have  been  made  until  1346. 
Besides  this  charter  Edward  III.  also  granted  the  burgesses  the 
privilege  of  electing  a  mayor  and  bailiffs  every  year.  At  that  time 
Hedon  was  one  of  the  chief  ports  in  the  Humber,  but  its  place  was 
gradually  taken  by  Hull  after  that  town  came  into  the  hands  of 
the  king.  Hedon  was  incorporated  by  Charles  II.  in  1661,  and 
James  II.  in  1680  gave  the  burgesses  another  charter  granting 
among  other  privileges  that  of  holding  two  extra  fairs,  but  of 
this  they  never  appear  to  have  taken  advantage.  The  burgesses 
returned  two  members  to  parliament  in  1295,  and  from  1547  to 
1832  when  the  borough  was  disfranchised. 

See  Victoria  County  History,  Yorkshire;  J.  R.  Boyle,  The  Early 
History  of  the  Town  and  Port  of  Hedon  (Hull  and  York,  1895) ;  G.  H. 
Park,  History  of  the  Ancient  Borough  of  Hedon  (Hull,  1895). 

HEDONISM  (Gr.  •fiSovri,  pleasure,  from  iJ56s,  sweet,  pleasant), 
in  ethics,  a  general  term  for  all  theories  of  conduct  in  which  the 
criterion  is  pleasure  of  one  kind  or  another.  Hedonistic  theories 
of  conduct  have  been  held  from  the  earliest  times,  though  they 
have  been  by  no  means  of  the  same  character.  Moreover, 
hedonism  has,  especially  by  its  critics,  been  very  much  mis- 
represented owing  mainly  to  two  simple  misconceptions,  In  the 
first  place  hedonism  may  confine  itself  to  the  view  that,  as  a 
matter  of  observed  fact,  all  men  do  in  practice  make  pleasure  the 
criterion  of  action,  or  it  may  go  further  and  assert  that  men  ought 
to  seek  pleasure  as  the  sole  human  good.  The  former  statement 
takes  no  view  as  to  whether  or  not  there  is  any  absolute  good: 
it  merely  denies  that  men  aim  at  anything  more  than  pleasure. 
The  latter  statement  admits  an  ideal,  summum  bonum — namely, 
pleasure.  The  second  confusion  is  the  tacit  assumption  that  the 
pleasure  of  the  hedonist  is  necessarily  or  characteristically  of  a 
purely  physical  kind;  this  assumption  is  in  the  case  of  some 
hedonistic  theories  a  pure  perversion  of  the  facts.  Practically  all 
hedonists  have  argued  that  what  are  known  as  the  "  lower  " 
pleasures  are  not  only  ephemeral  in  themselves  but  also  pro- 
ductive of  so  great  an  amount  of  consequent  pain  that  the  wise 
man  cannot  regard  them  as  truly  pleasurable;  the  sane  hedonist 
will,  therefore,  seek  those  so-called  "  higher  "  pleasures  which 
are  at  once  more  lasting  and  less  likely  to  be  discounted  by 
consequent  pain.  It  should  be  observed,  however,  that  this 
choice  of  pleasures  by  a  hedonist  is  conditioned  not  by  "  moral  " 
(absolute)  but  by  prudential  (relative)  considerations. 

The  earliest  and  the  most  extreme  type  of  hedonism  is  that 
of  the  Cyrenaic  School  as  stated  by  Aristippus,  who  argued  that 
the  only  good  for  man  is  the  sentient  pleasure  of  the  moment. 
Since  (following  Protagoras)  knowledge  is  solely  of  momentary 
sensations,  it  is  useless  to  try,  as  Socrates  recommended,  to  make 
calculations  as  to  future  pleasures,  and  to  balance  present  enjoy- 
ment with  disagreeable  consequences.  The  true  art  of  life  is  to 
crowd  as  much  enjoyment  as  possible  into  every  moment.  This 
extreme  or  "  pure  "  hedonism  regarded  as  a  definite  philosophic 
theory  practically  died  with  the  Cyrenaics,  though  the  same 
spirit  has  frequently  found  expression  in  ancient  and  modern, 
especially  poetical,  literature. 

The  confusion  already  alluded  to  between  "  pure "  and 
"  rational  "  hedonism  is  nowhere  more  clearly  exemplified  than 
in  the  misconceptions  which  have  arisen  as  to  the  doctrine  oi 


i98 


HEEL— HEEMSKERK,  J.  VAN 


the  Epicureans.  To  identify  Epicureanism  with  Cyrenaicism 
is  a  complete  misunderstanding.  It  is  true  that  pleasure  is  the 
summum  bonum  of  Epicurus,  but  his  conception  of  that  pleasure 
is  profoundly  modified  by  the  Socratic  doctrine  of  prudence 
and  the  eudaemonism  of  Aristotle.  The  true  hedonist  will  aim 
at  a  life  of  enduring  rational  happiness;  pleasure  is  the  end  of 
life,  but  true  pleasure  can  be  obtained  only  under  the  guidance 
of  reason.  Self-control  in  the  choice  of  pleasures  with  a  view 
to  reducing  pain  to  a  minimum  is  indispensable.  "  Of  all  this, 
the  beginning,  and  the  greatest  good,  is  prudence."  The  negative 
side  of  Epicurean  hedonism  was  developed  to  such  an  extent  by 
some  members  of  the  school  (see  HEGESIAS)  that  the  ideal  life 
is  held  to  be  rather  indifference  to  pain  than  positive  enjoyment. 
This  pessimistic  attitude  is  far  removed  from  the  positive 
hedonism  of  Aristippus. 

Between  the  hedonism  of  the  ancients  and  that  of  modern 
philosophers  there  lies  a  great  gulf.  Practically  speaking 
ancient  hedonism  advocated  the  happiness  of  the  individual: 
the  modern  hedonism  of  Hume,  Bentham  and  Mill  is  based  on  a 
wider  conception  of  life.  The  only  real  happiness  is  the  happiness 
of  the  community,  or  at  least  of  the  majority:  the  criterion  is 
society,  not  the  individual.  Thus  we  pass  from  Egoistic  to 
Universalistic  hedonism,  Utilitarianism,  Social  Ethics,  more 
especially  in  relation  to  the  still  broader  theories  of  evolution. 
These  theories  are  confronted  by  the  problem  of  reconciling  and 
adjusting  the  claims  of  the  individual  with  those  of  society. 
One  of  the  most  important  contributions  to  the  discussion  is  that 
of  Sir  Leslie  Stephen  (Science  of  Ethics),  who  elaborated  a  theory 
of  the  "  social  organism  "  in  relation  to  the  individual.  The  end 
ot  the  evolution  process  is  the  production  of  a  "  social  tissue  " 
which  will  be  "  vitally  efficient."  Instead,  therefore,  of  the 
criterion  of  "  the  greatest  happiness  of  the  greatest  number," 
Stephen  has  that  of  the  "  health  of  the  organism."  Life  is  not 
"  a  series  of  detached  acts,  in  each  of  which  a  man  can  calculate 
the  sum  of  happiness  or  misery  attainable  by  different  courses." 
Each  action  must  be  regarded  as  directly  bearing  upon  the 
structure  of  society. 

A  criticism  of  the  various  hedonistic  theories  will  be  found  in  the 
article  ETHICS  (ad  fin.).  See  also,  beside  works  quoted  under 
CYRENAICS,  EPICURUS,  &c.,  and  the  general  histories  of  philosophy, 
J.  S.  Mackenzie,  Manual  of  Ethics  (3rd  ed.,  1897) ;  J.  H.  Muirhead, 
Elements  of  Ethics  (1892);  J.  Watson,  Hedonistic  Theories  (1895), 
J.  Martineau,  Types  of  Ethical  Theory  (2nd  ed.,  1886) ;  F.  H.  Bradley, 
Ethical  Studies  (1876);  H.  Sidgwick,  Methods  of  Ethics  |(6th  ed., 
1901);  Jas.  Seth,  Ethical  Principles  (3rd  ed.,  1898);  other  works 
quoted  under  ETHICS. 

HEEL,  (i)  (O.  Eng.  hela,  cf.  Dutch  hid;  a  derivative  of  O.  Eng. 
hoh,  hough,  hock),  that  part  of  the  foot  in  man  which  is  situated 
below  and  behind  the  ankle;  by  analogy,  the  calcaneal  part 
of  the  tarsus  in  other  vertebrates.  The  heel  proper  in  digitigrades 
and  ungulates  is  raised  off  the  ground  and  is  commonly  known  as 
the  "knee"  or  "hock,"  while  the  term  "heel"  is  applied  to  the 
hind  hoofs.  (2)  (A  variant  of  the  earlier  hield;  cf.  Dutch  hellen, 
for  helderi),  to  turn  over  to  one  side,  especially  of  a  ship.  It  is 
this  word  probably,  in  the  sense  of  "  tip-up,"  used  particularly 
of  the  tilting  or  tipping  of  a  cask  or  barrel  of  liquor,  that  explains 
the  origin  of  the  expression  "  no  heel-taps,"  a  direction  to  the 
drinkers  of  a  toast  to  drain  their  glasses  and  leave  no  dregs 
remaining.  "  Tap  "  is  a  common  word  for  liquor,  and  a  cask 
is  said  to  be  "  heeled  "  when  it  is  tipped  and  only  dregs  or 
muddy  liquor  are  left.  This  suits  the  actual  sense  of  the  phrase 
better  than  the  explanations  which  connect  it  with  tapping  the 
"  heel  "  or  bottom  of  the  glass  (see  Notes  and  Queries,  4th  series, 
vols.  xi.-xii.,  and  sth  series,  vol.  i.). 

HEEM,  JAN  DAVIDSZ  VAN  (or  JOHANNES DE),'(C.  i6oo-c.i683), 
Dutch  painter.  He  was,  if  not  the  first,  certainly  the  greatest 
painter  of  still  life  in  Holland;  no  artist  of  his  class  combined 
more  successfully  perfect  reality  of  form  and  colour  with  brilliancy 
and  harmony  of  tints.  No  object  of  stone  or  silver,  no  flower 
humble  or  gorgeous,  no  fruit  of  Europe  or  the  tropics,  no  twig 
or  leaf,  with  which  he  was  not  familiar.  Sometimes  he  merely 
represented  a  festoon  or  a  nosegay.  More  frequently  he  worked 
with  a  purpose  to  point  a  moral  or  illustrate  a  motto.  Here 


the  snake  lies  coiled  under  the  grass,  there  a  skull  rests  on 
blooming  plants.  Gold  and  silver  tankards  or  cups  suggest 
the  vanity  of  earthly  possessions;  salvation  is  allegorized  in  a 
chalice  amidst  blossoms,  death  as  a  crucifix  inside  a  wreath. 
Sometimes  de  Heem  painted  alone,  sometimes  in  company  with 
men  of  his  school,  Madonnas  or  portraits  surrounded  by  festoons 
of  fruit  or  flowers.  At  one  time  he  signed  with  initials,  at  others 
with  Johannes,  at  others  again  with  the  name  of  his  father 
joined  to  his  own.  At  rare  intervals  he  condescended  to  a  date, 
and  when  he  did  the  work  was  certainly  of  the  best.  De  Heem 
entered  the  gild  of  Antwerp  in  1635-1636,  and  became  a  burgher 
of  that  city  in  1637.  He  steadily  maintained  his  residence  till 
1667,  when  he  moved  to  Utrecht,  where  traces  of  his  presence 
are  preserved  in  records  of  1668, 1669  and  1670.  It  is  not  known 
when  he  finally  returned  to  Antwerp,  but  his  death  is  recorded 
in  the  gild  books  of  that  place.  A  very  early  picture,  dated 
1628,  in  the  gallery  of  Gotha,  bearing  the  signature  of  Johannes 
in  full,  shows  that  de  Heem  at  that  time  was  familiar  with  the 
technical  habits  of  execution  peculiar  to  the  youth  of  Albert 
Cuyp.  In  later  years  he  completely  shook  off  dependence, 
and  appears  in  all  the  vigour  of  his  own  originality. 

Out  of  100  pictures  or  more  to  be  met  with  in  European 
galleries  scarcely  eighteen  are  dated.  The  earliest  after  that  of 
Gotha  is  a  chased  tankard,  with  a  bottle,  a  silver  cup,  and  a 
lemon  on  a  marble  table,  dated  1640,  in  the  museum  of 
Amsterdam.  A  similar  work  of  1645,  with  the  addition  of 
fruit  and  flowers  and  a  distant  landscape,  is  in  Lord  Radnor's 
collection  at  Longford.  A  chalice  in  a  wreath,  with  the  radiant 
host  amidst  wheatsheaves;  grapes  and  flowers,  is  a  masterpiece 
of  1648  in  the  Belvedere  of  Vienna.  A  wreath  round  a  Madonna 
of  life  size,  dated  1650,  in  the  museum  of  Berlin,  shows  that  de 
Heem  could  paint  brightly  and  harmoniously  on  a  large  scale. 
In  the  Pinakothek  at  Munich  is  the  celebrated  composition  of 
1653,  in  which  creepers,  beautifully  commingled  with  gourds 
and  blackberries,  twigs  of  orange,  myrtle  and  peach,  are 
enlivened  by  butterflies,  moths  and  beetles.  A  landscape  with 
a  blooming  rose  tree,  a  jug  of  strawberries,  a  selection  of  fruit, 
and  a  marble  bust  of  Pan,  dated  1655,  is  in  the  Hermitage  at 
St  Petersburg;  an  allegory  of  abundance  in  a  medallion  wreathed 
with  fruit  and  flowers,  in  the  gallery  of  Brussels,  is  inscribed 
with  de  Heem's  monogram,  the  date  of  1668,  and  the  name  of 
an  obscure  artist  called  Lambrechts.  All  these  pieces  exhibit 
the  master  in  full  possession  of  his  artistic  faculties. 

CORNEIIUS  DE  HEEM,  the  son  of  Johannes,  was  in  practice 
as  a  flower  painter  at  Utrecht  in  1658,  and  was  still  active  in 
his  profession  in  1671  at  the  Hague.  His  pictures  are  not  equal 
to  those  of  his  father,  but  they  are  all  well  authenticated,  and 
most  of  them  in  the  galleries  of  the  Hague,  Dresden,  Cassel, 
Vienna  and  Berlin.  In  the  Staedel  at  Frankfort  is  a  fruit 
piece,  with  pot-herbs  and  a  porcelain  jug,  dated  1658;  another, 
dated  1671,  is  in  the  museum  of  Brussels.  DAVID  DE  HEEM, 
another  member  of  the  family,  entered  the  gild  of  Utrecht  in 
1668  and  that  of  Antwerp  in  1693.  The  best  piece  assigned 
to  him  is  a  table  with  a  lobster,  fruit  and  glasses,  in  the  gallery 
of  Amsterdam;  others  bear  his  signature  in  the  museums  of 
Florence,  St  Petersburg  and  Brunswick.  It  is  well  to  guard 
against  the  fallacy  that  David  de  Heem  above  mentioned  is 
the  father  of  Jan  de  Heem.  We  should  also  be  careful  not  to 
make  two  persons  of  the  first  artist,  who  sometimes  signs 
Johannes,  sometimes  Jan  Davidsz  or  J.  D.  Heem. 

HEEMSKERK,  JOHAN  VAN  (1597-1656),  Dutch  poet,  was 
born  at  Amsterdam  in  1597.  He  was  educated  as  a  child  at 
Bayonne,  and  entered  the  university  of  Leiden  in  1617.  In 
1621  he  went  abroad  on  the  grand  tour,  leaving  behind  him  his 
first  volume  of  poems,  Minnekunst  (The  Art  of  Love),  which 
appeared  in  1622.  He  was  absent  from  Holland  four  years.  He 
was  made  master  of  arts  at  Bourges  in  1623,  and  in  1624  visited 
Hugo  Grotius  in  Paris.  On  his  return  in  1625  he  published 
Minnepligt  (The  Duty  of  Love),  and  began  to  practise  as  an 
advocate  in  the  Hague.  In  1628  he  was  sent  to  England  in  his 
legal  capacity  by  the  Dutch  East  India  Company,  to  settle  the 
dispute  respecting  Amboyna.  In  the  same  year  he  published 


HEEMSKERK,  M.  J.— HEEREN 


the  poem  entitled  Minnekunde,  or  the  Science  of  Love.  He 
proceeded  to  Amsterdam  in  1640,  where  he  married  Alida, 
sister  of  the  statesman  Van  Beuningen.  In  1641  he  published 
a  Dutch  version  of  Corneille's  The  Cid,  a  tragi-comedy,  and  in 
1647  his  most  famous  work,  the  pastoral  romance  of  Batavische 
Arcadia,  which  he  had  written  ten  years  before.  During  the 
last  twelve  years  of  his  life  Heemskerk  sat  in  the  upper  chamber 
of  the  states-general.  He  died  at  Amsterdam  on  the  27th  of 
February  1656. 

The  poetry  of  Heemskerk,  which  fell  into  oblivion  during  the 
i8th  century,  is  once  more  read  and  valued.  His  famous  pastoral, 
the  Batavische  Arcadia,  which  was  founded  on  the  Astree  of  Honor6 
d'Urfd,  enjoyed  a  great  popularity  for  more  than  a  century,  and 
passed  through  twelve  editions.  It  provoked  a  host  of  more  or  less 
able  imitations,  of  which  the  most  distinguished  were  the  Dor- 
drechtsche  Arcadia  (1663)  of  Lambert  van  den  Bos  (1610-1698),  the 
Saanlandsche  Arcadia  (1658)  of  Hendrik  Sooteboom  (1616-1678) 
and  the  Rotterdamsche  Arcadia  (1703)  of  Willem  den  Elger  (d.  1703). 
But  the  original  work  of  Heemskerk,  in  which  a  party  of  nymphs 
and  shepherds  go  out  from  the  Hague  to  Katwijk,  and  there  indulge 
in  polite  and  pastoral  discourse,  surpasses  all  these  in  brightness  and 
versatility. 

HEEMSKERK,  MARTIN  JACOBSZ  (1498-1574),  Dutch 
painter,  sometimes  called  Van  Veen,  was  born  at  Heemskerk  in 
Holland  in  1498,  and  apprenticed  by  his  father,  a  small  farmer, 
to  Cornelisz  Willemsz,  a  painter  at  Haarlem.  Recalled  after  a 
time  to  the  paternal  homestead  and  put  to  the  plough  or  the 
milking  of  cows,  young  Heemskerk  took  the  first  opportunity 
that  offered  to  run  away,  and  demonstrated  his  wish  to  leave 
home  for  ever  by  walking  in  a  single  day  the  50  miles  which 
separate  his  native  hamlet  from  the  town  of  Delft.  There  he 
studied  under  a  local  master  whom  he  soon  deserted  for  John 
Schoreel  of  Haarlem.  At  Haarlem  he  formed  what  is  known  as 
his  first  manner,  which  is  but  a  quaint  and  gauche  imitation  of  the 
florid  style  brought  from  Italy  by  Mabuse  and  others.  He  then 
started  on  a  wandering  tour,  during  which  he  visited  the  whole  of 
northern  and  central  Italy,  stopping  at  Rome,  where  he  had 
letters  for  a  cardinal.  It  is  evidence  of  the  facility  with  which  he 
acquired  the  rapid  execution  of  a  scene-painter  that  he  was 
selected  to  co-operate  with  Antonio  da  San  Gallo,  Battista 
Franco  and  Francesco  Salviati  to  decorate  the  triumphal  arches 
erected  at  Rome  in  April  1536  in  honour  of  Charles  V.  Vasari, 
who  saw  the  battle-pieces  which  Heemskerk  then  produced,  says 
they  were  well  composed  and  boldly  executed.  On  his  return  to 
the  Netherlands  he  settled  at  Haarlem,  where  he  soon  (1540) 
became  president  of  his  gild,  married  twice,  and  secured  a  large 
and  lucrative  practice.  In  1572  he  left  Haarlem  for  Amsterdam, 
to  avoid  the  siege  which  the  Spaniards  laid  to  the  place,  and 
there  he  made  a  will  which  has  been  preserved,  and  shows  that  he 
had  lived  long  enough  and  prosperously  enough  to  make  a  fortune. 
At  his  death,  which  took  place  on  the  ist  of  October  1574,  he  left 
money  and  land  in  trust  to  the  orphanage  of  Haarlem,  with 
interest  to  be  paid  yearly  to  any  couple  who  should  be  willing  to 
perform  the  marriage  ceremony  on  the  slab  of  his  tomb  in  the 
cathedral  of  Haarlem.  It  was  a  superstition  which  still  exists  in 
Catholic  Holland  that  a  marriage  so  celebrated  would  secure  the 
peace  of  the  dead  within  the  tomb. 

The  works  of  Heemskerk  are  still  very  numerous.  "  Adam  and 
Eve,"  and  "  St  Luke  painting  the  Likeness  of  the  Virgin  and 
Child  "  in  presence  of  a  poet  crowned  with  ivy  leaves,  and  a  parrot 
in  a  cage — an  altar-piece  in  the  gallery  of  Haarlem,  and  the 
"Ecce  Homo"  in  the  museum  of  Ghent,  are  characteristic  works 
of  the  period  preceding  Heemskerk's  visit  to  Italy.  An  altar-piece 
executed  for  St  Laurence  of  Alkmaar  in  1538-1 541,  and  composed 
of  at  least  a  dozen  large  panels,  would,  if  preserved,  have  given 
us  a  clue  to  his  style  after  his  return  from  the  south.  In  its 
absence  we  have  a  "  Crucifixion  "  executed  for  the  Riches  Claires 
at  Ghent  (now  in  the  Ghent  Museum)  in  1543,  and  the  altar-piece 
of  the  Drapers  Company  at  Haarlem,  now  in  the  gallery  of  the 
Hague,  and  finished  in  1 546.  In  these  we  observe  that  Heems- 
kerk studied  and  repeated  the  forms  which  he  had  seen  at  Rome 
in  the  works  of  Michelangelo  and  Raphael,  and  in  Lombardy  in 
the  frescoes  of  Mantegna  and  Giulio  Romano.  But  he  never  forgot 
the  while  his  Dutch  origin  or  the  models  first  presented  to  him  by 


199 

Schoreel  and  Mabuse.  As  late  as  1551  his  memory  still  served 
him  to  produce  a  copy  from  Raphael's  "  Madonna  di  Loretto  " 
(gallery  of  Haarlem).  A  "  Judgment  of  Momus,"  dated  1561,  in 
the  Berlin  Museum,  proves  him  to  have  been  well  acquainted 
with  anatomy,  but  incapable  of  selection  and  insensible  of  grace, 
bold  of  hand  and  prone  to  daring  though  tawdry  contrasts  of 
colour,  and  fond  of  florid  architecture.  Two  altar-pieces  which 
he  finished  for  churches  at  Delft  in  1551  and  1559,  one  complete, 
the  other  a  fragment,  in  the  museum  of  Haarlem,  a  third  of  1551  in 
the  Brussels  Museum, representing  "Golgotha,"  the  "Crucifixion," 
the  "  Flight  into  Egypt,"  "  Christen  the  Mount,"  and  scenes  from 
the  lives  of  St  Bernard  and  St  Benedict,  are  all  fairly  representa- 
tive of  his  style.  Besides  these  we  have  the  "  Crucifixion  "  in  the 
Hermitage  of  St  Petersburg,  and  two  "  Triumphsof  Silenus  "  in  the 
gallery  of  Vienna,  in  which  the  same  relation  to  Giulio  Romano 
may  be  noted  as  we  mark  in  the  canvases  of  Rinaldo  of  Mantua. 
Other  pieces  of  varying  importance  are  in  the  galleries  of 
Rotterdam,  Munich,  Cassel,  Brunswick,  Karlsruhe,  Mainz  and 
Copenhagen.  In  England  the  master  is  best  known  by  his 
drawings.  A  comparatively  feeble  picture  by  him  is  the 
"  Last  Judgment  "  in  the  palace  of  Hampton  Court. 

HEER,  OSWALD  (1809-1883),  Swiss  geologist  and  naturalist, 
was  born  at  Nieder-Utzwyl  in  Canton  St  Gallen  on  the  sist  of 
August  1809.  He  was  educated  as  a  clergyman  and  took  holy 
orders,  and  he  also  graduated  as  doctor  of  philosophy  and 
medicine. '  Early  in  life  his  interest  was  aroused  in  entomology, 
on  which  subject  he  acquired  special  knowledge,  and  later  he  took 
up  the  study  of  plants  and  became  one  of  the  pioneers  in  palaeo- 
botany,  distinguished  for  his  researches  on  the  Miocene  flora.  In 
1851  he  became  professor  of  botany  in  the  university  of  Zurich, 
and  he  directed  his  attention  to  the  Tertiary  plants  and  insects  of 
Switzerland.  For  some  time  he  was  director  of  the  botanic 
garden  at  Zurich.  In  1863  (with  W.  Pengelly,  Phil.  Trans., 
1862)  he  investigated  the  plant-remains  from  the  lignite-deposits 
of  Bovey  Tracey  in  Devonshire,  regarding  them  as  of  Miocene 
age;  but  they  are  now  classed  as  Eocene.  Heer  also  reported 
on  the  Miocene  flora  of  Arctic  regions,  on  the  plants  of  the 
Pleistocene  lignites  of  Durnten  on  lake  Zurich,  and  on  the  cereals 
of  some  of  the  lake-dwellings  (Die  Pflanzen  der  Pfahlbauten, 
1866).  During  a  great  part  of  his  career  he  was  hampered  by 
slender  means  and  ill-health,  but  his  services  to  science  were 
acknowledged  in  1873  when  the  Geological  Society  of  London 
awarded  to  him  the  Wollaston  medal.  Dr  Heer  died  at  Lausanne 
on  the  27th  of  September  1883.  He  published  Flora  Tertiaria 
Hehetiae  (3  vols.,  1855-1859) ;  Die  Urwelt  der  Schweiz  (1865),  and 
Flora  fossttis  Arctica  (1868-1883). 

HEEREN,  ARNOLD  HERMANN  LUDWIG  (1760-1842), 
German  historian,  was  born  on  the  25th  of  October  1760  at 
Arbergen,  near  Bremen.  He  studied  philosophy,  theology  and 
history  at  Gottingen,  and  thereafter  travelled  in  France,  Italy 
and  the  Netherlands.  In  1787  he  was  appointed  one  of  the 
professors  of  philosophy,  and  then  of  history  at  Gottingen,  and 
he  afterwards  was  chosen  aulic  councillor,  privy  councillor,  &c., 
the  usual  rewards  of  successful  German  scholars.  He  died  at 
Gottingen  on  the  6th  of  March  1842.  Heeren's  great  merit  as  an 
historian  was  that  he  regarded  the  states  of  antiquity  from  an 
altogether  fresh  point  of  view.  Instead  of  limiting  himself  to  a 
narration  of  their  political  events,  he  examined  their  economic 
relations,  their  constitutions,  their  financial  systems,  and  thus 
was  enabled  to  throw  a  new  light  on  the  development  of  the  old 
world.  He  possessed  vast  and  varied  learning,  perfect  calmness 
and  impartiality,  and  great  power  of  historical  insight,  and  is 
now  looked  back  to  as  the  pioneer  in  the  movement  for  the 
economic  interpretation  of  history. 

Heeren's  chief  works  are :  Ideen  iiber  Politik,  den  Verkehr,  und  den 
Handel  der  vornehmsten  Volker  der  alien  Welt  (2  vols.,  Gottingen, 
1793-1796;  4th  ed.,  6  vols.,  1824-1826;  Eng.  trans.,  Oxford, 
1833);  Geschichte  des  Studiums  der  klassischen  Litteratur  seit  dem 
Wiederaufleben  der  Wissenschaften  (2  vols.,  Gottingen,  1797-1802; 
new  ed.,  1822);  Geschichte  der  Staaten  des  Altertums  (Gottingen, 
1799;  Eng.  trans.,  Oxford,  1840);  Geschichte  des  europdischen 
Staalensyslems  (Gottingen,  1800;  5th  ed.,  1830;  Eng.  trans., 
1834);  Versuch  einer  Entwickelung  der  Foleen  der  Kreuzzuge  (G6t- 
tingen,  1808;  French  trans.,  Paris,  1808),  a  prize  essay  of  the 


200 


HEFELE— HEGEL 


Institute  of  France.  Besides  these,  Heeren  wrote  brief  biographical 
sketches  of  Johann  von  M  tiller  (Leipzig,  1809);  Ludwig  Spittler 
(Berlin,  1812);  and  Christian  Heyne  (Gottingen,  1813).  With 
Friedrich  August  Ukert  (1780-1851)  he  founded  the  famous  historical 
collection,  Geschichte  der  europdischen  Staaten  (Gotha,  1819  seq.), 
and  contributed  many  papers  to  learned  periodicals. 

A  collection  of  his  historical  works,  with  autobiographical  notice, 
was  published  in  15  volumes  (Gottingen,  1821-1830). 

HEFELE,  KARL  JOSEF  VON  (1809-1893),  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Unterkochen  in  Wurttemberg  on  the  i  sth  of  March 
1809,  and  was  educated  at  Tubingen,  where  in  1839  he  became 
professor-ordinary  of  Church  history  and  patristics  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  faculty  of  theology.  From  1842  to  1845  ne  sat  in  the 
National  Assembly  of  Wurttemberg.  In  December  1869  he  was 
enthroned  bishop  of  Rottenburg.  His  literary  activity,  which 
had  been  considerable,  was  in  no  way  diminished  by  his  elevation 
to  the  episcopate.  Among  his  numerous  theological  works  may 
be  mentioned  his  well-known  edition  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers, 
issued  in  1839;  his  Life  of  Cardinal  Ximenes,  published  in  1844 
(Eng.  trans.,  1860);  and  his  still  more  celebrated  History  of  the 
Councils  of  the  Church,  in  seven  volumes,  which  appeared  between 
1855  and  1874  (Eng.  trans.,  1871,  1882).  Hefele's  theological 
opinions  inclined  towards  the  more  liberal  school  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  but  he  nevertheless  received  considerable  signs 
of  favour  from  its  authorities,  and  was  a  member  of  the  com- 
mission that  made  preparations  for  the  Vatican  Council  of  1870. 
On  the  eve  of  that  council  he  published  at  Naples  his  Causa 
Honorii  Papae,  which  aimed  at  demonstrating  the  moral  and 
historical  impossibility  of  papal  infallibility.  About  the  same 
time  he  brought  out  a  work  in  German  on  the  same  subject.  He 
took  rather  a  prominent  part  in  the  discussions  at  the  council, 
associating  himself  with  Felix  Dupanloup  and  with  Georges 
Darboy,  archbishop  of  Paris,  in  his  opposition  to  the  doctrine 
of  Infallibility,  and  supporting  their  arguments  from  his  vast 
knowledge  of  ecclesiastical  history.  In  the  preliminary  discussions 
he  voted  against  the  promulgation  of  the  dogma.  He  was  absent 
from  the  important  sitting  of  the  i8th  of  June  1870,  and  did  not 
send  in  his  submission  to  the  decrees  until  1871,  when  he  explained 
in  a  pastoral  letter  that  the  dogma  "  referred  only  to  doctrine 
given  forth  ex  cathedra,  and  therein  to  the  definitions  proper  only, 
but  not  to  its  proofs  or  explanations."  In  1872  he  took  part  in 
the  congress  summoned  by  the  Ultramontanes  at  Fulda,  and  by 
his  judicious  use  of  minimizing  tactics  he  kept  his  diocese  free 
from  any  participation  in  the  Old  Catholic  schism.  The  last  four 
volumes  of  the  second  edition  of  his  History  of  the  Councils  have 
been  described  as  skilfully  adapted  to  the  new  situation  created 
by  the  Vatican  decrees.  During  the  later  years  of  his  life  he 
undertook  no  further  literary  efforts  on  behalf  of  his  church,  but 
retired  into  comparative  privacy.  He  died  on  the  6th  of  June 
1893. 

See  Herzog-Hauck's  Realencyklopadie,  vii.  525. 

HEGEL,  GEOR6  WILHELM  FRIEDRICH  (1770-1831), 
German  philosopher,  was  born  at  Stuttgart  on  the  27th  of  August 
1770.  His  father,  an  official  in  the  fiscal  service  of  Wurttemberg, 
is  not  otherwise  known  to  fame;  and  of  his  mother  we  hear 
only  that  she  had  scholarship  enough  to  teach  him  the  elements 
of  Latin.  He  had  one  sister,  Christiana,  who  died  unmarried, 
and  a  brother  Ludwig,  who  served  in  the  campaigns  of  Napoleon. 
At  the  grammar  school  of  Stuttgart,  where  Hegel  was  educated 
between  the  ages  of  seven  and  eighteen,  he  was  not  remarkable. 
His  main  productions  were  a  diary  kept  at  intervals  during 
eighteen  months  (1785-1787),  and  translations  of  the  Antigone, 
the  Manual  of  Epictetus,  &c.  But  the  characteristic  feature 
of  his  studies  was  the  copious  extracts  which  from  this  time 
onward  he  unremittingly  made  and  preserved.  This  collection, 
alphabetically  arranged,  comprised  annotations  on  classical 
authors,  passages  from  newspapers,  treatises  on  morals  and 
mathematics  from  the  standard  works  of  the  period.  In  this  way 
he  absorbed  in  their  integrity  the  raw  materials  for  elaboration. 
Yet  as  evidence  that  he  was  not  merely  receptive  we  have  essays 
already  breathing  that  admiration  of  the  classical  world  which  he 
never  lost.  His  chief  amusement  was  cards,  and  he  began  the 
habit  of  taking  snuff. 


In  the  autumn  of  1788  he  entered  at  Tubingen  as  a  student 
of  theology;  but  he  showed  no  interest  in  theology:  his  sermons 
were  a  failure,  and  he  found  more  congenial  reading  in  the  classics, 
on  the  advantages  of  studying  which  his  first  essay  was  written. 
After  two  years  he  took  the  degree  of  Ph.D.,  and  in  the  autumn 
of  1793  received  his  theological  certificate,  stating  him  to  be  of 
good  abilities,  but  of  middling  industry  and  knowledge,  and 
especially  deficient  in  philosophy. 

As  a  student,  his  elderly  appearance  gained  him  the  title 
"  Old  man,"  but  he  took  part  in  the  walks,  beer-drinking  and 
love-making  of  his  fellows.  He  gained  most  from  intellectual 
intercourse  with  his  contemporaries,  the  two  best  known  of 
whom  were  J.  C.  F.  Holderlin  and  Schelling.  With  Holderlin 
Hegel  learned  to  feel  for  the  old  Greeks  a  love  which  grew  stronger 
as  the  semi-Kantianized  theology  of  his  teachers  more  and  more 
failed  to  interest  him.  With  Schelling  like  sympathies  bound  him. 
They  both  protested  against  the  political  and  ecclesiastical 
inertia  of  their  native  state,  and  adopted  the  doctrines  of  freedom 
and  reason.  The  story  which  tells  how  the  two  went  out  one 
morning  to  dance  round  a  tree  of  liberty  in  a  meadow  is  an 
anachronism,  though  in  keeping  with  their  opinions. 

On  leaving  college,  he  became  a  private  tutor  at  Bern  and 
lived  in  intellectual  isolation.  He  was,  however,  far  from 
inactive.  He  compiled  a  systematic  account  of  the  fiscal  system 
of  the  canton  Bern,  but  the  main  factor  in  his  mental  growth 
came  from  his  study  of  Christianity.  Under  the  impulse  given 
by  Lessing  and  Kant  he  turned  to  the  original  records  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  attempted  to  construe  for  himself  the  real  significance 
of  Christ.  He  wrote  a  life  of  Jesus,  in  which  Jesus  was  simply 
the  son  of  Joseph  and  Mary.  He  did  not  stop  to  criticize  as  a 
philologist,  and  ignored  the  miraculous.  He  asked  for  the  secret 
contained  in  the  conduct  and  sayings  of  this  man  which  made  him 
the  hope  of  the  human  race.  Jesus  appeared  as  revealing  the 
unity  with  God  in  which  the  Greeks  in  their  best  days  unwittingly 
rejoiced,  and  as  lifting  the  eyes  of  the  Jews  from  a  lawgiver  who 
metes  out  punishment  on  the  transgressor,  to  the  destiny  which 
in  the  Greek  conception  falls  on  the  just  no  less  than  on  the  unjust. 

The  interest  of  these  ideas  is  twofold.  In  Jesus  Hegel  finds  the 
expression  for  something  higher  than  mere  morality:  he  finds 
a  noble  spirit  which  rises  above  the  contrasts  of  virtue  and  vice 
into  the  concrete  life,  seeing  the  infinite  always  embracing  our 
finitude,  and  proclaiming  the  divine  which  is  in  man  and  cannot 
be  overcome  by  error  and  evil,  unless  the  man  close  his  eyes  and 
ears  to  the  godlike  presence  within  him.  In  religious  life,  in 
short,  he  finds  the  principle  which  reconciles  the  opposition 
of  the  temporal  mind.  But,  secondly,  the  general  source  of  the 
doctrine  that  life  is  higher  than  all  its  incidents  is  of  interest. 
He  does  not  free  himself  from  the  current  theology  either  by 
rational  moralizing  like  Kant,  or  by  bold  speculative  synthesis 
like  Fichte  and  Schelling.  He  finds  his  panacea  in  the  concrete 
life  of  humanity.  But  although  he  goes  to  the  Scriptures,  and 
tastes  the  mystical  spirit  of  the  medieval  saints,  the  Christ  of  his 
conception  has  traits  that  seem  borrowed  from  Socrates  and 
from  the  heroes  of  Attic  tragedy,  who  suffer  much  and  yet 
smile  gently  on  a  destiny  to  which  they  were  reconciled.  Instead 
of  the  Hebraic  doctrine  of  a  Jesus  punished  for  our  sins,  we 
have  the  Hellenic  idea  of  a  man  who  is  calmly  tranquil  in  the. 
consciousness  of  his  unity  with  God. 

During  these  years  Hegel  kept  up  a  slack  correspondence 
with  Schelling  and  Holderlin.  Schelling,  already  on  the  way 
to  fame,  kept  Hegel  abreast  with  German  speculation.  Both 
of  them  were  intent  on  forcing  the  theologians  into  the  daylight, 
and  grudged  them  any  aid  they  might  expect  from  Kant's 
postulation  of  God  and  immortality  to  crown  the  edifice  of  ethics. 
Meanwhile,  Holderlin  in  Jena  had  been  following  Fichte's  career 
with  an  enthusiasm  with  which  he  infected  Hegel. 

It  is  pleasing  to  turn  from  these  vehement  struggles  of  thought 
to  a  tour  which  Hegel  in  company  with  three  other  tutors  made 
through  the  Bernese  Oberland  in  July  and  August  1796.  Of  this 
tour  he  left  a  minute  diary.  He  was  delighted  with  the  varied 
play  of  the  waterfalls,  but  no  glamour  blinded  him  to  the  squalor 
of  Swiss  peasant  life.  The  glaciers  and  the  rocks  called  forth  no 


HEGEL 


2OI 


raptures.  "  The  spectacle  of  these  eternally  dead  masses  gave 
me  nothing  but  the  monotonous  and  at  last  tedious  idea,  '  Es 
ist  so.'" 

Towards  the  close  of  his  engagement  at  Bern,  Hegel  had 
received  hopes  from  Schelling  of  a  post  at  Jena.  Fortunately 
his  friend  Holderlin,  now  tutor  in  Frankfort,  secured  a  similar 
situation  there  for  Hegel  in  the  family  of  Herr  Gogol,  a  merchant 
(January  1797).  The  new  post  gave  him  more  leisure  and  the 
society  he  needed. 

About  this  time  he  turned  to  questions  of  economics  and 
government.  He  had  studied  Gibbon,  Hume  and  Montesquieu 
in  Switzerland.  We  now  find  him  making  extracts  from  the 
English  newspapers  on  the  Poor-Law  Bill  of  1796;  criticising 
the  Prussian  land  laws,  promulgated  about  the  same  time; 
and  writing  a  commentary  on  Sir  James  Steuart's  Inquiry  into 
the  Principles  of  Political  Economy.  Here,  as  in  contemporaneous 
criticisms  of  Kant's  ethical  writings,  Hegel  aims  at  correcting 
the  abstract  discussion  of  a  topic  by  treating  it  in  its  systematic 
interconnexions.  Church  and  state,  law  and  morality,  com- 
merce and  art  are  reduced  to  factors  in  the  totality  of  human 
life,  from  which  the  specialists  had  isolated  them. 

But  the  best  evidence  of  Hegel's  attention  to  contemporary 
politics  is  two  unpublished  essays — one  of  them  written  in  1798, 
"  On  the  Internal  Condition  of  Wurttemberg  in  Recent  Times, 
particularly  on  the  Defects  in  the  Magistracy,"  the  other  a 
criticism  on  the  constitution  of  Germany,  written,  probably, 
not  long  after  the  peace  of  Luneville  (1801).  Both  essays  are 
critical  rather  than  constructive.  In  the  first  Hegel  showed  how 
the  supineness  of  the  committee  of  estates  in  Wurttemberg  had 
favoured  the  usurpations  of  the  superior  officials  in  whom  the 
court  had  found  compliant  servants.  And  though  he  perceived 
the  advantages  of  change  in  the  constitution  of  the  estates, 
he  still  doubted  if  an  improved  system  could  work  in  the  actual 
conditions  of  his  native  province.  The  main  feature  in  the 
pamphlet  is  the  recognition  that  a  spirit  of  reform  is  abroad. 
If  Wurttemberg  suffered  from  a  bureaucracy  tempered  by 
despotism,  the  Fatherland  in  general  suffered  no  less.  "  Ger- 
many," so  begins  the  second  of  these  unpublished  papers,  "  is 
no  longer  a  state."  Referring  the  collapse  of  the  empire  to 
the  retention  of  feudal  forms  and  to  the  action  of  religious 
animosities,  Hegel  looked  forward  to  reorganization  by  a  central 
power  (Austria)  wielding  the  imperial  army,  and  by  a  representa- 
tive body  elected  by  the  geographical  districts  of  the  empire. 
But  such  an  issue,  he  saw  well,  could  only  be  the  outcome  of 
violence — of  "  blood  and  iron.  "  The  philosopher  did  not  pose 
as  a  practical  statesman.  He  described  the  German  empire  in 
its  nullity  as  a  conception  without  existence  in  fact.  In  such  a 
state  of  things  it  was  the  business  of  the  philosopher  to  set  forth 
the  outlines  of  the  coming  epoch,  as  they  were  already  moulding 
themselves  into  shape,  amidst  what  the  ordinary  eye  saw  only 
as  the  disintegration  of  the  old  forms  of  social  life. 

His  old  interest  in  the  religious  question  reappears,  but  in  a 
more  philosophical  form.  Starting  with  the  contrast  between 
a  natural  and  a  positive  religion,  he  regards  a  positive  religion 
as  one  imposed  upon  the  mind  from  without,  not  a  natural 
growth  crowning  the  round  of  human  life.  A  natural  religion, 
on  the  other  hand,  was  not,  he  thought,  the  one  universal 
religion  of  every  clime  and  age,  but  rather  the  spontaneous 
development  of  the  national  conscience  varying  in  varying 
circumstances.  A  people's  religion  completes  and  consecrates 
their  whole  activity:  in  it  the  people  rises  above  its  finite  life 
in  limited  spheres  to  an  infinite  life  where  it  feels  itself  all  at  one. 
Even  philosophy  with  Hegel  at  this  epoch  was  subordinate  to 
religion;  for  philosophy  must  never  abandon  the  finite  in  the 
search  for  the  infinite.  Soon,  however,  Hegel  adopted  a  view 
according  to  which  philosophy  is  a  higher  mode  of  apprehending 
the  infinite  than  even  religion. 

At  Frankfort,  meanwhile,  the  philosophic  ideas  of  Hegel 
first  assumed  the  proper  philosophic  form.  In  a  MS.  of  102 
quarto  sheets,  of  which  the  first  three  and  the  seventh  are 
wanting,  there  is  preserved  the  original  sketch  of  the  Hegelian 
system,  so  far  as  the  logic  and  metaphysics  and  part  of  the 


philosophy  of  nature  are  concerned.  The  third  part  of  the 
system — the  ethical  theory — seems  to  have  been  composed 
afterwards;  it  is  contained  in  its  first  draft  in  another  MS. 
of  30  sheets.  Even  these  had  been  preceded  by  earlier  Pytha- 
gorean constructions  envisaging  the  divine  life  in  divine  triangles. 

Circumstances  soon  put  Hegel  in  the  way  to  complete  these 
outlines.  His  father  died  in  January  1799;  and  the  slender 
sum  which  Hegel  received  as  his  inheritance,  3154  gulden  (about 
£260),  enabled  him  to  think  once  more  of  a  studious  life.  At 
the  close  of  1800  we  find  him  asking  Schelling  for  letters  of 
introduction  to  Bamberg,  where  with  cheap  living  and  good  beer 
he  hoped  to  prepare  himself  for  the  intellectual  excitement 
of  Jena.  The  upshot  was  that  Hegel  arrived  at  Jena  in  January 
1801.  An  end  had  already  come  to  the  brilliant  epoch  at  Jena, 
when  the  romantic  poets,  Tieck,  Novalis  and  the  Schlegels 
made  it  the  headquarters  of  their  fantastic  mysticism,  and  Fichte 
turned  the  results  of  Kant  into  the  banner  of  revolutionary 
ideas.  Schelling  was  the  main  philosophical  lion  of  the  time; 
and  in  some  quarters  Hegel  was  spoken  of  as  a  new  champion 
summoned  to  help  him  in  his  struggle  with  the  more  prosaic 
continuators  of  Kant.  Hegel's  first  performance  seemed  to 
justify  the  rumour.  It  was  an  essay  on  the  difference  between 
the  philosophic  systems  of  Fichte  and  Schelling,  tending  in  the 
main  to  support  the  latter.  Still  more  striking  was  the  agreement 
shown  in  the  Critical  Journal  of  Philosophy,  which  Schelling 
and  Hegel  wrof.e  conjointly  during  the  years  1802-1803.  So 
latent  was  the  difference  between  them  at  this  epoch  that  in 
one  or  two  cases  it  is  not  possible  to  determine  by  whom  the 
essay  was  written.  Even  at  a  later  period  foreign  critics  like 
Cousin  saw  much  that  was  alike  in  the  two  doctrines,  and  did  not 
hesitate  to  regard  Hegel  as  a  disciple  of  Schelling.  The  disserta- 
tion by  which  Hegel  qualified  for  the  position  of  Privatdozent 
(De  orbitis  planelarum)  was  probably  chosen  under  the  influence 
of  Schilling's  philosophy  of  nature.  It  was  an  unfortunate 
subject.  For  while  Hegel,  depending  on  a  numerical  proportion 
suggested  by  Plato,  hinted  in  a  single  sentence  that  it  might  be 
a  mistake  to  look  for  a  planet  between  Mars  and  Jupiter,  Giuseppe 
Piazzi  (q.v.)  had  already  discovered  the  first  of  the  asteroids 
(Ceres)  on  the  ist  of  January  1801.  Apparently  in  August,  when 
Hegel  qualified,  the  news  of  the  discovery  had  not  yet  reached 
him,  but  critics  have  made  this  luckless  suggestion  the  ground 
of  attack  on  a  priori  philosophy. 

Hegel's  lectures,  in  the  winter  of  1801-1802,  on  logic  and 
metaphysics  were  attended  by  about  eleven  students.  Later, 
in  1804,  we  find  him  with  a  class  of  about  thirty,  lecturing  on 
his  whole  system;  but  his  average  attendance  was  rather  less. 
Besides  philosophy,  he  once  at  least  lectured  on  mathematics. 
As  he  taught,  he  was  led  to  modify  his  original  system,  and  notice 
after  notice  of  his  lectures  promised  a  text-book  of  philosophy — 
which,  however,  failed  to  appear.  Meanwhile,  after  the  departure 
of  Schelling  from  Jena  in  the  middle  of  1803,  Hegel  was  left 
to  work  out  his  own  views.  Besides  philosophical  studies, 
where  he  now  added  Aristotle  to  Plato,  he  read  Homer  and  the 
Greek  tragedians,  made  extracts  from  books,  attended  lectures 
on  physiology,  and  dabbled  in  other  sciences.  On  his  own 
representation  at  Weimar,  he  was  in  February  1805  made  a 
professor  extraordinarius,  and  in  July  1806  drew  his  first  and 
only  stipend — 100  thalers.  At  Jena,  though  some  of  his  hearers 
became  attached  t<5  him,  Hegel  was  not  a  popular  lecturer  any 
more  than  K.  C.  F.  Krause  (q.v.).  The  ordinary  student  found 
J.  F.  Fries  (q.v.)  more  intelligible. 

Of  the  lectures  of  that  period  there  still  remain  considerable 
notes.  The  language  often  had  a  theological  tinge  (never 
entirely  absent),  as  when  the  "  idea  "  was  spoken  of,  or  "  the 
night  of  the  divine  mystery,"  or  the  dialectic  of  the  absolute 
called  the  "  course  of  the  divine  life.  "  Still  his  view  was  growing 
clearer,  and  his  difference  from  Schelling  more  palpable.  Both 
Schelling  and  Hegel  stand  in  a  relation  to  art,  but  while  the 
aesthetic  model  of  Schelling  was  found  in  the  contemporary 
world,  where  art  was  a  special  sphere  and  the  artist  a  separate 
profession  in  no  intimate  connexion  with  the  age  and  nation, 
the  model  of  Hegel  was  found  rather  in  those  works  of  national 


202 


HEGEL 


art  in  which  art  is  not  a  part  but  an  aspect  of  the  common  life, 
and  the  artist  is  not  a  mere  individual  but  a  concentration  of  the 
passion  and  power  of  beauty  in  the  whole  community.  "  Such 
art,"  says  Hegel,  "  is  the  common  good  and  the  work  of  all. 
Each  generation  hands  it  on  beautified  to  the  next;  each  has 
done  something  to  give  utterance  to  the  universal  thought. 
Those  who  are  said  to  have  genius  have  acquired  some  special 
aptitude  by  which  they  render  the  general  shapes  of  the  nation 
their  own  work,  one  in  one  point,  another  in  another.  What 
they  produce  is  not  their  invention,  but  the  invention  of  the  whole 
nation;  or  rather,  what  they  find  is  that  the  whole  nation  has 
found  its  true  nature.  Each,  as  it  were,  piles  up  his  stone. 
So  too  does  the  artist.  Somehow  he  has  the  good  fortune  to 
come  last,  and  when  he  places  his  stone  the  arch  stands  self- 
supported."  Hegel,  as  we  have  already  seen,  was  fully  aware 
of  the  change  that  was  coming  over  the  world.  "  A  new  epoch," 
he  says,  "  has  arisen.  It  seems  as  if  the  world-spirit  had  now 
succeeded  in  freeing  itself  from  all  foreign  objective  existence, 
and  finally  apprehending  itself  as  absolute  mind."  These  words 
come  from  lectures  on  the  history  of  philosophy,  which  laid 
the  foundation  for  his  Phanomenologie  des  Geistes  (Bamberg, 
1807). 

On  the  1 4th  of  October  1806  Napoleon  was  at  Jena.  Hegel, 
like  Goethe,  felt  no  patriotic  shudder  at  the  national  disaster, 
and  in  Prussia  he  saw  only  a  corrupt  and  conceited  bureaucracy. 
Writing  to  his  friend  F.  J.  Niethammer  (1766-1848)  on  the  day 
before  the  battle,  he  speaks  with  admiration  of  the  "  world-soul," 
the  emperor,  and  with  satisfaction  of  the  probable  overthrow 
of  the  Prussians.  The  scholar's  wish  was  to  see  the  clouds  of 
war  pass  away,  and  leave  thinkers  to  their  peaceful  work.  His 
manuscripts  were  his  main  care;  and  doubtful  of  the  safety 
of  his  last  despatch  to  Bamberg,  and  disturbed  by  the  French 
soldiers  in  his  lodgings,  he  hurried  off,  with  the  last  pages  of  the 
Phanomenologie,  to  take  refuge  in  the  pro-rector's  house.  Hegel's 
fortunes  were  now  at  the  lowest  ebb.  Without  means,  and 
obliged  to  borrow  from  Niethammer,  he  had  no  further  hopes 
from  the  impoverished  university.  He  had  already  tried  to  get 
away  from  Jena.  In  1805,  when  several  lecturers  left  in  con- 
sequence of  diminished  classes,  he  had  written  to  Johann  Heinrich 
Voss  (</.».),  suggesting  that  his  philosophy  might  find  more 
congenial  soil  in  Heidelberg;  but  the  application  bore  no  fruit. 
He  was,  therefore,  glad  to  become  editor  of  the  Bamberger 
Zeitung  (1807-1808).  Of  his  editorial  work  there  is  little  to  tell; 
no  leading  articles  appeared  in  his  columns.  It  was  not  a 
suitable  vocation,  and  he  gladly  accepted  the  rectorship  of  the 
Aegidien-gymnasium  in  Nuremberg,  a  post  which  he  held  from 
December  1808  to  August  1816.  Bavaria  at  this  time  was 
modernizing  her  institutions.  The  school  system  was  reorganized 
by  new  regulations,  in  accordance  with  which  Hegel  wrote  a 
series  of  lessons  in  the  outlines  of  philosophy — ethical,  logical 
and  psychological.  They  were  published  in  1840  by  Rosenkranz 
from  Hegel's  papers. 

As  a  teacher  and  master  Hegel  inspired  confidence  in  his 
pupils,  and  maintained  discipline  without  pedantic  interference 
in  their  associations  and  sports.  On  prize-days  his  addresses 
summing  up  the  history  of  the  school  year  discussed  some  topic 
of  general  interest.  Five  of  these  addresses  are  preserved. 
The  first  is  an  exposition  of  the  advantages  of  a  classical  training, 
when  it  is  not  confined  to  mere  grammar.  "  The  perfection 
and  grandeur  of  the  master-works  of  Greek  and  Roman  literature 
must  be  the  intellectual  bath,  the  secular  baptism,  which  gives 
the  first  and  unfading  tone  and  tincture  of  taste  and  science." 
In  another  address,  speaking  of  the  introduction  of  military 
exercises  at  school,  he  says:  "  These  exercises,  while  not  in- 
tended to  withdraw  the  students  from  their  more  immediate 
duty,  so  far  as  they  have  any  calling  to  it,  still  remind  them  of 
the  possibility  that  every  one,  whatever  rank  in  society  he  may 
belong  to,  may  one  day  have  to  defend  his  country  and  his  king, 
or  help  to  that  end.  This  duty,  which  is  natural  to  all,  was 
formerly  recognized  by  every  citizen,  though  whole  ranks  in 
the  state  have  become  strangers  to  the  very  idea  of  it." 

On  the  i6th  of  September  1811  Hegel  married  Marie  von 


Tucher  (twenty-two  years  his  junior)  of  Nuremberg.  She 
brought  her  husband  no  fortune,  but  the  marriage  was  entirely 
happy.  The  husband  kept  a  careful  record  of  income  and 
expenditure.  His  income  amounted  at  Nuremberg  to  1500 
gulden  (£130)  and  a  house;  at  Heidelberg,  as  professor,  he 
received  about  the  same  sum;  at  Berlin  about  3000  thalers 
(£3°°) •  Two  sons  were  born  to  them;  the  elder,  Karl,  became 
eminent  as  a  historian.  The  younger,  Immanuel,  was  born  on 
the  24th  of  September  1816.  Hegel's  letters  to  his  wife,  written 
during  his  solitary  holiday  tours  to  Vienna,  the  Netherlands 
and  Paris,  breathe  of  kindly  and  happy  affection.  Hegel  the 
tourist — recalling  happy  days  spent  together;  confessing  that, 
were  it  not  because  of  his  sense  of  duty  as  a  traveller,  he  would 
rather  be  at  home,  dividing  his  time  between  his  books  and  his 
wife;  commenting  on  the  shop  windows  at  Vienna;  describing 
the  straw  hats  of  the  Parisian  ladies — is  a  contrast  to  the  professor 
of  a  profound  philosophical  system.  But  it  shows  that  the 
enthusiasm  which  in  his  days  of  courtship  moved  him  to  verse 
had  blossomed  into  a  later  age  of  domestic  bliss. 

In  1812  appeared  the  first  two  volumes  of  his  Wissenschaft 
der  Logik,  and  the  work  was  completed  by  a  third  in  1816.  This 
work,  in  which  his  system  was  for  the  first  time  presented  in 
what,  with  a  few  minor  alterations,  was  its  ultimate  shape, 
found  some  audience  in  the  world.  Towards  the  close  of  his 
eighth  session  three  professorships  were  almost  simultaneously 
put  within  his  reach — at  Erlangen,  Berlin  and  Heidelberg. 
The  Prussian  offer  expressed  a  doubt  that  his  long  absence  from 
university  teaching  might  have  made  him  rusty,  so  he  accepted 
the  post  at  Heidelberg,  whence  Fries  had  just  gone  to  Jena 
(October  1816).  Only  four  hearers  turned  up  for  one  of  his 
courses.  Others,  however,  on  the  encyclopaedia  of  philosophy 
and  the  history  of  philosophy  drew  classes  of  twenty  to  thirty. 
While  he  was  there  Cousin  first  made  his  acquaintance,  but  a 
more  intimate  relation  dates  from  Berlin.  Among  his  pupils 
was  Hermann  F.  W.  Hinrichs  (<?.».),  to  whose  Religion  in  its 
Inward  Relation  to  Science  (1822)  Hegel  contributed  an  important 
preface.  The  strangest  of  his  hearers  was  an  Esthonian  baron, 
Boris  d'Yrkull,  who  after  serving  in  the  Russian  army  came  to 
Heidelberg  to  hear  the  wisdom  of  Hegel.  But  his  books  and 
his  lectures  were  alike  obscure  to  the  baron,  who  betook  himself 
by  Hegel's  advice  to  simpler  studies  before  he  returned  to  the 
Hegelian  system. 

At  Heidelberg  Hegel  was  active  in  a  literary  way  also.  In 
1817  he  brought  out  the  Encyklopadie  d.  philos.  Wissenschaften 
im  Grundrisse  (4th  ed.,  Berlin,  1817;  new  ed.,  1870)  for  use  at 
his  lectures.  It  is  the  only  exposition  of  the  Hegelian  system 
as  a  whole  which  we  have  direct  from  Hegel's  own  hand. 
Besides  this  work  he  wrote  two  reviews  for  the  Heidelberg 
Jahrbiicher — the  first  on  F.  H.  Jacobi,  the  other  a  political 
pamphlet  which  called  forth  violent  criticism.  It  was  entitled 
a  Criticism  on  the  Transactions  of  the  Estates  of  Wurttemberg  in 
1815-1816.  On  the  1 5th  of  March  1815  King  Frederick  of 
Wurttemberg,  at  a  meeting  of  the  estates  of  his  kingdom,  laid 
before  them  the  draft  of  a  new  constitution,  in  accordance  with 
the  resolutions  of  the  congress  of  Vienna.  Though  an  improve- 
ment on  the  old  constitution,  it  was  unacceptable  to  the  estates, 
jealous  of  their  old  privileges  and  suspicious  of  the  king's 
intentions.  A  decided  majority  demanded  the  restitution  of 
their  old  laws,  though  the  kingdom  now  included  a  large  popula- 
tion to  which  the  old  rights  were  strange.  Hegel  in  his  essay, 
which  was  republished  at  Stuttgart,  supported  the  royal  pro- 
posals, and  animadverted  on  the  backwardness  of  the  bureaucracy 
and  the  landed  interests.  In  the  main  he  was  right;  but  he 
forgot  too  much  the  provocation  they  had  received,  the  usurpa- 
tions and  selfishness  of  the  governing  family,  and  the  unpatriotic 
character  of  the  king. 

In  1818  Hegel  accepted  the  renewed  offer  of  the  chair  of 
philosophy  at  Berlin,  vacant  since  the  death  of  Fichte.  The 
hopes  which  this  offer  raised  of  a  position  less  precarious  than 
that  of  a  university  teacher  of  philosophy  were  in  one  sense 
disappointed;  for  more  than  a  professor  Hegel  never  became. 
But  his  influence  upon  his  pupils,  and  his  solidarity  with  the 


HEGEL 


203 


Prussian  government,  gave  him  a  position  such  as  few  professors 
have  held. 

In  1821  Hegel  published  the  Grundlinien  der  Philosophic  des 
Rechts  (2nd  ed.,  1840;  ed.  G.  J.  B.  Bolland,  1901;  Eng.  trans., 
Philosophy  of  Right,  by  S.  W.  Dyde,  1896).  It  is  a  combined 
system  of  moral  and  political  philosophy,  or  a  sociology  dominated 
by  the  idea  of  the  state.  It  turns  away  contemptuously  and 
fiercely  from  the  sentimental  aspirations  of  reformers  possessed 
by  the  democratic  doctrine  of  the  rights  of  the  omnipotent 
nation.  Fries  is  stigmatized  as  one  of  the  "  ringleaders  of 
shallowness  "  who  were  bent  on  substituting  a  fancied  tie  of 
enthusiasm  and  friendship  for  the  established  order  of  the  state. 
The  disciplined  philosopher,  who  had  devoted  himself  to  the 
task  of  comprehending  the  organism  of  the  state,  had  no  patience 
with  feebler  or  more  mercurial  minds  who  recklessly  laid  hands 
on  established  ordinances,  and  set  them  aside  where  they  con- 
travened humanitarian  sentiments.  With  the  principle  that 
whatever  is  real  is  rational,  and  whatever  is  rational  is  real, 
Hegel  fancied  that  he  had  stopped  the  mouths  of  political 
critics  and  constitution-mongers.  His  theory  was  not  a  mere 
formulation  of  the  Prussian  state.  Much  that  he  construed  as 
necessary  to  a  state  was  wanting  in  Prussia;  and  some  of  the 
reforms  already  introduced  did  not  find  their  place  in  his  system. 
Yet,  on  the  whole,  he  had  taken  his  side  with  the  government. 
Altenstein  even  expressed  his  satisfaction  with  the  book.  In 
his  disgust  at  the  crude  conceptions  of  the  enthusiasts,  who  had 
hoped  that  the  war  of  liberation  might  end  in  a  realm  of  internal 
liberty,  Hegel  had  forgotten  his  own  youthful  vows  recorded  in 
verse  to  Holderlin,  "  never,  never  to  live  in  peace  with  the 
ordinance  which  regulates  feeling  and  opinion."  And  yet  if 
we  look  deeper  we  see  that  this  is  no  worship  of  existing  powers. 
It  is  rather  due  to  an  overpowering  sense  of  the  value  of  organiza- 
tion— a  sense  that  liberty  can  never  be  dissevered  from  order, 
that  a  vital  interconnexion  between  all  the  parts  of  the  body 
politic  is  the  source  of  all  good,  so  that  while  he  can  find  nothing 
but  brute  weight  in  an  organized  public,  he  can  compare  the 
royal  person  in  his  ideal  form  of  constitutional  monarchy  to  the 
dot  upon  the  letter  i.  A  keen  sense  of  how  much  is  at  stake 
in  any  alteration  breeds  suspicion  of  every  reform. 

During  his  thirteen  years  at  Berlin  Hegel's  whole  soul  seems 
to  have  been  in  his  lectures.  Between  1823  and  1827  his  activity 
reached  its  maximum.  His  notes  were  subjected  to  perpetual 
revisions  and  additions.  We  can  form  an  idea  of  them  from  the 
shape  in  which  they  appear  in  his  published  writings.  Those  on 
Aesthetics,  on  the  Philosophy  of  Religion,  on  the  Philosophy  of 
History  and  on  .the  History  of  Philosophy,  have  been  published 
by  his  editors,  mainly  from  the  notes  of  his  students,  under 
their  separate  heads;  while  those  on  logic,  psychology  and  the 
philosophy  of  nature  are  appended  in  the  form  of  illustrative 
and  explanatory  notes  to  the  sections  of  his  Encyklopadie. 
During  these  years  hundreds  of  hearers  from  allpartsof  Germany, 
and  beyond,  came  under  his  influence.  His  fame  was  carried 
abroad  by  eager  or  intelligent  disciples.  At  Berlin  Henning 
served  to  prepare  the  intending  disciple  for  fuller  initiation  by 
the  master  himself.  Edward  Cans  (q.v.)  and  Heinrich  Gustav 
Hotho  (q.v.)  carried  the  method  into  special  spheres  of  inquiry. 
At  Halle  Hinrichs  maintained  the  standard  of  Hegelianism  amid 
the  opposition  or  indifference  of  his  colleagues. 

Three  courses  of  lectures  are  especially  the  product  of  his 
Berlin  period:  those  on  aesthetics,  the  philosophy  of  religion 
and  the  philosophy  of  history.  In  the  years  preceding  the 
revolution  of  1830,  public  interest,  excluded  from  political  life, 
turned  to  theatres,  concert-rooms  and  picture-galleries.  At 
these  Hegel  became  a  frequent  and  appreciative  visitor  and 
made  extracts  from  the  art-notes  in  the  newspapers.  In  his 
holiday  excursions,  the  interest  in  the  fine  arts  more  than  once 
took  him  out  of  his  way  to  see  some  old  painting.  At  Vienna 
in  1824  he  spent  every  moment  at  the  Italian  opera,  the  ballet 
and  the  picture-galleries.  In  Paris,  in  1827,  he  saw  Charles 
Kemble  and  an  English  company  play  Shakespeare.  This 
familiarity  with  the  facts  of  art,  though  neither  deep  nor  histori- 
cal, gave  a  freshness  to  his  lectures  on  aesthetics,  which,  as 


put  together  from  the  notes  of  1820,  1823,  1826,  are  in  many 
ways  the  most  successful  of  his  efforts. 

The  lectures  on  the  philosophy  of  religion  are  another  applica- 
tion of  his  method.  Shortly  before  his  death  he  had  prepared 
for  the  press  a  course  of  lectures  on  the  proofs  for  the  existence 
of  God.  In  his  lectures  on  religion  he  dealt  with  Christianity, 
as  in  his  philosophy  of  morals  he  had  regarded  the  state.  On 
the  one  hand  he  turned  his  weapons  against  the  rationalistic 
school,  who  reduced  religion  to  the  modicum  compatible  with 
an  ordinary  worldly  mind.  On  the  other  hand  he  criticized  the 
school  of  Schleiermacher,  who  elevated  feeling  to  a  place  in 
religion  above  systematic  theology.  His  middle  way  attempts 
to  show  that  the  dogmatic  creed  is  the  rational  development 
of  what  was  implicit  in  religious  feeling.  To  do  so,  of  course, 
philosophy  becomes  the  interpreter  and  the  superior.  To  the 
new  school  of  E.  W.  Hengstenberg,  which  regarded  Revelation 
itself  as  supreme,  such  interpretation  was  an  abomination. 

A  Hegelian  school  began  to  gather.  The  flock  included 
intelligent,  pupils,  empty-headed  imitators,  and  romantic  natures 
who  turned  philosophy  into  lyric  measures.  Opposition  and 
criticism  only  served  to  define  more  precisely  the  adherents  of 
the  new  doctrine.  Hegel  himself  grew  more  and  more  into  a 
belief  in  his  own  doctrine  as  the  one  truth  for  the  world.  He  was 
in  harmony  with  the  government,  and  his  followers  were  on  the 
winning  side.  Though  he  had  soon  resigned  all  direct  official 
connexion  with  the  schools  of  Brandenburg,  his  real  influence  in 
Prussia  was  considerable,  and  as  usual  was  largely  exaggerated 
in  popular  estimate.  In  the  narrower  circle  of  his  friends  his 
birthdays  were  the  signal  for  congratulatory  verses.  In  1826  a 
formal  festival  was  got  up  by  some  of  his  admirers,  one  of  whom, 
Herder,  spoke  of  his  categories  as  new  gods;  and  he  was  pre- 
sented with  much  poetry  and  a  silver  mug.  In  1830  the  students 
struck  a  medal  in  his  honour,  and  in  1831  he  was  decorated  by 
an  order  from  Frederick  William  III.  In  1830  he  was  rector 
of  the  university;  and  in  his  speech  at  the  tricentenary  of  the 
Augsburg  Confession  in  that  year  he  charged  the  Catholic 
Church  with  regarding  the  virtues  of  the  pagan  world  as  brilliant 
vices,  and  giving  the  crown  of  perfection  to  poverty,  continence 
and  obedience. 

.  One  of  the  last  literary  undertakings  in  which  he  took  part 
was  the  establishment  of  the  Berlin  Jahrbiicher  fur  •wissenschaft- 
liche  Kritik,  in  which  he  assisted  Edward  Cans  and  Varnhagen 
von  Ense.  The  aim  of  this  review  was  to  give  a  critical  account, 
certified  by  the  names  of  the  contributors,  of  the  literary  and 
philosophical  productions  of  the  time,  in  relation  to  the  general 
progress  of  knowledge.  The  journal  was  not  solely  in  the 
Hegelian  interest;  and  more  than  once,  when  Hegel  attempted 
to  domineer  over  the  other  editors,  he  was  met  by  vehement 
and  vigorous  opposition. 

The  revolution  of  1830  was  a  great  blow  to  him,  and  the 
prospect  of  democratic  advances  almost  made  him  ill.  His  last 
literary  work,  the  first  part  of  which  appeared  in  the  Preussische 
Staatszeitung,  was  an  essay  on  the  English  Reform  Bill  of  1831. 
It  contains  primarily  a  consideration  of  its  probable  effects  on 
the  character  of  the  new  members  of  parliament,  and  the  measures 
which  they  may  introduce.  In  the  latter  connexion  he  enlarged 
on  several  points  in  which  England  had  done  less  than  many 
continental  states  for  the  abolition  of  monopolies  and  abuses. 
Surveying  the  questions  connected  with  landed  property,  with 
the  game  laws,  the  poor,  the  Established  Church,  especially  in 
Ireland,  he  expressed  grave  doubt  on  the  legislative  capacity 
of  the  English  parliament  as  compared  with  the  power  of  re- 
novation manifested  in  other  states  of  western  Europe. 

In  1831  cholera  first  entered  Europe.  Hegel  and  his  family 
retired  for  the  summer  to  the  suburbs,  and  there  he  finished  the 
revision  of  the  first  part  of  his  Science  of  Logic.  On  the  beginning 
of  the  winter  session,  however,  he  returned  to  his  house  in  the 
Kupfergraben.  On  this  occasion  an  altercation  occurred  between 
him  and  his  friend  Gans,  who  in  his  notice  of  lectures  on  juris- 
prudence had  recommended  Hegel's  Philosophy  of  Right.  Hegel, 
indignant  at  what  he  deemed  patronage,  demanded  that  the  note 
should  be  withdrawn.  On  the  i4th  of  November,  after  one 


204 


HEGEL 


day's  illness,  he  died  of  cholera  and  was  buried,  as  he  had  wished, 
between  Fichte  and  Solger. 

Hegel  in  his  class-room  was  neither  imposing  nor  fascinating. 
You  saw  a  plain,  old-fashioned  face,  without  life  or  lustre — a 
figure  which  had  never  looked  young,  and  was  now  prematurely 
aged;  the  furrowed  face  bore  witness  to  concentrated  thought. 
Sitting  with  his  snuff-box  before  him,  and  his  head  bent  down, 
he  looked  ill  at  ease,  and  kept  turning  the  folios  of  his  notes. 
His  utterance  was  interrupted  by  frequent  coughing;  every 
sentence  came  out  with  a  struggle.  The  style  was  no  less  ir- 
regular. Sometimes  in  plain  narrative  the  lecturer  would  be 
specially  awkward,  while  in  abstruse  passages  he  seemed  specially 
at  home,  rose  into  a  natural  eloquence,  and  carried  away  the 
hearer  by  the  grandeur  of  his  diction. 

Philosophy. — Hegelianism  is  confessedly  one  of  the  most  difficult  of 
all  philosophies.  Every  one  has  heard  the  legend  which  makes  Hegel 
say,  "  One  man  has  understood  me,  and  even  he  has  not."  He 
abruptly  hurls  us  into  a  world  where  old  habits  of  thought  fail  us. 
In  three  places,  indeed,  he  has  attempted  to  exhibit  the  transition  to 
his  own  system  from  other  levels  of  thought;  but  in  none  with 
much  success.  In  the  introductory  lectures  on  the  philosophy  of 
religion  he  gives  a  rationale  of  the  difference  between  the  modes  of 
consciousness  in  religion  and  philosophy  (between  Vorstellung  and 
Beeriff).  In  the  beginning  of  the  Encyklopadie  he  discusses  the 
defects  of  dogmatism,  empiricism,  the  philosophies  of  Kant  and 
Jacobi.  In  the  first  case  he  treats  the  formal  or  psychological 
aspect  of  the  difference;  in  the  latter  he  presents  his  doctrine  less 
in  its  essential  character  than  in  special  relations  to  the  prominent 
systems  of  his  time.  The  Phenomenology  of  Spirit,  regarded  as  an 
introduction,  suffers  from  a  different  fault.  It  is  not  an  introduction 
— for  the  philosophy  which  it  was  to  introduce  was  not  then  fully 
elaborated.  Even  to  the  last  Hegel  had  not  so  externalized  his 
system  as  to  treat  it  as  something  to  be  led  up  to  by  gradual  steps. 
His  philosophy  was  not  one  aspect  of  his  intellectual  life,  to  be  con- 
templated from  others;  it  was  the  ripe  fruit  of  concentrated  re- 
flection, and  had  become  the  one  all-embracing  form  and  principle  of 
his  thinking.  More  than  most  thinkers  he  had  quietly  laid  himself 
open  to  the  influences  of  his  time  and  the  lessons  of  history. 

The  Phenomenology  is  the  picture  of  the  Hegelian  philosophy  in 
the  making — at  the  stage  before  the  scaffolding  has  been  removed 
from  the  building.  For  this  reason  the  book  is  at  once  the 
most  brilliant  and  the  most  difficult  of  Hegel's  works — the 
most  brilliant  because  it  is  to  some  degree  an  autobiography 
meaology.  Qf  Hegel's  minci — not  the  abstract  record  of  a  logical 
evolution,  but  the  real  history  of  an  intellectual  growth;  the  most 
difficult  because,  instead  of  treating  the  rise  of  intelligence  (from  its 
first  appearance  in  contrast  with  the  real  world  to  its  final  recognition 
of  its  presence  in,  and  rule  over,  all  things)  as  a  purely  subjective 
process,  it  exhibits  this  rise  as  wrought  out  in  historical  epochs, 
national  characteristics,  forms  of  culture  and  faith,  and  philosophical 
systems.  The  theme  is  identical  with  the  introduction  to  the 
Encyklopadie;  but  it  is  treated  in  a  very  different  style.  From  all 
periods  of  the  world — from  medieval  piety  and  stoical  pride,  Kant 
and  Sophocles,  science  and  art,  religion  and  philosophy — with  disdain 
of  mere  chronology,  Hegel  gathers  in  the  vineyards  of  the  human  spirit 
the  grapes  from  which  he  crushes  the  wine  of  thought.  The  mind 
coming  through  a  thousand  phases  of  mistake  and  disappointment  to 
a  sense  and  realization  of  its  true  position  in  the  universe — such  is  the 
drama  which  is  consciously  Hegel's  own  history,  but  is  represented 
objectively  as  the  process  of  spiritual  history  which  the  philosopher 
reproduces  in  himself.  The  Phenomenology  stands  to  the  Encyklo- 
pddie somewhat  as  the  dialogues  of  Plato  stand  to  the  Aristotelian 
treatises.  It  contains  almost  all  his  philosophy — but  irregularly  and 
without  due  proportion.  The  personal  element  gives  an  undue 
prominence  to  recent  phenomena  of  the  philosophic  atmosphere. 
It  is  the  account  given  by  an  inventor  of  his  own  discovery,  not 
the  explanation  of  an  outsider.  It  therefore  to  some  extent  assumes 
from  t"he  first  the  position  which  it  proposes  ultimately  to  reach, 
and  gives  not  a  proof  of  that  position,  but  an  account  of  the  ex- 
perience (Erfahrung)  by  which  consciousness  is  forced  from  one 
position  to  another  till  it  finds  rest  in  Absolutes  Wissen. 

The  Phenomenology  is  neither  mere  psychology,  nor  logic,  nor 
moral  philosophy,  nor  history,  but  is  all  of  these  and  a  great  deal 
more.  It  needs  not  distillation,  but  expansion  and  illustration 
from  contemporary  and  antecedent  thought  and  literature.  It 
treats  of  the  attitudes  of  consciousness  towards  reality  under  the 
six  heads  of  consciousness,  self-consciousness,  reason  (Vernunft), 
spirit  (Geist),  religion  and  absolute  knowledge.  The  native  attitude 
of  consciousness  towards  existence  is  reliance  on  the  evidence  of 
the  senses;  but  a  little  reflection  is  sufficient  to  show  that  the 
reality  attributed  to  the  external  world  is  as  much  due  to  intellectual 
conceptions  as  to  the  senses,  and  that  these  conceptions  elude  us 
when  we  try  to  fix  them.  If  consciousness  cannot  detect  a  permanent 
object  outside  it,  so  self-consciousness  cannot  find  a  permanent 
subject  in  itself.  It  may,  like  the  Stoic,  assert  freedom  by  holding 


aloof  from  the  entanglements  of  real  life,  or  like  the  sceptic  regard 
the  world  as  a  delusion,  or  finally,  as  the  "  unhappy  consciousness  " 
(Ungluckliches  Bewusstseyn),  may  be  a  recurrent  falling  short  of  a 
perfection  which  it  has  placed  above  it  in  the  heavens.  But  in  this 
isolation  from  the  world,  self -consciousness  has  closed  its  gates 
against  the  stream  of  life.  The  perception  of  this  is  reason.  Reason 
convinced  that  the  world  and  the  soul  are  alike  rational  observes  the 
external  world,  mental  phenomena,  and  specially  the  nervous 
organism,  as  the  meeting  ground  of  body  and  mind.  But  reason 
finds  much  in  the  world  recognizing  no  kindred  with  her,  and  so 
turning  to  practical  activity  seeks  in  the  world  the  realization  of 
her  own  aims.  Either  in  a  crude  way  she  pursues  her  own  pleasure, 
and  finds  that  necessity  counteracts  her  cravings;  or  she  endeavours 
to  find  the  world  in  harmony  with  the  heart,  and  yet  is  unwilling 
to  see  fine  aspirations  crystallized  by  the  act  of  realizing  them. 
Finally,  unable  to  impose  upon  the  world  either  selfish  or  humani- 
tarian ends,  she  folds  her  arms  in  pharisaic  virtue,  with  the  hope 
that  some  hidden  power  will  give  the  victory  to  righteousness. 
But  the  world  goes  on  in  its  life,  heedless  of  the  demands  of  virtue. 
The  principle  of  nature  is  to  live  and  let  live.  Reason  abandons 
her  efforts  to  mould  the  world,  and  is  content  to  let  the  aims  of 
individuals  work  out  their  results  independently,  only  stepping  in 
to  lay  down  precepts  for  the  cases  where  individual  actions  conflict, 
and  to  test  these  precepts  by  the  rules  .of  formal  logic. 

So  far  we  have  seen  consciousness  on  one  hand  and  the  real  world 
on  the  other.  The  stage  of  Geist  reveals  the  consciousness  no 
longer  as  critical  and  antagonistic  but  as  the  indwelling  spirit  of  a 
community,  as  no  longer  isolated  from  its  surroundings  but  the 
union  of  the  single  and  real  consciousness  with  the  vital  feeling  that 
animates  the  community.  This  is  the  lowest  stage  of  concrete 
consciousness — life,  and  not  knowledge;  the  spirit  inspires,  but  does 
not  reflect.  It  is  the  age  of  unconscious  morality,  when  the  in- 
dividual's life  is  lost  in  the  society  of  which  he  is  an  organic  member. 
But  increasing  culture  presents  new  ideals,  and  the  mind,  absorbing 
the  ethical  spirit  of  its  environment,  gradually  emancipates  itself 
from  conventions  and  superstitions.  This  Aufkldrung  prepares 
the  way  for  the  rule  of  conscience,  for  the  moral  view  of  the  world 
as  subject  of  a  moral  law.  From  the  moral  world  the  next  step 
is  religion;  the  moral  law  gives  place  to  God;  but  the  idea  of  God- 
head, too,  as  it  first  appears,  is  imperfect,  and  has  to  pass  through 
the  forms  of  nature-worship  and  of  art  before  it  reaches  a  full 
utterance  in  Christianity.  Religion  in  this  shape  is  the  nearest  step 
to  the  stage  of  absolute  knowledge;  and  this  absolute  knowledge — 
"  the  spirit  knowing  itself  as  spirit  "—is  not  something  which 
leaves  these  other  forms  behind  but  the  full  comprehension  of  them 
as  the  organic  constituents  of  its  empire;  "  they  are  the  memory  and 
the  sepulchre  of  its  history,  and  at  the  same  time  the  actuality,  truth 
and  certainty  of  its  throne."  Here,  according  to  Hegel,  is  the  field 
of  philosophy. 

The  preface  to  the  Phenomenology  signalled  the  separation  from 
Schelling — the  adieu  to  romantic.  It  declared  that  a  genuine 
philosophy  has  no  kindred  with  the  mere  aspirations  of  artistic 
minds,  but  must  earn  its  bread  by  the  sweat  of  its  brow.  It  sets 
its  face  against  the  idealism  which  either  thundered  against  the 
world  for  its  deficiencies,  or  sought  something  finer  than  reality. 
Philosophy  is  to  be  the  science  of  the  actual  world — it  is  the  spirit 
comprehending  itself  in  its  own  externalizations  and  manifestations. 
The  philosophy  of  Hegel  is  idealism,  but  it  is  an  idealism  in  which 
every  idealistic  unification  has  its  other  face  in  the  multiplicity  of 
existence.  It  is  realism  as  well  as  idealism,  and  never  quits  its  hold 
on  facts.  Compared  with  Fichte  and  Schelling,  Hegel  has  a  sober, 
hard,  realistic  character.  At  a  later  date,  with  the  call  of  Schelling 
to  Berlin  in  1841,  it  became  fashionable  to  speak  of  Hegelianism  as  a 
negative  philosophy  requiring  to  be  complemented  by  a  "  positive  " 
philosophy  which  would  give  reality  and  not  mere  ideas.  The  cry 
was  the  same  as  that  of  Krug  (q.v.),  asking  the  philosophers  who 
expounded  the  absolute  to  construe  his  pen.  It  was  the  cry  of  the 
Evangelical  school  for  a  personal  Christ  and  not  a  dialectical  Logos. 
The  claims  of  the  individual,  the  real,  material  and  historical  fact, 
it  was  said,  had  been  sacrificed  by  Hegel  to  the  universal,  the  ideal, 
the  spiritual  and  the  logical. 

There  was  a  truth  in  these  criticisms.  It  was  the  very  aim  of 
Hegelianism  to  render  fluid  the  fixed  phases  of  reality — to  show 
existence  not  to  be  an  immovable  rock  limiting  the  efforts  of  thought, 
but  to  have  thought  implicit  in  it,  waiting  for  release  from  its 
petrifaction.  Nature  was  no  longer,  as  with  Fichte,  to  be  a  mere 
spring-board  to  evoke  the  latent  powers  of  the  spirit.  Nor  was  it, 
as  in  Schelling's  earlier  system,  to  be  a  collateral  progeny  with 
mind  from  the  same  womb  of  indifference  and  identity.  Nature  and 
mind  in  the  Hegelian  system — the  external  and  the  spiritual  world 
— have  the  same  origin,  but  are  not  co-equal  branches.  The  natural 
world  proceeds  from  the  "  idea,"  the  spiritual  from  the  idea  and 
nature.  It  is  impossible,  beginning  with  the  natural  world,  to 
explain  the  mind  by  any  process  of  distillation  or  development, 
unless  consciousness  or  its  potentiality  has  been  there  from  the 
first.  Reality,  independent  of  the  individual  consciousness,  there 
must  be;  reality,  independent  of  all  mind,  is  an  impossibility.  At 
the  basis  of  all  reality,  whether  material  or  mental,  there  is  thought. 
But  the  thought  thus  regarded  as  the  basis  of  all  existence  is  not 


HEGEL 


205 


consciousness  with  its  distinction  of  ego  and  non-ego.  It  is  rather 
the  stuff  of  which  both  mind  and  nature  are  made,  neither  extended 
as  in  the  natural  world,  nor  self-centred  as  in  mind.  Thought  in  its 
primary  form  is,  as  it  were,  thoroughly  transparent  and  absolutely 
fluid,  free  and  mutually  interpenetrable  in  every  part — the  spirit  in 
its  seraphic  scientific  life,  before  creation  had  produced  a  natural 
world,  and  thought  had  risen  to  independent  existence  in  the  social 
organism.  Thought  in  this  primary  form,  when  in  all  its  parts 
completed,  is  what  Hegel  calls  the  "  idea."  But  the  idea,  though 
fundamental,  is  in  another  sense  final,  in  the  process  of  the  world. 


history  of  philosophy  is  the  presupposition  of  logic,  or  the  three 
branches  of  philosophy  form  a  circle. 

The  exposition  or  constitution  of  the  "  idea  "  is  the  work  of  the 
Logic.  As  the  total  system  falls  into  three  parts,  so  every  part  of 
the  system  follows  the  triadic  law.  Every  truth,  every 
reality,  has  three  aspects  or  stages;  it  is  the  unification  of 
two  contradictory  elements,  of  two  partial  aspects  of  truth  which  are 
not  merely  contrary,  like  black  and  white,  but  contradictory,  like 
same  and  different.  The  first  step  is  a  preliminary  affirmation  and 
unification,  the  second  a  negation  and  differentiation,  the  third  a  final 
synthesis.  For  example,  the  seed  of  the  plant  is  an  initial  unity  of 
life,  which  when  placed  in  its  proper  soil  suffers  disintegration  into  its 
constitutents,  and  yet  in  virtue  of  its  vital  unity  keeps  these  divergent 
elements  together,  and  reappears  as  the  plant  with  its  members  in 
organic  union.  Or  again,  the  process  of  scientific  induction  is  a 
threefold  chain;  the  original  hypothesis  (the  first  unification  of  the 
fact)  seems  to  melt  away  when  confronted  with  opposite  facts,  and 
yet  no  scientific  progress  is  possible  unless  the  stimulus  of  the 
original  unification  is  strong  enough  to  clasp  the  discordant  facts 
ana  establish  a  reunification.  Thesis,  antithesis  and  synthesis,  a 
Fichtean  formula,  is  generalized  by  Hegel  into  the  perpetual  law  of 
thought. 

In  what  we  may  call  their  psychological  aspect  these  three  stages 
are  known  as  the  abstract  stage,  or  that  of  understanding  (Verstand), 
the  dialectical  stage,  or  that  of  negative  reason,  and  the  speculative 
stage,  or  that  of  positive  reason  (Vernunft).  The  first  of  these 
attitudes  taken  alone  is  dogmatism;  the  second,  when  similarly 
isolated,  is  scepticism ;  the  third,  when  unexplained  by  its  elements, 
is  mysticism.  Thus  Hegelianism  reduces  dogmatism,  scepticism 
and  mysticism  to  factors  in  philosophy.  The  abstract  or  dogmatic 
thinker  believes  his  object  to  be  one,  simple  and  stationary,  and 
intelligible  apart  from  its  surrounding.  He  speaks,  e.g.,  as  if  species 
and  genera  were  fixed  and  unchangeable;  and  fixing  his  eye  on 
the  ideal  forms  in  their  purity  and  self-sameness,  he  scorns  the 
phenomenal  world,  whence  this  identity  and  persistence  are  absent. 
The  dialectic  of  negative  reason  rudely  dispels  these  theories. 
Appealing  to  reality  it  shows  that  the  identity  and  permanence  of 
forms  are  contradicted  by  history;  instead  of  unity  it  exhibits 
multiplicity,  instead  of  identity  difference,  instead  of  a  whole,  only 
parts.  Dialectic  is,  therefore,  a  dislocating  power;  it  shakes  the 
solid  structures  of  material  thought,  and  exhibits  the  instability 
latent  in  such  conceptions  of  the  world.  It  is  the  spirit  of  progress 
and  change,  the  enemy  of  convention  and  conservatism;  it  is 
absolute  and  universal  unrest.  In  the  realm  of  abstract  thought 
these  transitions  take  place  lightly.  In  the  worlds  of  nature  and 
mind  they  are  more  palpable  and  violent.  So  far  as  this  Hegel 
seems  on  the  side  of  revolution.  But  reason  is  not  negative  only; 
while  it  disintegrates  the  mass  or  unconscious  unity,  it  builds  up  a 
new  unity  with  higher  organization.  But  this  third  stage  is  the  place 
of  effort,  requiring  neither  the  surrender  of  the  original  unity  nor  the 
ignoring  of  the  diversity  afterwards  suggested.  The  stimulus  of 
contradiction  is  no  doubt  a  strong  one;  but  the  easiest  way  of  escap- 
ing it  is  to  shut  our  eyes  to  one  side  of  the  antithesis.  What  is 
required,  therefore,  is  to  readjust  our  original  thesis  in  such  a  way  as 
to  include  and  give  expression  to  both  the  elements  in  the  process. 

The  universe,  then,  is  a  process  or  development,  to  the  eye  of 
philosophy.  It  is  the  process  of  the  absolute — in  religious  language, 
the  manifestation  of  God.  In  the  background  of  all  the  absolute 
is  eternally  present;  the  rhythmic  movement  of  thought  is  the 
self-unfolding  of  the  absolute.  God  reveals  Himself  in  the  logical 
idea,  in  nature  and  in  mind;  but  mind  is  not  alike  conscious  of  its 
absoluteness  in  every  stage  of  development.  Philosophy  alone  sees 
God  revealing  Himself  in  the  ideal  orgarfism  of  thought  as  it  were  a 
possible  deity  prior  to  the  world  and  to  any  relation  between  God 
and  actuality;  in  the  natural  world,  as  a  series  of  materialized 
forces  and  forms  of  life;  and  in  the  spiritual  world  as  the  human  soul, 
the  legal  and  moral  order  of  society,  and  the  creations  of  art,  religion 
and  philosophy. 

This  introduction  of  the  absolute  became  a  stumbling-block  to 
Feuerbach  and  other  members  of  the  "  Left."  They  rejected  as  an 
illegitimate  interpolation  the  eternal  subject  of  development,  and, 
instead  of  one  continuing  God  as  the  subject  of  all  the  predicates 
by  which  in  the  logic  the  absolute  is  defined,  assumed  only  a  series 
of  ideas,  products  of  philosophic  activity.  They  denied  the  theo- 
logical value  of  the  logical  forms — the  development  of  these  forms 
being  in  their  opinion  due  to  the  human  thinker,  not  to  a  self- 
revealing  absolute.  Thus  they  made  man  the  creator  of  the  absolute. 


But  with  this  modification  on  the  system  another  necessarily 
followed;  a  mere  logical  series  could  not  create  nature.  And  thus 
the  material  universe  became  the  real  starting-point.  Thought 
became  only  the  result  of  organic  conditions — subjective  and  human; 
and  the  system  of  Hegel  was  no  longer  an  idealization  of  religion, 
but  a  naturalistic  theory  with  a  prominent  and  peculiar  logic. 

The  logic  of  Hegel  is  the  only  rival  to  the  logic  of  Aristotle.  What 
Aristotle  did  for  the  theory  of  demonstrative  reasoning,  Hegel 
attempted  to  do  for  the  whole  of  human  knowledge.  His  logic  is 
an  enumeration  of  the  forms  or  categories  by  which  our  experience 
exists.  It  carried  out  Kant's  doctrine  of  the  categories  as  a  priori 
synthetic  principles,  but  removed  the  limitation  by  which  Kant 
denied  them  any  constitutive  value  except  in  alliance  with  ex- 
perience. According  to  Hegel  the  terms  in  which  thought  exhibits 
itself  are  a  system  of  their  own,  with  laws  and  relations  which 
reappear  in  a  less  obvious  shape  in  the  theories  of  nature  and  mind. 
Nor  are  they  restricted  to  the  small  number  which  Kant  obtained 
by  manipulating  the  current  subdivision  of  judgments.  But  all 
forms  by  which  thought  holds  sensations  in  unity  (the  formative  or 
synthetic  elements  of  language)  had  their  place  assigned  in  a  system 
where  one  leads  up  to  and  passes  over  into  another. 

The  fact  which  ordinary  thought  ignores,  and  of  which  ordinary 
logic  therefore  provides  no  account,  is  the  presence  of  gradation  and 
continuity  in  the  world.  The  general  terms  of  language  simplify 
the  universe  by  reducing  its  variety  of  individuals  to  a  few  forms, 
none  of  which  exists  simply  and  perfectly.  The  method  of  the 
understanding  is  to  divide  and  then  to  give  a  separate  reality  to 
what  it  has  thus  distinguished.  It  is  part  of  Hegel's  plan  to  remedy 
this  one-sided  character  of  thought,  by  laying  bare  the  gradations 
of  ideas.  He  lays  special  stress  on  the  point  that  abstract  ideas 
when  held  in  their  abstraction  are  almost  interchangeable  with 
their  opposites — that  extremes  meet,  and  that  in  every  true  and 
concrete  idea  there  is  a  coincidence  of  opposites. 

The  beginning  of  the  logic  is  an  illustration  of  this.  The  logical 
idea  is  treated  under  the  three  heads  of  being  (Seyn),  essence  (Wesen) 
and  notion  (Begriff).  The  simplest  term  of  thought  is  being;  we 
cannot  think  less  about  anything  than  when  we  merely  say  that  it  is. 
Being — the  abstract  "  is  " — is  nothing  definite,  and  nothing  at  least  is. 
Being  and  not  being  are  thus  declared  identical — a  proposition  which 
in  this  unqualified  shape  was  to  most  people  a  stumbling-block  at 
the  very  door  of  the  system.  Instead  of  the  mere  "  is  "  which  is  as 
yet  nothing,  we  should  rather  say  "  becomes,"  and  as  "  becomes  " 
always  implies  "  something,"  we  have  determinate  being — "  a 
being  "  which  in  the  next  stage  of  definiteness  becomes  "  one."  And 
in  this  way  we  pass  on  to  the  quantitative  aspects  of  being. 

The  terms  treated  under  the  first  head,  in  addition  to  those  already 
mentioned,  are  the  abstract  principles  of  quantity  and  number,  and 
their  application  in  measure  to  determine  the  limits  of  being.  Under 
the  title  of  essence  are  discussed  those  pairs  of  correlative  terms  which 
are  habitually  employed  in  the  explanation  of  the  world — such  as 
law  and  phenomenon,  cause  and  effect,  reason  and  consequence, 
substance  and  attribute.  Under  the  head  of  notion  are  considered, 
firstly,  the  subjective  forms  of  conception,  judgment  and  syllogism; 
secondly,  their  realization  in  objects  as  mechanically,  chemically 
or  teleologically  constituted;  and  thirdly,  the  idea  first  of  life,  and 
next  of  science,  as  the  complete  interpenetration  of  thought  and 
objectivity.  The  third  part  of  logic  evidently  is  what  contains  the 
topics  usually  treated  in  logic-books,  though  even  here  the  province 
of  logic  in  the  ordinary  sense  is  exceeded.  The  first  two  divisions — 
the  objective  logic  " — are  what  is  usually  called  metaphysics. 

The  characteristic  of  the  system  is  the  gradual  way  in  which  idea  is 
linked  to  idea  so  as  to  make  the  division  into  chapters  only  an  arrange- 
ment of  convenience.  The  judgment  is  completed  in  the  syllogism ; 
the  syllogistic  form  as  the  perfection  of  subjective  thought  passes  into 
objectivity,  where  it  first  appears  embodied  in  a  mechanical  system; 
and  the  teleological  object,  in  which  the  members  are  as  means  and 
end,  leads  up  to  the  idea  of  life,  where  the  end  is  means  and  means 
end  indissolubly  till  death.  In  some  cases  these  transitions  may 
be  unsatisfactory  and  forced ;  it  is  apparent  that  the  linear  develop- 
ment from  "  being  "  to  the  "  idea  '  is  got  by  transforming  into  a 
logical  order  the  sequence  that  has  roughly  prevailed  in  philosophy 
from  the  Eleatics ;  cases  might  be  quoted  where  the  reasoning  seems 
a  play  upon  words;  and  it  may  often  be  doubted  whether  certain 
ideas  dp  not  involve  extra-logical  considerations.  The  order  of  the 
categories  is  in  the  main  outlines  fixed;  but  in  the  minor  details 
much  depends  upon  the  philosopher,  who  has  to  fill  in  the  gaps 
between  ideas,  with  little  guidance  from  the  data  of  experience,  and 
to  assign  to  the  stages  of  development  names  which  occasionally 
deal  hardly  with  language.  The  merit  of  Hegel  is  to  have  indicated 
and  to  a  large  extent  displayed  the  filiation  and  mutual  limitation 
of  pur  forms  of  thought;  to  have  arranged  them  in  the  order  of 
their  comparative  capacity  to  give  a  satisfactory  expression  to  truth 
in  the  totality  of  its  relations;  and  to  have  broken  down  the  partition 
which  _in  Kant  separated  the  formal  logic  from  the  transcendental 
analytic,  as  well  as  the  general  disruption  between  logic  and  meta- 
physic.  It  must  at  the  same  time  be  admitted  that  much  of  the 
work  of  weaving  the  terms  of  thought,  the  categories,  into  a  system 
has  a  hypothetical  and  tentative  character,  and  that  Hegel  has 
rather  pointed  out  the  path  which  logic  must  follow,  viz.  a  criticism 
of  the  terms  of  scientific  and  ordinary  thought  in  their  filiation 


206 


HEGEL 


and  interdependence,  than  himself  in  every  case  kept  to  the  right 
way.  The  day  for  a  fuller  investigation  of  this  problem  will  partly 
depend  upon  the  progress  of  the  study  of  language  in  the  direction 
marked  out  by  W.  von  Humboldt. 

The  Philosophy  of  Nature  starts  with  the  result  of  the  logical 
development,  with  the  full  scientific  "  idea."  But  the  relations  of 
Philo-  pure  thought,  losing  their  inwardness,  appear  as  relations 
sophyol  °*  sPace  ar"d  time;  the  abstract  development  of  thought 
aatun.  appears  as  matter  and  movement.  Instead  of  thought,  we 
have  perception ;  instead  of  dialectic,  gravitation ;  instead 
of  causation,  sequence  in  time.  The  whole  falls  under  the  three 
heads  of  mechanics,  physics  and  "  organic  " — the  content  under  each 
varying  somewhat  in  the  three  editions  of  the  Encyklopddie.  The 
first  treats  of  space,  time,  matter,  movement ;  and  in  the  solar  system 
we  have  the  representation  of  the  idea  in  its  general  and  abstract 
material  form.  Under  the  head  of  physics  we  have  the  theory  of 
the  elements,  of  sound,  heat  and  cohesion,  and  finally  of  chemical 
affinity — presenting  the  phenomena  of  material  change  and  inter- 
change in  a  series  of  special  forces  which  generate  the  variety  of  the 
life  of  nature.  Lastly,  under  the  head  of  "  organic,"  come  geology, 
botany  and  animal  physiology — presenting  the  concrete  results  of 
these  processes  in  the  three  kingdoms  of  nature. 

The  charges  of  superficial  analogies,  so  freely  urged  against  the 
"  Natur-philosophie  "  by  critics  who  forget  the  impulse  it  gave  to 
physical  research  by  the  identification  of  forces  then  believed  to  be 
radically  distinct,  do  not  particularly  affect  Hegel.  But  in  general 
it  may  be  said  that  he  looked  down  upon  the  mere  natural  world. 
The  meanest  of  the  fancies  of  the  mind  and  the  most  casual  of  its 
whims  he  regarded  as  a  better  warrant  for  the  being  of  God  than 
any  single  object  of  nature.  Those  who  supposed  astronomy  to 
inspire  religious  awe  were  horrified  to  hear  the  stars  compared  to 
eruptive  spots  on  the  face  of  the  sky.  Even  in  the  animal  world, 
the  highest  stage  of  nature,  he  saw  a  failure  to  reach  an  independent 
and  rational  system  of  organization;  and  its  feelings  under  the 
continuous  violence  and  menaces  of  the  environment  he  described 
as  insecure,  anxious  and  unhappy. 

His  point  of  view  was  essentially  opposed  to  the  current  views  of 
science.  To  metamorphosis  he  only  allowed  a  logical  value,  as 
explaining  the  natural  classification;  the  only  real,  existent  meta- 
morphosis he  saw  in  the  development  of  the  individual  from  its 
embryonic  stage.  Still  more  distinctly  did  he  contravene  the  general 
tendency  of  scientific  explanation.  "  It  is  held  the  triumph  of 
science  to  recognize  in  the  general  process  of  the  earth  the  same 
categories  as  are  exhibited  in  the  processes  of  isolated  bodies.  This 
is,  however,  an  application  of  categories  from  a  field  where  the 
conditions  are  finite  to  a  sphere  in  which  the  circumstances  are 
infinite."  In  astronomy  he  depreciates  the  merits  of  Newton  and 
elevates  Kepler,  accusing  Newton  particularly,  a  propos  of  the 
distinction  of  centrifugal  and  centripetal  forces,  of  leading  to  a 
confusion  between  what  is  mathematically  to  be  distinguished  and 
what  is  physically  separate.  The  principles  which  explain  the  fall  of 
an  apple  will  not  do  for  the  planets.  As  to  colour,  he  follows  Goethe, 
and  uses  strong  language  against  Newton's  theory,  for  the  barbarism 
of  the  conception  that  light  is  a  compound,  the  incorrectness  of  his 
observations,  &c.  In  chemistry,  again,  he  objects  to  the  way  in 
which  all  the  chemical  elements  are  treated  as  on  the  same  level. 

The  third  part  of  the  system  is  the  Philosophy  of  Mind.  Its 
three  divisions  are  the  "  subjective  mind  "  (psychology),  the  "  ob- 
jective mind "  (philosophic  jurisprudence,  moral  and 
political  philosophy)  and  the  "  absolute  mind  "  (the 
philosophy  of  art,  religion  and  philosophy).  The  subjects 
of  the  second  and  third  divisions  have  been  treated  by 
Hegel  with  great  detail.  The  "  objective  mind  "  is  the 
topic  of  the  Rechts-Philosophie,  and  of  the  lectures  on  the 
Philosophy  of  History;  while  on  the  "absolute  mind"  we  have 
the  lectures  on  Aesthetic,  on  the  Philosophy  of  Religion  and  on  the 
History  of  Philosophy — in  short,  more  than  one-third  of  his  works. 

The  purely  psychological  branch  of  the  subject  takes  up  half  of 
the  space  allotted  to  Geist  in  the  Encyklopddie.  It  falls  under 
the  three  heads  of  anthropology,  phenomenology  and  psychology 
proper.  Anthropology  treats  of  the  mind  in  union  with  the  body 
— of  the  natural  soul — and  discusses  the  relations  of  the  soul  with 
the  planets,  the  races  of  mankind,  the  differences  of  age,  dreams, 
animal  magnetism,  insanity  and  phrenology.  In  this  obscure  region 
it  is  rich  in  suggestions  and  rapprochements;  but  the  ingenuity  of 
these  speculations  attracts  curiosity  more  than  it  satisfies  scientific 
inquiry.  In  the  Phenomenology  consciousness,  self-consciousness 
and  reason  are  dealt  with.  The  title  of  the  section  and  the  contents 
recall,  though  with  some  important  variations,  the  earlier  half  of  his 
first  work;  only  that  here  the  historical  background  on  which  the 
stages  in  the  development  of  the  ego  were  represented  has  dis- 
appeared. Psychology,  in  the  stricter  sense,  deals  with  the  various 
forms  of  theoretical  and  practical  intellect,  such  as  attention,  memory, 
desire  and  will.  In  this  account  of  the  development  of  an  inde- 
pendent, active  and  intelligent  being  from  the  stage  where  man  like 
the  Dryad  is  a  portion  of  the  natural  life  around  him,  Hegel  has 
combined  what  may  be  termed  a  physiology  and  pathology  of  the 
mind — a  subject  far  wider  than  that  of  ordinary  psychologies,  and 
one  of  vast  intrinsic  importance.  It  is,  of  course,  easy  to  set  aside 
these  questions  as  unanswerable,  and  to  find  artificiality  in  the 


Philo- 
sophy 
of  mind. 
1.  Psycho- 
logy. 


,    , 


history. 


arrangement.  Still  it  remains  a  great  point  to  have  even  attempted 
some  system  in  the  dark  anomalies  which  lie  under  the  normal 
consciousness,  and  to  have  traced  the  genesis  of  the  intellectual 
faculties  from  animal  sensitivity. 

The  theory  of  the  mind  as  objectified  in  the  institutions  of  law, 
the  family  and  the  state  is  discussed  in  the  "  Philosophy  of  Right." 
Beginning  with  the  antithesis  of  a  legal  system  and 
morality,  Hegel,  carrying  out  the  work  o?  Kant,  presents 
the  synthesis  of  these  elements  in  the  ethical  life  (Sittlich- 
keif)  of  the  family  and  the  state.  Treating  the  family  as 
an  instinctive  realization  of  the  moral  life,  and  not  as  the  result  of 
contract,  he  shows  how  by  the  means  of  wider  associations  due  to 
private  interests  the  state  issues  as  the  full  home  of  the  moral  spirit, 
where  intimacy  of  interdependence  is  combined  with  freedom  of 
independent  growth.  The  state  is  the  consummation  of  man  as 
finite;  it  is  the  necessary  starting-point  whence  the  spirit  rises  to  an 
absolute  existence  in  the  spheres  of  art,  religion  and  philosophy.  In 
the  finite  world  or  temporal  state,  religion,  as  the  finite  organization 
of  a  church,  is,  like  other  societies,  subordinate  to  the  state.  But 
on  another  side,  as  absolute  spirit,  religion,  like  art  and  philosophy, 
is  not  subject  to  the  state,  but  belongs  to  a  higher  region. 

The  political  state  is  always  an  individual,  and  the  relations  of 
these  states  with  each  other  and  the  "  world-spirit  "  of  which  they 
are  the  manifestations  constitute  the  material  of  history.  The 
Lectures  on  the  Philosophy  of  History,  edited  by  Cans  and  subse- 
quently by  Karl  Hegel,  is  the  most  popular  of  Hegel's  works.  The 
history  of  the  world  is  a  scene  of  judgment  where  one  people  and 
one  alone  holds  for  awhile  the  sceptre,  as  the  unconscious  instrument 
of  the  universal  spirit,  till  another  rises  in  its  place,  with  a  fuller 
measure  of  liberty  —  a  larger  superiority  to  the  bonds  of  natural 
and  artificial  circumstance.  Three  main  periods  —  the  Oriental, 
the  Classical  and  the  Germanic  —  in  which  respectively  the  single 
despot,  the  dominant  order,  and  the  man  as  man  possess  freedom 
—  constitute  the  history  of  the  world.  Inaccuracy  in  detail  and 
artifice  in  the  arrangement  of  isolated  peoples  are  inevitable  in 
such  a  scheme.  A  grayer  mistake,  according  to  some  critics,  is 
that  Hegel,  far  from  giving  a  law  of  progress,  seems  to  suggest  that 
the  history  of  the  world  is  nearing  an  end,  and  has  merely  reduced 
the  past  to  a  logical  formula.  The  answer  to  this  charge  is  partly 
that  such  a  law  seems  unattainable,  and  partly  that  the  idealistic 
content  of  the  present  which  philosophy  extracts  is  always  an 
advance  upon  actual  fact,  and  so  does  throw  a  light  into  the  future. 
And  at  any  rate  the  method  is  greater  than  Hegel's  employment  of  it. 

But  as  with  Aristotle  so  with  Hegel  —  beyond  the  ethical  and 
political  sphere  rises  the  world  of  absolute  spirit  in  art,  religion  and 
philosophy.  The  psychological  distinction  between  the 
three  forms  is  that  sensuous  perception  (Anschauung) 
is  the  organon  of  the  first,  presentative  conception 
(  Vorstellung)  of  the  second  and  free  thought  of  the  third. 
The  work  of  art,  the  first  embodiment  of  absolute  mind, 
shows  a  sensuous  conformity  between  the  idea  and  the 
reality  in  which  it  is  expressed.  The  so-called  beauty  of  nature  is 
for  Hegel  an  adventitious  beauty.  The  beauty  of  art  is  a  beauty  born 
in  the  spirit  of  the  artist  and  born  again  in  the  spectator;  it  is  not 
like  the  beauty  of  natural  things,  an  incident  of  their  existence,  but 
is  "  essentially  a  question,  an  address  to  a  responding  breast,  a  call 
to  the  heart  and  spirit."  The  perfection  of  art  depends  on  the  degree 
of  intimacy  in  which  idea  and  form  appear  worked  into  each  other. 
From  the  different  proportion  between  the  idea  and  the  shape  in 
which  it  is  realized  arise  three  different  forms  of  art.  When  the  idea, 
itself  indefinite,  gets  no  further  than  a  struggle  and  endeavour  for 
its  appropriate  expression,  we  have  the  symbolic,  which  is  the 
Oriental,  form  of  art,  which  seeks  to  compensate  its  imperfect  ex- 
pression by  colossal  and  enigmatic  structures.  In  the  second  or 
classical  form  of  art  the  idea  of  humanity  finds  an  adequate  sensuous 
representation.  But  this  form  disappears  with  the  decease  of  Greek 
national  life,  and  on  its  collapse  follows  the  romantic,  the  third  form 
of  art;  where  the  harmony  of  form  and  content  again  grows  de- 
fective, because  the  object  of  Christian  art  —  the  infinite  spirit  —  is  a 
theme  too  high  for  art.  Corresponding  to  this  division  is  the  classi- 
fication of  the  single  arts.  First  comes  architecture  —  in  the  main, 
symbolic  art;  then  sculpture,  the  classical  art  par  excellence;  they 
are  found,  however,  in  all  three  forms.  Painting  and  music  are  the 
specially  romantic  arts.  Lastly,  as  a  union  of  painting  and  music 
comes  poetry,  where  the  sensuous  element  is  more  than  ever  sub- 
ordinate to  the  spirit. 

The  lectures  on  the  Philosophy  of  Art  stray  largely  into  the  next 
sphere  and  dwell  with  zest  on  the  close  connexion  of  art  and  religion  ; 
and  the  discussion  of  the  decadence  and  rise  of  religions,  of  the 
aesthetic  qualities  of  Christian  legend,  of  the  age  of  chivalry,  &c., 
make  the  Asthetik  a  book  of  varied  interest. 

The  lectures  on  the  Philosophy  of  Religion,  though  unequal  in 
their  composition  and  belonging  to  different  dates,  serve  to  exhibit 
the  vital  connexion  of  the  system  with  Christianity.  Religion,  like 
art,  is  inferior  to  philosophy  as  an  exponent  of  the  harmony  between 
man  and  the  absolute.  In  it  the  absolute  exists  as  the  poetry  and 
music  of  the  heart,  in  the  inwardness  of  feeling.  Hegel  after  ex- 
pounding the  nature  of  religion  passes  on  to  discuss  its  historical 
phases,  but  in  the  immature  state  of  religious  science  falls  into 
several  mistakes.  At  the  bottom  of  the  scale  of  nature-worships  he 


3.  Art, 
religion 
and 
philo- 
sophy. 


HEGEMON  OF  THASOS 


207 


places  the  religion  of  sorcery.  The  gradations  which  follow  are 
apportioned  with  some  uncertainty  amongst  the  religions  of  the 
East.  With  the  Persian  religion  of  light  and  the  Egyptian  of 
enigmas  we  pass  to  those  faiths  where  Godhead  takes  the  form  of 
a  spiritual  individuality,  i.e.  to  the  Hebrew  religion  (of  sublimity), 
the  Greek  (of  beauty)  and  the  Roman  (of  adaptation).  Last  comes 
absolute  religion,  in  which  the  mystery  of  the  reconciliation  between 
God  and  man  is  an  open  doctrine.  This  is  Christianity,  in  which 
God  is  a  Trinity,  because  He  is  a  spirit.  The  revelation  of  this 
truth  is  the  subject  of  the  Christian  Scriptures.  For  the  Son  of 
God,  in  the  immediate  aspect,  is  the  finite  world  of  nature  and 
man,  which  far  from  being  at  one  with  its  Father  is  originally  in 
an  attitude  of  estrangement.  The  history  of  Christ  is  the  visible 
reconciliation  between  man  and  the  eternal.  With  the  death  of 
Christ  this  union,  ceasing  to  be  a  mere  fact,  becomes  a  vital  idea — 
the  Spirit  of  God  which  dwells  in  the  Christian  community. 

The  lectures  on  the  History  of  Philosophy  deal  disproportionately 
with  the  various  epochs,  and  in  some  parts  date  from  the  beginning 
of  Hegel's  career.  In  trying  to  subject  history  to  the  order  of  logic 
they  sometimes  misconceive  the  filiation  of  ideas.  But  they  created 
the  history  of  philosophy  as  a  scientific  study.  They  showed  that 
a  philosophical  theory  is  not  an  accident  or  whim,  but  an  exponent 
of  its  age  determined  by  its  antecedents  and  environments,  and 
handing  on  its  results  to  the  future.  (W.  W. ;  X.) 

Hegelianism  in  England.— On  the  continent  of  Europe  the  direct 
influence  of  Hegelianism  was  comparatively  short-lived.  This  was 
due  among  other  causes  to  the  direction  of  attention  to  the  rising 
science  of  psychology,  partly  to  the  reaction  against  the  speculative 
method.  In  England  and  Scotland  it  had  another  fate.  Both  in 
theory  and  practice  it  here  seemed  to  supply  precisely  the  counter- 
active to  prevailing  tendencies  towards  empiricism  and  individualism 
that  was  required.  In  this  respect  it  stood  to  philosophy  in  some- 
what the  same  relation  that  the  influence  of  Goethe  stood  to  litera- 
ture. This  explains  the  hold  which  it  had  obtained  upon  both 
English  and  Scottish  thought  soon  after  the  middle  of  the  igth  cen- 
tury. The  first  impulse  came  from  J.  F.  Ferrier  and  J.  H.  Stirling 
in  Edinburgh,  and  B.  Jowett  in  Oxford.  Already  in  the  seventies 
there  was  a  powerful  school  of  English  thinkers  under  the  lead  of 
Edward  Caird  and  T.  H.  Green  devoted  to  the  study  and  exposition 
of  the  Hegelian  system.  With  the  general  acceptance  of  its  main 
principle  that  the  real  is  the  rational,  there  came  in  the  eighties  a 
more  critical  examination  of  the  precise  meaning  to  be  attached  to 
it  and  its  bearing  on  the  problems  of  religion.  The  earlier  Hegelians 
had  interpreted  it  in  the  sense  that  the  world  in  its'  ultimate  essence 
was  not  only  spiritual  but  self-conscious  intelligence  whose  nature 
was  reflected  inadequately  but  truly  in  the  finite  mind.  They  thus 
seemed  to  come  forward  in  the  character  of  exponents  rather  than 
critics  of  the  Western  belief  in  God,  freedom  and  immortality.  As 
time  went  on  it  became  obvious  that  without  departure  from  the 
spirit  of  idealism  Hegel's  principle  was  susceptible  of  a  different 
interpretation.  Granted  that  rationality  taken  in  the  sense  of  inner 
coherence  and  self-consistency  is  the  ultimate  standard  of  truth 
and  reality,  does  self-consciousness  itself  answer  to  the  demands  of 
this  criterion?  If  not,  are  we  not  forced  to  deny  ultimate  reality 
to  personality  whether  human  or  divine?  The  question  was 
definitely  raised  in  F.  H.  Bradley's  Appearance  and  Reality  (1893; 
2nd  ed.,  1897)  and  answered  in  the  negative.  The  completeness  and 
self-consistency  which  our  ideal  requires  can  be  realized  only  in  a 
form  of  being  in  which  subject  and  object,  will  and  desire,  no  longer 
stand  as  exclusive  opposites,  from  which  it  seemed  at  once  to  follow 
that  the  finite  self  could  not  be  a  reality  nor  the  infinite  reality  a  self. 
On  this  basis  Bradley  developed  a  theory  of  the  Absolute  which,  while 
not  denying  that  it  must  be  conceived  of  spiritually,  insisted  that  its 
spirituality  is  of  a  kind  that  finds  no  analogy  in  our  self-conscious 
experience.  More  recently  J.  M.  E.  McTaggart's  Studies  in  Hegelian 
Dialectic  (1896),  Studies  in  Hegelian  Cosmology  (1901)  and  Some 
Dogmas  of  Religion  (1906)  have  opened  a  new  chapter  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  fiegelianism.  Truly  perceiving  that  1;he  ultimate 
metaphysical  problem  is,  here  as  ever,  the  relation  of  the  One  and  the 
Many,  McTaggart  starts  with  a  definition  of  the  ideal  in  which  our 
thought  upon  it  can  come  to  rest.  He  finds  it  where  (a)  the  unity  is 
for  each  individual,  (6)  the  whole  nature  of  the  individual  is  to  be 
lor  the  unity.  It  follows  from  such  a  conception  of  the  relation  that 
the  whole  cannot  itself  be  an  individual  apart  from  the  individuals 
in  whom  it  is  realized,  in  other  words,  the  Absolute  cannot  be  a 
Person.  But  for  the  same  reason — viz.  that  in  it  first  and  in  it  alone 
this  condition  is  realized — the  individual  soul  must  be  held  to  be  an 
ultimate  reality  reflecting  in  its  inmost  nature,  like  the  monad  of 
Leibniz,  the  complete  fulness  and  harmony  of  the  whole.  In  reply 
to  Bradley's  argument  for  the  unreality  of  the  self,  Hegel  is  inter- 
preted as  meaning  that  the  opposition  between  self  and  not-self  on 
which  it  is  founded  is  one  that  is  self-made  and  in  being  made  is 
transcended.  The  fuller  our  knowledge  of  reality  the  more  does 
the  object  stand  out  as  an  invulnerable  system  of  ordered  parts, 
but  the  process  by  which  it  is  thus  set  in  opposition  to  the  subject 
is  also  the  process  by  which  we  understand  and  transform  it  into  the 
substance  of  our  own  thought.  From  this  position  further  conse- 
quences followed.  Seeing  that  the  individual  soul  must  thus  be 
taken  to  stand  in  respect  to  its  inmost  essence  in  complete  har- 
mony with  the  whole,  it  must  eternally  be  at  one  with  itself:  all 


change  must  be  appearance.  Seeing,  moreover,  that  it  is,  and  is 
maintained  in  being,  by  a  fixed  relation  to  the  Absolute,  it  cannot 
fail  of  immortality.  No  pantheistic  theory  of  an  eternal  substance 
continuously  expressing  itself  in  different  individuals  who  fall  back 
into  its  being  like  drops  into  the  ocean  will  here  be  sufficient.  The 
ocean  is  the  drops.  '  The  Absolute  requires  each  self  not  to  make 
up  a  sum  or  to  maintain  an  average  but  in  respect  of  the  self's  special 
and  unique  nature."  Finally  as  it  cannot  cease,  neither  can  the 
individual  soul  have  had  a  beginning.  Pre-existence  is  as  necessary 
and  certain  as  a  future  life.  If  memory  is  lacking  as  a  link  between 
the  different  lives,  this  only  shows  that  memory  is  not  of  the  sub- 
stance of  the  soul. 

In  view  of  these  differences  (amounting  almost  to  an  antinomy  of 
paradoxes)  in  interpretation,  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  recent 
years  have  witnessed  a  violent  reaction  in  some  quarters  against 
Hegelian  influence.  This  has  taken  the  direction  on  the  one  hand  of 
a  revival  of  realism  (see  METAPHYSICS),  on  the  other  of  a  new  form 
of  subjective  idealism  (see  PRAGMATISM).  As  yet  neither  of  these 
movements  has  shown  sufficient  coherence  or  stability  to  establish 
itself  as  a  rival  to  the  main  current  of  philosophy  in  England.  But 
they  have  both  been  urged  with  sufficient  ability  to  arrest  its  progress 
and  to  call  for  a  reconsideration  and  restatement  of  the  fundamental 
principle  of  idealist  philosophy  and  its  relation  to  the  fundamental 
problems  of  religion.  This  will  probably  be  the  main  work  of  the 
next  generation  of  thinkers  in  England  (see  IDEALISM). 

Among   Italian   Hegelians  are  A.  Vera,   Raffaele   Mariano  and 

B.  Spaventa  (1817-1883) ;  see  V.  de  Lucia,  L'Hegel  in  Italia  (1891). 
In  Sweden,  J.  J.  Borelius  of  Lund ;  in  Norway,  G.  V.  Lyng  (d.  1884), 
M.  J.  Monrad  (1816-1807)  and  G.  Kent  (d.  1892)  have  adopted 
Hegelianism ;  in  France,  P.  Leroux  and  P.  PreVost. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Shortly  after  Hegel's  death  his  collected  works 
were  published  by  a  number  of  his  friends,  who  combined  for  the 
purpose.  They  appeared  in  eighteen  volumes  in  1832,  and  a  second 
edition  came  out  about  twelve  years  later.  Volumes  i.-viii.  contain 
the  works  published  by  himself;  the  remainder  is  made  up  of  his 
lectures  on  the  Philosophy  of  History,  Aesthetic,  the  Philosophy  of 
Religion  and  the  History  of  Philosophy,  besides  some  essays  and 
reviews,  with  a  few  of  his  letters,  and  the  Philosophical  Propaedeutic. 

For  his  life  see  K.  Rosenkranz,  Leben  Hegels  (Berlin,  1844) ; 
R.  R.  Haym,  Hegel  und  seine  Zeit  (Berlin,  1857);  K.  Kostlin,  Hegel 
in  philosophischer,  politischer  und  nationaler  Beziehung  (Tubingen, 
1870);  Rosenkranz,  Hegel  als  deutscher  National-Philosoph  (Berlin, 
1870),  and  his  Neue  Studien,  vol.  iv.  (Berlin,  1878);  Kuno  Fischer, 
Hegels  Leben  und  Werke. 

For  the  philosophy  see  A.  Ruge's  Aus  fruherer  Zeit,  vol.  iv. 
(Berlin,  1867);  Haym  (as  above);  F.  A.  Trendelenburg  (in  Logische 
Untersuchungen) ;  A.  L.  Kym  (Metaphysische  Untersuchungen)  and 

C.  Hermann  (Hegel  und  die  logische  Frage  and  other  works)  are 
noticeable  as  modern  critics.     Georges  Noel,  La  Logique  de  Hegel 
(Paris,     1897) ;    Aloys    Schmid,    Die    Entwickelungsgeschichte    der 
Hegelschen   Logik    (Regensburg,    1858).     Vera   has   translated   the 
Encyklopadie  into  French,  with  notes;  C.   Bernard,   the  Aslhelik. 
In  English  J.  Hutcheson  Stirling's  Secret  of  Hegel  (2  yols.,  London, 
1865)  contains  a  translation  of  the  beginning  of  the  Wissenschaft  der 
Logik;  the  "Logic"  from  the  Encyklopadie  has  been  translated, 
with  Prolegomena,  by  W.  Wallace  (Oxford,  1874).     W.  Wallace  also 
translated  the  third  part  of  the  Encyklopadie  in  Hegel's  Philosophy 
of  Mind  (1894);  R.  B.  Haldane  the  History  of  Philosophy  (1896); 
E.  B.  Speirs,  lectures  on  the  Philosophy  of  Religion  (1895) ;  J.  Sibree, 
lectures  on  The  Philosophy  of  History  (1852);  B.  Bosanquet,  Philo- 
sophy of  Fine  Art,  Introduction  (1886);  W.  Hastie,  The  Philosophy 
of  Art  (1886);  S.  W.  Dyde,  The  Philosophy  of  Right  (1896).     Other 
recent  expositions  and  criticisms  in  addition  to  those  mentioned 
above  are  W.  T.  Harris,  Hegel's  Logic  (1890);  J.  B.  Baillie,  Origin 
and  Significance  of  Hegel's  Logic  (1901),  and  Outline  of  the  Idealistic 
Construction  of  Experience  (1906) ;  P.  Barth,  Die  Geschichtsphilosophie 
Hegels   (1890);  J.  A.   Marrast,  La  Philosophic  du  droit  de  Hegel 
(1869);  L.   Miraglia,   I  Principii  fondamentali  e  la  dottrina   etico- 
eiuridica  di  Hegel  (1873) ;  Hegel  s  Philosophy  of  the  State  and  History 
(Germ.   Phil.   Classics,   1887);  G.   Bolland,  Philosophic  des  Rechts 
(1902),  and  Hegels  Philosophic  der  Religion   (1901);  E.  Ott,  Die 
Religionsphilosophie  Hegels  (1904) ;  J.  M.  Sterrett,  Studies  in  Hegel's 
Philosophy  of  Religion  (1891);  M.  Ehrenhauss,  Hegels  Gottesbegriff 
(1880);  E.  Caird,  Hegel  (1880);  A.  Seth  Pringle-Pattison,  Hegelian- 
ism and  Personality  (1893) ;  Millicent  Mackenzie,  Hegel's  Educational 
Theory  and  Practice   (1909),   with  biographical  sketch;  J.   M.   E. 
McTaggart,  Commentary  on  Hegel's  Logic  (1910).       (J.  H.  Mu.) 

HEGEMON  OF  THASOS,  Greek  writer  of  the  old  comedy, 
nicknamed  <I>a./rij  from  his  fondness  for  lentils.  Hardly  anything 
is  known  of  him,  except  that  he  nourished  during  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  War.  According  to  Aristotle  (Poetics,  ii.  5)  he  was  the 
inventor  of  a  kind  of  parody;  by  slightly  altering  the  wording 
in  well-known  poems  he  transformed  the  sublime  into  the 
ridiculous.  When  the  news  of  the  disaster  in  Sicily  reached 
Athens,  his  parody  of  the  Gigantomachia  was  being  performed; 
it  is  said  that  the  audience  were  so  .amused  by  it  that,  instead  of 
leaving  to  show  their  grief,  they  remained  in  their  seats.  He 


208 


HEGEMONY— HEIBERG 


was  also  the  author  of  a  comedy  called  Philinne  (Pkiline), 
written  in  the  manner  of  Eupolis  and  Cratinus,  in  which  he 
attacked  a  well-known  courtesan.  Athenaeus  (p.  698),  who 
preserves  some  parodic  hexameters  of  his,  relates  other  anecdotes 
concerning  him  (pp.  5,  108,  407). 

Fragments  in  T.  Kock,  Comicorum  Atticprum  fragmenta,  i.  (1880) ; 
B.  J.  Peltzer,  De  parodied  Graecorum  poesi  (1855). 

HEGEMONY  (Gr.  ^yejuoi/ta,  leadership,  from  fryeio-Qai,  to 
lead,  the  leadership  especially  of  one  particular  state  in  a  group 
of  federated  or  loosely  united  states.  The  term  was  first  applied 
in  Greek  history  to  the  position  claimed  by  different  individual 
city-states,  e.g.  by  Athens  and  Sparta,  at  different  times  to  a 
position  of  predominance  (primus  inter  pares)  among  other  equal 
states,  coupled  with  individual  autonomy.  The  reversion  of  this 
position  was  claimed  by  Macedon  (see  GREECE:  Ancient  History, 
and  DELIAN  LEAGUE). 

HEGESIAS  OF  MAGNESIA  (in  Lydia),  Greek  rhetorician  and 
historian,  flourished  about  300  B.C.  Strabo  (xiv.  648),  speaks 
of  him  as  the  founder  of  the  florid  style  of  composition  known  as 
"Asiatic"  (cf.  TIMAEUS).  Agatharchides,  Dionysius  of  Hali- 
carnassus  and  Cicero  all  speak  of  him  in  disparaging  terms, 
although  Varro  seems  to  have  approved  of  his  work.  He  pro- 
fessed to  imitate  the  simple  style  of  Lysias,  avoiding  long  periods, 
and  expressing  himself  in  short,  jerky  sentences,  without  modula- 
tion or  finish.  His  vulgar  affectation  and  bombast  made  his 
writings  a  mere  caricature  of  the  old  Attic.  Dionysius  describes 
his  composition  as  tinselled,  ignoble  and  effeminate.  It  is 
generally  supposed,  from  the  fragment  quoted  as  a  specimen  by 
Dionysius,  that  Hegesias  is  to  be  classed  among  the  writers  of 
lives  of  Alexander  the  Great.  This  fragment  describes  the 
treatment  of  Gaza  and  its  inhabitants  by  Alexander  after  its 
conquest,  but  it  is  possible  that  it  is  only  part  of  an  epideictic 
or  show-speech,  not  of  an  historical  work.  This  view  is  supported 
by  a  remark  of  Agatharchides  in  Photius  (cod.  250)  that  the 
only  aim  of  Hegesias  was  to  exhibit  his  skill  in  describing 
sensational  events. 

See  Cicero,  Brutus  83,  Orator  67,  69,  with  J.  E.  Sandys's  note,  ad 
AU.  xii.  6;  Dion.  Halic.  De  verborum  comp.  iv. ;  Aulus  Gellius  ix. 
4;  Plutarch,  Alexander,  3;  C.  W.  Miiller,  Scriptores  rerum  Alexandra 
Magni,  p.  138  (appendix  to  Didot  ed.  of  Arrian,  1846);  Norden, 
Die  antike  Kunstprosa  (1898);  J.  B.  Bury,  Ancient  Greek  Historians 
(1909),  pp.  169-172,  on  origin  and  development  of  "  Asiatic  "  style, 
with  example  from  Hegesias. 

HEGESIPPUS,  Athenian  orator  and  statesman,  nicknamed 
KpobjSuXos  ("  knot  "),  probably  from  the  way  in  which  he  wore 
his  hair.  He  lived  in  the  time  of  Demosthenes,  of  whose  anti- 
Macedonian  policy  he  was  an  enthusiastic  supporter.  In  343 
B.C.  he  was  one  of  the  ambassadors  sent  to  Macedonia  to  dis- 
cuss, amongst  other  matters,  the  restoration  of  the  island  of 
Halonnesus,  which  had  been  seized  by  Philip.  The  mission  was 
unsuccessful,  but  soon  afterwards  Philip  wrote  to  Athens,  offering 
to  resign  possession  of  the  island  or  to  submit  to  arbitration  the 
question  of  ownership.  In  reply  to  this  letter  the  oration  De 
Halonneso  was  delivered,  which,  although  included  among  the 
speeches  of  Demosthenes,  is  generally  considered  to  be  by 
Hegesippus.  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  and  Plutarch,  however, 
favour  the  authorship  of  Demosthenes. 

See  Demosthenes,  De  falsa  legatione  364,  447,  De  corona  250, 
Philippica  iii.  129;  Plutarch,  Demosthenes  17,  Apophthegmata, 
1870;  Dionysius  Halic.  ad  Ammaeum,  i. ;  Grote,  History  of  Greece, 
ch.  90. 

HEGESIPPUS  (fl.  A.D.  150-180),  early  Christian  writer,  was  of 
Palestinian  origin,  and  lived  under  the  Emperors  Antoninus  Pius, 
Marcus  Aurelius  and  Commodus.  Like  Aristo  of  Pella  he  belonged 
to  that  group  of  Judaistic  Christians  which,  while  keeping  the  law 
themselves,  did  not  attempt  to  impose  on  others  the  requirements 
of  circumcision  and  Sabbath  observance.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  treatise  (inrofivfi fiord)  in  five  books  dealing  with  such  subjects 
as  Christian  literature,  the  unity  of  church  doctrine,  paganism, 
heresy  and  Jewish  Christianity,  fragments  of  which  are  found  in 
Eusebius,  who  obtained  much  of  his  information  concerning  early 
Palestinian  church  history  and  chronology  from  this  source. 
Hegesippus  was  also  a  great  traveller,  and  like  many  other  leaders 


of  his  time  came  to  Rome  (having  visited  Corinth  on  the  way) 
about  the  middle  of  the  2nd  century.  His  journeyings  impressed 
him  with  the  idea  that  the  continuity  of  the  church  in  the  cities 
he  visited  was  a  guarantee  of  its  fidelity  to  apostolic  orthodoxy: 
"  in  each  succession  and  in  every  city,  the  doctrine  is  in  accordance 
with  that  which  the  Law  and  the  Prophets  and  the  Lord  [i.e  the 
Old  Testament  and  the  evangelical  tradition]  proclaim."  To 
illustrate  this  opinion  he  drew  up  a  list  of  the  Roman  bishops. 
Hegesippus  is  thus  a  significant  figure  both  for  the  type  of 
Christianity  taught  in  the  circle  to  which  he  belonged,  and  as 
accentuating  the  point  of  view  which  the  church  began  to  assume 
in  the  presence  of  a  developing  gnosticism. 

HEGESIPPUS,  the  supposed  author  of  a  free  Latin  adaptation 
of  the  Jewish  War  of  Josephus  under  the  title  De  hello  Judaico  et 
excidio  urbis  Hierosolymitanae.  The  seven  books  of  Josephus 
are  compressed  into  five,  but  much  has  been  added  from  the 
Antiquities  and  from  the  works  of  Roman  historians,  while  several 
entirely  new  speeches  are  introduced  to  suit  the  occasion.  Internal 
evidence  shows  that  the  work  could  not  have  been  written  before 
the  4th  century  A.D.  The  author,  who  is  undoubtedly  a  Christian, 
describes  it  in  his  preface  as  a  kind  of  revised  edition  of  Josephus. 
Some  authorities  attribute  it  to  Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan  (340- 
397),  but  there  is  nothing  to  settle  the  authorship  definitely.  The 
name  Hegesippus  itself  appears  to  be  a  corruption  of  Josephus, 
through  the  stages  'IOJOTJTTOS,  losippus,  Egesippus,  Hegesippus, 
unless  it  was  purposely  adopted  as  reminiscent  of  Hegesippus,  the 
father  of  ecclesiastical  history  (2nd  century). 

Best  edition  by  C.  F.  Weber  and  J.  Caesar  (1864);  authorities 
in  E.  Schurer,  History  of  the  Jewish  People  (Eng.  trans.),  i.  99  seq. ; 
F.  Vogel,  De  Hegesippo,  qui  dicitur,  Josephi  interprete  (Erlangen, 
1881). 

HEGIUS  [VON  HEEK],  ALEXANDER  (c.  1433-1498),  German 
humanist,  so  called  from  his  birthplace  Heek  in  Westphalia.  In 
his  youth  he  was  a  pupil  of  Thomas  a  Kempis,  at  that  time  canon 
of  the  convent  of  St  Agnes  at  Zwolle.  In  1474  he  settled  down  at 
Deventer  in  Holland,  where  he  either  founded  or  succeeded  to  the 
headship  of  a  school,  which  became  famous  for  the  number  of  its 
distinguished  alumni.  First  and  foremost  of  these  was  Erasmus; 
others  were  Hermann  von  dem  Busche,  the  missionary  of 
humanism,  Conrad  Goclenius  (Gockelen),  Conrad  Mutianus 
(Muth  von  Mudt)  and  pope  Adrian  VI.  Hegius  died  at  Deventer 
on  the  7th  of  December  1498.  His  writings,  consisting  of  short 
poems,  philosophical  essays,  grammatical  notes  and  letters, 
were  published  after  his  death  by  his  pupil  Jacob  Faber.  They 
display  considerable  knowledge  of  Latin,  but  less  of  Greek,  on  the 
value  of  which  he  strongly  insisted.  Hegius's  chief  claim  to  be 
remembered  rests  not  upon  his  published  works,  but  upon  his 
services  in  the  cause  of  humanism.  He  succeeded  in  abolishing 
the  old-fashioned  medieval  textbooks  and  methods  of  instruction, 
and  led  his  pupils  to  the  study  of  the  classical  authors  themselves. 
His  generosity  in  assisting  poor  students  exhausted  a  considerable 
fortune,  and  at  his  death  he  left  nothing  but  his  books  and 
clothes. 

See  D.  Reichling,  "  Beitrage  zur  Charakteristik  des  Alex.  Hegius," 
in  the  Monatsschrift  fur  Westdeutschland  (1877) ;  H.  Hamelmann, 
Opera  genealogico-historica  (1711);  H.  A.  Erhard,  Geschichte  des 
Wiederaufbluhens  wissenschaftticher  Bildung  (1826);  C.  Krafft  ancl 
W.  Crecelius,  "  Alexander  Hegius  und  seine  Schiller,"  from  the 
works  of  Johannes  Butzbach,  one  of  Hegius's  pupils,  in  Zeitschrift 
des  bergischen  Geschichtsvereins,  vii.  (Bonn,  1871). 

HEIBERG,  JOHAN  LUDVIG  (1791-1860),  Danish  poet  and 
critic,  son  of  the  political  writer  Peter  Andreas  Heiberg  (1758- 
1841),  and  of  the  famous  novelist,  afterwards  the  Baroness 
Gyllembourg-Ehrensvard,  was  born  at  Copenhagen  on  the  i4th 
of  December  1791.  In  1800  his  father  was  exiled  and  settled  in 
Paris,  where  he  was  employed  in  the  French  foreign  office,  retir- 
ing in  1817  with  a  pension.  His  political  and  satirical  writings 
continued  to  exercise  great  influence  over  his  fellow-countrymen. 
Johan  Ludvig  Heiberg  was  taken  by  K.  L.  Rahbek  and  his  wife 
into  their  house  at  Bakkehuset.  He  was  educated  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Copenhagen,  and  his  first  publication,  entitled  The 
Theatre  for  Marionettes  (1814),  included  two  romantic  dramas. 
This  was  followed  by  Christmas  Jokes  and  New  Year's  Tricks 


HEIDE— HEIDELBERG 


209 


(1816),  The  Initiation  of  Psyche  (1817),  and  The  Prophecy  of 
Tycho  Brahe,  a  satire  on  the  eccentricities  of  the  Romantic 
writers,  especially  on  the  sentimentality  of  Ingemann.  These 
works  attracted  attention  at  a  time  when  Baggesen,  Ohlen- 
schlager  and  Ingemann  possessed  the.  popular  ear,  and  were 
understood  at  once  to  be  the  opening  of  a  great  career.  In  1817 
Heiberg  took  his  degree,  and  in  1819  went  abroad  with  a  grant 
from  government.  He  proceeded  to  Paris,  and  spent  the  next 
three  years  there  with  his  father.  In  1822  he  published  his  drama 
of  Nina,  and  was  made  professor  of  the  Danish  language  at  the 
university  of  Kiel,  where  he  delivered  a  course  of  lectures,  com- 
paring the  Scandinavian  mythology  as  found  in  the  Edda  with 
the  poems  of  Ohlenschlager.  These  lectures  were  published  in 
German  in  1827. 

In  1825  Heiberg  came  back  to  Copenhagen  for  the  purpose  of 
introducing  the  vaudeville  on  the  Danish  stage.  He  composed  a 
great  number  of  these  vaudevilles,  of  which  the  best  known  are 
King  Solomon  and  George  the  Hatmaker  (1825);  April  Fools 
(1826);  A  Story  in  Rosenberg  Garden  (1827);  Kjoge  Huskors 
(1831);  The  Danes  in  Paris  (1833);  No  (1836);  and  Yes 
(1839).  He  took  his  models  from  the  French  theatre,  but  showed 
extraordinary  skill  in  blending  the  words  and  the  music;  but  the 
subjects  and  the  humour  were  essentially  Danish  and  even  topical. 
Meanwhile  he  was  producing  dramatic  work  of  a  more  serious 
kind;  in  1828  he  brought  out  the  national  drama  of  Eltierhoi; 
in  1830  The  Inseparables;  in  1835  the  fairy  comedy  of  The  Elves, 
a  dramatic  version  of  Tieck's  Elfin;  and  in  1838  Fata  Morgana, 
In  1841  Heiberg  published  a  volume  of  New  Poems  containing 
"  A  Soul  after  Death,"  a  comedy  which  is  perhaps  his  master- 
piece, "  The  Newly  Wedded  Pair,"  and  other  pieces.  He  edited 
from  1827  to  1830  the  famous  weekly,  the  Flyvende  Post  (The 
Flying  Post),  and  subsequently  the  Interimsblade  (1834-1837) 
and  the  Intelligensblade  (1842-1843).  In  his  journalism  he 
carried  on  his  warfare  against  the  excessive  pretensions  of  the 
Romanticists,  and  produced  much  valuable  and  penetrating 
criticism  of  art  and  literature.  In  1831  he  married  the  actress 
Johanne  Louise  Paetges  (1812-1890),  herself  the  author  of  some 
popular  vaudevilles.  Heiberg's  scathing  satires,  however,  made 
him  very  unpopular;  and  this  antagonism  reached  its  height 
when,  in  1845,  he  published  his  malicious  little  drama  of  The 
Nut  Crackers.  Nevertheless  he  became  in  1847  director  of  the 
national  theatre.  He  filled  the  post  for  seven  years,  working 
with  great  zeal  and  conscientiousness,  but  was  forced  by  intrigues 
from  without  to  resign  it  in  1854.  Heiberg  died  at  Bonderup, 
near  Ringsted,  on  the  25th  of  August  1860.  His  influence  upon 
taste  and  critical  opinion  was  greater  than  that  of  any  writer  of 
his  time,  and  can  only  be  compared  with  that  of  Holberg  in  the 
1 8th  century.  Most  of  the  poets  of  the  Romantic  movement  in 
Denmark  were  very  grave  and  serious;  Heiberg  added  the 
element  of  humour,  elegance  and  irony.  He  had  the  genius  of 
good  taste,  and  his  witty  and  delicate  productions  stand  almost 
unique  in  the  literature  of  his  country. 

The  poetical  works  of  Heiberg  were  collected,  in  n  vols.,  in  1861— 
1862,  and  his  prose  writings  (n  vols.)  in  the  same  year.  The  last 
volume  of  his  prose  works  contains  some  fragments  of  autobio- 
graphy. See  also  G.  Brandes,  Essays  (1889).  For  the  elder  Heiberg 
see  monographs  by  Thaarup  (1883)  and  by  Schwanenflugel  (1891). 

HEIDE,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Schleswig-Holstein,  on  a  small  plateau  which  stands  between 
the  marshes  and  moors  bordering  the  North  Sea,  35  m.  N.N.W. 
of  Gliickstadt,  at  the  junction  of  the  railways  Elmshorn- 
Hvidding  and  Neumiinster-Tonning.  Pop. (1905),  8758.  Ithasan 
Evangelical  and  a  Roman  Catholic  church,  a  high-grade  school, 
and  tobacco  and  cigar  manufactories  and  breweries.  Heide  in 
1447  became  the  capital  of  the  Ditmarsh  peasant  republic,  but 
on  the  i3th  of  June  1559  it  was  the  scene  of  the  complete  defeat 
of  the  peasant  forces  by  the  Danes. 

HEIDEGGER,  JOHANN  HEINRICH  (1633-1698),  Swiss 
theologian,  was  born  at  Barentschweil,  in  the  canton  of  Zurich. 
Switzerland,  on  the  ist  of  July  1633.  He  studied  at  Marburg 
and  at  Heidelberg,  where  he  became  the  friend  of  J.  L.  Fabricius 
(1632-1696),  and  was  appointed  professor  extraordinarily  of 


Hebrew  and  later  of  philosophy.  In  1659  he  was  called  to 
Steinfurt  to  fill  the  chair  of  dogmatics  and  ecclesiastical  history, 
and  in  the  same  year  he  became  doctor  of  theology  of  Heidelberg. 
In  1660  he  revisited  Switzerland;  and,  after  marrying,  he 
travelled  in  the  following  year  to  Holland,  where  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Johannes  Cocceius.  He  returned  in  1665  to 
Zurich,  where  he  was  elected  professor  of  moral  philosophy. 
Two  years  later  he  succeeded  J.  H.  Hottinger  (1620-1667)  in 
the  chair  of  theology,  which  he  occupied  till  his  death  on  the 
1 8th  of  January  1698,  having  declined  an  invitation  in  1669 
to  succeed  J.  Cocceius  at  Leiden,  as  well  as  a  call  to  Groningen. 
Heidegger  was  the  principal  author  of  the  Formula  Consensus 
Helvetica  in  1675, which  wasdesigned  to  unite  the  SwissReformed 
churches,  but  had  an  opposite  effect.  W.  Gass  describes  him 
as  the  most  notable  of  the  Swiss  theologians  of  the  time. 

His  writings  are  largely  controversial,  though  without  being 
bitter,  and  are  in  great  part  levelled  against  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  The  chief  are  De  historia  sacra  patriarcharum  exercita- 
tiones  selectae  (1667-1671);  Dissertatio  de  Peregrinationibus 
religiosis  (1670);  De  ratione  studiorum,  opuscula  aurea,  &c. 
(1670);  Historia  papatus  (1684;  under  the  name  Nicander  von 
Hohenegg);  Manuductio  in  mam  concordiae  Protestantium 
ecclesiasticae  (1686);  Tumulus  concilii  Tridentini  (1690); 
Exercitationes  biblicae  (1700),  with  a  lifeof  the  author  prefixed; 
Corpus  theologiae  Christianae  (1700,  edited  by  J.  H.  Schweizer); 
Ethicae  Christianae  elementa  (1711);  and  lives  of  J.  H.  Hottinger 
(1667)  and  J.  L.  Fabricius  (1698).  His  autobiography  appeared 
in  1698,  under  the  title  Historia  vitae  J.  H,  Heideggeri. 

See  the  articles  in  Herzog-Hauck's  Realencyklopadie  and  the 
Allgemeine  deulsche  Biographic ;  and  cf.  W.  Gass,  Geschichte  der 
protestantischen  Dogmatik,  ii.  353  ff. 

HEIDELBERG,  a  town  of  Germany,  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Neckar,  12  m.  above  its  confluence  with  the  Rhine,  13  m.  S.E. 
from  Mannheim  and  54  m.  from  Frankfort-on-Main  by  rail.  The 
situation  of  the  town,  lying  between  lofty  hills  covered  with 
vineyards  and  forests,  at  the  spot  where  the  rapid  Neckar  leaves 
the  gorge  and  enters  the  plain  of  the  Rhine,  is  one  of  great  natural 
beauty.  The  town  itself  consists  practically  of  one  long,  narrow 
street — the  Hauptstrasse — running  parallel  to  the  river,  from 
the  railway  station  on  the  west  to  the  Karlstor  on  the  east 
(where  there  is  also  a  local  station)  for  a  distance  of  2  m.  To 
the  south  of  this  is  the  Anlage,  a  pleasant  promenade  flanked  by 
handsome  villas  and  gardens,  leading  directly  to  the  centre  of 
the  place.  A  number  of  smaller  streets  intersect  the  Haupt- 
strasse at  right  angles  and  run  down  to  the  river, which  is  crossed 
by  two  fine  bridges.  Of  these,  the  old  bridge  on  the  east,  built 
in  1788,  has  a  fine  gateway  and  is  adorned  with  statues  of 
Minerva  and  the  elector  Charles  Theodore  of  the  Palatinate; 
the  other,  the  lower  bridge,  on  the  west,  built  in  1877,  connects 
Heidelberg  with  the  important  suburbs  of  Neuenheim  and 
Handschuchsheim.  Of  recent  years  the  town  has  grown  largely 
towards  the  west  on  both  sides  of  the  river;  but  the  additions 
have  been  almost  entirely  of  the  better  class  of  residences. 
Heidelberg  is  an  important  railway  centre,  and  is  connected  by 
trunk  lines  with  Frankfort,  Mannheim,  Karlsruhe,  Spires  and 
WUrzburg.  Electric  trams  provide  for  local  traffic,  and  there 
are  also  several  light  railways  joining  it  with  the  neighbouring 
villages.  Of  the  churches  the  chief  are  the  Protestant  Peters- 
kirche  dating  from  the  isth  century  and  restored  in  1873,  to 
the  door  of  which  Jerome  of  Prague  in  1460  nailed  his  theses; 
the  Heilige  Geist  Kirche  (Church  of  the  Holy  Ghost),  an  imposing 
Gothic  edifice  of  the  i5th  century;  the  Jesuitenkirche  (Roman 
Catholic),  with  a  sumptuously  decorated  interior,  and  the  new 
Evangelical  Christuskirche.  The  town  hall  and  the  university 
buildings,  dating  from  1712  and  restored  in  1886,  are  common- 
place erections;  but  to  the  south  of  the  Ludwigsplatz,  upon 
which  most  of  the  academical  buildings  lie,  stands  the  new 
university  library,  a  handsome  structure  of  pink  sandstone  in 
German  Renaissance  style.  In  addition  to  the  Ludwigsplatz 
with  its  equestrian  statue  of  the  emperor  William  I.  there  are 
other  squares  in  the  town,  among  them  being  the  Bismarckplatz 
with  a  statue  of  Bismarck,  and  the  Jubilaumsplatz. 


210 


HEIDELBERG 


The  chief  attraction  of  Heidelberg  is  the  castle,  which  over- 
hangs the  east  part  of  the  town.  It  stands  on  the  Jettenbiihl, 
a  spur  of  the  Konigsstuhl  (1800  ft.),  at  a  height  of  330  ft.  above 
the  Neckar.  Though  now  a  ruin,  yet  its  extent,  its  magnificence, 
its  beautiful  situation  and  its  interesting  history  render  it  by 
far  the  most  noteworthy,  as  it  certainly  is  the  grandest  and 
largest,  of  the  old  castles  of  Germany.  The  building  was  begun 
early  in  the  i3th  century.  The  elector  palatine  and  German 
king  Rupert  III.  (d.  1410)  greatly  improved  it,  and  built  the 
wing,  Ruprechtsbau  or  Rupert's  building,  that  bears  his  name. 
Succeeding  electors  further  extended  and  embellished  it  (see 
ARCHITECTURE,  Plate  VII.,  figs.  78-80);  notably  Otto  Henry 
"  the  Magnanimous  "  (d.  1559),  who  built  the  beautiful  early 
Renaissance  wing  known  as  the  Otto-Heinrichsbau  (1556-1559); 
Frederick  IV.,  for  whom  the  fine  late  Renaissance  wing  called 
the  Friedrichsbau  was  built  (1601-1607);  and  Frederick  V.,  the 
unfortunate  "  winter  king  "  of  Bohemia,  who  on  the  west  side 
added  the  Elisabethenbau  or  Englischebau  (1618),  named  after 
his  wife,  the  daughter  of  James  I.  of  Great  Britain  and  ancestress 


of  the  present  English  reigning  family.  In  1648,  at  the  peace  of 
Westphalia,  Heidelberg  was  given  back  to  Frederick  V.'s  son, 
Charles  Louis,  who  restored  the  castle  to  its  former  splendour. 
In  1688,  during  Louis  XIV. 's  invasion  of  the  Palatinate,  the 
castle  was  taken,  after  a  long  siege,  by  the  French,  who  blew 
part  of  it  up  when  they  found  they  could  not  hope  to  hold  it 
(March  2, 1689).  In  1693  it  was  again  captured  by  them  and  still 
further  wrecked.  Finally,  in  1764,  it  was  struck  by  lightning 
and  reduced  to  its  present  ruinous  condition. 

Apart  from  the  outworks,  the  castle  forms  an  irregular  square 
with  round  towers  at  the  angles,  the  principal  buildings  being 
grouped  round  a  central  courtyard,  the  entrance  to  which  is 
from  the  south  through  a  series  of  gateways.  In  this  courtyard, 
besides  the  buildings  already  mentioned,  are  the  oldest  parts 
of  the  castle,  the  so-called  Alte  Bau  (old  building)  and  the 
Bandhaus.  The  Friedrichsbau,  which  is  decorated  with  statues 
of  the  rulers  of  the  Palatinate,  was  elaborately  restored  and 
rendered  habitable  between  1897  and  1903.  Other  noteworthy 
objects  in  the  castle  are  the  fountain  in  the  courtyard,  decorated 
with  four  granite  columns  from  Charlemagne's  palace  at  Ingel- 
heim;  the  Elisabethentor,  a  beautiful  gateway  named  after  the 
English  princess;  the  beautiful  octagonal  bell-tower  at  the  N.E. 
angle;  the  ruins  of  the  Krautturm,  now  known  as  the  Gesprengte 
Turm,  or  blown-up  tower,  and  the  castle  chapel  and  the  museum 
of  antiquities  in  the  Friedrichsbau.  In  a  cellar  entered  from 
the  courtyard  is  the  famous  Great  Tun  of  Heidelberg.  This 


vast  vat  was  built  in  1751,  but  has  only  been  used  on  one  or 
two  occasions.  Its  capacity  is  49,000  gallons,  and  it  is  20  ft. 
high  and  31  ft.  long.  Behind  the  Friedrichsbau  is  the  Allan 
(1610),  or  castle  balcony,  from  which  is  obtained  a  view  of  great 
beauty,  extending  from  .the  town  beneath  to  the  heights  across 
the  Neckar  and  over  the  broad  luxuriant  plain  of  the  Rhine 
to  Mannheim  and  the  dim  contours  of  the  Hardt  Mountains 
behind.  On  the  terrace  of  the  beautiful  grounds  is  a  statue  of 
Victor  von  Scheffel,  the  poet  of  Heidelberg. 

The  university  of  Heidelberg  was  founded  by  the  elector 
Rupert  I.,  in  1385,  the  bull  of  foundation  being  issued  by  Pope 
Urban  VI.  in  that  year.  It  was  constructed  after  the  type  of 
Paris,  had  four  faculties,  and  possessed  numerous  privileges. 
Marselius  von  Inghen  was  its  first  rector.  The  electors  Frederick 
I.,  the  Victorious,  Philip  the  Upright  and  Louis  V.  respectively 
cherished  it.  Otto  Henry  gave  it  a  new  organization,  further 
endowed  it  and  founded  the  library.  At  the  Reformation  it 
became  a  stronghold  of  Protestant  learning,  the  Heidelberg 
catechism  being  drawn  up  by  its  theologians.  Then  the  tide 
turned.  Damaged  by  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  it  led  a  struggling 
existence  for  a  century  and  a  half.  A  large  portion  of  its  remain- 
ing endowments  was  cut  off  by  the  peace  of  Luneville  (1801). 
In  1803,  however,  Charles  Frederick,  grand-duke  of  Baden, 
raised  it  anew  and  reconstituted  it  under  the  name  of  "  Ruperto- 
Carola."  The  number  of  professors  and  teachers  is  at  present 
about  150  and  of  students  1700.  The  library  was  first  kept  in 
the  choir  of  the  Heilige  Geist  Kirche,  and  then  consisted  of 
3500  MSS.  In  1623  it  was  sent  to  Rome  by  Maximilian  I., 
duke  of  Bavaria,  and  stored  as  the  Bibliotheca  Palatina  in  the 
Vatican.  It  was  afterwards  taken  to  Paris,  and  in  1815  was 
restored  to  Heidelberg.  It  has  more  than  500,000  volumes, 
besides  4000  MSS.  Among  the  other  university  institutions 
are  the  academic  hospital,  the  maternity  hospital,  the  physio- 
logical institution,  the  chemical  laboratory,  the  zoological 
museum,  the  botanical  garden  and  the  observatory  on  the 
Konigsstuhl. 

The  other  educational  foundations  are  a  gymnasium,  a  modern 
and  a  technical  school.  There  is  a  small  theatre,  an  art  and 
several  other  scientific  societies.  The  manufactures  of  Heidelberg 
include  cigars,  leather,  cement,  surgical  instruments  and  beer, 
but  the  inhabitants  chiefly  support  themselves  by  supplying 
the  wants  of  a  large  and  increasing  body  of  foreign  permanent 
residents,  of  the  considerable  number  of  tourists  who  during 
the  summer  pass  through  the  town,  and  of  the  university 
students.  A  funicular  railway  runs  from  the  Korn-Markt  up 
to  the  level  of  the  castle  and  thence  to  the  Molkenkur  (700  ft. 
above  the  town).  The  town  is  well  lighted  and  is  supplied  with 
excellent  water  from  the  Wolfsbrunnen.  Pop.  (1885),  29,304; 
(1905),  49,527. 

At  an  early  period  Heidelberg  was  a  fief  of  the  bishop  of 
Worms,  who  entrusted  it  about  1225  to  the  count  palatine  of 
the  Rhine,  Louis  I.  It  soon  became  a  town  and  the  chief 
residence  of  the  counts  palatine.  Heidelberg  was  one  of  the 
great  centres  of  the  reformed  teaching  and  was  the  headquarters 
of  the  Calvinists.  On  this  account  it  suffered  much  during  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  being  captured  and  plundered  by  Count 
Tilly  in  1622,  by  the  Swedes  in  1633  and  again  by  the  imperialists 
in  1635.  By  the  peace  of  Westphalia  it  was  restored  to  the 
elector  Charles  Louis.  In  1688  and  again  in  1693  Heidelberg 
was  sacked  by  the  French.  On  the  latter  occasion  the  work  of 
destruction  was  carried  out  so  thoroughly  that  only  one  house 
escaped;  this  being  a  quaintly  decorated  erection  in  the  Markt- 
platz,  which  is  now  the  H&tel  zum  Ritter.  In  1720  the  elector 
Charles  II.  removed  his  court  to  Mannheim,  and  in  1803  the 
town  became  part  of  the  grand-duchy  of  Baden.  On  the  5th  of 
March  1848  the  Heidelberg  assembly  was  held  here,  and  at  this 
meeting  the  steps  were  taken  which  led  to  the  revolution  in 
Germany  in  that  year. 

See  Oncken,  Stadt,  SMoss  und  Hochschule  Heidelberg;  Bilder 
aus  ihrer  Vergangenheit  (Heidelberg,  1885);  Ochelhauser,  Das 
Heidelberger  SMoss,  ban-  und  kunstgeschichtlicher  Fiihrer  (Heidel- 
berg, 1902);  Pfaff,  Heidelberg  und  Umgebung  (Heidelberg,  1902); 


HEIDELBERG— HEIDENHEIM 


Lorcntzen,  Heidelberg  und  Umgebung  (Stuttgart,  1902);  Durm, 
Das  Heidelberger  Schloss,  eine  Studie  (Berlin,  1884) ;  Koch  and  Seitz, 
Das  Heidelberger  Schloss  (Darmstadt,  1887-1891);  J.  F.  Hautz, 
Geschichte  der  Universitdt  Heidelberg  (1863-1864);  A.  Thorbecke, 
Geschichte  der  Universitdt  Heidelberg  (Stuttgart,  1886);  the  Urkunden- 
bitch  der  Universitdt  Heidelberg,  edited  by  Winkelmann  (Heidelberg, 
1886);  Bahr,  Die  Entfuhrung  der  Heidelberger  Bibliothek  nach  Rom 
(Leipzig,  1 845) ;  and  G.  Weber,  Heidelberger  Erinnerungen  (Stuttgart, 
1886). 

HEIDELBERG,  a  town  and  district  of  the  Transvaal.  The 
district  is  bounded  S.  by  the  Vaal  river  and  includes  the  south- 
eastern part  of  the  Witwatersrand  gold-fields.  The  town  of 
Heidelberg  is  42  m.  S.E.  of  Johannesburg  and  441  m.  N.W.  of 
Durban  by  rail.  Pop.  (1904),  3220,  of  whom  1837  were  white. 
It  was  founded  in  1865,  is  built  on  the  slopes  of  the  Rand  at  an 
elevation  of  5029  ft.,  and  is  reputed  the  best  sanatorium 
in  the  colony.  It  is  the  centre  of  the  eastern  Rand  gold- 
mines. 

HEIDELBERG  CATECHISM,  THE,  the  most  attractive  of 
all  the  catechisms  of  the  Reformation,  was  drawn  up  at  the 
bidding  of  Frederick  III.,  elector  of  the  Palatinate,  and  published 
on  Tuesday  the  igth  of  January  1563.  The  new  religion  in 
the  Palatinate  had  been  largely  under  the  guidance  of  Philip 
Melanchthon,  who  had  revived  the  old  university  of  Heidelberg 
and  staffed  it  with  sympathetic  teachers.  One  of  these.Tillemann, 
Heshusius,  who  became  general  superintendent  in  1558,  held 
extreme  Lutheran  views  on  the  Real  Presence,  and  in  his  desire 
to  force  the  community  into  his  own  position  excommunicated 
his  colleague  Klebitz,  who  held  Zwinglian  views.  When  the 
breach  was  widening  Frederick,  "  der  fromme  Kurfurst,"  came 
to  the  succession,  dismissed  the  two  chief  combatants  and 
referred  the  trouble  to  Melanchthon,  whose  guarded  verdict 
was  distinctly  Swiss  rather  than  Lutheran.  In  a  decree  of  August 
1 560  the  elector  declared  for  Calvin  and  Zwingli,  and  soon  after 
he  resolved  to  issue  a  new  and  unambiguous  catechism  of  the 
evangelical  faith.  He  entrusted  the  task  to  two  young  men 
who  have  won  deserved  remembrance  by  their  learning  and  their 
character  alike.  Zacharias  Ursinus  was  born  at  Breslau  in  July 
1534  and  attained  high  honour  in  the  university  of  Wittenberg. 
In  1558  he  was  made  rector  of  the  gymnasium  in  his  native 
town,  but  the  incessant  strife  with  the  extreme  Lutherans  drove 
him  to  Zurich,  whence  Frederick,  on  the  advice  of  Peter  Martyr, 
summoned  him  to  be  professor  of  theology  at  Heidelberg  and 
superintendent  of  the  Sapientiae  Collegium.  He  was  a  man  of 
modest  and  gentle  spirit,  not  endowed  with  great  preaching 
gifts,  but  unwearied  in  study  and  consummately  able  to  impart 
his  learning  to  others.  Deposed  from  his  chair  by  the  elector 
Louis  in  1576,  he  lived  with  John  Casimir  at  Neustadt  and 
found  a  congenial  sphere  in  the  new  seminary  there,  dying  in 
his  49th  year,  in  March  1583. 

Caspar  Olevianus  was  born  at  Treves  in  1536.  He  gave  up 
law  for  theology,  studied  under  Calvin  in  Geneva,  Peter  Martyr 
in  Zurich,  and  Beza  in  Lausanne.  Urged  by  William  Farel  he 
preached  the  new  faith  in  his  native  city,  and  when  banished 
therefrom  found  a  home  with  Frederick  of  Heidelberg,  where 
he  gained  high  renown  as  preacher  and  administrator.  His 
ardour  and  enthusiasm  made  him  the  happy  complement  of 
Ursinus.  When  the  reaction  came  under  Louis  he  was  befriended 
by  Ludwig  von  Sain,  prince  of  Wittgenstein,  and  John,  count  of 
Nassau,  in  whose  city  of  Herborn  he  did  notable  work  at  the 
high  school  until  his  death  on  the  isth  of  March  1587.  The 
elector  could  have  chosen  no  better  men,  young  as  they  were, 
for  the  task  in  hand.  As  a  first  step  each  drew  up  a  catechism 
of  his  own  composition,  that  of  Ursinus  being  naturally  of  a  more 
grave  and  academic  turn  than  the  freer  production  of  Olevianus, 
while  each  made  full  use  of  the  earlier  catechisms  already  in  use. 
But  when  the  union  was  effected  it  was  found  that  the  spirits 
of  the  two  authors  were  most  happily  and  harmoniously  wedded, 
the  exactness  and  erudition  of  the  one  being  blended  with  the 
fervency  and  grace  of  the  other.  Thus  the  Heidelberg  Catechism , 
which  was  completed  within  a  year  of  its  inception,  has  an 
individuality  that  marks  it  out  from  all  its  predecessors  and 
successors.  The  Heidelberg  synod  unanimously  approved  of  it, 


211 

it  was  published  in  January  1563,  and  in  the  same  year  officially 
turned  into  Latin  by  Jos.  Lagus  and  Lambert  Pithopoeus. 

The  ultra-Lutherans  attacked  the  catechism  with  great 
bitterness,  the  assault  being  led  by  Heshusius  and  Flacius 
Illyricus.  Maximilian  II.  remonstrated  against  it  as  an  infringe- 
ment of  the  peace  of  Augsburg.  A  conference  was  held  at 
Maulbronn  in  April  1564,  and  a  personal  attack  was  made  on  the 
elector  at  the  diet  of  Augsburg  in  1566,  but  the  defence  was 
well  sustained,  and  the  Heidelberg  book  rapidly  passed  beyond 
the  bounds  of  the  Palatinate  (where  indeed  it  suffered  eclipse 
from  1576  to  1583,  during  the  electorate  of  Louis),  and  gained 
an  abundant  success  not  only  in  Germany  (Hesse,  Anhalt, 
Brandenburg  and  Bremen)  but  also  in  the  Netherlands  (1588), 
and  in  the  Reformed  churches  of  Hungary,  Transylvania  and 
Poland.  It  was  officially  recognized  by  the  synod  of  Dort  in 
1619,  passed  into  France,  Britain  and  America,  and  probably 
shares  with  the  De  imitatione  Christi  and  The  Pilgrim's  Progress 
the  honour  of  coming  next  to  the  Bible  in  the  number  of  tongues 
into  which  it  has  been  translated. 

This  wide  acceptance  and  high  esteem  are  due  largely  to  an 
avoidance  of  polemical  and  controversial  subjects,  and  even 
mose  to  an  absence  of  the  controversial  spirit.  There  is  no 
mistake  about  its  Protestantism,  even  when  we  omit  the  unhappy 
addition  made  to  answer  80  by  Frederick  himself  (in  indignant 
reply  to  the  ban  pronounced  by  the  Council  of  Trent),  in  which 
the  Mass  is  described  as  "  nothing  else  than  a  denial  of  the  one 
sacrifice  and  passion  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  an  accursed  idolatry  " — 
an  addition  which  is  the  one  blot  on  the  errwtma  of  the 
catechism.  The  work  is  the  product  of  the  best  qualities  of 
head  and  heart,  and  its  prose  is  frequently  marked  by  all  the 
beauty  of  a  lyric.  It  follows  the  plan  of  the  epistle  to  the  Romans 
(excepting  chapters  ix.-xi.)  and  falls  into  three  parts:  Sin, 
Redemption  and  the  New  Life.  This  arrangement  alone  would 
mark  it  out  from  the  normal  reformation  catechism,  which  runs 
along  the  stereotyped  lines  of  Decalogue,  Creed,  Lord's  Prayer, 
Church  and  Sacraments.  These  themes  are  included,  but  are 
shown  as  organically  related.  The  Commandments,  e.g.  "  belong 
to  the  first  part  so  far  as  they  are  a  mirror  of  our  sin  and  misery, 
but  also  to  the  third  part,  as  being  the  rule  of  our  new  obedience 
and  Christian  life."  The  Creed — a  panorama  of  the  sublime 
facts  of  redemption — and  the  sacraments  find  their  place  in 
the  second  part;  the  Lord's  Prayer  (with  the  Decalogue)  in  the 
third. 

See  The  Heidelberg  Catechism,  the  German  Text,  with  a  Revised 
Translation  and  Introduction,  edited  by  A.  Smellie  (London,  1900). 

HEIDELOFF,  KARL  ALEXANDER  VON  (1788-1865),  German 
architect,  the  son  of  Victor  Peter  Heideloff,  a  painter,  was  born 
at  Stuttgart.  He  studied  at  the  art  academy  of  his  native 
town,  and  after  following  the  profession  of  an  architect  for  some 
time  at  Coburg  was  in  1818  appointed  city  architect  at  Nurem- 
berg. In  1822  he  became  professor  at  the  polytechnic  school, 
holding  his  post  until  1854,  and  some  years  later  he  was  chosen 
conservator  of  the  monuments  of  art.  Heideloff  devoted  his 
chief  attention  to  the  Gothic  style  of  architecture,  and  the 
buildings  restored  and  erected  by  him  at  Nuremberg  and  in  its 
neighbourhood  attest  both  his  original  skill  and  his  purity  of 
taste.  He  also  achieved  some  success  as  a  painter  in  water- 
colour.  He  died  at  Hassfurt  on  the  28th  of  September  1865. 
Among  his  architectural  works  should  be  mentioned  the  castle 
of  Reinhardsbrunn,  the  Hall  of  the  Knights  in  the  fortress  at 
Coburg,  the  castle  of  Landsberg,the  mortuary  chapel  in  Meiningen, 
the  little  castle  of  Rosenburg  near  Bonn,  the  chapel  of  the 
castle  of  Rheinstein  near  Bingen^  and  the  Catholic  church  in 
Leipzig.  His  powers  in  restoration  are  shown  in  the  castle  of 
Lichtenstein,  the  cathedral  of  Bamberg,  and  the  Knights' 
Chapel  (Ritter  Kapelle)  at  Hassfurt. 

Among  his  writings  on  architecture  are  Die  Lehre  von  den  Sdulen- 
ordnungen  (1827);  Der  Kleine  Vignola  (1832);  Niirnberes  Baudenk- 
maler  der  Vorzeit  (1838-1843,  complete  edition  1854);  and  Die 
Ornamentik  des  Mittelalters  (1838-1842). 

HEIDENHEIM,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Wurttemberg,  31  m.  by  rail  north  by  east  of  Ulm.  Pop.  (1005), 
12,173.  It  has  an  Evangelical  and  a  Roman  Catholic  church, 


212 


HEIFER— HEILSBRONN 


and  several  schools.  Its  industrial  establishments  include 
cotton,  woollen,  tobacco,  machinery  and  chemical  factories, 
bleach-works,  dye-works  and  breweries,  and  corn  and  cattle 
markets.  The  town,  which  received  municipal  privileges  in 
1356,  is  overlooked  by  the  ruins  of  the  castle  of  Hellenstein, 
standing  on  a  hill  1985  ft.  high.  Heidenheim  is  also  the  name 
of  a  small  place  in  Bavaria  famous  on  account  of  the  Benedictine 
abbey  which  formerly  stood  therein.  Founded  in  748  by 
Wilibald,  bishop  of  Eichstatt,  this  was  plundered  by  the  peasantry 
in  1525  and  was  closed  in  1537. 

HEIFER,  a  young  cow  that  has  not  calved.  The  O.  Eng.  heah- 
fore  or  heafru,  from  which  the  word  is  derived,  is  of  obscure  origin. 
It  is  found  in  Bede's  History  (A.D.  900)  as  heahfore,  and  has 
passed  through  many  forms.  It  is  possibly  derived  from  heah, 
high,  and  faren  (fare),  to  go,  meaning  "  high-stepper."  It  has 
also  been  suggested  that  the  derivation  is  from  hea,  a  stall,  and 
fore,  a  cow. 

HEIGEL,  KARL  AUGUST  VON  (1835-1905),  German  novelist, 
was  born,  the  son  of  a  regisseur  or  stage-manager  of  the  court 
theatre,  on  the  25th  of  March  1835  at  Munich.  In  this  city  he 
received  his  early  schooling  and  studied  (1854-1858)  philosophy 
at  the  university.  He  was  then  appointed  librarian  to  Prince 
Heinrich  zu  Carolath-Beuthen  in  Lower  Silesia,  and  accompanied 
the  nephew  of  the  prince  on  travels.  In  1863  he  settled  in  Berlin, 
where  from  1865  to  1875  he  was  engaged  in  journalism.  He 
next  resided  at  Munich,  employed  in  literary  work  for  the  king, 
Ludwig  II.,  who  in  1881  conferred  upon  him  a  title  of  nobility. 
On  the  death  of  the  king  in  1886  he  removed  to  Riva  on  the 
Lago  di  Garda,  where  he  died  on  the  6th  of  September  1905. 
Karl  von  Heigel  attained  some  popularity  with  his  novels: 
Wohin  ?  (1873),  Die  Dame  ohne  Herz  (1873),  Das  Geheimnis 
des  Konigs  (1891),  Der  Roman  einer  Stadt  (1898),  Der  Maha- 
radschah  (1900),  Die  nervose  Frau  (1900),  Die  neuen  Heiligen 
(1901),  and  Bromels  Glilck  und  Ende  (1902).  He  also  wrote 
some  plays,  notably  Josephine  Bonaparte  (1892)  and  Die  Zarin 
(1883) ;  and  several  collections  of  short  stories,  Neue  Erziihlungen 
(1876),  Neueste  Novellen  (1878),  and  Heitere  Erziihlungen 

(1893). 

HEIJERMANS,  HERMANN  (1864-  ),  Dutch  writer,  of 
Jewish  origin,  was  born  on  the  3rd  of  December  1864  at  Rotter- 
dam. In  the  Amsterdam  Handelsblad  he  published  a  series  of 
sketches  of  Jewish  family  life  under  the  pseudonym  of  "  Samuel 
Falkland,"  which  were  collected  in  volume  form.  His  novels 
and  tales  include  Trinette  (1892),  Fles  (1893),  Kamertjeszonde 
(2  vols.,  1896),  Interieurs  (1897),  Diamantstadt  (2  vols.,  1903). 
He  created  great  interest  by  his  play  Op  Hoop  van  Zegen  (1900), 
represented  at  the  Theatre  Antoine  in  Paris,  and  in  English  by 
the  Stage  Society  as  The  Good  Hope.  His  other  plays  are: 
Dora  Kremer  (1893),  Ghetto  (1898),  Hel  zevende  Gebot  (1899), 
Het  Pantser  (1901),  Ora  et  labora  (1901),  and  numerous  one-act 
pieces.  A  Case  of  Arson,  an  English  version  of  the  one-act  play 
Brand  in  de  Jonge  Jan,  was  notable  for  the  impersonation  (1904 
and  1905)  by  Henri  de  Vries  of  all  the  seven  witnesses  who  appear 
as  characters. 

HEILBRONN,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom  of  Wiirttem- 
berg,  situated  in  a  pleasant  and  fruitful  valley  on  the  Neckar, 
33  m.  by  rail  N.  of  Stuttgart,  and  at  the  junction  of  lines  to 
Jagdsfeld,  Crailsheim  and  Eppingen.  Pop.  (1905),  40,026.  In 
the  older  part  of  the  town  the  streets  are  narrow,  and  contain 
a  number  of  high  turreted  houses  with  quaintly  adorned  gables. 
The  old  fortifications  have  now  been  demolished,  and  their  site 
is  occupied  by  promenades,  outside  of  which  are  the  more  modern 
parts  of  the  town  with  wide  streets  and  many  handsome  buildings. 
The  principal  public  buildings  are  the  church  of  St  Kilian 
(restored  1886-1895)  in  the  Gothic  and  Renaissance  styles,  begun 
about  1019  and  completed  in  1529,  with  an  elegant  tower  210  ft. 
high,  a  beautiful  choir,  and  a  finely  carved  altar;  the  town  hall 
(Rathaus),  founded  in  1540,  and  possessing  a  curious  clock  made 
in  1580,  and  a  collection  of  interesting  letters  and  other  docu- 
ments; the  house  of  the  Teutonic  knights  (Deutsches  Haus), 
now  used  as  a  court  of  law;  the  Roman  Catholic  church  of  St 
Joseph,  formerly  the  church  of  the  Teutonic  Order;  the  tower 


(Diebsturm  or  Gotzens  Turm)  on  the  Neckar,  in  which  Gotz 
von  Berlichingen  was  confined  in  1519;  a  fine  synagogue;  an 
historical  museum  and  several  monuments,  among  them  those 
to  the  emperors  William  I.  and  Frederick  I.,  to  Bismarck,  to 
Schiller  and  to  Robert  von  Mayer  (1814-1878),  a  native  of  the 
town,  famous  for  his  discoveries  concerning  heat.  The  educa- 
tional establishments  include  a  gymnasium,  a  commercial  school 
and  an  agricultural  academy.  The  town  in  a  commercial  point 
of  view  is  the  most  important  in  Wiirttemberg,  and  possesses 
an  immense  variety  of  manufactures,  of  which  the  principal  are 
gold,  silver,  steel  and  iron  wares,  machines,  sugar  of  lead,  white 
lead,  vinegar,  beer,  sugar,  tobacco,  soap,  oil,  cement,  chemicals, 
artificial  manure,  glue,  soda,  tapestry,  paper  and  cloth.  Grapes, 
fruit,  vegetables  and  flowering  shrubs  are  largely  grown  in  the 
neighbourhood,  and  there  are  large  quarries  for  sandstone  and 
gypsum  and  extensive  salt-works.  By  means  of  the  Neckar 
a  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in  wood,  bark,  leather, 
agricultural  produce,  fruit  and  cattle. 

Heilbronn  occupies  the  site  of  an  old  Roman  settlement;  it 
is  first  mentioned  in  741,  and  the  Carolingian  princes  had  a  palace 
here.  It  owes  its  name — originally  Heiligbronn,  or  holy  spring — 
to  a  spring  of  water  which  until  1857  was  to  be  seen  issuing  from 
under  the  high  altar  of  the  church  of  St  Kilian.  Heilbronn 
obtained  privileges  from  Henry  IV.  and  from  Rudolph  I.  and 
became  a  free  imperial  city  in  1360.  It  was  frequently  besieged 
during  the  middle  ages,  and  it  suffered  greatly  during  the 
Peasants'  War,  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  the  various  wars 
with  France.  In  April  1633  a  convention  was  entered  into  here 
between  Oxenstierna,  the  Swabian  and  Prankish  estates  and  the 
French,  English  and  Dutch  ambassadors,  as  a  result  of  which  the 
Heilbronn  treaty,  for  the  prosecution  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
was  concluded.  In  1802  Heilbronn  was  annexed  by  Wiirttem- 
berg. 

See  Jager,  Geschichte  von  Heilbronn  (Heilbronn,  1828) ;  Kuttler, 
Heilbronn,  seine  Umgebungen  und  seine  Geschichte  (Heilbronn,  1859) ; 
Diirr,  Heilbronner  Chronik  (Halle,  1896);  Schliz,  Die  Entstehung 
der  Stadtgemeinde  Heilbronn  (Leipzig,  1903);  and  A.  Kiisel,  Der 
Heilbronner  Konvent  (Halle,  1878). 

HEILIGENSTADT,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  Prussian  Saxony, 
on  the  Leine,  32  m.  E.N.E.  of  Cassel,  on  the  railway  to  Halle. 
Pop.  (1905),  7955.  It  possesses  an  old  castle,  formerly  belonging 
to  the  electors  of  Mainz,  one  Evangelical  and  two  Roman 
Catholic  churches,  several  educational  establishments,  and  an 
infirmary.  The  principal  manufactures  are  cotton  goods, 
cigars,  paper,  cement  and  needles.  Heiligenstadt  is  said  to  have 
been  built  by  the  Frankish  king  Dagobert  and  was  formerly 
the  capital  of  the  principality  of  Eichsfeld.  In  1022  it  was 
acquired  by  the  archbishop  of  Mainz,  and  in  1103  it  came  into 
the  possession  of  Henry  the  Proud,  duke  of  Saxony,  but  when  his 
son  Henry  the  Lion  was  placed  under  the  ban  of  the  Empire,  it 
again  came  to  Mainz.  It  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1333,  and  was 
captured  in  1525  by  Duke  Henry  of  Brunswick.  In  1803  it 
came  into  possession  of  Prussia.  The  Jesuits  had  a  celebrated 
college  here  from  1581  to  1773.  •  '; 

HEILSBERG,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  province  of  East 
Prussia,  at  the  junction  of  the  Simser  and  Alle,  38  m.  S.  of 
Konigsberg.  Pop.  (1905),  6042.  It  has  an  Evangelical  and  a 
Roman  Catholic  church,  and  an  old  castle  formerly  the  seat  of 
the  prince-bishops  of  Ermeland,  but  now  used  as  an  infirmary. 
The  principal  industries  are  tanning,  dyeing  and  brewing,  and 
there  is  considerable  trade  in  grain.  The  castle  founded  at 
Heilsberg  by  the  Teutonic  order  in  1240  became  in  1306  the  seat 
of  the  bishops  of  Ermeland,  an  honour  which  it  retained  for 
500  years.  On  the  loth  of  June  1807  a  battle  took  place  at 
Heilsberg  between  the  French  under  Soult  and  Murat,  and  the 
Russians  and  Prussians  under  Bennigsen. 

HEILSBRONN  (or  KLOSTER-HEILSBRONN),  a  village  of 
Germany,  in  the  Bavarian  province  of  Middle  Franconia,  with 
a  station  on  the  railway  between  Nuremberg  and  Ansbach,  has 
1 200  inhabitants.  In  the  middle  ages  it  was  the  seat  of  one  of 
the  great  monasteries  of  Germany.  This  foundation,  which 
belonged  to  the  Cistercian  order,  owed  its  origin  to  Bishop  Otto 


HEIM— HEINE 


213 


of  Bamberg  in  1132,  and  continued  to  exist  till  1555.  Its 
sepulchral  monuments,  many  of  which  are  figured  by  Hocker, 
Hetisbronnischer  Antiquitatenschatz  (Ansbach,  1731-1740),  are  of 
exceptionally  high  artistic  interest.  It  was  the  hereditary 
burial-place  of  the  Hohenzollern  family  and  ten  burgraves  of 
Nuremberg,  five  margraves  and  three  electors  of  Brandenburg, 
and  many  other  persons  of  note  are  buried  within  its  walls. 
The  buildings  of  the  monastery  have  mostly  disappeared,  with 
the  exception  of  the  fine  church,  a  Romanesque  basilica,  restored 
between  1851  and  1866,  and  possessing  paintings  by  Albert 
Dttrer.  The  "  Monk  of  Heilsbronn  "  is  the  ordinary  appellation 
of  a  didactic  poet  of  the  i4th  century,  whose  Sieben  Graden, 
Tochter  Syon  and  Leben  des  heiligen  Alexius  were  published  by 
J.  F.  L.  T.  Merzdorf  at  Berlin  in  1870. 

See  Rehm,  Ein  Gang  durch  und  um  die  Miinster-Kirche  zu  Kloster- 
Heilsbronn  (Ansbach,  1875);  Stillfried,  Kloster-Heilsbronn,  ein 
Beitrag  zu  den  Hohenzollr.rnschen  Forschungen  (Berlin,  1877);  Muck, 
Geschichte  von  Kloster-Heilsbronn  (Nordlingen,  1879-1880);  J.  Meyer, 
Die  Hohenzollerndenkmale  in  Heilsbronn  (Ansbach,  1891);  and  A. 
Wagner,  Vber  den  Monch  von  Heilsbronn  (Strassburg,  1876). 

HEIM,  ALBERT  VON  ST  GALLEN  (1849-  ),  Swiss 
geologist,  was  born  at  Zurich  on  the  i2th  of  April  1849.  He  was 
educated  at  Zurich  and  Berlin  universities.  Very  early  in  life 
he  became  interested  in  the  physical  features  of  the  Alps,  and 
at  the  age  of  sixteen  he  made  a  model  of  the  Todi  group.  This 
came  under  the  notice  of  Arnold  Escher  von  der  Linth,  to  whom 
Heim  was  indebted  for  much  encouragement  and  geological 
instruction  in  the  field.  In  1873  he  became  professor  of  geology 
in  the  polytechnic  school  at  Zurich,  and  in  1875  professor  of 
geology  in  the  university.  In  1882  he  was  appointed  director  of 
the  Geological  Survey  of  Switzerland,  and  in  1884  the  hon.  degree 
of  Ph.D.  was  conferred  upon  him  at  Berne.  He  is  especially 
distinguished  for  his  researches  on  the  structure  of  the  Alps 
and  for  the  light  thereby  thrown  on  the  structure  of  mountain 
masses  in  general.  He  traced  the  plications  from  minor  to  major 
stages,  and  illustrated  the  remarkable  foldings  and  overthrust 
faultings  in  numerous  sections  and  with  the  aid  of  pictorial 
drawings.  His  magnificent  work,  Mechanismus  der  Gebirgs- 
biidung  ( 1 878) ,  is  now  regarded  as  a  classic,  and  it  served  to  inspire 
Professor  C.  Lapworth  in  his  brilliant  researches  on  the  Scottish 
Highlands  (see  Geol.  Mag.  1883).  Heim  also  devoted  consider- 
able attention  to  the  glacial  phenomena  of  the  Alpine  regions. 
The  Wollaston  medal  was  awarded  to  him  in  1904  by  the 
Geological  Society  of  London. 

HEIM,  FRANCOIS  JOSEPH  (1787-1865),  French  painter, 
was  born  at  Belfort  on  the  i6th  of  December  1787.  He  early 
distinguished  himself  at  the  Ecole  Centrale  of  Strassburg,  and 
in  1803  entered  the  studio  of  Vincent  at  Paris.  In  1807  he 
obtained  the  first  prize,  and  in  1812  his  picture  of  "The 
Return  of  Jacob  "  (Musee  de  Bordeaux)  won  for  him  a  gold 
medal  of  the  first  class,  which  he  again  obtained  in  1817,  when 
he  exhibited,  together  with  other  works,  a  St  John — bought  by 
Vivant  Denon.  In  1819  the  "  Resurrection  of  Lazarus " 
(Cathedral  Autun),  the  "  Martyrdom  of  St  Cyr  "  (St  Gervais), 
and  two  scenes  from  the  life  of  Vespasian  (ordered  by  the  king) 
attracted  attention.  In  1823  the  "  Re-erection  of  the  Royal 
Tombs  at  St  Denis,"  the  "  Martyrdom  of  St  Laurence  "  (Notre 
Dame)  and  several  full-length  portraits  increased  the  painter's 
popularity;  and  in  1824,  when  he  exhibited  his  great  canvas, 
the  "  Massacre  of  the  Jews  "  (Louvre),  Heim  was  rewarded  with 
the  legion  of  honour.  In  1827  appeared  the  "  King  giving  away 
Prizes  at  the  Salon  of  1824  "  (Louvre — engraved  by  Jazet) — 
the  picture  by  which  Heim  is  best  known — and  "  Saint 
Hyacinthe."  Heim  was  now  commissioned  to  decorate  the 
Gallery  Charles X.  (Louvre).  Though  ridiculed  by  theromantists, 
Heim  succeeded  Regnault  at  the  Institute  in  1834,  shortly 
after  which  he  commenced  a  series  of  drawings  of  the  celebrities 
of  his  day,  which  are  of  much  interest.  His  decorations  of  the 
Conference  room  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  were  completed 
in  1844;  and  in  1847  his  works  at  the  Salon — "Champ  de  Mai  " 
and  "  Reading  a  Play  at  the  Theatre  Francais  " — were  the  signal 
for  violent  criticisms.  Yet  something  like  a  turn  of  opinion  in 
his  favour  took  place  at  the  exhibition  of  1851;  his  powers  as  a 


draughtsman  and  the  occasional  merits  of  his  composition  were 
recognized,  and  toleration  extended  even  to  his  colour.  Heim 
was  awarded  the  great  gold  medal,  and  in  1855 — having  sent  to 
the  Salon  no  less  than  sixteen  portraits,  amongst  which  may  be 
cited  those  of  "  Cuvier,"  "  Geoffroy  de  St  Hilaire,"  and  "  Madame 
Hersent  "—he  was  made  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour.  In  1859 
he  again  exhibited  a  curious  collection  of  portraits,  sixty-four 
members  of  the  Institute  arranged  in  groups  of  four.  He  died 
on  the  29th  of  September  1865.  Besides  the  paintings  already 
mentioned,  there  is  to  be  seen  in  Notre  Dame  de  Lorette  (Paris) 
a  work  executed  on  the  spot;  and  the  museum  of  Strassburg 
contains  an  excellent  example  of  his  easel  pictures,  the  subject 
of  which  is  a  "  Shepherd  Drinking  from  a  Spring." 

HEIMDAL,  or  HEIMDALL,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  •  the 
keeper  of  the  gates  of  Heaven  and  the  guardian  of  the  rainbow 
bridge  Bifrost.  He  is  the  son  of  Odin  by  nine  virgins,  all  sisters. 
He  is  called  "  the  god  with  the  golden  teeth."  He  lives  in  the 
stronghold  of  Himinsbiorg  at  the  end  of  Bifrost.  His  chief 
attribute  is  a  vigilance  which  nothing  can  escape.  He  sleeps  less 
than  a  bird;  sees  at  night  and  even  in  his  sleep;  can  hear  the 
grass,  and  even  the  wool  on  a  lamb's  back  grow.  He  is  armed 
with  Gjallar,  the  magic  horn,  with  which  he  will  summon  the  gods 
on  the  day  of  judgment. 

HEINE,  HEINRICH  (1797-1856),  German  poet  and  journalist, 
was  born  at  Diisseldorf,  of  Jewish  parents,  on  the  i3th  of 
December  1 797.  His  father,  after  various  vicissitudes  in  business, 
had  finally  settled  in  Diisseldorf,  and  his  mother,  who  possessed 
much  energy  of  character,  was  the  daughter  of  a  physician  of 
the  same  place.  Heinrich  (or,  more  exactly,  Harry)  was  the 
eldest  of  four  children,  and  received  his  education,  first  in  private 
schools,  then  in  the  Lyceum  of  his  native  town;  although  not  an 
especially  apt  or  diligent  pupil,  he  acquired  a  knowledge  of  French 
and  English,  as  well  as  some  tincture  of  the  classics  and  Hebrew. 
His  early  years  coincided  with  the  most  brilliant  period  of 
Napoleon's  career,  and  the  boundless  veneration  which  he  is  never 
tired  of  expressing  for  the  emperor  throughout  his  writings 
shows  that  his  true  schoolmasters  were  rather  the  drummers 
and  troopers  of  a  victorious  army  than  the  masters  of  the  Lyceum. 
By  freeing  the  Jews  from  many  of  the  political  disabilities  under 
which  they  had  hitherto  suffered,  Napoleon  became,  it  may  be 
noted,  the  object  of  particular  enthusiasm  in  the  circles  amidst 
which  Heine  grew  up.  When  he  left  school  in  1815,  an  attempt 
was  made  to  engage  him  in  business  in  Frankfort,  but  without 
success.  In  the  following  year  his  uncle,  Solomon  Heine,  a 
wealthy  banker  in  Hamburg,  took  him  into  his  office.  A  passion 
for  his  cousin  Amalie  Heine  seems  to  have  made  the  young 
man  more  contented  with  his  lot  in  Hamburg,  and  his  success 
was  such  that  his  uncle  decided  to  set  him  up  in  business  for 
himself.  This,  however,  proved  too  bold  a  step;  in  a  very  few 
months  the  firm  of  "  Harry  Heine  &  Co."  was  insolvent.  His 
uncle  now  generously  provided  him  with  money  to  enable  him  to 
study  at  a  university,  with  the  view  to  entering  the  legal  profession, 
and  in  the  spring  of  1819  Heine  became  a  student  of  the  university 
of  Bonn.  During  his  stay  there  he  devoted  himself  rather  to  the 
study  of  literature  and  history  than  to  that  of  law;  amongst 
his  teachers  A.  W.  von  Schlegel,  who  took  a  kindly  interest  in 
Heine's  poetic  essays,  exerted  the  most  lasting  influence  on  him. 
In  the  autumn  of  1820  Heine  left  Bonn  for  Gottingen,  where  he 
proposed  to  devote  himself  more  assiduously  to  professional 
studies,  but  in  February  of  the  following  year  he  challenged  to 
a  pistol  duel  a  fellow-student  who  had  insulted  him,  and  was, 
in  consequence,  rusticated  for  six  months.  The  pedantic 
atmosphere  of  the  university  of  Gottingen  was,  however,  little 
to  his  taste;  the  news  of  his  cousin's  marriage  unsettled  him 
still  more;  and  he  was  glad  of  the  opportunity  to  seek  distraction 
in  Berlin. 

In  the  Prussian  capital  a  new  world  opened  up  to  him;  a 
very  different  life  from  that  of  Gottingen  was  stirring  in  the  new 
university  there,  and  Heine,  like  all  his  contemporaries,  sat  at 
the  feet  of  Hegel  and  imbibed  from  him,  doubtless,  those  views 
which  in  later  years  made  the  poet  the  apostle  of  an  outlook 
upon  life  more  modern  than  that  of  his  romantic  predecessors. 


214 


HEINE 


Heine  was  also  fortunate  in  having  access  to  the  chief 
literary  circles  of  the  capital;  he  was  on  terms  of  intimacy 
with  Varnhagen  von  Ense  and  his  wife,  the  celebrated  Rahel, 
at  whose  house  he  frequently  met  such  men  as  the  Humboldts, 
Hegel  himself  and  Schleiermacher;  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  leading  men  of  letters  like  Fouque  and  Chamisso,  and  was 
on  a  still  more  familiar  footing  with  the  most  distinguished 
of  his  co-religionists  in  Berlin.  Under  such  favourable  circum- 
stances his  own  gifts  were  soon  displayed.  He  contributed 
poems  to  the  Berliner  Gesellschafter,  many  of  which  were  subse- 
quently incorporated  in  the  Buck  der  Lieder,  and  in  December 
1821  a  little  volume  came  from  the  press  entitled  Gedichle,  his 
first  avowed  act  of  authorship.  He  was  also  employed  at  this 
time  as  correspondent  of  a  Rhenish  newspaper,  as  well  as  in 
completing  his  tragedies  Almansor  and  William  Raicliff,  which 
were  published  in  1823  with  small  success.  In  that  same  year 
Heine,  not  in  the  most  hopeful  spirits,  returned  to  his  family, 
who  had  meanwhile  moved  to  Liineburg.  He  had  plans  of 
settling  in  Paris,  but  as  he  was  still  dependent  on  his  uncle, 
the  latter's  consent  had  to  be  obtained.  As  was  to  be  expected, 
Solomon  Heine  did  not  favour  the  new  plan,  but  promised  to 
continue  his  support  on  the  condition  that  Harry  completed 
his  course  of  legal  study.  He  sent  the  young  student  for  a  six 
weeks'  holiday  at  Cuxhaven,  which  opened  the  poet's  eyes  to 
the  wonders  of  the  sea;  and  three  weeks  spent  subsequently 
at  his  uncle's  county  seat  near  Hamburg  were  sufficient  to 
awaken  a  new  passion  in  Heine's  breast — this  time  for  Amalie's 
sister,  Therese.  In  January  1824  Heine  returned  to  Gottingen, 
where,  with  the  exception  of  a  visit  to  Berlin  and  the  excursion  to 
the  Hartz  mountains  in  the  autumn  of  1824,  which  is  immortal- 
ized in  the  first  volume  of  the  Reisebilder,  he  remained  until  his 
graduation  in  the  summer  of  the  followirfg  year.  It  was  on  the 
latter  of  these  journeys  that  he  had  the  interview  with  Goethe 
which  was  so  amusingly  described  by  him  in  later  years.  A  few 
weeks  before  obtaining  his  degree,  he  took  a  step  which  he  had 
long  meditated;  he  formally  embraced  Christianity.  This 
"  act  of  apostasy,"  which  has  been  dwelt  upon  at  unnecessary 
length  both  by  Heine's  enemies  and  admirers,  was  actuated 
wholly  by  practical  considerations,  and  did  not  arise  from  any 
wish  on  the 'poet's  part  to  deny  his  race.  The  summer  months 
which  followed  his  examination  Heine  spent  by  his  beloved 
sea  in  the  island  of  Norderney,  his  uncle  having  again  generously 
supplied  the  means  for  this  purpose.  The  question  of  his  future 
now  became  pressing,  and  for  a  time  he  seriously  considered  the 
plan  of  settling  as  a  solicitor  in  Hamburg,  a  plan  which  was 
associated  in  his  mind  with  the  hope  of  marrying  his  cousin 
Therese.  Meanwhile  he  had  made  arrangements  for  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Reisebilder,  the  first  volume  of  which,  Die  Harzreise, 
appeared  in  May  1826.  The  success  of  the  book  was  instan- 
taneous. Its  lyric  outbursts  and  flashes  of  wit;  its  rapid 
changes  from  grave  to  gay;  its  flexibility  of  thought  and  style, 
came  as  a  revelation  to  a  generation  which  had  grown  weary  of 
the  lumbering  literary  methods  of  the  later  Romanticists. 

In  the  spring  of  the  following  year  Heine  paid  a  long  planned 
visit  to  England,  where  he  was  deeply  impressed  by  the  free 
and  vigorous  public  life,  by  the  size  and  bustle  of  London ;  above 
all,  he  was  filled  with  admiration  for  Canning,  whose  policy 
had  realized  many  a  dream  of  the  young  German  idealists  of 
that  age.  But  the  picture  had  also  its  reverse;  the  sordidly 
commercial  spirit  of  English  life,  and  brutal  egotism  of  the 
ordinary  Englishman,  grated  on  Heine's  sensitive  nature; 
he  missed  the  finer  literary  and  artistic  tastes  of  the  continent 
and  was  repelled  by  the  austerity  of  English  religious  sentiment 
and  observance.  Unfortunately  the  latter  aspects  of  English 
life  left  a  deeper  mark  on  his  memory  than  the  bright  side. 
In  October  Baron  Cotta,  the  well-known  publisher,  offered 
Heine — the  second  volume  of  whose  Reisebilder  and  the  Buck 
der  Lieder  had  meanwhile  appeared  and  won  him  fresh  laurels — 
the  joint-editorship  of  the  Neue  allgemeine  polilische  Annalen. 
He  gladly  accepted  the  offer  and  betook  himself  to  Munich. 
Heine  did  his  best  to  adapt  himself  and  his  political  opinions  to 
the  new  surroundings,  in  the  hope  of  coming  in  for  a  share  of 


the  good  things  which  Ludwig  I.  of  Bavaria  was  so  generously 
distributing  among  artists  and  men  of  letters.  But  the  stings 
of  the  Reisebilder  were  not  so  easily  forgotten;  the  clerical 
party  in  particular  did  not  leave  him  long  in  peace.  In  July 
1828,  the  professorship  on  which  he  had  set  his  hopes  being 
still  not  forthcoming,  he  left  Munich  for  Italy,  where  he  remained 
until  the  following  November,  a  holiday  which  provided  material 
for  the  third  and  part  of  the  fourth  volumes  of  the  Reisebilder. 
A  blow  more  serious  than  the  Bavarian  king's  refusal  to  establish 
him  in  Munich  awaited  him  on  his  return  to  Germany— the 
death  of  his  father.  In  the  beginning  of  1829  Heine  took  up 
his  abode  in  Berlin,  where  he  resumed  old  acquaintanceships; 
in  summer  he  was  again  at  the  sea,  and  in  autumn  he  returned 
to  the  city  he  now  loathed  above  all  others,  Hamburg,  where  he 
virtually  remained  until  May  1831.  These  years  were  not  a 
happy  period  of  the  poet's  life;  his  efforts  to  obtain  a  position, 
apart  from  that  which  he  owed  to  his  literary  work,  met  with 
rebuffs  on  every  side;  his  relations  with  his  uncle  were  un- 
satisfactory and  disturbed  by  constant  friction,  and  for  a  time 
he  was  even  seriously  ill.  His  only  consolation  in  these  months 
of  discontent  was  the  completion  and  publication  of  the  Reise- 
bilder. When  in  1830  the  news  of  the  July  Revolution  in  the 
streets  of  Paris  reached  him,  Heine  hailed  it  as  the  beginning 
of  a  new  era  of  freedom,  and  his  thoughts  reverted  once  more 
to  his  early  plan  of  settling  in  Paris.  All  through  the  following 
winter  the  plan  ripened,  and  in  May  1831  he  finally  said  farewell 
to  his  native  land. 

Heine's  first  impressions  of  the  "  New  Jerusalem  of  Liberalism  " 
were  jubilantly  favourable;  Paris,  he  proclaimed,  was  the 
capital  of  the  civilized  world,  to  be  a  citizen  of  Paris  the  highest 
of  honours.  He  was  soon  on  friendly  terms  with  many  of  the 
notabilities  of  the  capital,  and  there  was  every  prospect  of  a 
congenial  and  lucrative  journalistic  activity  as  correspondent 
for  German  newspapers.  Two  series  of  his  articles  were  subse- 
quently collected  and  published  under  the  titles  Franzosische 
Zustande  (1832)  and  Lutezia  (written  1840-1843,  published  in 
the  Vermischte  Schriften,  1854).  In  December  1835,  however, 
the  German  Bund,  incited  by  W.  Menzel's  attacks  on  "  Young 
Germany,"  issued  its  notorious  decree,  forbidding  the  publication 
of  any  writings  by  the  members  of  that  coterie;  the  name  of 
Heine,  who  had  been  stigmatized  as  the  leader  of  the  movement 
headed  the  list.  This  was  the  beginning  of  a  series  of  literary 
feuds  in  which  Heine  was,  from  now  on,  involved;  but  a  more 
serious  and  immediate  effect  of  the  decree  was  to  curtail  consider- 
ably his  sources  of  income.  His  uncle,  it  is  true,  had  allowed 
him  4000  francs  a  year  when  he  settled  in  Paris,  but  at  this 
moment  he  was  not  on  the  best  of  terms  with  his  Hamburg 
relatives.  Under  these  circumstances  he  was  induced  to  take 
a  step  which  his  fellow-countrymen  have  found  it  hard  to  forgive ; 
he  applied  to  the  French  government  for  support  from  a  secret 
fund  formed  for  the  benefit  of  "  political  refugees  "  who  were 
willing  to  place  themselves  at  the  service  of  France.  From  1836 
or  1837  until  the  Revolution  of  1848  Heine  was  in  receipt  of 
4800  francs  annually  from  this  source. 

In  October  1834  Heine  made  the  acquaintance  of  a  young 
Frenchwoman,  Eugenie  Mirat,  a  saleswoman  in  a  boot-shop 
in  Paris,  and  before  long  had  fallen  passionately  in  love  with 
her.  Although  ill-educated,  vain  and  extravagant,  she  inspired 
the  poet  with  a  deep  and  lasting  affection,  and  in  1841,  on  the 
eve  of  a  duel  in  which  he  had  become  involved,  he  made  her 
his  wife.  "  Mathilde,"  as  Heine  called  her,  was  not  the  comrade 
to  help  the  poet  in  days  of  adversity,  or  to  raise  him  to  better 
things,  but,  in  spite  of  passing  storms,  he  seems  to  have  been 
happy  with  her,  and  she  nursed  him  faithfully  in  his  last  illness. 
Her  death  occurred  in  1883.  His  relations  with  Mathilde 
undoubtedly  helped  to  weaken  his  ties  with  Germany;  and 
notwithstanding  the  affection  he  professed  to  cherish  for  his 
native  land,  he  only  revisited  it  twice,  in  the  autumn  of  1843  and 
the  summer  of  1847.  In  1845  appeared  the  first  unmistakable 
signs  of  the  terrible  spinal  disease,  which,  for  eight  years,  from 
the  spring  of  1848  till  his  death,  condemned  him  to  a  "  mattress 
grave."  These  years  of  suffering — suffering  which  left  his 


HEINECCIUS— HEINECKEN 


215 


intellect  as  clear  and  vivacious  as  ever — seem  to  have  effected 
what  might  be  called  a  spiritual  purification  in  Heine's  nature, 
and  to  have  brought  out  all  the  good  sides  of  his  character, 
whereas  adversity  in  earlier  years  only  intensified  his  cynicism. 
The  lyrics  of  the  Romanzero  (1851)  and  the  collection  of  Neueste 
Gedichte  (1853-1854)  surpass  in  imaginative  depth  and  sincerity 
of  purpose  the  poetry  of  the  Buck  der  Lieder.  Most  wonderful 
of  all  are  the  poems  inspired  by  Heine's  strange  mystic  passion 
for  the  lady  he  called  Die  Mouche,  a  countrywoman  of  his  own — 
her  real  name  was  Elise  von  Krienitz,  but  she  had  written  in 
French  under  the  nom  de  plume  of  Camille  Selden — who  helped 
to  brighten  the  last  months  of  the  poet's  life.  He  died  on  the 
1 7th  of  February  1856,  and  lies  buried  in  the  cemetery  of 
Montmartre. 

Besides  the  purely  journalistic  work  of  Heine's  Paris  years, 
to  which  reference  has  already  been  made,  he  published  a  collec- 
tion of  more  serious  prose  writings  under  the  title  Der  Salon 
(1833-1839).  In  this  collection  will  be  found,  besides  papers  on 
French  art  and  the  French  stage,  the  essays  "  Zur  Geschichte  der 
Religion  und  Philosophie  in  Deutschland,"  which  he  had  written 
for  the  Reoue  des  deux  mond.es.  Here,  too,  are  the  more  character- 
istic productions  of  Heine's  genius,  Aus  den  Memoiren  des 
Herrn  von  Schnabelewopski, '  Der  Rabbi  von  Bacherach  and 
Florentinische  Nachte.  Die  romantische  Schule  (1836),  with 
its  unpardonable  personal  attack  on  the  elder  Schlegel,  is  a 
less  creditable  essay  in  literary  criticism.  In  1839  appeared 
Shakespeares  Mddchen  und  Frauen,  which,  however,  was  merely 
the  text  to  a  series  of  illustrations;  and  in  1840,  the  witty  and 
trenchant  satire  on  a  writer,  who,  in  spite  of  many  personal 
disagreements,  had  been  Heine's  fellow-fighter  in  the  liberal 
cause,  Ludwig  Borne.  Of  Heine's  poetical  work  in  these  years, 
his  most  important  publications  were,  besides  the  Romanzero, 
the  two  admirable  satires,  Deutschland,  ein  Wintermarchen 
(1844),  the  result  of  his  visit  to  Germany,  and  A  Ita  Troll,  ein 
Sommernachtstraum  (1876),  an  attack  on  the  political  Tendenz- 
literatur  of  the  'forties. 

In  the  case  of  no  other  of  the  greater  German  poets  is  it  so 
hard  to  arrive  at  a  final  judgment  as  in  that  of  Heinrich  Heine. 
In  his  Buck  der  Lieder  he  unquestionably  struck  a  new  lyric 
note,  not  merely  for  Germany  but  for  Europe.  No  singer 
before  him  had  been  so  daring  in  the  use  of  nature-symbolism 
as  he,  none  had  given  such  concrete  and  plastic  expression  to 
the  spiritual  forces  of  heart  and  soul;  in  this  respect  Heine 
was  clearly  the  descendant  of  the  Hebrew  poets  of  the  Old 
Testament.  At  times,  it  is  true,  his  imagery  is  exaggerated 
to  the  degree  of  absurdity,  but  it  exercised,  none  the  less,  a 
fascination  over  his  generation.  Heine  combined  with  a  spiritual 
delicacy,  a  fineness  of  perception,  that  firm  hold  on  reality 
which  is  so  essential  to  the  satirist.  His  lyric  appealed  with 
particular  force  to  foreign  peoples,  who  had  little  understanding 
for  the  intangible,  undefinable  spirituality  which  the  German 
people  regard  as  an  indispensable  element  in  their  national 
lyric  poetry.  Thus  his  fame  has  always  stood  higher  in  England 
and  France  than  in  Germany  itself,  where  his  lyric  method, 
his  self-consciousness,  his  cynicism  in  season  and  out  of  season, 
were  little  in  harmony  with  the  literary  traditions.  As  far, 
indeed,  as  the  development  of  the  German  lyric  is  concerned, 
Heine's  influence  has  been  of  questionable  value.  But  he 
introduced  at  least  one  new  and  refreshing  element  into  German 
poetry  with  his  lyrics  of  the  North  Sea;  no  other  German 
poet  has  felt  and  expressed  so  well  as  Heine  the  charm  of  sea 
and  coast. 

As  a  prose  writer,  Heine's  merits  were  very  great.  His  work 
was,  in  the  main,  journalism,  but  it  was  journalism  of  a  high 
order,  and,  after  all,  the  best  literature  of  the."  Young  German  " 
school  to  which  he  belonged  was  of  this  character.  Heine's 
light  fancy,  his  agile  intellect,  his  straightforward,  clear  style 
stood  him  here  in  excellent  stead.  The  prose  writings  of  his 
French  period  mark,  together  with  Borne's  Briefe  aus  Paris, 
the  beginning  of  a  new  era  in  German  journalism  and  a  healthy 
revolt  against  the  unwieldly  prose  of  the  Romantic  period. 
Above  all  things,  Heine  was  great  as  a  wit  and  a  satirist.  His 


lyric  may  not  be  able  to  assert  itself  beside  that  of  the  very 
greatest  German  singers,  but  as  a  satirist  he  had  powers  of  the 
highest  order.  He  combined  the  holy  zeal  and  passionate 
earnestness  of  the  "  soldier  of  humanity  "  with  the  withering 
scorn  and  ineradicable  sense  of  justice  common  to  the  leaders 
of  the  Jewish  race.  It  was  Heine's  real  mission  to  be  a  reformer, 
to  restore  with  instruments  of  war  rather  than  of  peace  "  the 
interrupted  order  of  the  world."  The  more's  the  pity  that  his 
magnificent  Aristophanic  genius  should  have  had  so  little 
room  for  its  exercise,  and  have  been  frittered  away  in  the  petty 
squabbles  of  an  exiled  journalist. 

The  first  collected  edition  of  Heine's  works  was  edited  by  A. 
Strodtmann  in  21  vols.  (1861-1866),  the  best  critical  edition  is  the 
Sdmtliche  Werke,  edited  by  E.  Elster  (7  vols.,  1887-1890).  Heine 
has  been  more  translated  into  other  tongues  than  any  other  German 
writer  of  his  time.  Mention  may  here  be  made  of  the  French 
translation  of  his  (Euvres  completes  (14  vols.,  1852-1868),  and  the 
English  translation  (by  C.  G.  Leland  and  others)  recently  completed, 
The  Works  of  Heinrich  Heine  (13  vols.,  1892-1905).  For  biography 
and  criticism  see  the  following  works :  A.  Strodtmann,  Heines  Leben 
und  Werke  (3rd  ed.,  1884);  H.  Hueffer,  Aus  dent  Leben  H.  Heines 
(1878);  and  by  the  same  author,  H.  Heine:  Gesammelte  Aufsdtze 
(1906);  G.  Karpeles,  H.  Heine  und  seine  Zeitgenossen  (1888),  and 
by  the  same  author,  H.  Heine:  aus  seinem  Leben  und  aus  seiner 
Zeit  (1900);  W.  Bqlsche,  //.  Heine:  Versuch  einer  asthetisch- 
kritiscken  Analyse  seiner  Werke  und  seiner  Weltanschauung  (1888); 
G.  Brandes,  Del  unge  Tyskland  (1890;  Eng.  trans.,  1905).  An 
English  biography  by  W.  Stigand,  Life,  Works  and  Opinions  of 
Heinrich  Heine,  appeared  in  1875,  but  it  has  little  value;  there  is 
also  a  short  life  by  W.  Sharp  (1888).  The  essays  on  Heine  by 
George  Eliot  and  Matthew  Arnold  are  well  known.  The  best  French 
contributions  to  Heine  criticism  are  J.  Legras,  H.  Heine,  poete 
(1897),  and  H.  Lichtenberger,  H.  Heine,  penseur  (1905).  See  also 
L.P.  Betz,  Heine  in  Frankreich  (1895).  (J.  W.  F.;  J.  G.  R.) 

HEINECCIUS,  JOHANN  GOTTLIEB  (1681-1741),  German 
jurist,  was  born  on  the  nth  of  September  1681  at  Eisenberg, 
Altenburg.  He  studied  theology  at  Leipzig,  and  law  at  Halle; 
and  at  the  latter  university  he  was  appointed  in  1713  professor 
of  philosophy,  and  in  1718  professor  of  jurisprudence.  He 
subsequently  filled  legal  chairs  at  Franeker  in  Holland  and  at 
Frankfort,  but  finally  returned  to  Halle  in  1733  as  professor 
of  philosophy  and  jurisprudence.  He  died  there  on  the  3ist  of 
August  1 741 .  Heineccius  belonged  to  the  school  of  philosophical 
jurists.  He  endeavoured  to  treat  law  as  a  rational  science,  and 
not  merely  as  an  empirical  art  whose  rules  had  no  deeper 
source  than  expediency.  Thus  he  continually  refers  to  first 
principles,  and  he  develops  his  legal  doctrines  as  a  system  of 
philosophy. 

His  chief  works  were  Antiquitatum  Romanarum  juris prudentiam 
illustrantium  syntagma  (1718),  Historia  juris  civilis  Romani  ac 
Germanici  (1733),  Elementa  juris  Germanici  (1735),  Elementa  juris 
naturae  et  gentium  (1737;  Eng.  trans,  by  Turnbull,  2  vols.,  London, 
1763).  Besides  these  works  he  wrote  on  purely  philosophical  sub- 
jects, and  edited  the  works  of  several  of  the  classical  jurists.  His 
Opera  omnia  (9  vols.,  Geneva,  1771,  &c.)  were  edited  by  his  son 
Johann  Christian  Gottlieb  Heineccius  (1718-1791). 

Heineccius's  brother,  JOHANN  MICHAEL  HEINECCIUS  (1674- 
1722),  was  a  well-known  preacher  and  theologian,  but  is  re- 
membered more  from  the  fact  ,that  he  was  the  first  to  make  a 
systematic  study  of  seals,  concerning  which  he  left  a  book,  De 
veteribus  Germanorum  aliarumque  nationum  sigillis  (Leipzig, 
1710;  2nd  ed.,  1719). 

HEINECKEN,  CHRISTIAN  HEINRICH  (1721-1725),  a  child 
remarkable  for  precocity  of  intellect,  was  born  on  the  6th  of 
February  1721  at  Liibeck,  where  his  father  was  a  painter. 
Able  to  speak  at  the  age  of  ten  months,  by  the  time  he  was  one 
year  old  he  knew  by  heart  the  principal  incidents  in  the 
Pentateuch.  At  two  years  of  age  he  had  mastered  sacred 
history;  at  three  he  was  intimately  acquainted  with  history 
and  geography,  ancient  and  modern,  sacred  and  profane,  besides 
being  able  to  speak  French  and  Latin;  and  in  his  fourth  year 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  religion  and  church  history. 
This  wonderful  precocity  was  no  mere  feat  of  memory,  for  the 
youthful  savant  could  reason  on  and  discuss  the  knowledge 
he  had  acquired.  Crowds  of  people  flocked  to  Liibeck  to  see 
the  wonderful  child;  and  in  1724  he  was  taken  to  Copenhagen 
at  the  desire  of  the  king  of  Denmark.  On  his  return  to  Liibeck 


2l6 


HEINICKE— HEIR 


he  began  to  learn  writing,  but  his  sickly  constitution  gave  way, 
and  he  died  on  the  22nd  of  June  1725. 

The  Life,  Deeds,  Travels  and  Death  of  the  Child  of  Liibeck 
were  published  in  the  following  year  by  his  tutor  Schoneich.  See 
also  Teutsche  Bibliothek,  xvii.,  and  Memoires  de  Trevoux  (Jan. 
1731). 

HEINICKE,  SAMUEL  (1727-1790),  the  originator  in  Germany 
of  systematic  education  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  was  born  on  the 
loth  of  April  1727,  at  Nautschiitz,  Germany.  Entering  the 
electoral  bodyguard  at  Dresden,  he  subsequently  supported 
himself  by  teaching.  About  1754  his  first  deaf  and  dumb  pupil 
was  brought  him.  His  success  in  teaching  this  pupil  was  so 
great  that  he  determined  to  devote  himself  entirely  to  this  work. 
The  outbreak  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  upset  his  plans  for  a  time. 
Taken  prisoner  at  Pirna,  he  was  brought  to  Dresden,  but  soon 
made  his  escape.  In  1768,  when  living  in  Hamburg,  he  success- 
fully taught  a  deaf  and  dumb  boy  to  talk,  following  the  methods 
prescribed  by  Amman  in  his  book  Surdus  loquens,  but  improving 
on  them.  Recalled  to  his  own  country  by  the  elector  of  Saxony, 
he  opened  in  Leipzig,  in  1778,  the  first  deaf  and  dumb  institution 
in  Germany.  This  school  he  directed  till  his  death,  which  took 
place  on  the  3oth  of  April  1790.  He  was  the  author  of  a  variety 
of  books  on  the  instruction  of  the  deaf  and  dumb. 

HEINSE,  JOHANN  JAKOB  WILHELM  (1740-1803),  German 
author,  was  born  at  Langewiesen  near  Ilmenau  in  Thuringia  on 
the  1 6th  of  February  1749.  After  attending  the  gymnasium  at 
Schleusingen  he  studied  law  at  Jena  and  Erfurt.  In  Erfurt  he 
became  acquainted  with  Wieland  and  through  him  with  "  Father" 
Gleim  who  in  1772  procured  him  the  post  of  tutor  in  a  family  at 
Quedlinburg.  In  1774  he  went  to  Diisseldorf,  where  he  assisted 
the  poet  J.  G.  Jacobi  to  edit  the  periodical  Iris.  Here  the 
famous  picture  gallery  inspired  him  with  a  passion  for  art,  to  the 
study  of  which  he  devoted  himself  with  so  much  zeal  and  insight 
that  Jacobi  furnished  him  with  funds  for  a  stay  in  Italy,  where 
he  remained  for  three  years  (i  780-1 783).  He  returned  to  Diissel- 
dorf in  1784,  and  in  1786  was  appointed  reader  to  the  elector 
Frederick  Charles  Joseph,  archbishop  of  Mainz,  who  subse- 
quently made  him  his  librarian  at  Aschaffenburg,  where  he  died 
on  the  22nd  of  June  1803. 

The  work  upon  which  Heinse's  fame  mainly  rests  is  Ardinghello 
und  die  gluckseligen  Inseln  (1787),  a  novel  which  forms  the  frame- 
work for  the  exposition  of  his  views  on  art  and  life,  the  plot  being 
laid  in  the  Italy  of  the  i6th  century.  This  and  his  other  novels 
Laidion,  oder  die  eleusinischen  Geheimnisse  (1774)  and  Hildegard 
von  Hohenthal  (1796)  combine  the  frank  voluptuousness  of 
Wieland  with  the  enthusiasm  of  the  "  Sturm  und  Drang."  Both 
as  novelist  and  art  critic,  Heinse  had  considerable  influence  on 
the  romantic  school. 

Heinse's  complete  works  (Samtliche  Schriften)  were  published  by 
H.  Laube  in  10  vols.  (Leipzig,  1838).  A  new  edition  by  C.  Schudde- 
kopf  is  in  course  of  publication  (Leipzig,  1901  sqq.).  See  H.  Prohle, 
Lessing,  Wieland,  Heinse  (Berlin,  1877),  and  J.  Schober,  Johann 
Jacob  Wilhelm  Heinse,  sein  Leben  und  seine  Werke  (Leipzig,  1882); 
also  K.  D.  Jessen,  Heinses  Stellung  zur  bildenden  Kunst  (Berlin, 
1903)- 

HEINSIUS  (or  HEINS)  DANIEL  (1580-1655),  one  of  the  most 
famous  scholars  of  the  Dutch  Renaissance,  was  born  at  Ghent 
on  the  9th  of  June  1580.  The  troubles  of  the  Spanish  war  drove 
his  parents  to  settle  first  at  Veere  in  Zeeland,  then  in  England, 
next  at  Ryswick  and  lastly  at  Flushing.  In  1594,  being  already 
remarkable  for  his  attainments,  he  was  sent  to  the  university  of 
Franeker  to  perfect  himself  in  Greek  under  Henricus  Schotanus. 
He  stayed  at  Franeker  half  a  year,  and  then  settled  at  Leiden 
for  the  remaining  sixty  years  of  his  life.  There  he  studied  under 
Joseph  Scaliger,  and  there  he  found  Marnix  de  St  Aldegonde, 
Janus  Douza,  Paulus  Merula  and  others,  and  was  soon  taken 
into  the  society  of  these  celebrated  men  as  their  equal.  His 
proficiency  in  the  classic  languages  won  the  praise  of  all  the  best 
scholars  of  Europe,  and  offers  were  made  to  him,  but  in  vain,  to 
accept  honourable  positions  outside  Holland.  He  soon  rose  in 
dignity  at  the  university  of  Leiden.  In  1602  he  was  made 
professor  of  Latin,  in  1605  professor  of  Greek,  and  at  the  death  of 
Merula  in  1607  he  succeeded  that  illustrious  scholar  as  librarian 


to  the  university.  The  remainder  of  his  life  is  recorded  in  a  list  of 
his  productions.  He  died  at  the  Hague  on  the  25th  of  February 
1655.  The  Dutch  poetry  of  Heinsius  is  of  the  school  of  Roemer 
Visscher,  but  attains  no  very  high  excellence.  It  was,  however, 
greatly  admired  by  Martin  Opitz,  who  was  the  pupil  of  Heinsius, 
and  who,  in  translating  the  poetry  of  the  latter,  introduced  the 
German  public  to  the  use  of  the  rhyming  alexandrine. 

He  published  his  original  Latin  poems  in  three  volumes — Iambi 
(1602),  Elegiae  (1603)  and  Po'emata  (1605) ;  his  Emblemata  amatoria, 
poems  in  Dutch  and  Latin,  were  first  printed  in  1604.  In  the  same 
year  he  edited  Theocritus,  Bion  and  Moschus,  having  edited  Hesiod 
in  1603.  In  1609  he  printed  his  Latin  Orations.  In  1610  he  edited 
Horace,  and  in  1611  Aristotle  and  Seneca.  In  1613  appeared  in 
Dutch  his  tragedy  of  The  Massacre  of  the  Innocents;  and  in  1614  his 
treatise  De  politica  sapientia.  In  1616  he  collected  his  original  Dutch 
poems  into  a  volume.  He  edited  Terence  in  1618,  Livy  in  1620, 
published  his  oration  De  contemptu  mortis  in  1621,  and  brought  out 
the  Epistles  of  Joseph  Scaliger  in  1627. 

HEINSIUS,  NIKOLAES  (1620-1681),  Dutch  scholar,  son  of 
Daniel  Heinsius,  was  born  at  Leiden  on  the  2oth  of  July  1620. 
His  boyish  Latin  poem  of  Breda  expugnata  was  printed  in 
1637,  and  attracted  much  attention.  In  1642  he  began  his 
wanderings  with  a  visit  to  England  in  search  of  MSS.  of  the 
classics;  but  he  met  with  little  courtesy  from  the  English 
scholars.  In  1644  he  was  sent  to  Spa  to  drink  the  waters;  his 
health  restored,  he  set  out  once  more  in  search  of  codices,  passing 
through  Louvain,  Brussels,  Mechlin,  Antwerp  and  so  back  to 
Leiden,  everywhere  collating  MSS.  and  taking  philological  and 
textual  notes.  Almost  immediately  he  set  out  again,  and  arriving 
in  Paris  was  welcomed  with  open  arms  by  the  French  savants. 
After  investigating  all  the  classical  texts  he  could  lay  hands  on, 
he  proceeded  southwards,  and  visited  on  the  same  quest  Lyons, 
Marseilles,  Pisa,  Florence  (where  he  paused  to  issue  a  new  edition 
of  Ovid)  and  Rome.  Next  year,  1647,  found  him  in  Naples, 
from  which  he  fled  during  the  reign  of  Masaniello;  he  pursued 
his  labours  in  Leghorn,  Bologna,  Venice  and  Padua,  at  which 
latter  city  he  published  in  1648  his  volume  of  original  Latin  verse 
entitled  Ilalica.  He  proceeded  to  Milan,  and  worked  for  a  con- 
siderable time  in  the  Ambrosian  library;  he  was  preparing  to 
explore  Switzerland  in  the  same  patient  manner,  when  the  news 
of  his  father's  illness  recalled  him  hurriedly  to  Leiden.  He  was 
soon  called  away  to  Stockholm  at  the  invitation  of  Queen 
Christina,  at  whose  court  he  waged  war  with  Salmasius,  who 
accused  him  of  having  supplied  Milton  with  facts  from  the  life 
of  that  great  but  irritable  scholar.  Heinsius  paid  a  flying  visit 
to  Leiden  in  1650,  but  immediately  returned  to  Stockholm.  In 
1651  he  once  more  visited  Italy;  the  remainder  of  his  life  was 
divided  between  Upsala  and  Holland.  He  collected  his  Latin 
poems  into  a  volume  in  1653.  His  latest  labours  were  the 
editing  of  Velleius  Paterculus  in  1678,  and  of  Valerius  Flaccus  in 
1680.  Hedied  at  the  Hague  on  the  7th  of  Octoberi68i.  Nikolaes 
Heinsius  was  one  of  the  purest  and  most  elegant  of  Latinists,  and 
if  his  scholarship  was  not  quite  so  perfect  as  that  of  his  father,  he 
displayed  higher  gifts  as  an  original  writer. 

His  illegitimate  son,  NIKOLAES  HEINSIUS  (b.  1655),  was  the 
author  of  The  Delightful  Adventures  and  Wonderful  Life  of 
Mirandor  (1675),  the  single  Dutch  romance  of  the  i7th  century. 
He  had  to  flee  the  country  in  1677  for  committing  a  murder  in  the 
streets  of  the  Hague,  and  died  in  obscurity. 

HEIR  (Lat.  heres,  from  a  root  meaning  to  grasp,  seen  in  herus 
or  erus,  master  of  a  house,  Gr.  \dp,  hand,  Sans,  hat  ana, 
hand),  in  law,  technically  one  who  succeeds,  by  descent,  to  an 
estate  of  inheritance,  in  contradistinction  to  one  who  succeeds 
to  personal  property,  i.e.  next  of  kin.  The  word  is  now  used 
generally  to  denote  the  person  who  is  entitled  by  law  to  inherit 
property,  titles,  &c.,of  another.  The  rules  regulating  the  descent 
of  property  to  an  heir  will  be  found  in  the  articles  INHERITANCE, 
SUCCESSION,  &c. 

An  heir  apparent  (Lat.  apparens,  manifest)  is  he  whose  right  of 
inheritance  is  indefeasible,  provided  he  outlives  the  ancestor, 
e.g.  an  eldest  or  only  son. 

Heir  by  custom,  or  customary  heir,  he  who  inherits  by  a 
particular  and  local  custom,  as  in  borough-English,  whereby 


HEIRLOOM— HEJAZ 


the  youngest  son  inherits,  or  in  gavelkind,  whereby  all  the  sons 
inherit  as  parceners,  and  made  but  one  heir. 

Heir  general,  or  heir  at  law,  he  who  after  the  death  of  his 
ancestor  has,  by  law,  the  right  to  the  inheritance. 

Heir  presumptive,  one  who  is  next  in  succession,  but  whose 
right  is  defeasible  by  the  birth  of  a  nearer  heir,  e.g.  a  brother  or 
nephew,  whose  presumptive  right  may  be  destroyed  by  the  birth 
of  a  child,  or  a  daughter,  whose  right  may  be  defeated  by  the 
birth  of  a  son. 

Special  heir,  one  not  heir  at  law  (i.e.  at  common  law),  but  by 
special  custom. 

Ultimate  heir,  he  to  whom  lands  come  by  escheat  on  failure  of 
proper  heirs.  In  Scots  law  the  technical  use  of  the  word  "  heir  " 
is  not  confined  to  the  succession  to  real  property,  but  includes 
succession  to  personal  property  as  well. 

HEIRLOOM,  strictly  so  called  in  English  law,  a  chattel 
{"  loom  "  meaning  originally  a  tool)  which  by  immemorial 
usage  is  regarded  as  annexed  by  inheritance  to  a  family  estate. 
Any  owner  of  such  heirloom  may  dispose  of  it  during  his  life- 
time, but  he  cannot  bequeath  it  by  will  away  from  the  estate. 
If  he  dies  intestate  it  goes  to  his  heir-at-law,  and  if  he  devises 
the  estate  it  goes  to  the  devisee.  At  the  present  time  such 
heirlooms  are  almost  unknown,  and  the  word  has  acquired  a 
secondary  and  popular  meaning  and  is  applied  to  furniture, 
pictures,  &c.,  vested  in  trustees  to  hold  on  trust  for  the  person 
for  the  time  being  entitled  to  the  possession  of  a  settled  house. 
Such  things  are  more  properly  called  settled  chattels.  An 
heirloom  in  the  strict  sense  is  made  by  family  custom,  not  by 
settlement.  A  settled  chattel  may,  under  the  Settled  Land  Act 
1882,  be  sold  under  the  direction  of  the  court,  and  the  money 
arising  under  such  sale  is  capital  money.  The  court  will  only 
sanction  such  a  sale  if  it  be  shown  that  it  is  to  the  benefit  of  all 
parties  concerned;  and  if  the  article  proposed  to  be  sold  is  of 
unique  or  historical  character,  it  will  have  regard  to  the  intention 
of  the  settlor  and  the  wishes  of  the  remainder  men  (Re  Hope, 
De  Cello  v.  Hope,  1899,  2  ch.  679). 

HEJAZ  (HIJAZ),  a  Turkish  vilayet  and  a  province  of  Western 
Arabia,  extending  along  the  Red  Sea  coast  from  the  head  of 
the  Gulf  of  Akaba  in  29°  30'  N.  to  the  south  of  Taif  in  20°  N.  It 
is  bounded  N.  by  Syria,  E.  by  the  Nafud  desert  and  by  Nejd  and 
S.  by  Asir.  Its  length  is  about  750  m.  and  its  greatest  breadth 
from  the  Harra  east  of  Khaibar  to  the  coast  is  200  m.  The 
name  Hejaz,  which  signifies  "  separating,"  is  sometimes  limited 
to  the  region  extending  from  Medina  in  the  north  to  Taif  in  the 
south,  which  separates  the  island  province  «f  Nejd  from  the 
Tehama  (Tihama)  or  coastal  district,  but  most  authorities, 
both  Arab  and  European,  define  it  in  the  wider  sense.  Though 
physically  the  most  desolate  and  uninviting  province  in  Arabia, 
it  has  a  special  interest  and  importance  as  containing  the  two 
sacred  cities  of  Islam,  Mecca  and  Medina  (q.v.),  respectively 
the  birthplace  and  burial-place  of  Mahomet,  which  are  visited 
yearly  by  large  numbers  of  Moslem  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of 
the  world. 

Hejaz  is  divided  longitudinally  by  the  Tehama,  range  of 
mountains  into  two  zones,  a  narrow  littoral  and  a  broader 
upland.  This  range  attains  its  greatest  height  in  Jebel  Shar, 
the  Mount  Seir  of  scripture,  overlooking  the  Midian  coast, 
which  probably  reaches  7000  ft.,  and  Jebel  Radhwa  a  little  N.E. 
of  Yambu  rising  to  6000  ft.  It  is  broken  through  by  several 
valleys  which  carry  off  the  drainage  of  the  inland  zone;  the 
principal  of  these  is  the  Wadi  Hamd,  the  main  source  of  which 
is  on  the  Harra  east  of  Khaibar.  Its  northern  tributary  the  Wadi 
Jizil  drains  the  Harrat  el  Awerid  and  a  southern  branch  comes 
from  the  neighbourhood  of  Medina..  Farther  south  the  Wadi 
es  Safra  cuts  through  the  mountains  and  affords  the  principal 
access  to  the  valley  of  Medina  from  Yambu  or  Jidda.  None 
of  the  Hejaz  Wadis  has  a  perennial  stream,  but  they  are  liable 
to  heavy  floods  after  the  winter  rains,  and  thick  groves  of  date- 
palms  and  occasional  settlements  are  met  with  along  their 
courses  wherever  permanent  springs  are  found.  The  northern 
part  of  Hejaz  contains  but  few  inhabited  sites.  Muwela,  Damgha 
and  El  Wijh  are  small  ports  used  by  coasting  craft.  The  last 


217 

named  was  formerly  an  important  station  on  the  Egyptian 
pilgrim  route,  and  in  ancient  days  was  a  Roman  settlement, 
and  the  port  of  the  Nabataean  towns  of  el  Hajr  150  m.  to  the  east. 
Inland  the  sandstone  desert  of  El  Hisma  reaches  from  the  Syrian 
border  at  Ma'an  to  Jebel  Awerid,  where  the  volcanic  tracts 
known  as  harra  begin,  and  extend  southwards  along  the  western 
borders  of  the  Nejd  plateau  as  far  as  the  latitude  of  Mecca.  East 
of  Jebel  Awerid  lies  the  oasis  of  Tema,  identified  with  the 
Biblical  Teman,  which  belongs  to  the  Shammar  tribe;  its  fertility 
depends  on  the  famous  well,  known  as  Bir  el  Hudaj.  Farther 
south  and  on  the  main  pilgrim  route  is  El  'Ala,  the  principal 
settlement  of  El  Hajr,  the  Egra  of  Ptolemy,  to  whom  it  was 
known  as  an  oasis  town  on  the  gold  and  frankincense  road. 
Higher  up  the  same  valley  are  the  rock-cut  tombs  of  Medina 
Salih,  similar  to  those  at  Petra  and  shown  by  the  Nabataean 
coins  and  inscriptions  discovered  there  by  Doughty  and  Huber 
to  date  from  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  To  the  south- 
east again  is  the  oasis  of  Khaibar,  with  some  2500  inhabitants, 
chiefly  negroes,  the  remnants  of  an  earlier  slave  population. 
The  citadel,  known  as  the  Kasr  el  Yahudi,  preserves  the  tradition 
of  its  former  Jewish  ownership.  With  these  exceptions  there 
are  no  settled  villages  between  Ma'an  and  Medina,  the  stations 
on  the  pilgrim  road  being  merely  small  fortified  posts  with 
reservoirs,  at  intervals  of  30  or  40  m.,  which  are  kept  up  by  the 
Turkish  government  for  the  protection  of  the  yearly  caravan. 

The  southern  part  of  the  province  is  more  favoured  by  nature. 
Medina  is  a  city  of  25,000  to  30,000  inhabitants,  situated  in  a 
broad  plain  between  the  coast  range  and  the  low  hills  across 
which  lies  the  road  to  Nejd.  Its  altitude  above  the  sea  is  about 
2500  ft.  It  is  well  supplied  with  water  and  is  surrounded  by 
gardens  and  plantations;  barley  and  wheat  are  grown,  but  the 
staple  produce,  as  in  all  the  cultivated  districts  of  Hejaz,  is  dates, 
of  which  100  different  sorts  are  said  to  grow.  Yambu'  has  a 
certain  importance  as  the  port  for  Medina.  The  route  follows 
for  part  of  the  way  along  the  Wadi  es  Safra,  which  contains 
several  small  settlements  with  abundant  date  groves;  from 
Badr  Hunen,  the  last  of  these,  the  route  usually  taken  from 
Medina  to  Mecca  runs  near  the  coast,  passing  villages  with 
some  cultivation  at  each  stage.  The  eastern  route  though  more 
direct  is  less  used;  it  passes  through  a  barren  country  described 
by  Burton  as  a  succession  of  low  plains  and  basins  surrounded 
by  rolling  hills  and  intersected  by  torrent  beds;  the  predominant 
formation  is  basalt.  Suwerikiya  and  Es  Safina  are  the  only 
villages  of  importance  on  this  route. 

'  Mecca  and  the  holy  places  in  its  vicinity  are  described  in  a 
separate  article;  it  is  about  48  m.  from  the  port  of  Jidda,  the 
most  important  trade  centre  of  the  Hejaz  province.  The  great 
majority  of  pilgrims  for  Mecca  arrive  by  sea  at  Jidda.  Their 
transport  and  the  supply  of  their  wants  is  therefore  the  chief 
business  of  the  place;  in  1004  the  number  was  66,500,  and  the 
imports  amounted  in  value  to  £1,400,000. 

From  the  hot  lowland  in  which  Mecca  is  situated  the  country 
rises  steeply  up  to  the  Taif  plateau,  some  6000  ft.  above  sea- 
level,  a  district  resembling  in  climate  and  physical  character 
the  highlands  of  Asir  and  Yemen.  Jebel  el  Kura  at  the  northern 
edge  of  the  plateau  is  a  fertile  well-watered  district,  producing 
wheat  and  barley  and  fruit.  Taif,  a  day's  journey  farther  south, 
lies  in  a  sandy  plain,  surrounded  by  low  mountains.  The  houses, 
though  small,  are  well  built  of  stone;  the  gardens  for  which 
it  is  celebrated  lie  at  a  distance  of  a  mile  or  more  to  the  S.W.  at 
the  foot  of  the  mountains. 

Hejaz,  together  with  the  other  provinces  of  Arabia  which  on 
the  overthrow  of  the  Bagdad  Caliphate  in  1258  had  fallen  under 
Egyptian  domination,  became  by  the  conquest  of  Egypt  in  1517 
a  dependency  of  the  Ottoman  empire.  Beyond  assuming  the 
title  of  Caliph,  neither  Salim  I.  nor  his  successors  interfered 
much  in  the  government,  which  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
sharifs  of  Mecca  until  the  religious  upheaval  which  culminated 
at  the  beginning  of  the  igth  century  in  the  pillage  of  the  holy 
cities  by  the  Wahhabi  fanatics.  Mehemet  Ali,  viceroy  of  Egypt, 
was  entrusted  by  the  sultan  with  the  task  of  establishing  order, 
and  after  several  arduous  campaigns  the  Wahhabis  were  routed 


218 


HEJIRA— HELDENBUCH 


and  their  capital  Deraiya  in  Nejd  taken  by  Ibrahim  Pasha  in 
1817.  Hejaz  remained  in  Egyptian  occupation  until  1845, 
when  its  administration  was  taken  over  directly  by  Constan- 
tinople, and  it  was  constituted  a  vilayet  under  a  vali  or  governor- 
general.  The  population  is  estimated  at  300,000,  about  half  of 
which  are  inhabitants  of  the  towns  and  the  remainder  Bedouin, 
leading  a  nomad  or  pastoral  life.  The  principal  tribes  are  the 
Sherarat,  Beni  Atiya  and  Huwetat  in  the  north;  the  Juhena 
between  Yambu'  and  Medina,  and  the  various  sections  of  the 
Harb  throughout  the  centre  and  south;  the  Ateba  also  touch 
the  Mecca  border  on  the  south-east.  All  these  tribes  receive 
surra  or  money  payments  of  large  amount  from  the  Turkish 
government  to  ensure  the  safe  conduct  of  the  annual  pilgrimage, 
otherwise  they  are  practically  independent  of  the  Turkish 
administration,  which  is  limited  to  the  large  towns  and  garrisons. 
The  troops  occupying  these  latter  belong  to  the  i6th  (Hejaz) 
division  of  the  Turkish  army. 

The  difficulties  of  communication  with  his  Arabian  provinces, 
and  of  relieving  or  reinforcing  the  garrisons  there,  induced  the 
sultan  Abdul  Hamid  in  1900  to  undertake  the  con- 
™*  struction  of  a  railway  directly  connecting  the  Hejaz 

railway.  cities  with  Damascus  without  the  necessity  of  leaving 
Turkish  territory  at  any  point,  as  hitherto  required 
by  the  Suez  Canal.  Actual  construction  was  begun  in  May  1901 
and  on  the  ist  of  September  1904  the  section  Damascus-Ma'an 
(285  m.)  was  officially  opened.  The  line  has  a  narrow  gauge 
of  1-05  metre=  41  in.,  the  same  gauge  as  that  of  the  Damascus- 
Beirut  line;  it  has  a  ruling  gradient  of  i  in  50  and  follows  gener- 
ally the  pilgrim  track,  through  a  desert  country  presenting  no 
serious  engineering  difficulties.  The  graver  difficulties  due  to 
the  scarcity  of  water,  and  the  lack  of  fuel,  supplies  and  labour 
were  successfully  overcome;  in  1906  the  line  was  completed 
to  El  Akhdar,  470  m.  from  Damascus  and  350  from  Medina, 
in  time  to  be  used  by  the  pilgrim  caravan  of  that  year;  and  the 
section  to  Medina  was  opened  in  1908.  Its  military  value  was 
shown  in  the  previous  year,  when  it  conveyed  28  battalions  from 
Damascus  to  Ma'an,  from  which  station  the  troops  marched  to 
Akaba  for  embarkation  en  route  to  Hodeda..  The  length  of  the  line 
from  Damascus  to  Medina  is  approximately  820  m.,  and  from 
Medina  to  Mecca  280  m.;  the  highest  level  attained  is  about 
4000  ft.  at  Dar  el  Hamra  in  the  section  Ma'an-Medina. 

AUTHORITIES. — J.  L.  Burckhardt,  Travels  in  Arabia  (London, 
1829);  'Ali  Bey,  Travels  (London,  1816);  R.  F.  Burton,  Pilgrimage 
to  Medinah  and  Mecca  (1893);  Land  of  Midian  (London,  1879); 
J.  S.  Hurgronje,  Mekka  (Hague,  1888);  C.  M.  Doughty,  Arabia 
Deserta  (Cambridge,  1888);  Auler  Pasha,  Die  Hedschasbahn  (Gotha, 
1906).  (R.  A.  W.) 

HEJIRA,1  or  HEGIRA  (Arab,  kijra,  flight,  departure  from 
one's  country,  from  hajara,  to  go  away) ,  the  name  of  the  Mahom- 
medan  era.  It  dates  from  622,  the  year  in  which  Mahomet 
"  fled  "  from  Mecca  to  Medina  to  escape  the  persecution  of  his 
kinsmen  of  the  Kpreish  tribe.  The  years  of  this  era  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  initials  "  A.H."  (anno  hegirae).  The  Mahom- 
medan  year  is  a  lunar  one,  about  n  days  shorter  than  the 
Christian;  allowance  must  be  made  for  this  in  translating 
Hegira  dates  into  Christian  dates;  thus  A.H.  1321  corresponds 
roughly  to  A.D.  1903.  The  actual  date  of  the  "  flight  "  is  fixed 
as  8  Rabia  I.,  i.e.  2oth  of  September  622,  by  the  tradition  that 
Mahomet  arrived  at  Kufa  on  the  Hebrew  Day  of  Atonement. 
Although  Mahomet  himself  appears  to  have  dated  events  by 
his  flight,  it  was  not  till  seventeen  years  later  that  the  actual 
era  was  systematized  by  Omar,  the  second  caliph(see  CALIPHATE), 
as  beginning  from  the  ist  day  of  Muharram  (the  first  lunar 
month  of  the  year)  which  in  that  year  (639)  corresponded  to 
July  16.  The  term  hejira  is  also  applied  in  its  more  general 
sense  to  other  "  emigrations  "  of  the  faithful,  e.g.  to  that  to 
Abyssinia  (see  MAHOMET),  and  to  that  of  Mahomet's  followers 
to  Medina  before  the  capture  of  Mecca.  These  latter  are  known 
as  Muhajirun. 

For  the  problems  of  Moslem  chronology  and  comparative  tables 
of  dates  see  (beside  the  articles  CALENDAR,  CHRONOLOGY  and 

1  The  i  in  the  second  syllable  is  short. 


MAHOMET),Wustenfeld,  Vergleichungstabellen  der  muhammedanischen 
und  christlichen  Zeitrechnung  (2nd  ed.,  Leipzig,  1903);  Mas  Latric, 
Tresor  de  chronologie  (Paris,  1889);  Durbaneh,  Universal  Calendar 
(Cairo,  1896);  Winckler,  Altorientalische  Forschungen,  ii.  326-350; 
D.  Nielson,  Die  altarabische  Mondreligion  (Strassburg,  1904) ;  Hughes, 
Dictionary  of  Islam,  s.v.  "  Hijrah." 

HEL,  or  HELA,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the  goddess  of 
the  dead.  She  was  a  child  of  Loki  and  the  giantess  Angurboda, 
and  dwelt  beneath  the  roots  of  the  sacred  ash,  Yggdrasil.  She 
was  given  dominion  over  the  nine  worlds  of  Helheim.  In  early 
myth  all  the  dead  went  to  her:  in  later  legend  only  those  who 
died  of  old  age  or  sickness,  and  she  then  became  synonymous 
with  suffering  and  horror.  Her  dwelling  was  Elvidnir  (dark 
clouds),  her  dish  Hungr  (hunger),  her  knife  Sullt  (starvation), 
her  servants  Ganglate  (tardy  feet),  her  bed  Kor  (sickness),  and 
her  bed-curtains  Blikiandabol  (splendid  misery). 

HELDENBUCH,  DAS,  the  title  under  which  a  large  body  of 
German  epic  poetry  of  the  I3th  century  has  come  down  to  us. 
The  subjects  of  the  individual  poems  are  taken  from  national 
German  sagas  which  originated  in  the  epoch  of  the  Migrations 
(V olkenvanderung} ,  although  doubtless  here,  as  in  all  purely 
popular  sagas,  motives  borrowed  from  the  forces  and  phenomena 
of  nature  were,  in  course  of  time,  woven  into  events  originally 
historical.  While  the  saga  of  the  Nibelungs  crystallized  in  the 
i3th  century  into  the  Nibelungenlied  (q.v.),  and  the  Low  German 
Hilde-saga  into  the  epic  of  Gtidrun  (q.v.)  the  poems  of  the 
Heldenbuch,  in  the  more  restricted  use  of  that  term,  belong 
almost  exclusively  to  two  cycles,  (i)  the  Ostrogothic  saga  of 
Ermanrich,  Dietrich  von  Bern  (i.e.  Dietrich  of  Verona,Theodorich 
the  Great)  and  Etzel  (Attila),  and  (2)  the  cycle  of  Hugdietrich, 
Wolfdietrich  and  Ortnit,  which  like  the  Nibelungen  saga,  was 
probably  of  Franconian  origin.  The  romances  of  the  Heldenbuch 
are  of  varying  poetic  value;  only  occasionally  do  they  rise  to 
the  height  of  the  two  chief  epics,  the  Nibelungenlied  and  Gudrun. 
Dietrich  von  Bern,  the  central  figure  of  the  first  and  more  im- 
portant group,  was  the  ideal  type  of  German  medieval  hero,  and, 
under  more  favourable  literary  conditions,  he  might  have  become 
the  centre  of  an  epic  more  nationally  German  than  even  the 
Nibelungenlied  itself.  Of  the  romances  of  this  group,  the  chief 
are  Biterolf  und  Dietlieb,  evidently  the  work  of  an  Austrian  poet, 
who  introduced  many  elements  from  the  court  epic  of  chivalry 
into  a  milieu  and  amongst  characters  familiar  to  us  from  the 
Nibelungenlied.  Der  Rosengarten  tells  of  the  conflicts  which 
took  place  round  Kriemhild's  "  rose  garden "  in  Worms— 
conflicts  from  which  Dietrich  always  emerges  victor,  even  when 
he  is  confronted  by  Siegfried  himself.  In  Laurin  und  der  kleine 
Rosengarten,  the  Heldensage  is  mingled  with  elements  of  popular 
fairy-lore;  it  deals  with  the  adventures  of  Dietrich  and  his 
henchman  Witege  with  the  wily  dwarf  Laurin,  who  watches  over 
another  rose  garden,  that  of  the  Tyrol.  Similar  in  character 
are  the  adventures  of  Dietrich  with  the  giants  Ecke  (Eckenlied) 
and  Sigenot,  with  the  dwarf  Goldemar,  and  the  deeds  of  chivalry 
he  performs  for  queen  Virginal  (Dietrichs  erste  Ausfahrt) — all 
of  these  romances  being  written  in  the  fresh  and  popular  tone 
characteristic  of  the  wandering  singers  or  Spielleute.  Other 
elements  of  the  Dietrich  saga  are  represented  by  the  poems 
Alpharts  Tod,  Dietrichs  Flucht  and  Die  Rabenschlacht  ("  Battle 
of  Ravenna  ").  Of  these,  the  first  is  much  the  finest  poem  of 
the  entire  cycle  and  worthy  of  a  place  beside  the  best  popular 
poetry  of  the  Middle  High  German  epoch.  Alphart,  a  young 
hero  in  Dietrich's  army,  goes  out  to  fight  single-handed  with 
Witege  and  Heime,  who  had  deserted  to  Ermanrich,  and  he  falls, 
not  in  fair  battle,  but  by  the  treachery  of  Witege  whose  life  he 
had  spared.  The  other  two  Dietrich  epics  belbng  to  a  later 
period,  the  end  of  the  i3th  century — the  author  being  an  Austrian, 
Heinrich  der  Vogler — and  show  only  too  plainly  the  decay  that 
had  by  this  time  set  in  in  Middle  High  German  poetry. 

The  second  cycle  of  sagas  is  represented  by  several  long 
romances,  all  of  them  unmistakably  "  popular  "  in  tone — conflicts 
with  dragons,  supernatural  adventures,  the  wonderland  of  the 
East  providing  the  chief  features  of  interest.  The  epics  of  this 
group  are  Ortnit,  Hugdietrich,  Wolfdietrich,  the  latter  with  its 


HELDER— HELENA 


219 


pathetic  episode  of  the  unswerving  loyalty  of  Wolfdietrich's 
vassal  Duke  Berchtung  and  his  ten  sons.  Although  many  of  the 
incidents  and  motives  of  this  cycle  are  drawn  from  the  best 
traditions  of  the  Heldensage,  its  literary  value  is  not  very  high. 

This  collection  of  popular  romances  was  one  of  the  first  German 
books  to  be  printed.  The  date  of  the  first  edition  is  unknown,  but 
the  second  edition  appeared  in  the  year  1491  and  was  followed  by 
later  reprints  in  1509,  1545,  1560  and  1590.  The  last  of  these  forms 
the  basis  of  the  text  edited  by  A.  von  Keller  for  the  Stuttgart 
Literarische  Verein  in  1867.  In  1472  the  Heldenbuch  was  adapted 
to  the  popular  tastes  of  the  time  by  being  remodelled  in  rough 
Knittelvers  or  doggerel ;  the  author,  or  at  least  copyist,  of  the  MS. 
was  a  certain  Kaspar  von  der  Roen,  of  Munnerstadt  in  Franconia. 
This  version  was  printed  by  F.  von  der  Hagen  and  S.  Primisser  in 
their  Heldenbuch  (1820-1825).  Das  Heldenbuch,  which  F.  von  der 
Hagen  published  in  2  vols.  in  1855,  was  the  first  attempt  to  reproduce 
the  original  text  by  collating  the  MSS.  A  critical  edition,  based  not 
merely  on  the  oldest  printed  text— the  only  one  which  has  any  value 
for  this  purpose,  as  the  others  are  all  copies  of  it — but  also  on  the 
MSS.,  was  published  in  5  vols.  by  O.  Janicke,  E.  Martin,  A.  Amelung 
and  J.  Zupitza  at  Berlin  (1866-1873).  A  selection,  edited  by  E. 
Henrici,  will  be  found  in  Kurschner's  Deutsche  Nationalliteratur, 
vol.  7  (1887).  Recent  editions  have  appeared  of  Der  Rosengarten 
and  Laurin,  by  G.  Holz  (1893  and  1897).  All  the  poems  have  been 
translated  into  modern  German  by  K.  Simrock  and  others.  See 
F.  E.  Sandbach,  The  Heroic  Saga-Cycle  of  Dietrich  of  Bern  (1906). 
The  literature  of  the  Heldensage  is  very  extensive.  See  especially 
W.  Grimm,  Die  deutsche  Heldensage  (3rd  ed.,  1889);  L.  Uhland, 
"  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Poesie  im  Mittelalter,"  Schriften,  vol.  i. 
(1866);  O.  L.  Jiriczek,  Deutsche  Heldensage,-  vol.  i.  (1898);  and 
especially  B.  Symons,  "  Germanische  Heldensage,"  in  Paul's  Grund- 
riss  der  germanischen  Philologie  (2nd  ed.,  1898). 

HELDER,  a  seaport  town  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
province  of  North  Holland,  in  the  kingdom  of  Holland,  51  m. 
by  rail  N.N.W.  of  Amsterdam.  Pop.  (1900)  25,842.  It  is 
situated  on  the  Marsdiep,  the  channel  separating  the  island  of 
Texel  from  the  mainland,  and  the  main  entrance  to  the  Zuider 
Zee,  and  besides  being  the  terminus  of  the  North  Holland  canal 
from  Amsterdam,  it  is  an  important  naval  and  military  station. 
On  the  east  side  of  the  town,  called  the  Nieuwe  Diep,  is  situated 
the  fine  harbour,  which  formerly  served,  as  Ymuiden  now  does, 
as  the  outer  port  of  Amsterdam.  In  this  neighbourhood  are  the 
naval  wharves  and  magazines,  wet  and  dry  docks,  and  the  naval 
cadet  school  of  Holland,  the  name  Willemsoord  being  given 
to  the  whole  naval  establishment.  From  Nieuwe  Diep  to  Fort 
Erfprins  on  the  west  side  of  the  town,  a  distance  of  about  5  m., 
stretches  the  great  sea-dike  which  here  takes  the  place  of  the 
dunes.  This  dike  descends  at  an  angle  of  40°  for  a  distance  of 
200  ft.  into  the  sea,  and  is  composed  of  Norwegian  granite  and 
Belgian  limestone,  strengthened  at  intervals  by  projecting 
jetties  of  piles  and  fascines.  A  circle  of  forts  and  batteries 
defends  the  town  and  coast,  and  there  is  a  permanent  garrison 
of  7000  to  9000  men,  while  30,000  men  can  be  accommodated 
within  the  lines,  and  the  province  flooded  from  this  point. 
Besides  several  churches  and  a  synagogue,  there  are  a  town 
hall  (1836),  a  hospital,  an  orphan  asylum,  the  "  palace  "  of 
the  board  of  marine,  a  meteorological  observatory,  a  zoological 
station  and  a  lighthouse.  The  industries  of  the  town  are 
sustained  by  the  garrison  and  marine  establishments. , 

HELEN,  or  HELENA  (Gr.  'EXeirj),  in  Greek  mythology,  daughter 
of  Zeus  by  Leda  (wife  of  Tyndareus,  king  of  Sparta),, sister  of 
Castor,  Pollux  and  Clytaemnestra,  and  wife  of  Menelaus. 
Other  accounts  make  her  the  daughter  of  Zeus  and  Nemesis, 
or  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys.  She  was  the  most  beautiful  woman  in 
Greece,  and  indirectly  the  cause  of  the  Trojan  war.  When 
a  child  she  was  carried  off  from  Sparta  by  Theseus  to  Attica, 
but  was  recovered  and  taken  back  by  her  brothers.  When  she 
grew  up,  the  most  famous  of  the  princes  of  Greece  sought  her 
hand  in  marriage,  and  her  father's  choice  fell  upon  Menelaus. 
During  her  husband's  absence  she  was  induced  by  Paris,  son  of 
Priam,  with  the  connivance  of  Aphrodite,  to  flee  with  him  to 
Troy.  After  the  death  of  Paris  she  married  his  brother  Delphobus, 
whom  she  is  said  to  have  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  Menelaus 
at  the  capture  of  the  city  (Aeneid,  vi.  517  ff.).  Menelaus  there- 
upon took  her  back,  and  they  returned  together  to  Sparta,  where 
they  lived  happily  till  their  death,  and  were  buried  at  Therapnae 
in  Laconia.  According  to  another  story,  Helen  survived  her 


husband,  and  was  driven  out  by  her  stepsons.  She  fled  to  Rhodes, 
where  she  was  hanged  on  a  tree  by  her  former  friend  Polyxo, 
to  avenge  the  loss  of  her  husband  Tlepolemus  in  the  Trojan 
War  (Pausanias  iii.  19).  After  death,  Helen  was  said  to  have 
married  Achilles  in  his  home  in  the  island  of  Leuke.  In  another 
version,  Paris,  on  his  voyage  to  Troy  with  Helen,  was  driven 
ashore  on  the  coast  of  Egypt,  where  King  Proteus,  upon  learning 
the  facts  of  the  case,  detained  the  real  Helen  in  Egypt,  while  a 
phantom  Helen  was  carried  off  to  Troy.  Menelaus  on  his  way 
home  was  also  driven  by  stress  of  winds  to  Egypt,  where  he 
found  his  wife  and  took  her  home  (Herodotus  ii.  112-120; 
Euripides,  Helena).  Helen  was  worshipped  as  the  goddess  of 
beauty  at  Therapnae  in  Laconia,  where  a  festival  was  held  in 
her  honour.  At  Rhodes  she  was  worshipped  under  the  name 
of  Dendritis  (the  tree  goddess),  where  the  inhabitants  built  a 
temple  in  her  honour  to  expiate  the  crime  of  Polyxo.  The 
Rhodian  story  probably  contains  a  reference  to  the  worship 
connected  with  her  name  (cf.  Theocritus  xviii.  48  akfiov  n'., 
'E\tvas  <t>vrov  ei/w).  She  was  the  subject  of  a  tragedy  by 
Euripides  and  an  epic  by  Colluthus.  Originally,  Helen  was 
perhaps  a  goddess  of  light,  a  moon-goddess,  who  was  gradually 
transformed  into  the  beautiful  heroine  round  whom  the  action 
of  the  Iliad  revolves.  Like  her  brothers,  the  Dioscuri,  she 
was  a  patron  deity  of  sailors. 

See  E.  Oswald,  The  Legend  of  Fair  Helen  (1905) ;  J.  A.  Symonds, 
Studies  of  the  Creek  Poets,  i.  (1893);  F.  Decker,  Die  griechische 
Helena  in  Mythos  und  Epos  (1894);  Andrew  Lang,  Helen  of  Troy 
(1883);  P.  Paris  in  Daremberg  and  Saglio's  Dictionnaire  des  an- 
tiquites;  the  exhaustive  article  by  R.  Engelmann  in  Roscher's 
Lexikon  der  Mythologie;  and  O.  Gruppe,  Griechische  Mythplogie, 
i.  163,  according  to  whom  Helen  originally  represented,  in  the 
Helenephoria  (a  mystic  festival  of  Artemis,  Iphigeneia  or  Tauro- 
polos),  the  sacred  basket  (k\kvri)  in  which  the  holy  objects  were 
carried ;  and  hence,  as  the  personification  of  the  initiation  ceremony, 
she  was  connected  with  or  identified  with  the  moon,  the  first  appear- 
ance of  which  probably  marked  the  beginning  of  the  festivity.  , 

HELENA,  ST  (c.  247-^.  327)  the  wife  of  the  emperor  Constantius 
I.  Chlorus,  and  mother  of  Constantine  the  Great.  She  was  a 
woman  of  humble  origin,  born  probably  at  Drepanum,  a  town  on 
the  Gulf  of  Nicomedia,  which  Constantine  named  Helenopolis 
in  her  honour.  Very  little  is  known  of  her  history.  It  is  certain 
that,  at  an  advanced  age,  she  undertook  a  pilgrimage  to  Palestine, 
visited  the  holy  places,  and  founded  several  churches.  She 
was  still  living  at  the  time  of  the  murder  of  Crispus  (326).  Con- 
stantine had  coins  struck  with  the  effigy  of  his  mother.  The 
name  of  Helena  is  intimately  connected  with  the  commonly 
received  story  of  the  discovery  of  the  Cross.  But  the  accounts 
which  connect  her  with  the  discovery  are  much  later  than  the 
date  of  the  event.  The  Pilgrim  of  Bordeaux  (333),  Eusebius 
and  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  were  unaware  of  this  important  episode 
in  the  life  of  the  empress.  It  was  only  at  the  end  of  the  4th 
century  and  in  the  West  that  the  legend  appeared.  The  principal 
centre  of  the  cult  of  St  Helena  in  the  West  seems  to  be  the  abbey 
of  Hautvilliers,  near  Reims,  where  since  the  pth  century  they 
have  claimed  to  be  in  possession  of  her  body.  In  England 
legends  arose  representing  her  as  the  daughter  of  a  prince  of 
Britain.  Following  these  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  makes  her 
the  daughter  of  Coel,  the  king  who  is  supposed  to  have  given 
his  name  to  the  town  of  Colchester.  These  legends  have  doubt- 
less not  been  without  influence  on  the  cult  of  the  saint  in  England, 
where  a  great  number  of  churches  are  dedicated  either  to  St 
Helena  alone,  or  to  St  Cross  and  St  Helena.  Her  festival  is 
celebrated  in  the  Latin  Church  on  the  i8th  of  August.  The 
Greeks  make  no  distinction  between  her  festival  and  that  of 
Constantine,  the  2ist  of  May. 

See  Acta  sanctorum,  August!  iii.  548-580;  Tixeront,  Les  Origines 
de  I'eglise  d'Edesse  (Paris,  1888);  F.  Arnold-Forster,  Studies  in 
Church  Dedications  or  England's  Patron  Saints,  i.  181-189,  "'•  '6> 
365-366  (1899).  (H.  DE.) 

HELENA,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Phillips  county, 
Arkansas,  U.S.A.,  situated  on  and  at  the  foot  of  Crowly's 
Ridge,  about  150  ft.  above  sea-level,  in  the  alluvial  bottoms  of 
the  Mississippi  river,  about  65  m.  by  rail  S.W.  of  Memphis, 
Tennessee.  Pop.  (1890)  5189,  (1900)  5550,  of  whom  3400 


220 


HELENA— HELGESEN 


werenegroes;  (1910)  8772.  It  is  served  by  the  Yazoo&  Mississippi 
Valley  (Illinois  Central),  the  St  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  &  Southern 
(Missouri  Pacific),  the  Arkansas  Midland,  and  the  Missouri  & 
North  Arkansas  railways.  Built  in  part  upon  "  made  land," 
well  protected  by  levees,  and  lying  within  the  richest  cotton- 
producing  region  of  the  south,  the  rich  timber  country  oi  the 
St  Francis  river,  and  the  Mississippi  "  bottom  lands,"  Helena 
concentrates  its  economic  interests  in  cotton-compressing  and 
shipping,  the  manufacture  of  cotton-seed  products,  lumbering 
and  wood- working.  The  city  was  founded  about  1821,  but  so 
late  as  1860  the  population  was  only  800.  During  the  Civil  War 
the  place  was  of  considerable  strategic  importance.  It  was 
occupied  in  July  1862  by  the  Union  forces,  who  strongly  fortified 
it  to  guard  their  communications  with  the  lower  Mississippi; 
on  the  4th  of  July  1863,  when  occupied  by  General  Benjamin 
M.  Prentiss  (1819-1901)  with  4500  men,  it  was  attacked  by  a 
force  of  9000  Confederates  under  General  TheophilusH.  Holmes 
(1804-1880),  who  hoped  to  raise  the  siege  of  Vicksburg  or  close 
the  river  to  the  Union  forces.  The  attack  was  repulsed,  with 
a  loss  to  the  Confederates  of  one-fifth  their  numbers,  the  Union 
loss  being  slight. 

HELENA,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Lewis  and  Clark 
county,  Montana,  U.S.A.,  and  the  capital  of  the  state,  at  the 
E.  base  of  the  main  range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  80  m.  N.E. 
of  Butte,  at  an  altitude  of  about  4000  ft.  Pop.  (1880)  3624; 
(1890)  13,834;  (1900)  10,770,  of  whom  2793  were  foreign-born; 
(1910  census)  12,515.  It  is  served  by  the  Great  Northern 
and  the  Northern  Pacific  railways.  Helena  is  delightfully 
situated  with  Mt  Helena  as  a  background  in  the  hollow  of  the 
Prickly  Pear  valley,  a  rich  agricultural  region  surrounded  by 
rolling  hills  and  lofty  mountains,  and  contains  many  fine  buildings, 
including  the  state  capitol,  county  court  house,  the  Montana 
club  house,  high  school,  the  cathedral  of  St  Helena,  a  federal 
building,  and  the  United  States  assay  office.  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  Montana  Wesleyan  University  (Methodist  Episcopal), 
founded  in  1890;  St  Aloysius  College  and  St  Vincent's  Academy 
(Roman  Catholic);  and  has  a  public  library  with  about  35,000 
volumes,  the  Montana  state  library  with  about  40,000  volumes, 
and  the  state  law  library  with  about  24,000  volumes.  The 
city  is  the  commercial  and  financial  centre  of  the  state  (Butte 
being  the  mining  centre),  and  is  one  of  the  richest  cities  in  the 
United  States  in  proportion  to  its  population.  It  has  large 
railway  car-shops,  extensive  smelters  and  quartz  crushers  (at 
East  Helena),  and  various  manufacturing  establishments; 
the  value  of  the  factory  product  in  1905  was  $1,309,746,  an 
increase  of  68-7  %  over  that  of  1900.  The  surrounding 
country  abounds  in  gold-  and  silver-bearing  quartz  deposits, 
and  it  is  estimated  that  from  the  famous  Last  Chance  Gulch 
alone,  which  runs  across  the  city,  more  than  $40,000,000  in 
gold  has  been  taken.  The  street  railway  and  the  lighting  system 
of  the  city  are  run  by  power  generated  at  a  plant  and  40  ft. 
dam  at  Canyon  Ferry,  on  the  Missouri  river,  18  m.  E.  of  Helena. 
There  is  another  great  power  plant  at  Hauser  Plant,  20  m. 
N.  of  Helena.  Three  miles  W.  of  the  city  is  the  Broadwater 
Natatorium  with  swimming  pool,  300  ft.  long  and  100  ft.  wide, 
the  water  for  which  is  furnished  by  hot  springs  with  a  temperature 
at  the  source  of  160°.  Fort  Harrison,  a  United  States  army  post, 
is  situated  3  m.  W.  of  the  city.  Helena  was  established  as  a 
placer  mining  camp  in  1864  upon  the  discovery  of  gold  in  Last 
Chance  Gulch.  The  town  was  laid  out  in  the  same  year,  and 
after  the  organization  of  Montana  Territory  it  was  designated 
as  the  capital.  Helena  was  burned  down  in  1869  and  in  1874. 
It  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1881. 

HELENSBURGH,  a  municipal  and  police  burgh  and  watering- 
place  of  Dumbartonshire,  Scotland,  on  the  N.  shore  of  the  Firth 
of  Clyde,  opposite  Greenock,  24  m.  N.W.  of  Glasgow  by  the 
North  British  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  8554.  There  is  a  station 
at  Upper  Helensburgh  on  the  West  Highland  railway,  and  from 
the  railway  pier  at  Craigendoran  there  is  steamer  communication 
with  Garelochhead,  Dunoon  and  other  pleasure  resorts  on  the 
western  coast.  In  1776  the  site  began  to  be  built  upon,  and  in 
1802  the  town,  named  after  Lady  Helen,  wife  of  Sir  James 


Colquhoun  of  Luss,  the  ground  landlord,  was  erected  into  a 
burgh  of  barony,  under  a  provost  and  council.  The  public 
buildings  include  the  burgh  hall,  municipal  buildings,  Hermitage 
schools  and  two  hospitals.  On  the  esplanade  stands  an  obelisk 
to  Henry  Bell,  the  pioneer  of  steam  navigation,  who  died  at 
Helensburgh  in  1830. 

HELENUS,  in  Greek  legend,  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  and 
twin-brother  of  Cassandra.  He  is  said  to  have  been  originally 
called  Scamandrius,  and  to  have  receive^}  the  name  of  Helenus 
from  a  Thracian  soothsayer  who  instructed  him  in  the  prophetic 
art.  In  the  Iliad  he  is  described  as  the  prince  of  augurs  and  a 
brave  warrior;  in  the  Odyssey  he  is  not  mentioned  at  all. 
Various  details  concerning  him  are  added  by  later  writers. 
It  is  related  that  he  and  his  sister  fell  asleep  in  the  temple  of 
Apollo  Thymbraeus  and  that  snakes  came  and  cleansed  their 
ears,  whereby  they  obtained  the  gift  of  prophecy  and  were 
able  to  understand  the  language  of  birds.  After  the  death  of 
Paris,  Helenus  and  his  brother  Dei'phobus  became  rivals  for 
the  hand  of  Helen.  Dei'phobus  was  preferred,  and  Helenus 
withdrew  in  indignation  to  Mount  Ida,  where  he  was  captured 
by  the  Greeks,  whom  he  advised  to  build  the  wooden  horse  and 
carry  off  the  Palladium.  According  to  other  accounts,  having 
been  made  prisoner  by  a  stratagem  of  Odysseus,  he  declared 
that  Philoctetes  must  be  fetched  from  Lemnos  before  Troy  could 
be  taken;  or  he  surrendered  to  Diomedes  and  Odysseus  in  the 
temple  of  Apollo,  whither  he  had  fled  in  disgust  at  the  sacrilegious 
murder  of  Achilles  by  Paris  in  the  sanctuary.  After  the  capture 
of  Troy,  he  and  his  sister-in-law  Andromache  accompanied 
Neoptolemus  (Pyrrhus)  as  captives  to  Epirus,  where  Helenus 
persuaded  him  to  settle.  After  the  death  of  Neoptolemus, 
Helenus  married  Andromache  and  became  ruler  of  the  country. 
He  was  the  reputed  founder  of  Buthrotum  and  Chaonia,  named 
after  a  brother  or  companion  whom  he  had  accidentally  slain 
while  hunting.  He  was  said  to  have  been  buried  at  Argos, 
where  his  tomb  was  shown.  When  Aeneas,  in  the  course  of  his 
wanderings,  reached  Epirus,  he  was  hospitably  received  by 
Helenus,  who  predicted  his  future  destiny. 

Homer,  Iliad,  vi.  76,  vii.  44,  xii.  94,  xiii.  576;  Sophocles,  Philoc- 
tetes, 604,  who  probably  follows  the  Little  Iliad  of  Lesches;  Pausanias 
i.  ii,  ii.  23;  Conon,  Narrationes,  34;  Dictys  Cretensis  iv.  18; 
Virgil,  Aeneid,  ill.  294-490;  Servius  on  Aeneid,  ii.  166,  iii.  334. 

HELGAUD,  or  HELGALDUS  (d.  c.  1048),  French  chronicler, 
was  a  monk  of  the  Benedictine  abbey  of  Fleury.  Little  else 
is  known  about  him  save  that  he  was  chaplain  to  the  French 
king,  Robert  II.  the  Pious,  whose  life  he  wrote.  This  Epitoma 
•uitae  Roberti  regis,  which  is  probably  part  of  a  history  of  the 
abbey  of  Fleury,  deals  rather  with  the  private  than  with  the 
public  life  of  the  king,  and  its  value  is  not  great  either  from  the 
literary  or  from  the  historical  point  of  view.  The  only  existing 
manuscript  is  in  the  Vatican,  and  the  Epitoma  has  been  printed 
by  J.  P.  Migne  in  the  Patrologia  Lalina,  tome  cxli.  (Paris, 
1844);  and  by  M.  Bouquet  in  the  Recueil  des  historiens  des 
Gaules,  tome  x.  (Paris,  1760). 

See  Histoire  lilteraire  de  la  France,  tome  vii.  (Paris,  1865-1869) ; 
and  A.  Molinier,  Les  Sources  de  I'histoire  de  France,  tome  ii.  (Paris, 
1902) 

HELGESEN,  POVL,1  Danish  humanist,  was  born  at  Varberg 
in  Halland  about  1480,  of  a  Danish  father  and  a  Swedish  mother. 
Helgesen  was  educated  first  at  the  Carmelite  monastery  of 
his  native  place  and  afterwards  at  another  monastery  at  Elsinore, 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  humanistic  studies  and  adopted 
Erasmus  as  his  model.  None  had  a  keener  eye  for  the  abuses 
of  the  Church;  long  before  the  appearance  of  Luther,  he 
denounced  the  ignorance  and  immorality  of  the  clergy,  and,  as 
lector  at  the  university  of  Copenhagen,  gathered  round  him  a 
band  of  young  enthusiasts,  the  future  leaders  of  the  Danish 
Reformation.  But  Helgesen  desired  an  orderly,  methodical, 
rational  reformation,  and  denounced  Luther,  whose  ablest 
opponent  in  Denmark  he  subsequently  became,  as  a  hot-headed 
revolutionist.  Christian  II.  was  also  an  object  of  Helgesen's 
detestation,  and  so  boldly  did  he  oppose  that  monarch's  measures 
1  He  wrote  his  name  Heliae  or  Eliae. 


HELIACAL— HELIAND 


221 


that,  to  save  his  life,  he  had  to  flet  to  Jutland.  Under  Frederick  I. 
(1523-1533)  he  returned  to  Copenhagen  and  resumed  his  chair 
at  the  university,  becoming  soon  afterwards  provincial  of  the 
Carmelite  Order  for  Scandinavia.  But  like  all  moderate  men 
in  a  time  of  crisis,  Helgesen  could  gain  the  confidence  of  neither 
party,  and  was  frequently  attacked  as  bitterly  by  the  Catholics 
as  by  the  Protestants.  From  1 530  to  1 533  he  and  the  Protestant 
champion  Hans  Tausen  exhausted  the  whole  vocabulary  of 
vituperation  in  their  fruitless  polemics.  In  October  1534, 
however,  Helgesen  issued  an  eirenicon  in  which  he  attempted  to 
reconcile  the  two  contending  confessions.  After  that  every 
trace  of  him  is  lost.  For  a  long  time  he  was  unjustly  regarded 
as  a  turn-coat,  but  he  was  too  superior  to  the  prejudices  of  his 
age  to  be  understood  by  his  contemporaries.  His  ideal  was  a 
moral  internal  reformation  of  the  Church  on  a  rational  basis, 
conducted  not  by  ill-informed  fanatics,  but  by  an  enlightened  and 
well-educated  clergy;  and  from  this  standpoint  he  never 
diverged.  Helgesen  was  indisputably  the  greatest  master  of 
style  of  his  age  in  Denmark,  and  as  a  historian  he  also  occupies 
a  prominent  position.  He  always  endeavours  to  probe  down  to 
the  very  soul  of  things,  though  his  passionate  nature  made  it 
very  difficult  for  him  to  be  impartial.  His  chief  works  are 
Danmark's  Kongers  Historic  and  Skibby  Kroniken. 

See  Ludwig  Schmitt,  Der  Karmeliter  Paulus  Helia  (Freiburg, 
1893);  Danmarks  Riges  Historic  (Copenhagen,  1897-1905),  vol.  iii. 

HELIACAL,  relating  to  the  sun  (^Xtos),  a  term  applied  in 
the  ancient  astronomy  to  the  first  rising  of  a  star  which  could 
be  seen  after  it  emerged  from  the  rays  of  the  sun,  or  the  last 
setting  that  could  be  seen  before  it  was  lost  from  sight  by 
proximity  to  the  sun. 

HELIAND.  The  pth-century  poem  on  the  Gospel  history, 
to  which  its  first  editor,  J.  A.  Schmeller,  gave  the  appropriate 
name  of  Heliand  (the  word  used  in  the  text  for  "  Saviour," 
answering  to  the  O.  Eng.  hadend  and  the  Ger.  Heiland),  is,  with 
the  fragments  of  a  version  of  the  story  of  Genesis  believed  to  be 
by  the  same  author,  all  that  remains  of  the  poetical  literature 
of  the  old  Saxons,  i.e.  the  Saxons  who  continued  in  their  original 
home.  It  contained  when  entire  about  6000  lines,  and  portions 
of  it  are  preserved  in  four  MSS.  The  Cotton  MS.  in  the  British 
Museum,  written  probably  late  in  the  loth  century,  is  nearly 
complete,  ending  in  the  middle  of  the  story  of  the  journey  to 
Emmaus.  The  Munich  MS.,  formerly  at  Bamberg,  begins  at 
line  85,  and  has  many  lacunae,  but  continues  the  history  down 
to  the  last  verse  of  St  Luke's  Gospel,  ending,  however,  in  the 
middle  of  a  sentence.  A  MS.  discovered  at  Prague  in  1881 
contains  lines  958-1106,  and  another,  in  the  Vatican  library, 
discovered  by  K.  Zangemeister  in  1894,  contains  lines  1279-1358. 
The  poem  is  based,  not  directly  on  the  New  Testament,  but  on 
the  oseudo-Tatian's  harmony  of  the  Gospels,  and  it  shows 
acquaintance  with  the  commentaries  of  Alcuin,  Baada  and 
Hrabanus  Maurus. 

The  questions  relating  to  the  Heliand  cannot  be  adequately 
discussed  without  considering  also  the  poem  on  the  history  of 
Genesis,  which,  on  the  grounds  of  similarity  in  style  and  vocabu- 
lary, and  for  other  reasons  afterwards  to  be  mentioned,  may 
with  some  confidence  be  referred  to  the  same  author.  A  part 
of  this  poem,  as  is  mentioned  in  the  article  GEDMON,  is  extant 
only  in  an  Old  English  translation.  The  portions  that  have 
been  preserved  in  the  original  language  are  contained  in  the 
same  Vatican  MS.  that  includes  the  fragment  of  the  Heliand 
referred  to  above.  In  the  one  language  or  the  other,  there 
are  in  existence  the  following  three  fragments:  (i)  The  passage 
which  appears  as  lines  235-851  in  the  so-called  "  Caedmon's 
Genesis,"  on  the  revolt  of  the  angels  and  the  temptation  and  fall 
of  Adam  and  Eve.  Of  this  the  part  corresponding  to  lines  790- 
820  exists  also  in  the  original  Old  Saxon.  (2)  The  story  of  Cain 
and  Abel,  in  124  lines.  (3)  The  account  of  the  destruction  of 
Sodom,  in  187  lines.  The  main  source  of  the  Genesis  is  the  Bible, 
but  Professor  E.  Sievers  has  shown  that  considerable  use  was 
made  of  the  two  Latin  poems  by  Alcimus  Avitus,  De  initio  mundi 
and  De  peccato  originali. 

The  two  poems  give  evidence  of  genius  and  trained  skill, 


though  the  poet  was  no  doubt  hampered  by  the  necessity  of  not 
deviating  too  widely  from  the  sacred  originals.  Within  the  limits 
imposed  by  the  nature  of  his  task,  his  treatment  of  his  sources 
is  remarkably  free,  the  details  unsuited  for  poetic  handling 
being  passed  over,  or,  in  some  instances,  boldly  altered.  In 
many  passages  his  work  gives  the  impression  of  being  not  so 
much  an  imitation  of  the  ancient  Germanic  epic,  as  a  genuine 
example  of  it,  though  concerned  with  the  deeds  of  other  heroes 
than  those  of  Germanic  tradition.  In  the  Heliand  the  Saviour 
and  His  Apostles  are  conceived  as  a  king  and  his  faithful  warriors, 
and  the  use  of  the  traditional  epic  phrases  appears  to  be  not, 
as  with  Cynewulf  or  the  author  of  Andreas,  a  mere  following 
of  accepted  models,  but  the  spontaneous  mode  of  expression  of 
one  accustomed  to  sing  of  heroic  themes.  The  Genesis  fragments 
have  less  of  the  heroic  tone,  except  in  the  splendid  passage 
describing  the  rebellion  of  Satan  and  his  host.  It  is  noteworthy 
that  the  poet,  like  Milton,  sees  in  Satan  no  mere  personification 
of  evil,  but  the  fallen  archangel,  whose  awful  guilt  could  not 
obliterate  all  traces  of  his  native  majesty.  Somewhat  curiously, 
but  very  naturally,  Enoch  the  son  of  Cain  is  confused  with  the 
Enoch  who  was  translated  to  heaven — an  error  which  the 
author  of  the  Old  English  Genesis  avoids,  though  (according 
to  the  existing  text)  he  confounds  the  names  of  Enoch  and  Enos. 

Such  external  evidence  as  exists  bearing  on  the  origin  of  the 
Heliand  and  the  companion  poem  is  contained  in  a  Latin  docu- 
ment printed  by  Flacius  Illyricus  in  1562.  This  is  in  two  parts; 
the  one  in  prose,  entitled  (perhaps  only  by  Flacius  himself) 
"  Praefatio  ad  librum  anliquum  in  lingua  Saxonica  conscriptum  "; 
the  other  in  verse,  headed  "  Versus  de  poeta  et  Interpreta  hujus 
codicis."  The  Praefalio  begins  by  stating  that  the  emperor 
Ludwig  the  Pious,  desirous  that  his  subjects  should  possess  the 
word  of  God  in  their  own  tongue,  commanded  a  certain  Saxon, 
who  was  esteemed  among  his  countrymen  as  an  eminent  poet, 
to  translate  poetically  into  the  German  language  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments.  The  poet  willingly  obeyed,  all  the  more 
because  he  had  previously  received  a  divine  command  to  under- 
take the  task.  He  rendered  into  verse  all  the  most  important 
parts  of  the  Bible  with  admirable  skill,  dividing  his  work  into 
vitteas,  a  term  which,  the  writer  says,  may  be  rendered  by 
"  lectiones  "  or  "  sententias."  The  Praefatio  goes  on  to  say  that 
it  was  reported  that  the  poet,  till  then  knowing  nothing  oi  the 
art  of  poetry,  had  been  admonished  in  a  dream  to  turn  into 
verse  the  precepts  of  the  divine  law,  which  he  did  with  so  much 
skill  that  his  work  surpasses  in  beauty  all  other  German  poetry 
(ut  cuncta  Theudisca  poemata  suo  vincat  decor e}.  The  Versus 
practically  reproduce  in  outline  Baeda's  account  of  Caedmon's 
dream,  without  mentioning  the  dream,  but  describing  the  poet 
as  a  herdsman,  and  adding  that  his  poems,  beginning  with  the 
creation,  relate  the  history  of  the  five  ages  of  the  world  down 
to  the  coming  of  Christ. 

The  suspicion  of  some  earlier  scholars  that  the  Praefatio  and 
the  Versus  might  be  a  modern  forgery  is  refuted  by  the  occur- 
rence of  the  word  vitteas,  which  is  the  Old  Saxon  fittea,  cor- 
responding to  the  Old  English  fitt,  which  means  a  "  canto  "  of  a 
poem.  It  is  impossible  that  a  scholar  of  the  i6th  century  could 
have  been  acquainted  with  this  word,  and  internal  evidence 
shows  clearly  that  both  the  prose  and  the  verse  are  of  early 
origin.  The  Versus,  considered  in  themselves,  might  very  well 
be  supposed  to  relate  to  Caedmon;  but  the  mention  of  the  five 
ages  of  the  world  in  the  concluding  lines  is  obviously  due  to 
recollection  of  the  opening  of  the  Heliand  (lines  46-47).  It  is 
therefore  certain  that  the  Versus,  as  well  as  the  Praefatio,  -attri- 
bute to  the  author  of  the  Heliand  a  poetic  rendering  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Their  testimony,  if  accepted,  confirms  the  ascription 
to  him  of  the  Genesis  fragments,  which  is  further  supported  by 
the  fact  that  they  occur  in  the  same  MS.  with  a  portion  of  the 
Heliand.  As  the  Praefatio  speaks  of  the  emperor  Ludwig  in  the 
present  tense,  the  former  part  of  it  at  least  was  probably  written 
in  his  reign,  i.e.  not  later  than  A.D.  840.  The  general  opinion  of 
scholars  is  that  the  latter  part,  which  represents  the  poet  as 
having  received  his  vocation  in  a  dream,  is  by  a  later  hand,  and 
that  the  sentences  in  the  earlier  part  which  refer  to  the  dream  are 


222 


HELICON— HELIGOLAND 


interpolations  by  this  second  author.  The  date  of  these  additions 
and  of  the  Versus,  is  of  no  importance,  as  their  statements  ar 
incredible.     That  the  author  of  the  Heliand  was,  so  to  speak 
another  Caedmon — an  unlearned  man  who  turned  into  poetrj 
what  was  read  to  him  from  the  sacred  writings — is  impossible 
because    in    many   passages    the    text    of   the   sources   is   so 
closely  followed  that  it  is  clear  that  the  poet  wrote  with  the 
Latin  books  before  him.     On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  reason 
for  rejecting  the  almost  contemporary  testimony  of  the  first  part 
of  the  Praefatio  that  the  author  of  the  Heliand  had  won  renown 
as  a  poet  before  he  undertook  his  great  task  at   the  emperor1! 
command.     It  is  certainly  not  impossible  that  a  Christian  Saxon 
sufficiently  educated  to  read  Latin  easily,  may  have  chosen  to 
follow  the  calling  of  a  scop  or  minstrel »  instead  of  entering  the 
priesthood  or  the  cloister;  and  if  such  a  person  existed,  it  woulc 
be  natural  that  he  should  be  selected  by  the  emperor  to  execute 
his  design.     As  has  been  said  above,  the  tone  of  many  portions  o 
the  Heliand  is  that  of  a  man  who  was  no  mere  imitator  of  the 
ancient  epic,  but  who  had  himself  been  accustomed  to  sing  ol 
heroic  themes. 

The  commentary  on  the  gospel  of  Matthew  by  Hrabanus 
Maurus  was  finished  about  821,  which  is  therefore  the  superior 
limit  of  date  for  the  composition  of  the  Heliand.  It  is  usually 
maintained  that  this  work  was  written  before  the  Old  Testament 
poems.  The  arguments  for  this  view  are  that  the  Heliand  con- 
tains no  allusion  to  any  foregoing  poetical  treatment  of  the  ante- 
cedent history,  and  that  the  Genesis  fragments  exhibit  a  higher 
degree  of  poetic  skill.  This  reasoning  does  not  appear  con- 
clusive, and  if  it  be  set  aside,  the  limit  of  date  for  the  beginning  of 
the  work  is  carried  back  to  A.D.  814,  the  year  of  the  accession  of 
Ludwig. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.— The  first  complete  edition  of  the  Heliand  was 
published  by  J.  A.  Schmeller  in  1830;  the  second  volume,  containing 
the  glossary  and  grammar,  appeared  in  1840.  The  standard  edition 
is  that  of  E.  Sievers  (1877),  m  which  the  texts  of  the  Cotton  and 
Munich  MSS.  are  printed  side  by  side.  It  is  not  provided  with  a 
glossary,  but  contains  an  elaborate  and  most  valuable  analysis  of 
the  diction,  synonymy  and  syntactical  features  of  the  poem.  Other 
useful  editions  are  those  of  M.  Heyne  (3rd  ed.,  1903),  O.  Behaghel 
(1882)  and  P.  Piper  (1897,  containing  also  the  Genesis  fragments). 
The  fragments  of  the  Heliand  and  the  Genesis  contained  in  the 
Vatican  MS.  were  edited  in  1894  by  K.  Zangemeister  and  W.  Braune 
under  the  title  Bruchstucke  der  altsdchsischen  Bibeldichtung.  Among 
the  works  treating  of  the  authorship,  sources  and  place  of  origin  of 
the  poems,  the  most  important  are  the  following:  E.  Windisch 
Der  Heliand  und  seine  Quellen  (1868) ;  E.  Sievers,  Der  Heliand  und 
die  angelsdchsische  Genesis  (1875);  R-  Kogel,  Deutsche  Literatur- 
geschichte,  Bd.  i.  (1894)  and  Die  altsachsische  Genesis  (1895)-  R. 
Kogel  and  W.  Bruckner,  "  Althoch-  und  altniederdeutsche  Li- 
teratur,  in  Paul's  Grundriss  der  germanischen  Philologie,  Bd.  ii. 
(2nd  ed.,  1901),  which  contains  references  to  many  other  works; 
Hermann  Collitz,  Zum  Dialekte  des  Heliand  (1901).  (H.  BR.) 

HELICON,  a  mountain  range,  of  Boeotia  in  ancient  Greece, 
celebrated  in  classical  literature  as  the  favourite  haunt  of  the 
Muses,  is  situated  between  Lake  Copals  and  the  Gulf  of  Corinth. 
On  the  fertile  eastern  slopes  stood  a  temple  and  grove  sacred  to 
the  Muses,  and  adorned  with  beautiful  statues,  which,  taken  by 
Constantine  the  Great  to  beautify  his  new  city,  were  consumed 
there  by  a  fire  in  A.D.  404.  Hard  by  were  the  famous  fountains, 
Aganippe  and  Hippocrene,  the  latter  fabled  to  have  gushed  from 
the  earth  at  the  tread  of  the  winged  horse  Pegasus,  whose 
favourite  browsing  place  was  there.  At  the  neighbouring  Ascra 
dwelt  the  poet  Hesiod,  a  fact  which  probably  enhanced  the 
poetic  fame  of  the  region.  Pausanias,  who  describes  Helicon  in 
his  ninth  book,  asserts  that  it  was  the  most  fertile  mountain  in 
Greece,  and  that  neither  poisonous  plant  nor  serpent  was  to  be 
found  on  it,  while  many  of  its  herbs  possessed  a  miraculous 
healing  virtue.  The  highest  summit,  the  present  Palaeovouni 
(old  hill),  rises  to  the  height  of  about  5000  ft.  Modern  travellers, 
aided  by  ancient  remains  and  inscriptions,  and  guided  by  the 
local  descriptions  of  Pausanias,  have  succeeded  in  identifying 
many  of  the  ancient  classical  spots,  and  the  French  excavators 
have  discovered  the  temple  of  the  Muses  and  a  theatre. 

1  The  term  Volkssanger,  commonly  used  in  German  discussions 
of  this  question,  is  misleading;  the  audience  for  heroic  poetry  was 
not  "  tlie  people  "  in  the  modern  sense,  but  the  nobles. 


See  also  Clarke,  Travels  in  Various  Countries  (vol.  vii  1818)- 
i,,  , /  I  Musical  and  Topographical  Tour  through  Greece  (i8l8): 
W.  M.  Leake,  Travels  in  Northern  Greece  (vol.  ii.,  1835)-  J  G 
Frazer's  edition  of  Pausanias,  v.  150. 

HELICON  (Fr.  helicon,  bombardon  circulaire;  Ger.  Helikon), 
the  circular  form  of  the  Bt>  contrabass  tuba  used  in  military 
bands,  worn  round  the  body,  with  the  enormous  beH  resting  on 
the  left  shoulder  and  towering  above  the  head  of  the  performer. 
The  pitch  of  the  helicon  is  an  octave  below  that  of  the  euphonium. 
The  idea  of  winding  the  long  tube  of  the  contrabass  tuba  and  of 
wearing  it  round  the  shoulders  was  suggested  by  the  ancient 
Roman  buccina  and  cornu,  represented  in  mosaics  and  on  the 
sculptured  reliefs  surrounding  Trajan's  Column.  The  buccina  and 
cornu2  differed  in  the  diameter  of  their  respective  bores,  the 
former  having  the  narrow,  almost  cylindrical  bore  and  harmonic 
series  of  the  trumpet  and  trombone,  whereas  the  cornu,  having 
a  bore  in  the  form  of  a  wide  cone,  was  the  prototype  of  the  bugle 
and  tubas. 

HELIGOLAND  (Ger.  Helgoland),  an  island  of  Germany,  in  the 
North  Sea,  lying  off  the  mouths  of  the  Elbe  and  the  Weser,  28  m. 
from  the  nearest  point  in  the  mainland.  Pop.  (1900)  2307. 
From  1807  to  1890  a  British  possession,  it  was  ceded  in  1890  to 
Germany,  and  since  1892  has  formed  part  of  the  Prussian 
province  of  Schleswig-Holstein.  It  consists  of  two  islets,  the 
smaller,  the  Dunen-Insel,  a  quarter  of  a  mile  E.  of  the  main,  or 
Rock  Island,  connected  until  1720,  when  it  was  severed  by  a 
violent  irruption  of  the  sea,  with  the  other  by  a  neck  of  land,  and 
the  main,  or  Rock  Island.  The  latter  is  nearly  triangular  in 
shape  and  is  surrounded  by  steep  red  cliffs,  the  only  beach  being 
the  sandy  spit  near  the  south-east  point,  where  the  landing-stage 
is  situated.  The  rocks  composing  the  cliffs  are  worn  into  caves, 
and  around  the  island  are  many  fantastic  arches  and  columns. 
The  impression  made  by  the  red  cliffs,  fringed  by  a  white  beach 
and  supporting  the  green  Oberland,  is  commonly  believed  to  have 
suggested  the  national  colours,  red,  white  and  green,  or,  as  the 
old  Frisian  rhyme  goes: — 

"  Gron  is  dat  Land, 
Rood  is  de  Kant, 
Witt  is  de  Sand, 
Dat  is  de  Flagg  vun't  hillige  Land." 

The  lower  town  of  Unterland,  on  the  spit,  and  the  upper  town, 
or  Oberland,  situated  on  the  cliff  above,  are  connected  by  a 
wooden  stair  and  a  lift.  There  is  a  powerful  lighthouse,  and  since 
its  cession  by  Great  Britain  to  Germany,  the  main  island  has  been 
strongly  fortified,  the  old  English  batteries  being  replaced  by 
armoured  turrets  mounting  guns  of  heavy  calibre.  Inside  the 
Dunen-Insel  the  largest  ships  can  ride  safely  at  anchor,  and  take 
in  coal  and  other  supplies.  The  greatest  length  of  the  main 
island,  which  slopes  somewhat  from  west  to  east,  is  just  a  mile, 
and  the  greatest  breadth  less  than  a  third  of  a  mile,  its  average 
height  198  ft.,  and  the  highest  point,  crowned  by  the  church,  with 
a  conspicuous  spire,  216  ft.  The  Dunen-Insel  is  a  sand-bank 
irotected  by  groines.  It  is  only  about  200  ft.  above  the  sea  at  its 
highest  point,  but  the  drifting  sands  make  the  height  rather 
variable.  The  sea-bathing  establishment  is  situated  here;  a 
shelving  beach  of  white  sand  presenting  excellent  facilities  for 
jathing.  Most  of  the  houses  are  built  of  brick,  but  some  are  of 
wood.  There  are  a  theatre,  a  Kurhaus,  and  a  number  of  hotels 
and  restaurants.  In  1892  a  biological  institute,  with  a  marine 
museum  and  aquarium  (1900)  attached,  was  opened. 

During  the  summer  some  20,000  people  visit  the  island  for 

sea-bathing.     German  is  the  official  language,  though  among 

hemselves  the  natives  speak  a  dialect  of  Frisian,  barely  in- 

elligible  to  the  other  islands  of  the  group.     There  is  regular 

communication  with  Bremen  and  Hamburg. 

The  winters  are  stormy.  May  and  the  early  part  of  June  are 
wet  and  foggy,  so  that  few  visitors  arrive  before  the  middle  of 
he  latter  month. 

1  For  illustrations  of  the  cornu  see  the  altar  of  Julius  Victor  ex 
'ollegio,  reproduced  in  Bartoli,  Pict.  Ant,  p.  76;  Bellori,  Pict. 
ntiq.  crypt,  rom.  p.  76,  pi.  viii.;  in  Daremberg  and  Saglio,  Did. 

des  antiq.  grecques  et  romaines,  under  "  Cornu,"  the  buccina  and  cornu 

lave  not  been  distinguished. 


HELIOCENTRIC— HELIOGRAPH 


223 


The  generally  accepted  derivation  of  Heligoland  (or  Helgoland) 
from  Heiligeland,  i.e.  "  Holy  Land,"  seems  doubtful.  According 
to  northern  mythology,  Forseti,  a  son  of  Balder  and  Nanna, 
the  god  of  justice,  had  a  temple  on  the  island,  which  was  sub- 
sequently destroyed  by  St  Ludger.  This  legend  may  have  given 
rise  to  the  derivation  "  Holy  Land."  The  more  probable 
etymology,  however,  is  that  of  Hallaglun,  or  Halligland,  i.e. 
"  land  of  banks,  which  cover  and  uncover."  Here  Hertha, 
according  to  tradition,  had  her  great  temple,  and  hither  came 
from  the  mainland  the  Angles  to  worship  at  her  shrine.  Here 
also  lived  King  Radbod,  a  pagan,  and  on  this  isle  St  Willibrord 
in  the  7th  century  first  preached  Christianity;  and  for  its  owner- 
ship, before  and  after  that  date,  many  sea-rovers  have  fought. 
Finally  it  became  a  fief  of  the  dukes  of  Schleswig-Holstein, 
though  often  hypothecated  for  loans  advanced  to  these  princes 
by  the  free  city  of  Hamburg.  The  island  was  a  Danish  possession 
in  1807,  when  the  English  seized  and  held  it  until  it  was  formally 
ceded  to  them  in  1814.  In  the  picturesque  old  church  there  are 
still  traces  of  a  painted  Dannebrog. 

In  1890  the  island  was  ceded  to  Germany,  and  in  1892  it  was 
incorporated  with  Prussia,  when  it  was  provided  that  natives 
born  before  the  year  1880  should  be  allowed  to  elect  either  for 
British  or  German  nationality,  and  until  1901  no  additional 
import  duties  were  imposed. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Von  der  Decken,  Philosophisch-historisch-geo- 

nhische  Untersuchungen  iiber  die  Insel  Helgoland,  oder  Heilige- 
,  und  ihre  Bewohner  (Hanover,  1826);  Wiebel,  Die  Insel  Helgo- 
land, Untersuchungen  iiber  deren  Grosse  in  Vorzeit  und  Gegenwart 
vom  Standpunkte  der  Geschichte  und  Geologie  (Hamburg,  1848); 
J.  M.  Lappenberg,  Uberdenehemaligen  Umfang  und  die  alte  Geschichte 
Helgoland!  (Hamburg,  1831);  F.  Otker,  Helgoland.  Schilderungen 
und  Erorterungen  (Berlin,  1855);  E.  Hallier,  Helgoland,  Nordsee- 
studien  (Hamburg,  1893) ;  A.  W.  F.  M  oiler,  Rechtsgeschichle  der  Insel 
Helgoland  (Weimar,  1904) ;  W.  G.  Black,  Heligoland  and  the  Islands 
of  the  North  Sea  (Glasgow,  1888);  E.  Lindermann,  Die  Nordseeinsel 
Helgoland  in  topographischer,  geschichtlicher,  sanitarer  Beziehung 
(Berlin,  1889) ;  and  Tittel,  Die  natiirlichen  Verdnderungen  Helgoland; 
(Leipzig,  1894). 

HELIOCENTRIC,  i.e.  referred  to  the  centre  of  the  sun  (iJXios) 
as  an  origin,  a  term  designating  especially  co-ordinates  or  heavenly 
bodies  referred  to  that  origin. 

HELIODORUS,  of  Emesa  in  Syria,  Greek  writer  of  romance. 
According  to  his  own  statement  his  father's  name  was  Theodosius, 
and  he  belonged  to  a  family  of  priests  of  the  sun.  He  was  the 
author  of  the  Aethiopica,  the  oldest  and  best  of  the  Greek 
romances  that  have  come  down  to  us.  It  was  first  brought  to 
light  in  modern  times  in  a  MS.  from  the  library  of  Matthias 
Corvinus,  found  at  the  sack  of  Buda  (Ofen)  in  1526,  and  printed 
at  Basel  in  1534.  Other  codices  have  since  been  discovered. 
The  title  is  taken  from  the  fact  that  the  action  of  the  beginning 
and  end  of  the  story  takes  place  in  Aethiopia.  The  daughter  of 
Persine,  wife  of  Hydaspes,  king  of  Aethiopia,  was  born  white 
through  the  effect  of  the  sight  of  a  marble  statue  upon  the  queen 
during  pregnancy.  Fearing  an  accusation  of  adultery,  the  mother 
gives  the  babe  to  the  care  of  Sisimithras,  a  gymnosophist,  who 
carries  her  to  Egypt  and  places  her  in  charge  of  ,Charicles,  a 
Pythian  priest.  The  child  is  taken  to  Delphi,  and  made  a  priestess 
of  Apollo  under  the  name  of  Chariclea.  Theagenes,  a  noble 
Thessalian,  comes  to  Delphi  and  the  two  fall  in  love  with  each 
other.  He  carries  off  the  priestess  with  the  help  of  Calasiris,  an 
Egyptian,  employed  by  Persine  to  seek  for  her  daughter.  Then 
follow  many  perils  from  sea-rovers  and  others,  but  the  chief 
personages  ultimately  meet  at  Meroe  at  the  very  moment  when 
Chariclea  is  about  to  be  sacrificed  to  the  gods  by  her  own  father. 
Her  birth  is  made  known,  and  the  lovers  are  happily  married. 
The  rapid  succession  of  events,  the  variety  of  the  characters, 
the  graphic  descriptions  of  manners  and  of  natural  scenery,  the 
simplicity  and  elegance  of  the  style,  give  the  Aelhiopica  great 
charm.  As  a  whole  it  offends  less  against  good  taste  and  morality 
than  others  of  the  same  class.  Homer  and  Euripides  were  the 
favourite  authors  of  Heliodorus,  who  in  his  turn  was  imitated 
by  French,  Italian  and  Spanish  writers.  The  early  life  of  Clorinda 
in  Tasso's  Jerusalem  Delivered  (canto  xii.  2 1  sqq.)is  almost  identical 
with  that  of  Chariclea;  Racine  meditated  a  drama  on  the  same 


subject;  and  it  formed  the  model  of  the  Persiles  y  Sigismunda  of 
Cervantes.  According  to  the  ecclesiastical  historian  Socrates 
(Hist,  cedes,  v.  22),  the  author  of  the  Aethiopica  was  a 
certain  Heliodorus,  bishop  of  Tricca  in  Thessaly.  It  is  supposed 
that  the  work  was  written  in  his  early  years  before  he  became 
a  Christian,  and  that,  when  confronted  with  the  alternative  of 
disowning  it  or  resigning  his  bishopric,  he  preferred  resignation. 
But  it  is  now  generally  agreed  that  the  real  author  was  a  sophist 
of  the  3rd  century  A.D. 

The  best  editions  are:  A.  Coraes  (1804),  G.  A.  Hirschig  (1856); 
see  also  M.  Oeftering,  H.  und  seine  Bedeutung  fur  die  Lileratur, 
with  full  bibliographies  (1901);  J.  C.  Dunlop,  History  of  Prose 
Fiction  (1888);  and  especially  E.  Rohde,  Der  griechische  Roman 
(1900).  There  are  translations  in  almost  all  European  languages: 
in  English,  in  Bohn's  Classical  Library  and  the  "  Tudor  "  series  (v., 
1895,  containing  the  old  translation  by  T.  Underdowne,  1587,  with 
introduction  by  C.  Whibley) ;  in  French  by  Amyot  and  Zevort. 

HELIOGABALUS  (ELAGABALUS),  Roman  emperor  (A.D. 
218-222),  was  born  at  Emesa  about  205.  His  real  name  was 
Varius  Avitus.  On  the  murder  of  Caracalla  (217),  Julia  Maesa, 
Varius's  grandmother  and  Caracalla's  aunt,  left  Rome  and 
retired  to  Emesa,  accompanied  by  her  grandsons  (Varius  and 
Alexander  Severus).  Varius,  though  still  only  a  boy,  was  ap- 
pointed high  priest  of  the  Syrian  sun-god  Elagabalus,  one  of 
the  chief  seats  of  whose  worship  was  Emesa  (Horns) .  His  beauty, 
and  the  splendid  ceremonials  at  which  he  presided,  made  him 
a  great  favourite  with  the  troops  stationed  in  that  part  of  Syria, 
and  Maesa  increased  his  popularity  by  spreading  reports  that  he 
was  in  reality  the  illegitimate  son  of  Caracalla.  Macrinus, 
the  successor  and  instigator  of  the  murder  of  Caracalla,  was 
very  unpopular  with  the  army;  an  insurrection  was  easily  set 
on  foot,  and  on  the  i6th  of  May  218  Varius  was  proclaimed 
emperor  as  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus.  The  troops  sent  to 
quell  the  revolt  went  over  to  him,  and  Macrinus  was  defeated 
near  Antioch  on  the  8th  of  June.  Heliogabalus  was  at  once 
recognized  by  the  senate  as  emperor.  After  spending  the  winter 
in  Nicomedia,  he  proceeded  in  219  to  Rome,  where  he  made  it 
his  business  to  exalt  the  deity  whose  priest  he  was  and  whose 
name  he  assumed.  The  Syrian  god  was  proclaimed  the  chief  deity 
in  Rome,  and  all  other  gods  his  servants;  splendid  ceremonies 
in  his  honour  were  celebrated,  at  which  Heliogabalus  danced  in 
public,  and  it  was  believed  that  secret  rites  accompanied  by 
human  sacrifice  were  performed  in  his  honour.  In  addition  to 
these  affronts  upon  the  state  religion,  he  insulted  the  intelli- 
gence of  the  community  by  horseplay  of  the  wildest  description 
and  by  childish  practical  joking.  The  shameless  profligacy 
of  the  emperor's  life  was  such  as  to  shock  even  a  Roman 
public.  His  popularity  with  the  army  declined,  and  Maesa, 
perceiving  that  the  soldiers  were  in  favour  of  Alexander  Severus, 
persuaded  Heliogabalus  to  raise  his  cousin  to  the  dignity  of 
Caesar  (221),  a  step  of  which  he  soon  repented.  An  attempt 
to  murder  Alexander  was  frustrated  by  the  watchful  Maesa. 
Another  attempt  in  2  2  2  produced  a  mutiny  among  the  praetorians, 
in  which  Heliogabalus  and  his  mother  Soemias  (Soaemias)  were 
slain  (probably  in  the  first  half  of  March). 

AUTHORITIES.— Life  by  Aelius  Lampridius  in  Scriptores  historiae 
Augustac;  Hcrodian  v.  3-8;  Dio  Cassius  Ixxviii.  30  sqq.,  Ixxix.  1-21 ; 
monograph  by  G.  Duviquet,  Heliogabale  (1903),  containing  a  trans- 
lation of  the  various  accounts  of  Heliogabalus  in  Greek  and  Latin 
authors,  notes,  bibliography  and  illustrations;  O.  F.  Butler,  Studies 
in  the  Life  of  Heliogabalus  (New  York,  1908);  Gibbon,  Decline  and 
Fall,  ch.  6;  H.  Schiller,  Geschichte  der  romischen  Kaiserzeit,  i. 
pt.  ii.  (1883),  p.  759  ff.  On  the  Syrian  god  see  F.  Cumont  in  Pauly- 
Wissowa's  Realencyclopddie,  v.  pt.  ii.  (1905). 

HELIOGRAPH  (from  Gr.  i;Xios,  sun,  and  yp&friv  to  write), 
an  instrument  for  reflecting  the  rays  of  the  sun  (or  the  light 
obtained  from  any  other  source)  over  a  considerable  distance. 
Its  main  application  is  in  military  signalling  (see  SIGNAL).  A 
similar  instrument  is  the  heliotrope,  used  principally  for  defining 
distant  points  in  geodetic  surveys,  such  as  in  the  triangulation 
of  India,  and  in  the  verification  of  the  African  arcof  the  meridian. 
It  is  necessary  to  distinguish  the  method  of  signalling  termed 
heliography  from  the  photographic  process  of  the  same  name 
(see  PHOTOGRAPHY). 


224 


HELIOMETER 


FIG.  i. 


FIG.  3. 


HELIOMETER  (from  Gr.  fjAios,  sun,  and  nerpov,  a  measure), 
an  instrument  originally  designed  for  measuring  the  variation 
of  the  sun's  diameter  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  but  applied 
now  to  the  modern  form  of  the  instrument  which  is  capable  of 
much  wider  use.  The  present  article  also  deals  with  other 
forms  of  double-image  micrometer. 

The  discovery  of  the  method  of  making  measures  by  double 
images  is  stated  to  have  been  first  suggested  by  O.  Roemer  about 
1768.  But  no  such  suggestion  occurs  in  the  Basis  Astronomiae  ol 
Peter  Horrebow  (Copenhagen,  1735),  which  contains  the  only  works 

of  Roemer  that  re- 
main to  us.  It  would 
appear  that  to  Ser- 
vington  Savary  is  due 
the  first  invention  of 
a  micrometer  for 
measurement  by 
double  image.  His 
heliometer  (described 
in  a  paper  communi- 
cated to  the  Royal 
Society  in  1743,  and 
printed,  along  with 
a  letter  from  James 
Short,  in  Phil.  Trans.,  1753,  p.  156)  was  constructed  by  cutting 
from  a  complete  lens  abed  the  equal  portions  aghc  and  acfe 
(fig.  i).  The  segments  gbh  and  efd  so  formed  were  then  attached 
to  the  end  of  a  tube  having  an  internal  diameter  represented  by  the 
dotted  circle  (fig.  2).  The  width  of  each  of  the  portions  aghc  and  acfe 
cut  away  from  the  lens  was  made  slightly  greater  than  the  focal 
length  of  lens  X  tangent  of  sun's  greatest  diameter.  Thus  at  the 
focus  two  images  of  the  sun  were  formed  nearly  in 
contact  as  in  fig.  3.  The  small  interval  between 
the  adjacent  limbs  was  then  measured  with  a 
wire  micrometer. 

Savary  also  describes  another  form  of  helio- 
meter, on  the  same  principle,  in  which  the  seg- 
ments aghc  and  acfe  are  utilized  by  cementing 
their  edges  gh  and  ef  together  (fig.  4),  and  covering  all  except 
the  portion  indicated  by  the  unshaded  circle.  Savary  expresses 
preference  for  this  second  plan,  and  makes  the  pertinent  remark 
that  in  both  these  models  "  the  rays  of  red  light  in  the  two  solar 
images  will  be  next  to  each  other,  which  will  render  the  sun's  disk 
more  easy  to  be  observed  than  the  violet  ones."  This  he  mentions 
"  because  the  glasses  in  these  two  sorts  are  somewhat  prismatical, 
but  mostly  those  of  the  first  model,  which  could  there- 
fore bear  no  great  charge  (magnifying  power)." 

A  third  model  proposed  by  Savary  consists  of  two 
complete  lenses  of  equal  focal  length,  mounted  in 
cylinders  side  by  side,  and  attached  to  a  strong  brass 
plate  (fig.  5).  Here,  in  order  to  fulfil  the  purposes  of 
the  previous  models,  the  distance  of  the  centres  of  the 
lenses  from  each  other  should  only  slightly  exceed  the 
tangent  of  sun's  diameter  X  focal  length  of  lenses. 
Savary  dwells  on  the  difficulty  both  of  procuring  lenses 
sufficiently  equal  in  focus  and  of  accurately  adjusting 
and  centring  them. 

In  the  Mem.  Acad.  de  Paris  (1748),  Pierre  Bouguer 
describes  an  instrument  which  he  calls  a  heliometer. 
Lalande  in  his  Astronomie  (vol.  ii.  p.  639)  mentions  such  a  helio- 
meter which  had  been  in  his  possession  from  the  year  1753,  and  of 
which  he  gives  a  representation  on  Plate  XXVIII.,  fig.  186,  of  the 
same  volume.  Bouguer's  heliometer  was  in  fact  similar  to  that  of 
Savary's  third  model,  with  the  important  difference  that,  instead  of 
both  object-glasses  being  fixed,  one  of  them  is  movable  by  a  screw 
provided  with  a  divided  head.  No  auxiliary  filar  micrometer  was 
required,  as  in  Savary's  heliometer,  to  measure 
the  interval  between  the  limbs  of  two  adjacent 
images  of  the  sun,  it  being  only  necessary  to 
turn  the  screw  with  the  divided  head  to  change 
the  distance  between  the  object-glasses  till  the 
two  images  of  the  sun  are  in  contact  as  in 
fig.  6.  The  differences  of  the  readings  of  the 
screw,  when  converted  into  arc,  afford  the 
means  of  measuring  the  variations  of  the  sun's 
apparent  diameter. 

On  the  4th  of  April  1754  John  Dollond  com- 

municated  a  paper  to  the  Royal  Society  of 

/""     ~^\  /         \  London  (Phil.   Trans.,  vol.  xlviii.  p.  551)  in 
i  which   he  shows  that   a   micrometer  can   be 
I  much  more  easily  constructed  by  dividing  a 
single  object-glass  through   its  axis  than   by 
the  employment   of   two   object-glasses.      He 
FIG.  6.  points  out — (i)  that  a  telescope  with  an  object- 

glass  so  divided  still  produces  a  single  image 
of  any  object  to  which  it  may  be  directed,  provided  that  the  optical 
centres  of  the  segments  are  in  coincidence  (i.e.  provided  the  segments 
retain  the  same  relative  positions  to  each  other  as  before  the  glass 


FIG.  5. 


oo: 

^—/  V_^  ; 


was  cut);  (2)  that  if  the  segments  are  separated  in  any  direction 
two  images  of  the  object  viewed  will  be  produced ;  (3)  that  the  most 
convenient  direction  of  separation  for  micrometric  purposes  is  to 
slide  these  straight  edges  one  along  the  other  as  the  figure  on  the 
margin  (fig.  7)  represents  them:  "for  thus  they 
may  be  moved  without  suffering  any  false  light  to 
come  in  between  them;  and  by  this  way  of 
removing  them  the  distance  between  their  centres 
may  be  very  conveniently  measured,  viz.  by  having 
a  vernier's  division  fixed  to  the  brass  work  that  holds 
one  segment,  so  as  to  slide  along  a  scale  on  the  plate 
to  which  the  other  part  of  the  glass  is  fitted." 

Dollond    then    points   out   three   different   types 
in   which   a   glass   so   divided   and   mounted    may          jr 
be  used  as  a  micrometer: —  tlG-  7- 

"  i.  It  may  be  fixed  at  the  end  of  a  tube,  of  a  suitable  length  to  its 
focal  distance,  as  an  object-glass, — the  other  end  of  the  tube  having 
an^eye-glass  fitted  as  usual  in  astronomical  telescopes. 

"  ?•  J1  may  De  applied  to  the  end  of  a  tube  much  shorter  than  its 
focal  distance,  by  having  another  convex  glass  within  the  tube,  to 
shorten  the  focal  distance  of  that  which  is  cut  in  two. 

"  3.  It  may  be  applied  to  the  open  end  of  a  reflecting  telescope, 
either  of  the  Newtonian  or  the  Cassegrain  construction. 

Dollond  adds  his  opinion  that  the  third  type  is  "  much  the  best  and 
most  convenient  of  the  three";  yet  it  is  the  first  type  that  has 
survived  the  test  of  time  and  experience,  and  which  is  in  fact  the 
modern  heliometer.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  when 
Dollond  expressed  preference  for  this  third  type  he  had  not  then  in- 
vented the  achromatic  object-glass. 

Some  excellent  instruments  of  the  second  type  were  subsequently 
made  by  Dollond's  eldest  son  Peter,  in  which  for  the  "  convex  glass 
within  the  tube  "  was  substituted  an  achromatic  object-glass,  and 
outside  that  a  divided  negative  achromatic  combination  of  long  focus. 
In  the  fine  example  of  this  instrument  at  the  Cape  Observatory  the 
movable  negative  lenses  consist  of  segments  of  the  shape  gach  and 
acfe  (fig.  i)  cut  from  a  complete  negative  achromatic  combination  of 
8t  in.  aperture  and  about  41  ft.  focal  length,  composed  of  a  double 
concave  flint  lens  and  a  double  convex  crown.  This  was  applied  to 
an  excellent  achromatic  telescope  of  3^  in.  aperture  and  42  in.  focal 
length.  In  this  instrument  a  considerable  linear  relative  movement 
of  the  divided  lens  corresponds  with  a  comparatively  small  separation 
of  the  double  image,  so  that  simple  verniers  reading  to  T^Vo  in.  are 
sufficient  for  measurement. 

With  one  of  these  instruments  of  somewhat  smaller  dimensions 
(telescope  2%  in.  aperture  and  35  ft.  focus),  Franz  von  Paula  Tries- 
necker  made  a  series  of  measurements  at  the  observatory  of  Vienna 
which  has  been  reduced  by  Dr  Wilhelm  Schur  of  Strasburg  (Nova 
Ada  der  Ksl.  Leop.-Carol.  Deutschen  Akademie  der  Natursforscher, 
1882,  xlv.  No.  3).  The  angle  between  the  stars  f  and  g  Ursae  maj. 
(?o8"-55)  was  measured  on  four  nights;  the  probable  error  of  a 
measure  on  one  night  was  ±o'-44.  Jupiter  was  measured  on  eleven 
nights  in  the  months  of  June  and  July  1794;  from  these  measures 
Schur  derives  the  values  35  "-39  and  37  "-94  for  the  polar  and  equa- 
torial diameter  respectively,  at  mean  distance,  corresponding  with  a 
compression  1/14-44.  These  agree  satisfactorily  with  the  correspond- 
ing values  35"'2i,  37*'6o,  1/15-59  afterwards  obtained  by  F.  W. 
Bessel  (Konigsberger  Beobachtungen,  xix.  102).  From  a  series  of 
measures  of  the  angle  between  Jupiter's  satellites  and  the  planet, 
made  in  June  and  July  1794  and  in  August  and  September  1795, 
Schur  finds  the  mass  of  Jupiter  =  1/1048-55  ±1-45,  a  result  which 
accords  well  within  the  limits  of  its  probable  error  with  the  received 
value  of  the  mass  derived  from  modern  researches.  The  probable 
errors  for  the  measures  of  one  night  are  ±o"-577,  ±o"-889,  ±o"-542, 
i "-096,  for  Satellites  I.,  II.,  III.  and  IV.  respectively. 
Considering  the  accuracy  of  these  measures  (an  accuracy  far  sur- 
passing that  of  any  other  contemporary  observations),  it  is  somewhat 
surprising  that  this  form  of  micrometer  was  never  systematically 
used  in  any  sustained  or  important  astronomical  researches,  although 
a  number  of  instruments  of  the  kind  were  made  by  Dollond.  Prob- 
ably the  last  example  of  its  employment  is  an  observation  of  the 
transit  of  Mercury  (November  4,  1868)  by  Mann,  at  the  Royal 
Observatory,  Cape  of  Good  Hope  (Monthly  Notices  R.A.S.  vol. 
xxix.  p.  197-209).  The  most  important  part,  however,  which  this 
type  of  instrument  seems  to  have  played  in  the  history  of  astronomy 
arises  from  the  fact  that  one  of  them  was  in  the  possession  of  Bessel 
at  Konigsberg  during  the  time  when  his  new  observatory  there 
was  being  built.  In  1812  Bessel  measured  with  it  the  angle  between 
the  components  of  the  double  star  61  Cygni  and  observed  the  great 
comet  of  1811.  He  also  observed  the  eclipse  of  the  sun  on  May  4, 
1818.  In  the  discussion  of  these  observations  (Konigsberger  Beo- 
bacht,  Abt.  5,  p.  iv.)  he  found  that  the  index  error  of  the  scale 
changed  systematically  in  different  position  angles  by  quantities 
which  were  independent  of  the  direction  of  gravity  relative  to  the 
josition  angle  under  measurement,  but  which  depended  solely  on 
:he  direction  of  the  measured  position  angle  relative  to  a  fixed  radius 
of  the  object-glass.  Bessel  attributed  this  to  non-homogeneity 
n  the  object-glass,  and  determined  with  great  care  the  necessary 
corrections.  But  he  was  so  delighted  with  the  general  performance 
>f  the  instrument,  with  the  sharpness  of  the  images  and  the  possi- 
nlities  which  a  kindred  construction  offered  for  the  measurement  of 


HELIOMETER 


225 


considerable  angles  with  micrometric  accuracy,  that  he  resolved, 
when  he  should  have  the  choice  of  a  new  telescope  for  the  observatory, 
to  secure  some  form  of  heliometer. 

Nor  is  it  difficult  to  imagine  the  probable  course  of  reasoning 
which  led  Bessel  to  select  the  model  of  his  new  heliometer.  Why, 
he  might  ask,  should  he  not  select  the  simple  form  of  Dollond's 
first  type  ?  Given  the  achromatic  object-glass,  why  should  not  it  be 
divided  ?  This  construction  would  give  all  the  advantage  of  the 
younger  Dollond's  object-glass  micrometer,  and  more  than  its  sharp- 
ness of  definition,  without  liability  to  the  systematic  errors  which 
may  be  due  to  want  of  homogeneity  of  the  object-glass;  for  the  lenses 
will  not  be  turned  with  respect  to  each  other,  but,  in  measurement, 
will  always  have  the  same  relation  in  position  angle  to  the  line 
joining  the  objects  under  observation.  It  is  true  that  the  scale  will 
require  to  be  capable  of  being  read  with  much  greater  accuracy  than 
•j-j'jjjth  of  an  inch — for  that,  even  in  a  telescope  of  10  ft.  focus,  would 
correspond  with  2'  of  arc.  But,  after  all,  this  is  no  practical  diffi- 
culty, for  screws  can  be  used  to  separate  the  lenses,  and,  by  these 
screws,  as  in  a  Gascoigne  micrometer,  the  separation  of  the  lenses 
can  be  measured;  or  we  can  have  scales  for  this  purpose,  read  by 
microscopes,  like  the  Troughton  l  circles  of  Piazzi  or  Pond,  or  those 
of  the  Carey  circle,  with  almost  any  required  accuracy. 

Whether  Bessel  communicated  such  a  course  of  reasoning  to 
Fraunhofer,  or  whether  that  great  artist  arrived  independently  at 
like  conclusions,  we  have  been  unable  to  ascertain  with  certainty. 
The  fact  remains  that  before  1820"  Fraunhofer  had  completed 
one  or  more  of  the  five  helipmeters  (3  in.  aperture  and  39  in.  focus) 
which  have  since  become  historical  instruments.  In  1824  the  great 
Konigsberg  heliometer  was  commenced,  and  it  was  completed  in  1 829. 

To  sum  up  briefly  the  history  of  the  development  of  the  heliometer. 
The  first  application  of  the  divided  object-glass  and  the  employment 
of  double  images  in  astronomical  measures  is  due  to  Savary  in  1743. 
To  Bouguer  in  1748  is  due  the  true  conception  of  measurement  by 
double  image  without  the  auxiliary  aid  of  a  filar  micrometer,  viz. 
by  changing  the  distance  between  two  object-glasses  of  equal  focus. 
To  Dollond  in  1754  we  owe  the  combination  of  Savary's  idea  of 
the  divided  object-glass  with  Bouguer's  method  of  measurement, 
and  the  construction  of  the  first  really  practical  heliometers.  To 
Fraunhofer,  some  time  not  long  previous  to  1820,  is  due,  so  far  as 
we  can  ascertain,  the  construction  of  the  first  heliometer  with  an 
achromatic  divided  object-glass,  i.e.  the  first  heliometer  of  the 
modern  type. 

The  Modern  Heliometer. 

The  Konigsberg  heliometer  is  represented  in  fig.  8.  No  part  of 
the  equatorial  mounting  is  shown  in  the  figure,  as  it  resembles  in 
every  respect  the  usual  Fraunhofer  mounting.  An  adapter  h  is  fixed 
on  a  telescope-tube,  made  of  wood,  in  Fraunhpfer's  usual  fashion. 

To  this  adapter  is  attached 
a  flat  circular  flange  h. 
The  slides  carrying  the 
segments  of  the  divided 
object-glass  are  mounted 
on  a  plate,  which  is  fitted 
and  ground  to  rotate 
smoothly  on  the  flange  h. 
Rotation  is  communi- 
cated by  a  pinion,  turned 


FIG.  8. 


by  the  handle  c  (concealed  in  the  figure),  which  works  in  teeth  cut 
on  the  edge  of  the  flange  h.  The  counterpoise  w  balances  the  head 
about  its  axis  of  rotation.  The  slides  are  moved  by  the  screws  a  and 
b,  the  divided  heads  of  which  serve  to  measure  the  separation  of  the 
segments.  These  screws  are  turned  from  the  eye-end  by  bevelled 
wheels  and  pinions,  the  latter  connected  with  the  handles  a',  b'. 
The  reading  micrometers  e,  f  also  serve  to  measure,  independently, 
the  separation  of  the  segments,  by  scales  attached  to  the  slides; 
such  measurements  can  be  employed  as  a  check  on  thpse  made  by 
the  screws.  The  measurement  of  position  angles  is  provided  for 
by  a  graduated  circle  attached  to  the  head.  There  is  also  a  position 
circle,  attached  at  m  to  the  eye-end,  provided  with  a  slide  to  move 
the  eye-piece  radially  from  the  axis  of  the  telescope,  and  with  a 
micrometer  to  measure  the  distance  of  an  object  from  that  axis. 
The  ring  c,  which  carries  the  supports  of  the  handles  a',  b',  is  capable 
of  a  certain  amount  of  rotation  on  the  tube.  The  weight  of  the 
handles  and  their  supports  is  balanced  by  the  counterpoise  z.  This 
ring  is  necessary  in  order  to  allow  the  rods  to  follow  the  micrometer 
heads  when  the  position  angle  is  changed.  Complete  rotation  of  the 
head  is  obviously  impossible  because  of  the  interference  of  the 
declination  axis  with  the  rods,  and  therefore,  in  some  angles,  objects 
cannot  be  measured  in  two  positions  of  the  circle.  The  object-glass 
has  an  aperture  of  6$  in.  and  102  in.  focal  length. 

There  are  three  methods  in  which  this  heliometer  can  be  used. 
First  Method. — One  of  the  segments  is  fixed  in  the  axis  of  the 
lescope,  and  the  eye-piece  is  also  placed  in  the  axis.     Measures 

'  The  circles  by  Reichenbach,  then  almost  exclusively  used  in 
Germany,  were  read  by  verniers  only. 

*  The  diameter  of  Venus  was  measured  with  one  of  these  helio- 
meters at  the  observatory  of  Breslau  by  Brandes  in  1820  (Berlin 
Jahrbuch,  1824,  p.  164). 

xni.  8 


are  made  with  the  moving  segment  displaced  alternately  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  fixed  segment. 

Second  Method.— -One  segment  is  fixed,  and  the  measures  are 
made  as  in  the  first  method,  excepting  that  the  eye-piece  is  placed 
symmetrically  with  respect  to  the  images  under  measurement. 
For  this  purpose  the  pos.tion  angle  of  the  eye-piece  micrometer  is 
set  to  that  of  the  head,  and  the  eye-piece  is  displaced  from  the 
axis  of  the  tube  (in  the  direction  of  the  movable  segment)  by  an 
amount  equal  to  half  the  angle  under  measurement. 

Third  Method. — The  eye-piece  is  fixed  in  the  axis,  and  the  segments 
are  symmetrically  displaced  from  the  axis  each  by  an  amount  equal 
to  half  the  angle  measured. 

Of  these  methods  Bessel  generally  employed  the  first  because  of 
its  simplicity,  notwithstanding  that  it  involved  a  resetting  of  the 
right  ascension  and  declination  of  the  axis  of  the  tube  with  each 
reversal  of  the  segments.  The  chief  objections  to  the  method  are 
that,  as  one  star  is  in  the  axis  of  the  telescope  and  the  other  dis- 
placed from  it,  the  images  are  not  both  in  focus  of  the  eye-piece,1 
and  the  rays  from  the  two  stars  do  not  make  the  same  angle  with 
the  optical  axis  of  each  segment.  Thus  the  two  images  under 
measurement  are  not  defined  with  equal  sharpness  and  symmetry. 
The  second  method  is  free  from  the  objection  of  non-coincidence  in 
focus  of  the  images,  but  is  more  troublesome  in  practice  from  the 
necessity  for  frequent  readjustment  of  the  position  of  the  eye-piece. 
The  third  method  is  the  most  symmetrical  of  all,  both  in  obser- 
vation and  reduction;  but  it  was  not  employed  by  Bessel,  on  the 
ground  that  it  involved  the  determination  of  the  errors  of  two 
screws  instead  of  one.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  not  necessary  to 
reset  the  telescope  after  each  reversal  of  the  segments.4 

When  Bessel  ordered  the  Konigsberg  heliometer,  he  was  anxious 
to  have  the  segments  made  to  move  in  cylindrical  slides,  of  which 
the  radius  should  be  equal  to  the  focal  length  of  the  object-glass. 
Fraunhofer,  however,  did  not  execute  this  wish,  on  the  ground 
that  the  mechanical  difficulties  were  too  great. 

M.  L.  G.  Wichmann  states  (Konigsb.  Beobach.  xxx.  4)  that  Bessel 
had  indicated,  by  notes  in  his  handbooks,  the  following  points  which 
should  be  kept  in  mind  in  the  construction  of  future  heliometers: 
(i)  The  segments  should  move  in  cylindrical  slides;6  (2)  the  screw 
should  be  protected  from  dust;6  (3)  the  zero  of  the  position  circle 
should  not  be  so  liable  to  change;7  (4)  the  distance  of  the  optical 
centres  of  the  segments  should  not  change  in  different  position 
angles  or  otherwise ;  8  (5)  the  points  of  the  micrometer  screws  should 
rest  on  ivory  plates;  9  (6)  there  should  be  an  apparatus  for  changing 
the  screen.10 

Wilhelm  Struve.  in  describing  the  Pulkowa  heliometer,11  made 


*  The  distances  of  the  optical  centres  ol  the  segments  from  the 
eye-piece  are  in  this  method  as  I ;  secant  of  the  angle  under  measure- 
ment. In  Bessel's  heliometer  this  would  amount  to  a  difference  of 
T^nth  of  an  inch  when  an  angle  of  i°  is  measured.  For  2°  the 
difference  would  amount  to  nearly  ^th  of  an  inch.  Bessel  confined 
his  measures  to  distances  considerably  less  than  i°. 

4  In  criticizing  Bessel's  choice  of  methods,  and  considering  the 
loss  of  time  involved  in  each,  it  must  be  remembered  that  Fraunhofer 
provided  no  means  of  reading  the  screws  or  even  the  heads  from  the 
eye-end.  Bessel's  practice  was  to  unclamp  in  declination,  lower  and 
read  off  the  head,  and  then  restore  the  telescope  to  its  former  declina- 
tion reading,  the  clockwork  meanwhile  following  the  stars  in  right 
ascension.  The  setting  of  both  lenses  symmetrically  would,  under 
such  circumstances,  be  very  tedious. 

6  This  most  important  improvement  would  permit  any  two  stars 
under  measurement  each  to  be  viewed  in  the  optical  axis  of  each 
segment.  The  optical  centres  of  the  segments  would  also  remain 
at  the  same  distance  from  the  eye-piece  at  all  angles  of  separation. 
Thus,  in  measuring  the  largest  as  well  as  the  smallest  angles,  the 
images  of  both  stars  would  be  equally  symmetrical  and  equally  well 
in  focus.  Modern  heliometers  made  with  cylindrical  slides  measure 
angles  over  2°,  the  images  remaining  as  sharp  and  perfect  as  when 
the  smallest  angles  are  measured. 

6  Bessel  found,  in  course  of  time,  that  the  original  corrections 
for  the  errors  of  his  screw  were  no  longer  applicable.  He  considered 
that  the  changes  were  due  to  wear,  which  would  be  much  lessened 
if  the  screws  were  protected  from  dust. 

'The  tube,  being  of  wood,  was  probably  liable  to  warp  and  twist 
in  a  very  uncertain  way. 

8  We  have  been  unable  to  find  any  published  drawing  showing 
how  the  segments  are  fitted  in  their  cells. 

9  We  have  been  unable  to  ascertain  the  reasons  which  led  Bessel 
to  choose  ivory  planes  for  the  end-bearings  of  his  screws.    He  actually 
introduced  them  in  the  Konigsberg  heliometer  in  1840,  and  they  were 
renewed  in  1848  and  1850. 

10  A  screen  of  wire  gauze,  placed  in  front  of  the  segment  through 
which  the  fainter  star  is  viewed,  was  employed  by  Bessel  to  equalize 
the  brilliancy  of  the  images  under  observation.     An  arrangement, 
afterwards  described,  has  been  fitted  in  modern  heliometers  for  plac- 
ing the  screen  in  front  of  either  segment  by  a  handle  at  the  eye-end. 

11  This  heliometer  resembles  Bessel's,  except  that  its  foot  is  a  solid 
block  of  granite  instead  of  the  ill-conceived  wooden  structure  that 
supported  his  instrument.    The  object-glass  is  of  7-4  in.  aperture 
and  123  in.  focus. 


226 


HELIOMETER 


by  Merz  in  1839  on  the  model  of  Bessel's  heliometer,  submits  the 
following  suggestions  for  its  improvement: l  (l)  to  give  automatic- 
ally to  the  two  segments  simultaneous  equal  and  opposite  move- 
ment ;  2  and  (2)  to  make  the  tube  of  metal  instead  of  wood ;  to  attach 
the  heliometer  head  firmly  to  this  tube;  to  place  the  eye-piece 
permanently  in  the  axis  of  the  telescope ;  and  to  fix  a  strong  cradle 
on  the  end  of  the  declination  axis,  in  which  the  tube,  with  the 
attached  head  and  eye-piece,  could  rotate  on  its  axis. 

Both  suggestions  are  important.  The  first  is  originally  the  idea 
of  Dollond;  its  advantages  were  overlooked  by  his  son,  and  it  seems 
to  have  been  quite  forgotten  till  resuggested  by  Struve.  But  the 
method  is  not  available  if  the  separation  is  to  be  measured  by  screws ; 
it  is  found,  in  that  case,  that  the  direction  of  the  final  motion  of  turn- 
ing of  the  screw  must  always  be  such  as  to  produce  motion  of  the 
segment  against  gravity,  otherwise  the  "  loss  of  time  "  is  apt  to  be 
variable.  Thus  the  simple  connexion  of  the  two  screws  by  cog- 
wheels to  give  them  automatic  opposite  motion  is  not  an  available 
method  unless  the  separation  of  the  segments  is  independently 
measured  by  scales. 

Struve's  second  suggestion  has  been  adopted  in  nearly  all  succeed- 
ing heliometers.  It  permits  complete  rotation  of  the  tube  and 
measurement  of  all  angles  in  reversed  positions  of  the  circle;  the 
handles  that  move  the  slides  can  be  brought  down  to.  the  eye-end, 
inside  the  tube,  and  consequently  made  to  rotate  with  it;  and  the 
position  circle  may  be  placed  at  the  end  of  the  cradle  next  the  eye- 
end  where  it  is  convenient  of  access.  Struve  also  points  out  that 
by  attaching  a  fine  scale  to  the  focusing  slide  of  the  eye-piece,  and 
knowing  the  coefficient  of  expansion  of  the  metal  tube,  the  means 
would  be  provided  for  determining  the  absolute  change  of  the  focal 
length  of  the  object-glass  at  any  time  by  the  simple  process  of 
focusing  on  a  double  star.  This,  with  a  knowledge  of  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  screw  or  scale  and  its  coefficient  of  expansion,  would 
enable  the  change  of  screw-value  to  be  determined  at  any  instant. 

It  is  probable  that  the  Bonn  heliometer  was  in  course  of  con- 
struction before  these  suggestions  of  Struve  were  published  or 
discussed,  since  its  construction  resembles  that  of  the  Konigsberg 
and  Pulkowa  instruments.  Its  dimensions  are  similar  to  those  of 
the  former  instrument.  Bessel,  having  been  consulted  by  the 
celebrated  statesman,  Sir  Robert  Peel,  on  behalf  of  the  Radcliffe 
trustees,  as  to  what  instrument,  added  to  the  Radcliffe  Observatory, 
would  probably  most  promote  the  advancement  of  astronomy, 
strongly  advised  the  selection  of  a  heliometer.  The  order  for  the 
instrument  was  given  to  the  Repsolds  in  1840,  but  "  various  circum- 
stances, for  which  the  makers  are  not  responsible,  contributed  to 
delay  the  completion  of  the  instrument,  which  was  not  delivered 
before  the  winter  of  1848."  3  The  building  to  receive  it  was  com- 
menced in  March  1849  and  completed  in  the  end  of 
the  same  year.  This  instrument  has  a  superb  object- 
glass  of  1\  in.  aperture  and  126  in.  focal  length.  The 
makers  availed  themselves  of  Bessel's  suggestion  to 
make  the  segments  move  in  cylindrical  slides,  and  of 
Struve's  to  have  the  head  attached  to  a  brass  tube; 
the  eye-piece  is  set  permanently  in  the  axis,  and  the 
whole  rotates  in  a  cradle  attached  to  the  declination 
axis.  They  provided  a  splendid,  rigidly  mounted, 
equatorial  stand,  fitted  with  every  luxury  in  the  way 
of  slow  motion,  and  scales  for  measuring  the  displace- 
ment of  the  segments  were  read  by  powerful  micro- 
meters from  the  eye-end.4  It  is  somewhat  curious 
that,  though  Struve's  second  suggestion  was  adopted, 
his  first  was  overlooked  by  the  makers.  But  it  is 
still  more  curious  that  it  was  not  afterwards  carried 
out,  for  the  communication  of  automatic  symmetrical 
motion  to  both  segments  only  involves  a  simple 
alteration  previously  described.  But,  as  it  came 
from  the  hands  of  the  makers  in  1849,  the  Oxford 
heliometer  was  incomparably  the  most  powerful  and 
perfect  instrument  in  the  world  for  the  highest  order 
of  micrometric  research.  It  so  remained,  unrivalled 
in  every  respect,  till  1873. 

As  the  transit  of  Venus  of  1 874  approached,  prepara- 
tions were  set  on  foot  by  the  German  Government  in  good  time;  a 
commission  of  the  most  celebrated  astronomers  was  appointed,  and  it 
was  resolved  that  the  heliometer  should  be  the  instrument  chiefly 
relied  on.  The  four  long-neglected  small  heliometers  made  by  Fraun- 
hofer  were  brought  into  requisition.  Fundamental  alterations  were 
made  upon  them :  their  wooden  tubes  were  replaced  by  tubes  of  metal ; 


means  of  measuring  the  focal  point  were  provided;  symmetrical 
motion  was  given  to  the  slides;  scales  on  each  slide  were  provided 
instead  of  screws  for  measuring  the  separation  of  the  segments,  and 
both  scales  were  read  by  the  same  micrometer  microscope;  a 
metallic  thermometer  was  added  to  determine  the  temperature  of 
the  scales.  These  small  instruments  have  since  done  admirable 
work  in  the  hands  of  Schur,  Hartwig,  Kustner,  Elkin,  Auwers  and 
others. 

The  Russian  Government  ordered  three  new  heliometers  (each  of 
4  in.  aperture  and  5  ft.  focal  length)  from  the  Repsolds,  and  the 
design  for  their  construction  was  superintended  by  Struve,  Auwers 


FIG.  9. 


and  Winnecke,  the  last-named  making  the  necessary  experiments  at 
Carlsruhe.  Fig.  9  represents  the  resulting  type  of  instrument  which 
was  finally  designed  and  constructed  by  Repsolds.  The  brass  tube, 
strengthened  at  the  bearing  points  by  strong  truly  turned  collars, 
rotates  in  the  cast  iron  cradle  q  attached  to  the  declination  axis. 
a  is  the  eye-piece  fixed  in  the  optical  axis,  b  the  micrometer  for  reading 
both  scales,  c  and  d  are  telescopes  for  reading  the  position  circle  p, 
e  the  handle  for  quick  motion  in  position  angle,  /  the  slow  motion  in 
position  angle,  g  the  handle  for  changing  the  separation  of  the 
segments  by  acting  on  the  bevel-wheel  g'  (fig.  10).  h  is  a  milled 
head  connected  by  a  rod  with  h'  (fig.  10),  for  the  purpose  of  inter- 
posing at  pleasure  the  prism  ir  in  the  axis  of  the  reading  micrometer; 
this  enables  the  observer  to  view  the  graduations  on  the  face  of  the 
metallic  thermometer  TT  (composed  of  a  rod  of  brass  and  a  rod  of 
zinc),  i  is  a  milled  head  connected  with  the  wheel  VV  (fig,  10),  and 
affords  the  means  of  placing  the  screen  s  (fig.  9),  counterpoised  by  it) 
over  either  half  of  the  object-glass,  k  clamps  the  telescope  in 
declination,  n  clamps  it  in  right  ascension,  and  the  handles  m 
and  /  provide  slow  motion  in  declination  and  right  ascension 
respectively. 

The  details'of  the  interior  mechanism  of  the  "  head  "  will  be  almost 


1  Description  de  I' observatoire  central  de  Pulkowa,  p.  208. 

1  Steinheil  applied  such  motion  to  a  double-image  micrometer 
made  for  Struve.  This  instrument  suggested  to  Struve  the  above- 
mentioned  idea  of  employing  a  similar  motion  for  the  heliometer. 

3 -Manuel  Johnson,  M.A.,  Radcliffe  observer,  Astronomical  Obser- 
vations made  at  the  Radcliffe  Observatory,  Oxford,  in  the  Year  1830, 
Introduction,  p.  iii. 

4  The  illumination  of  these  scales  is  interesting  as  being  the  first 
application  of  electricity  to  the  illumination  of  astronomical  instru- 
ments. Thin  platinum  wire  was  rendered  incandescent  by  a  voltaic 
current;  a  small  incandescent  electric  lamp  would  now  be  found 
more  satisfactory. 


FIG.  10. 

evident  from  fig.  10  without  description.  The  screw,  turned  by 
the  wheels  at  g  ,  acts  in  a  toothed  arc,  whence,  as  shown  in  the 
figure,  equal  and  opposite  motion  is  communicated  to  the  slides  by 
the  jointed  rods  v ,  v.  The  slides  are  kept  firmly  down  to  their  bear- 
ings by  the  rollers  r,  r,  r,  r,  attached  to  axes  which  are,  in  the  middle, 
very  strong  springs.  Side-shake  is  prevented  by  the  screws  and 
pieces  k,  k,  k,  k.  The  scales  are  at  n,  n;  they  are  fastened  only  at 
the  middle,  and  are  kept  down  by  the  brass  pieces  /,  t. 

A  similar  heliometer  was  made  by  the  Repsolds  to  the  order  of 
Lord  Lindsay  for  his  Mauritius  expedition  in  1874.  It  differed  only 
from  the  three  Russian  instruments  in  having  a  mounting  by  the 
Cookes  in  which  the  declination  circle  reads  from  the  eye-end.6 
This  instrument  was  afterwards  most  generously  lent  by  Lord 
Lindsay  to  Gill  for  his  expedition  to  Ascension  in  1877.' 

These  four  Repsold  heliometers  proved  to  be  excellent  instruments, 


6  For  a  detailed  description  of  this  instrument  see  Dunecht  Publi- 
cations, vol.  ii. 

6  Mem.  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  xlvi.  1-172. 


HELIOMETER 


227 


easy  and  convenient  in  use,  and  yielding  results  of  very  high  accuracy 
in  measuring  distances.  Their  slow  motion  in  position  angle,  how- 
ever, was  not  all  that  could  be  desired.  When  small  movements 


FIG.  n. 


were  communicated  to  the  handle  e  (fig.  9)  by  the  tangent  screw  /, 
actin1"  on  a  small  toothed  wheel  clamped  to  the  rod  connected  with 
the  diving  pinion,  there  was  apt  to  be  a  torsion  of  the  rod  rather 
than  <n  immediate  action.  Thus  the  slow  motion  would  take  place 


the  observer.  This  alteration  and  the  new  equatorial  mounting 
have  been  admirably  made  by  Grubb;  the  result  is  completely 
successful.  The  instrument  so  altered  was  in  use  at  the  Cape 
Observatory  from  March  1881  till  1887  in  deter- 
mining the  parallax  of  some  of  the  more  interesting 
southern  stars.  The  instrument  then  passed,  by 
purchase  from  Gill,  to  Lord  McLaren,  by  whom 
it  was  presented  to  the  Royal  Observatory, 
Edinburgh. 

Still  more  recently  the  Repsolds  have  completed 
a  new  heliometer  for  Yale  College,  New  Haven, 
United  States.  The  object-glass  is  of  6  in.  aper- 
ture and  98  in.  focal  length.  The  mounting,  the 
tube,  objective-cell,  slides,  &c.,  are  all  of  steel.1 
The  instrument  is  shown  in  fig.  II.  The  circles 
for  position  angle  and  declination  are  read  by 
micrometer-microscopes  illuminated  by  the  lamp 
L;  the  scales  are  illuminated  by  the  lamp  /.  T  is 
.  part  of  the  tube  proper,  and  turns  with  the  head. 
The  tube  V,  on  the  contrary,  is  attached  to  the 
cradle,  and  merely  forms  a  support  for  the  finder 
Q,  the  handles  at  /  and  p,  and  the  moving  ring  P. 
The  latter  gives  quick  motion  in  position  angle; 
the  handles  at  p  clamp  and  give  slow  motion  in 
position  angle,  those  at  /  clamp  and  give  slow 
motion  in  right  ascension  and  declination,  a  is 
the  eye-piece,  b  the  handle  for  moving  the  seg- 
ments, c  the  micrometer  microscope  for  reading 
the  scales  and  scale  micrometer,  d  the  micrometer 
readers  of  the  position  and  declination  circles, 
e  the  handle  for  rotating  the  large  wheel  E 
which  carries  the  screens.  The  hour  circle  is 
also  read  by  microscopes,  and  the  instrument 
can  be  used  in  both  positions  (tube  preceding 
and  following)  for  elimination  of  the  effect  of 
flexure  on  the  position  angles.  Elkin  found  that 
the  chief  drawbacks  to  speed  and  convenience 
in  working  this  heliometer  were:  (i)  The  loss 
of  time  involved  in  entering  the  correspond- 
ing readings  of  the  micrometer  pointings  on  two 
scales.  (2)  That  an  additional  motion  inter- 
mediate between  the  quick  and  slow  motion  in 
position  angle  was  necessary,  because,  whilst  the 
slow  motion  provided  by  Repsolds  was  admirably 
adapted  for  adjusting  the  pointings  in  position 
angle,  it  was  too  slow  for  causing  the  images  to 
' '  cross  through ' '  each  other  in  the  process  of  measur- 
ing  distances.  To  remedy  drawback  (i)  Repsolds 
devised  the  form  of  printing  micrometer  which  is  shown  in  figs.  12  and 
13.  This  micrometer  is  provided  with  two  pairs  of  parallel  webs.  One 
fixed  pair  of  webs  is  attached  to  the  micrometer-box,  the  other  pair 
is  moved  by  the  screw  S.  The  whole  micrometer-box  is  moved  b> 


.  jerks  instead  of  with  the  necessary  smoothness  and  certainty. 
When  the  heliometer-part  of  Lord  Lindsay's  heliometer  was  acquired 
by  Gill  in  1879,  he  changed  the  manner  of  imparting  the  motion  in 
question.  A  square  toothed  racked  wheel  was  applied  to  the  tube 
at  r  (fig.  9).  This  wheel  is  acted  on  by  a  tangent  screw  whose  bear- 
ings are  attached  to  the  cradle;  the  screw  is  turned  by  means  of  a 
handle  supported  by  bearings  attached  to  the  cradle,  and  coming 
within  convenient  reach  of  the  observer's  hand.  The  tube  turns 
smoothly  in  the  racked  wheel,  or  can  be  clamped  to  it  at  the  will  of 


FlG.  13. 


the  screw  attached  to  the  heads.  Accordingly,  in  reading  the  scales 
A  and  B  (attached  to  the  slides  which  carry  the  two  halves  of  the 
object-glass),  it  is  only  necessary  to  turn  the  screws  until  the  fixed 

1  The  primary  object  was  to  have  the  object-glass  mounted  in 
steel  cells,  which  more  nearly  correspond  in  expansion  with  glass. 
It  became  then  desirable  to  make  the  head  of  steel  for  sake  of 
uniformity  of  material,  and  the  advantages  of  steel  in  lightness  and 
rigidity  for  the  tube  then  became  evident. 


228 


HELIOMETER 


double  web  is  pointed  symmetrically  on  one  of  the  divisions  of  scale 
A,  then  to  move  the  other  double  web  by  the  screw  S  until  it  is 
symmetrically  pointed  on  the  adjoining  division  of  scale  B.  By 
turning  the  quick  acting  screw  P  (fig.  13)  to  the  right,  the  cushion  C 
(which  is  faced  with  india-rubber)  presses  the  paper 
ribbon  (shown  in  fig.  13)  against  the  index-edge  and 
type-wheels,  and  thus  the  beautifully  cut  divisions  of 
the  micrometer-head,  the  numbers  marking  the  jjj 
parts  of  the  head,  the  index  and  the  total  number  of 
revolutions  are  all  sharply  embossed  together  upon  the 
paper  ribbon.  Fig.  14  shows  the  record  of  several 
successive  paintings  on  the  same  scale  as  that  given  by 
the  micrometer.  The  reverse  motion  of  P  auto- 
matically moves  the  paper  ribbon  forward,  ready  to 
receive  the  next  impression.  It  must  be  mentioned 
that  the  pressure  of  the  cushion  C  on  the  type-wheels 
has  no  influence  whatever  upon  the  micrometer-screw, 
because  the  type-wheels  are  mounted  on  a  hollow 
cylindrical  axis,  concentric  with  the  axis  of  the  screw, 
but  entirely  disconnected  from  the  screw  itself.  The 
only  connexion  between  the  type-wheel  and  the  screw- 
head  S  is  by  the  pin  p  (which  is  screwed  into  S),  the 
cylindrical  end  of  which  acts  in  a  slot  cut  in  the  type- 
wheel.  To  remedy  drawback  (2)  Repsolds  provided 
for  the  Yale  hehometer  an  additional  handle  for 
motion  in  position  angle,  intermediate  in  velocity 
between  the  original  quick  and  slow  motions. 

In  the  y-in.  neliometer,  completed  in  1887  for  the  Royal  Ob- 
servatory at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Repsolds,  on  Gill's  suggestion, 
introduced  the  following  improvements:  (a)  Four  different  speeds 
of  motion  in  position  angle  were  provided.  The  quickest  movement 
is  given  by  the  hand-ring,  73  (fig.  15).  This  ring  runs  between 
friction  wheels  and  is  provided  with  teeth  on  its  inner  periphery, 
and  these  teeth  transmit  motion  to  a  pinion  on  a  spindle  having  at 
its  other  end  another  pinion  which,  through  an  intermediate  wheel, 
rotates  the  heliometer  tube.  The  transmission  spindle,  just  men- 
tioned, carries  at  its  end  a  head,  74,  which,  if  turned  directly,  gives 
the  second  speed.  The  slowest  speed  is  given  by  means  of  a  tangent 
screw  which  is  carried  by  a  ball-bearing  on  the  flange  of  the  telescope- 


~* 


6  -3<S 

r  -as 


0    -00 
'   -M 


FIG.  14. 


(6)  In  lieu  of  oil-lamps,  small,  conveniently  placed  incandescent 
electric  6-vplt  lamps  are  employed;  and  these  are  fitted  with 
suitable  switches  and  variable  resistances.  Thus  the  scales,  the 
position-  and  declination-circles,  the  field  of  view,  the  heads  of  all  the 
micrometer-microscopes,  the  focusing  scale,  &c.,  are  read  without  the 
aid  of  a  hand-lamp  and  with  an  amount  of  illumination  that  can  be 
regulated  at  the  observer's  pleasure. 

(c)  A  button  in  the  centre  of  the  position-angle  handle  (74)  con- 
nects with  a  chronograph  which  enables  the  observer  to  record  the 
instant  of  observation.     Little  card-holders  (81)  (also  illuminated) 
enable  the  astronomer  to  enter  beforehand  the  R.A.  and  Dec.  of  the 
object  to  be  observed,  the  scale  divisions  to  be  pointed  upon,  and 
thus,  in  measures  of  distance,  with  the  aid  of  the  chronograph  and 
printing  micrometer,  enable  the  observer  to  adjust  the  instrument 
for  observation  and  obtain  a  record  of  his  observations  without 
the  aid  of  a  hand-lamp  or  the  necessity  to  make  any  records  in  his 
notebook.     In  observations  of  position  angle  one  of  the  two  tablets 
8 1  can  be  used  to  record  the  readings. 

(d)  The  scales  are  made  of  iridio-platinum  instead  of  silver,  and  the 
magnifying  power  of  the  reading  microscope  is  increased  fourfold 
(viz.  to   100  diameters).     A  special  microscope  is  introduced  for 
determining  the  division  errors  of  the  scales.    It  enables  the  observer 
to  compare  any  division-interval  on  one  half  of  either  scale  with  any 
corresponding  interval  on  the  other  scale.     With  this  apparatus 
Gill    was    enabled    (Annals  Cape    Obs.    vii.    29-42,   and    Monthly 
Notices,  R.A.S.,  xlix.   105-115)  to  determine  the  division  error  of 
every  line  on  both  scales  with  a  probable  error  corresponding  to 


=o"-oO92  arc. 


From  Engineering,  vol.  xlbt. 


FIG.  15. 


sleeve,  whilst  its  nut  is  double- jointed  to  a  ring  that  encircles  the 
flange  of  the  heliometer-tube.  This  ring  is  provided  with  a  clamping 
screw,  which,  through  the  intervention  of  bevel-gear  and  rods,  is 
operated  by  means  of  the  hand-wheel  78.  With  similar  bevel-gear 
and  rods  the  tangent  screw  is  connected  to  the  hand-wheel,  79, 
by  which  the  observer  communicates  the  fourth  or  slowest  motion 
in  position  angle.  Finally  the  hand-wheel  80  is  ^connected  by 
gearing  to  the  rod  carrying  the  hand-wheel  79,  and  it  can  thus  be 
used  to  give  the  latter  a  more  rapid  motion  than  if  used  direct; 
this  constitutes  the  third  speed  of  movement. 


(e)  A  position-micrometer  is  attached  to  the  finder  to  enable  the 
observer  to  select  comparison  stars  for  observation  with  some 
unexpected  object.  Thus  a  comet  may  be  encountered  in  the  morn- 
ing dawn  or  evening  twilight,  and  without  such  an  adjunct  the 
astronomer  may  lose  the  whole  available  opportunity  for  observation 
in  the  vain  endeavour  to  find  a  suitable  comparison-star.  But 
with  such  a  position-micrometer  of  large  field  he  has  no  difficulty. 
Directing  the  finder  to  the  comet,  he  has  at  once  in  the  field  of  view 
all  available  comparison  stars.  Having  selected  the  most  suitable 
one  he  directs  the  axis  of  the  finder  to  the  estimated  middle  point 
between  the  comet  and  the  star,  turns  the  finder-micrometer  in 
position  angle  until  the  images  of  comet  and 
star  lie  symmetrically  between  the  parallel 
position  wires,  and  then  turns  the  micrometer 
screw  (which  moves  the  distance-wires  sym- 
metrically from  the  centre  in  opposite  direc- 
tions) till  one  wire  bisects  the  comet  and  the 
other  the  star.  The  reading  of  the  position- 
circle  of  the  finder  is  then  the  reading  to  which 
the  position-circle  of  the  heliometer  should  be 
set,  and  from  the  readings  of  the  micrometer- 
screw  he  finds,  by  a  convenient  table,  the  proper 
settings  of  the  heliometer  scales  in  distance. 
When  the  scales  and  position-circle  of  the 
heliometer  have  been  set  to  these  readings,  the 
comet  and  the  selected  comparison-star  appear 
together  in  the  field  of  view. 

Fig.  15  shows  the  very  convenient  arrange- 
ment of  the  eye-end  of  the  instrument.  The 
disk,  30  with  its  small  projecting  handle 
enables  the  2  segments  of  the  divided  object 
to  be  moved  rapidly  or  with  any  required 
delicacy  relative  to  each  other.  The  disk  32 
operates  the  wire  gauze  screens  for  equalizing 
the  brightness  of  the  two  stars  under  observa- 
tion. The  dial  between  30  and  32  indicates 
the  screen  in  use.  18  clamps  and  19  gives 
slow  motion  in  declination;  20  clamps  and 
21  gives  slow  motion  in  right  ascension. 
The  two  handles  82  serve  for  manipulating 
the  instrument.  The  microscopes  adjoining  82 
read  the  position  and  declination  circles;  for, 
by  an  ingenious  arrangement  of  prisms  and 
screens,  the  images  of  both  circles  can  be  read 
by  each  single  microscope  as  shown  in  fig.  16, 
thus  avoiding  the  necessity  for  the  employ- 
ment of  two  additional  micrometers. 

Experience  has  shown  that  there  is  little 
that  can  be  advantageously  changed  to  im- 
prove this  instrument  either  in  convenience  or 
precision  of  working.  A  series  of  observa- 
tions can  be  easily  and  more  accurately  ac- 
complished with  the  Cape  heliometer  in  half  an  hour;  with 
the  Oxford  heliometer  it  would  occupy  2  hours,  and  with  the  4-in. 
Repsold  heliometer  (fig.  9)  I  hour.  Heliometers  of  6  to  8  in. 
aperture  have  subsequently  been  constructed  by  Repsolds  on 
these  plans  for  Gottingen,  Bamberg,  Leipzig  and  the  Kuffner  Ob- 
servatory (near  Vienna),  and  all  of  them  have  made  important 
contributions  to  astronomy  of  precision. 

Heliometer  observations  of  distance  in  their  most  refined  sense 
cannot  be  considered  absolute  measures  of  angles.  Essentially  the 
scale-value  of  the  instrument  depends  on  the  relation  of  the  focal 


HELIOMETER 


229 


Cmit  ofpou 


Crclt  of  didmalm 


From  Engintfring,  vol.  xlL\. 

FlG.  16. 


length  of  the  object-glass  to  the  length  of  the  unit  of  the  scale.  But 
the  eye  is  tolerant  of  small  changes  in  the  focal  adjustment  which  sensibly 
affect  the  scale-value.  These  changes  may  and  do  arise  from  the 
following  causes:  (i.)  The  focal  length  of  the  object-glass  and  the 
length  of  the  tube  are  affected  by  temperature,  (ii.)  The  focal  length 
is  sensibly  different  for  objects  of  different  colour,  (iii.)  The  length 
of  the  scale  is  affected  by  temperature,  (iv.)  The  state  of  adaptation 

of  the  observer's 
eye  is  dependent 
on  his  state  of 
health,  on  a  con- 
dition of  greater 
or  less  fatigue,  or 
on  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  head 
inconsequenceof 
the  altitude  of 
the  object  ob- 
served, (v.)  The 
temperature  of 
the  object-glass, 
of  the  scale  and 
of  the  tube,  can- 
not be  assumed 
to  be  identical. 
Thus,  for  re- 
fined purposes,  it 
cannot  be  as- 
sumed with  any 
certainty  that 
the  instantane- 
ous scale-value 
of  the  heliometer 

is  known,  or  that  it  is  a  function  of  the  temperature.  Of  course, 
for  many  purposes,  mean  conditions  may  be  adopted  and  mean 
scale-values  be  found  which  are  applicable  with  considerable  pre- 
cision to  small  angles  or  to  comparatively  crude  observations  of 
large  distances;  but  the  highest  refinement  is  lost  unless  means 
are  provided  for  determining  the  scale-value  for  each  observer  at 
each  epoch  of  observation. 

In  determinations  of  stellar  or  solar  parallax,  comparison  stars, 
symmetrically  situated  with  respect  to  the  object  whose  parallax 
is  sought,  should  be  employed,  in  which  case  the  instantaneous 
scale-value  may  be  regarded  as  an  unknown  quantity  which  can  be 
derived  in  the  process  of  the  computation  of  the  results.  Examples 
of  this  mode  of  procedure  will  be  found,  in  the  case  of  stellar  parallax 
in  the  Mem.  R.A.S.  vol.  xlviii.  pp.  1-194,  an.d  in  the  Annals  of  the 
Cape  Observatory,  vol.  viii.  parts  I  and  2 ;  and  in  the  case  of  planetary 
parallax  in  the  Mem.  R.A.S.  vol.  xlvi.  pp.  1-171,  and  in  the  Annals 
of  the  Cape  Observatory,  vol.  vi.  In  other  operations,  such  as  the 
triangulation  of  large  groups  of  stars,  it  is  necessary  to  select  a  pair 
of  standard  stars,  if  possible  near  the  middle  of  the  group,  and  to 
determine  the  scale-value  by  measures  of  this  standard  distance  at 
frequent  intervals  during  the  night  (see  Annals  of  the  Cape  Ob- 
servatory, vol.  vi.  pp.  3-224).  In  other  cases,  such  as  the  measure- 
ment of  the  mutual  distances  and  position  angles  of  the  satellites 
of  Jupiter,  for  derivation  of  the  elements  of  the  orbits  of  the  satellites 
and  the  mass  of  Jupiter,  reference  must  also  be  made  to  measures 
of  standard  stars  whose  relative  distance  and  position  angle  is 
accurately  determined  by  independent  methods  (see  Annals  of  the 
Cape  Observatory,  vol.  xii.  part  2). 

Gill  introduced  a  powerful  auxiliary  to  the  accuracy  of  helio- 
meter measures  in  the  shape  of  a  reversing  prism  placed  in  front 
of  the  eye-piece,  between  the  latter  and  the  observer's  eye.  If 
measures  are  made  by  placing  the  image  of  a  star  in  the  centre 
of  the  disk  of  a  planet,  the  observer  may  have  a  tendency  to  do  so 
systematically  in  error  from  some  acquired  habit  or 
from  natural  astigmatism  of  the  eye.  But  by  rotating 
the  prism  90°  the  image  is  presented  entirely  reversed 
to  the  eye,  so  that  in  the  mean  of  measures  made  in 
two  such  positions  personal  error  is  eliminated.  Simi- 
rlarly  the  prism  may  be  used  for  the  study  and  elim- 
"'  ination  of  personal  errors  depending  on  the  angle  made 

J*  by  a  double  star  with  the  vertical.     The  best  plan  of 

FIG  17  mounting  such  a  prism  has  been  found  to  be  the 
•'  _  following.  P-,  P  (fig.  17)  are  the  eye  lens  and  field 
lens  respectively  of  a  Merz  positive  eye-piece.  In  this  construction 
the  lenses  are  much  closer  together  and  the  diaphragm  for  the  eye 
is  much  farther  from  the  lenses  than  in  Ramsden's  eye-piece.  The 
prism  p  is  fitted  accurately  into  brass  slides  (care  has  to  be  taken  in 
the  construction  to  place  the  prism  so  that  an  object  in  the  centre 
of  the  field  will  so  remain  when  the  eye-piece  is  rotated  in  its  adapter). 
There  is  a  collar,  clamped  by  the  screw  at  S,  which  is  so  adjusted 
that  the  eye-piece  is  in  focus  when  pushed  home,  in  its  adapter,  to 
this  collar.  The  prism  and  eye-piece  are  then  rotated  together  in 
the  adapter. 

.  The  Double  Image  Micrometer. — Thomas  Clausen  in  1841  (Ast. 
Nach.  No.  414)  proposed  a  form  of  micrometer  consisting  of  a 
divided  plate  of  parallel  glass  placed  within  the  cone  of  rays  from 
the  object-glass  at  right  angles  to  the  telescope  axis.  One-half  of 


this  plane  remains  fixed,  the  other  half  is  movable.  When  the  in- 
clination of  the  movable  half  with  respect  to  the  axis  of  the  telescope 
is  changed  by  rotation  about  an  axis  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of 
division,  two  images  are  produced.  The  amount  ot  separation  is 
very  small,  and  depends  on  the  thickness  of  the  glass,  the  index  of 
refraction  and  the  focal  length  of  the  telescope.  Angelo  Secchi 
(Comptes  rendus,  xli.,  1855,  p.  906)  gives  an  account  of  some  ex- 
periments with  a  similar  micrometer;  and  Ignarjio  Porro  (Comptes 
rendus,  xli.  p.  1058)  claims  the  original  invention  and  construction 
of  such  a  micrometer  in  1842.  Clausen,  however,  has  undoubted 
priority.  Helmholtz  in  his  "  Ophthalmometer "  has  employed 
Clausen's  principle,  but  arranges  the  plates  so  that  both  move  sym- 
metrically in  opposite  directions  with  respect  to  the  telescope  axis. 
Should  Clausen  s  micrometer  be  employed  as  an  astronomical 
instrument,  it  would  be  well  to  adopt  the  improvement  of  Helmholtz. 

Double-Image  Micrometers  with  Divided  Lenses. — Various  micro- 
meters have  been  invented  besides  the  heliometer  for  measuring  by 
double  image.  Ramsden's  dioptric  micrometer  consists  of  a  divided 
lens  placed  in  the  conjugate  focus  of  the  innermost  lens  of  the  erecting 
eye-tube  of  a  terrestrial  telescope.  The  inventor  claimed  that  it 
would  supersede  the  heliometer,  but  it  has  never  done  anything  for 
astronomy.  Dollond  claims  the  independent  invention  and  first 
construction  of  a  similar  instrument  (Pearson's  Practical  Astronomy, 
ii.  182).  Of  these  and  kindred  instruments  only  two  types  have 
proved  of  practical  value.  G.  B.  Amici  of  Modena  (Mem.  Sac. 
Ital.  xvii.,  1815,  pp.  344-359)  describes  a  micrometer  in  which  a 
negative  lens  is  introduced  between  the  eye-piece  and  the  object- 
glass.  This  lens  is  divided  and  mounted  like  a  heliometer  object- 
glass;  the  separation  of  the  lenses  produces  the  required  double 
image,  and  is  measured  by  a  screw.  W.  R.  Dawes  very  successfully 
used  this  micrometer  in  conjunction  with  a  filar  micrometer,  and 
found  that  the  precision  of  the  measures  was  in  this  way  greatly 
increased  (Monthly  Notices,  vol.  xviii.  p.  58,  and  Mem.  R.A.S.  vol. 
xxxv.  p.  147). 

In  the  improved  form1  of  Airy's  divided  eye-glass  micrometer 
(Mem.  R.A.S.  vol.  xv.  pp.  199-209)  the  rays  from  the  object-glass 
pass  successively  through  lenses  as  follows: 


Lens. 

Distance  from 
next  Lens. 

Focal  Length. 

a.  An  equiconvex  lens 
b.             „             „          .        .        . 
c.  Plano-convex,convex  towards  b 
d.  Plano-convex.convex  towards  c 

P 

2 
If 

arbitrary  =  p 

5 
I 
I 

The  lens  6  is  divided,  and  one  of  the  segments  is  moved  by  a  micro- 
meter screw.  The  magnifying  power  is  varied  by  changing  the  lens  a 
for  another  in  which  p  has  a  different  value.  The  magnifying  power 
of  the  eye-piece  is  that  of  a  single  lens  of  focus  =  \p. 

In  1850  J.  B.  Valz  pointed  out  that  the  other  optical  conditions 
could  be  equally  satisfied  if  the  divided  lens  were  made  concave 
instead  of  convex,  with  the  advantage  of  giving  a  larger  field  of  view 
(Monthly  Notices,  vol.  x.  p.  160). 

The  last  improvement  on  this  instrument  is  .mentioned  in  the 
Report  of  the  R.A.S.  council,  February  1865.  It  consists  in  the 
introduction  by  Simms  of  a  fifth  lens,  but  no  satisfactory  descrip- 
tion has  ever  appeared.  There  is  only  one  practical  published 
investigation  of  Airy's  micrometer  that  is  worthy  of  mention, 
viz.  that  of  F.  Kaiser  (Annalen  der  Sternwarte  in  Leiden,  iii. 
111-274).  The  reader  is  referred  to  that  paper  for  an  exhaustive 
history  and  discussion  of  the  intrument.2  It  is  somewhat  surprising 
that,  after  Kaiser's  investigations,  observers  should  continue,  as 
many  have  done,  to  discuss  their  observations  with  this  instrument 
as  if  the  screw-value  were  constant  for  all  angles. 


1  For  description  of  the  earliest  form  see  Cambridge  Phil.  Trans. 
vol.  ii.,  and  Greenwich  Observations  (1840). 

2  Dawes  (Monthly  Notices,  January  1858,  and  Mem.  R.A.S.  vol. 
xxxy.  p.  150)  suggested  and  used  a  valuable  improvement  for  pro- 
ducing round  images,  instead  of  the  elongated  images  which  are 
otherwise  inevitable  when  the  rays  pass  through  a  divided  lens  of 
which  the  optical  centres  are  not  in  coincidence,  viz.  "  the  intro- 
duction of  a  diaphragm  having  two  circular  apertures  touching  each 
other  in  a  point  coinciding  with  the  line  of  collimation  of  the  telescope, 
and  the  diameter  of  each  aperture  exactly  equal  to  the  semidiameter 
of  the  cone  of  rays  at  the  distance  of  the  diaphragm  from  the  focal 
point  of  the  object-glass."     Practically  the  difficulty  of  making 
these  diaphragms  for  the  different  powers  of  the  exact  required 
equality  is  insuperable;  but,  if  the  observer  is  content  to  lose  a 
certain  amount  of  light,  we  see  no  reason  why  they  may  not  readily 
be  made  slightly  less.    Dawes  found  the  best  method  for  the  purpose 
in  question  was  to  limit  the  aperture  of  the  object-glass  by  a  dia- 
phragm having  a  double  circular  aperture,  placing  the  line  joining 
the  centres  of  the  circles  approximately  in  the  position  angle  under 
measurement.     Dawes  successfully  employed  the  double  circular 
aperture  also  with  Amici's  micrometer.     The  present  writer  has 
successfully  used  a  similar  plan  in  measuring  position  angles  of  a 
Centauri  with  the  heliometer,  viz.  by  placing  circular  diaphragms 
on  the  two  segments  of  the  object-glass. 


230 


HELIOPOLIS— HELIOSTAT 


Steinheil  (Journal  savant  de  Munich,  Feb.  28,  1843)  describes 
a  "  heliometre-oculaire  "  which  he  made  for  the  great  Pulkowa 
refractor,  the  result  of  consultations  between  himself  and  the  elder 
Struve.  It  is  essentially  the  same  in  principle  as  Amici's  micro- 
meter, except  that  the  divided  lens  is  an  achromatic  positive  instead 
of  a  negative  lens.  Struve  (Description  de  I'Obsenjatoire  Central  de 
Pulkowa,  pp.  196,  197)  adds  a  few  remarks  to  Steinheil's  description, 
in  which  he  states  that  the  images  have  not  all  desirable  precision — 
a  fault  perhaps  inevitable  in  all  micrometers  with  divided  lenses, 
and  which  is  probably  in  this  case  aggravated  by  the  fact  that  the 
rays  falling  upon  the  divided  lens  have  considerable  convergence. 
He,  however,  successfully  employed  the  instrument  in  measuring 
double  stars,  so  close  as  I  *  or  2",  and  using  a  power  of  300  diameters, 
with  results  that  agreed  satisfactorily  amongst  themselves  and  with 
those  obtained  with  the  filar  micrometer.  If  Struve  had  employed 
a  properly  proportioned  double  circular  diaphragm,  fixed  symmetric- 
ally with  the  axis  of  the  telescope  in  front  of  the  divided  lens  and 
turning  with  the  micrometer,  it  is  probable  that  his  report  on  the 
instrument  would  have  been  still  more  favourable.  This  particular 
instrument  has  historical  interest,  having  led  Struve  to  some  of  those 
criticisms  of  the  Pulkowa  heliometer  which  ultimately  bore  such 
valuable  fruit  (see  ante). 

Ramsden  (Phil.  Trans,  vol.  xix.  p.  419)  suggested  the  division 
of  the  small  speculum  of  a  Cassegrain  telescope  and  the  production 
of  double  image  by  micrometric  rotation  of  the  semispecula  in  the 
plane  passing  through  their  axis.  Brewster  (Ency.  Brit.  8th  ed. 
vol.  xiv.  p.  749)  proposed  a  plan  on  a  like  principle,  by  dividing  the 
plane  mirror  of  a  Newtonian  telescope.  Again,  in  an  ocular  helio- 
meter by  Steinheil  double  image  is  similarly  produced  by  a  divided 
prism  of  total  reflection  placed  in  parallel  rays.  But  practically 
these  last  three  methods  are  failures.  In  the  last  the  field  is  full  of 
false  light,  and  it  is  not  possible  to  give  sufficiently  minute  and  steady 
separation  to  the  images;  and  there  are  of  necessity  a  collimator, 
two  prisms  of  total  reflection,  and  a  small  telescope  through  which 
the  rays  must  pass;  consequently  there  is  great  loss  of  light. 

Micrometers  Depending  on  Double  Refraction. — To  the  Abb6 
Rochon  (Jour,  de  phys.  liii.,  1801,  pp.  169-198)  is  due  the  happy 
idea  of  applying  the  two  images  formed  by  double  refraction  to  the 
construction  of  a  micrometer.  He  fell  upon  a  most  ingenious  plan  of 
doubling  the  amount  of  double  refraction  of  a  prism  by  using  two 
prisms  of  rock-crystal,  so  cut  out  of  the  solid  as  to  give  each  the 
same  quantity  of  double  refraction,  and  yet  to  double  the  quantity 
in  the  effect  produced.  The  combination  so  formed  is  known  as 
Rochon's  prism.  Such  a  prism  he  placed  between  the  object-glass 
and  eye-piece  of  a  telescope.  The  separation  of  the  images  increases 
as  the  prism  is  approached  to  the  object-glass,  and  diminishes  as  it 
is  approached  towards  the  eye-piece. 

D.  F.  J.  Arago  (Comptes  rendus,  xxiv.,  1847,  pp.  400-402)  found 
that  in  Rochon's  micrometer,  when  the  prism  was  approached  close  to 
the  eye-piece  for  the  measurement  of  very  small  angles,  the  smallest 
imperfections  in  the  crystal  or  its  surfaces  were  inconveniently 
magnified.  He  therefore  selected  for  any  particular  measurement 
such  a  Rochon  prism  as  when  fixed  between  the  eye  and  the  eye- 
piece (i.e.  where  a  sunshade  is  usually  placed)  would,  combined  with 
the  normal  eye-piece  employed,  bring  the  images  about  to  be 
measured  nearly  in  contact.  He  then  altered  the  magnifying  power 
by  sliding  the  field  lens  of  the  eye-piece  (which  was  fitted  with  a 
slipping  tube  for  the  purpose)  along  the  eye-tube,  till  the  images 
were  brought  into  contact.  By  a  scale  attached  to  the  sliding  tube 
the  magnifying  power  of  the  eye-piece  was  deduced,  and  this  com- 
bined with  the  angle  of  the  prism  employed  gave  the  angle  measured. 


FIG.  18. 


FIG.  19. 


If  p*  is  the  refracting  angle  of  the  prism,  and  n  the  magnifying  power 
of  the  eye-piece,  then  p"/n  will  be  the  distance  observed.  Arago 
made  many  measures  of  the  diameters  of  the  planets  with  such  a 
micrometer. 

Dollond  (Phil.  Trans.,  1821,  pp.  101-103)  describes  a  double- 
image  micrometer  of  his  own  invention,  in  which  a  sphere  of  rock- 
crystal  is  substituted  for  the  eye-lens  of  an  ordinary  eye-piece.  In 
this  instrument  (figs.  1 8,  19)  a  is  the  sphere,  placed  in  half-holes  on 
the  axis  bb,  so  that  when  its  principal  axis  is  parallel  to  the  axis  of 
the  telescope  it  gives  only  one  image  of  the  object.  In  a  direction 
perpendicular  to  that  axis  it  must  be  so  placed  that  when  it  is 
moved  by  rotation  of  the  axis  bb  the  separation  of  the  images  shall 
be  parallel  to  that  motion.  The  angle  of  rotation  is  measured  on 


|  the  graduated  circle  C.  The  angle  between  the  objects  measured 
is  =  r  sin  28,  where  r  is  a  constant  to  be  determined  for  each  magni- 
fying power  employed,1  and  6  the  angle  through  which  the  sphere 
has  been  turned  from  zero  (i.e.  from  coincidence  of  its  principal 
axis  with  that  of  the  telescope).  The  maximum  separation  is  conse- 
quently at  45°  from  zero.  The  measures  can  be  made  on  both  sides 
of  zero  for  eliminating  index  error.  There  are  considerable  difficulties 
of  construction,  but  these  have  been  successfully  overcome  by 
Dollond ;  and  in  the  hands  of  Dawes  (Mem.  R.A.S.  xxxv.  p.  144  seq.) 
such  instruments  have  done  valuable  service.  They  are  liable  to 
the  objection  that  their  employment  is  limited  to  the  measurement 
of  very  small  angles,  viz.  13"  or  14*  when  the  magnifying  power  is 
100,  and  varying  inversely  as  the  power.  Yet  the  beautiful  images 
which  these  micrometers  give  permit  the  measurement  of  very 
difficult  objects  as  a  check  on  measures  with  the  parallel-wire 
micrometer. 

On  the  theory  of  the  heliometer  and  its  use  consult  Bessel,  Astrono- 
mische  Untersuchungen,  vol.  i. ;  Hansen,  Ausfuhrliche  Methode  mil 
dem  Fraunhoferschen  Heliometer  anzustellen  (Gptha,  1827);  Chau- 
venet,  Spherical  and  Practical  Astronomy,  vol.  ii.  (Philadelphia  and 
London,  1876);  Seeliger,  Theorie  des  Heliometers  (Leipzig,  1877); 
Lindsay  and  Gill,  Dunecht  Publications,  vol.  ii.  (Dunecht,  for  private 
circulation,  1877);  Gill,  Mem.  R.A.S.  vol.  xlvi.  pp.  1-172,  and 
references  mentioned  in  the  text.  (D.  Gl.) 

HELIOPOLIS,  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  Egypt,  met 
with  in  the  Bible  under  its  native  name  On.  It  stood  5  m.  E. 
of  the  Nile  at  the  apex  of  the  Delta.  It  was  the  principal  seat 
of  sun-worship,  and  in  historic  times  its  importance  was  entirely 
religious.  There  appear  to  have  been  two  forms  of  the  sun-god 
at  Heliopolis  in  the  New  Kingdom — namely,  Ra-Harakht,  or 
Re'-Harmakhis,  falcon-headed,  and  Etom,  human-headed; 
the  former  was  the  sun  in  his  mid-day  strength,  the  latter  the 
evening  sun.  A  sacred  bull  was  worshipped  here  under  the  name 
Mnevis  (Eg.  Mreu),  and  was  especially  connected  with  Etom. 
The  sun-god  Re'  (see  EGYPT:  Religion)  was  especially  the  royal 
god,  the  ancestor  of  all  the  Pharaohs,  who  therefore  held  the 
temple  of  Heliopolis  in  great  honour.  Each  dynasty  might 
give  the  first  place  to  the  god  of  its  residence — Ptah  of  Memphis, 
Ammon  of  Thebes,  Neith  of  Sais,  Bubastis  of  Bubastis,  but  all 
alike  honoured  Re'.  His  temple  became  in  a  special  degree  a 
depository  for  royal  records,  and  Herodotus  states  that  the 
priests  of  Heliopolis  were  the  best  informed  in  matters  of  history 
of  all  the  Egyptians.  The  schools  of  philosophy  and  astronomy 
are  said  to  have  been  frequented  by  Plato  and  other  Greek 
philosophers;  Strabo,  however,  found  them  deserted,  and  the 
town  itself  almost  uninhabited,  although  priests  were  still  there, 
and  cicerones  for  the  curious  traveller.  The  Ptolemies  probably 
took  little  interest  in  their  "  father  "  Re',  and  Alexandria  had 
eclipsed  the  learning  of  Heliopolis;  thus  with  the  withdrawal 
of  royal  favour  Heliopolis  quickly  dwindled,  and  the  students 
of  native  lore  deserted  it  for  other  temples  supported  by  a 
wealthy  population  of  pious  citizens.  In  Roman  times  obelisks 
were  taken  from  its  temples  to  adorn  the  northern  cities  of  the 
Delta,  and  even  across  the  Mediterranean  to  Rome.  Finally 
the  growth  of  Fostat  and  Cairo,  only  6  m.  to  the  S.W.,  caused 
the  ruins  to  be  ransacked  for  building  materials.  The  site  was 
known  to  the  Arabs  as  'Ayin  esh  shems,  "  the  fountain  of  the 
sun,"  more  recently  as  Tel  Hisn.  It  has  now  been  brought  for 
the  most  part  under  cultivation,  but  the  ancient  city  walls  of 
crude  brick  are  to  be  seen  in  the  fields  on  all  sides,  and  the  position 
of  the  great  temple  is  marked  by  an  obelisk  still  standing  (the 
earliest  known,  being  one  of  a  pair  set  up  by  Senwosri  I.,  the 
second  king  of  the  Twelfth  Dynasty)  and  a  few  granite  blocks 
bearing  the  name  of  Rameses  II. 

See  Strabo  xvii.  cap.  I.  27-28;  Baedeker's  Egypt.      (F.  LL.  G.) 

HELIOSTAT  (from  Gr.  rjXtoj,  the  sun,  or  arcs,  fixed,  set  up), 
an  instrument  which  will  reflect  the  rays  of  the  sun  in  a  fixed 
direction  notwithstanding  the  motion  of  the  sun.  The  optical 
apparatus  generally  consists  of  a  mirror  mounted  on  an  axis 
parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  earth,  and  rotated  with  the  same 
angular  velocity  as  the  sun.  This  construction  assumes  that  the 
sun  describes  daily  a  small  circle  about  the  pole  of  the  celestial 
sphere,  and  ignores  any  diurnal  variation  in  the  declination. 
This  variation  is,  however,  so  small  that  it  can  be  neglected  for 
most  purposes. 

1  Dollond  provides  for  changing  the  power  by  sliding  the  lens  d 
nearer  to  or  farther  from  a. 


HELIOTROPE 


231 


FIG.  i. 


Many  forms  of  heliostats  have  been  devised,  the  earliest  having 
been  described  by  Wilhelm  Jacob  s'Gravesande  in  the  3rd  edition 
of  his  Physices  elementa  (1742).  One  of  the  simplest  consists  of  a 
plane  mirror  rigidly  connected  with  a 
revolving  axis  so  that  the  angle  be- 
tween the  normal  to  the  mirror  and 
the  axis  of  the  instrument  equals  half 
the  sun's  polar  distance,  the  mirror 
being  adjusted  so  that  the  normal  has 
the  same  right  ascension  as  the  sun. 
It  is  easily  seen  that  if  the  mirror  be 
rotated  at  the  same  angular  velocity  as 
the  sun  the  right  ascensions  will  re- 
main equal  throughout  the  day,  and 
therefore  this  device  reflects  the  rays 
in  the  direction  of  the  earth's  axis;  a 
second  fixed  mirror  reflects  them  in 
any  other  fixed  direction.  Foucault's 
heliostat  reflects  the  rays  horizontally 
in  any  required  direction.  The  principle 
of  the  apparatus  may  be  explained 
by  reference  to  fig.  I.  The  axis  of  rotation  AB  bears  a  rigidly 
attached  rod  DEC  inclined  to  it  at  an  angle  equal  to  the  sun's  polar 
distance.  By  adjusting  the  right  ascension  of  the  plane  ABC  and 
rotating  the  axis  with  the  angular  velocity  of  the  sun,  it  follows  that 
BC  will  be  the  direction  of  the  solar  rays 
throughout  the  day.  X  is  the  mirror 
rotating  about  the  point  E,  and  placed  so 
that  (if  EB  is  the  horizontal  direction  in 
which  the  rays  are  to  be  reflected)  (i)  the 
normal  CE  to  the  mirror  is  jointed  to  BC 
at  C  and  is  equal  in  length  to  BE,  (2)  the 
rod  DEC  passes  through  a  slot  in  a  rod  ED 
fixed  to,  and  in  the  plane  of,  the  mirror. 
Since  CE  equals  BE  these  directions  are 
equally  inclined  to,  and  coplanar  with,  the 
normal  to  the  mirror.  Hence  light  incident 
along  the  direction  BC  will  be  reflected 
along  CE.  Silbermann's  heliostat  reflects 
the  rays  in  any  direction.  The  principle 
may  be  explained  by  means  of  fig.  2.  AB 
is  the  axis  of  rotation,  BC  an  adjustable 
rod  as  in  Foucault's  constiuction,  and 
can  be  set  to  the  direction  in  which 
reflected.  The  rods  BC  and  DB  carry  two 


FIG.  2. 

BD  is  another  rod  which 
rays  are 


the  rays  are  to  be 

small  rods  EF,  GF  jointed  at  F;  at  this  joint  there  is  a  pin  which 

slides  in  a  slot  on  the  rod  BH,  which  is  normal  to  the  mirror  X.    The 


From  Jamin  and  Bouty,  Cours  de  physique,  Gauthier-Villare. 

FIG.  3. — Silbermann's  Heliostat. 

rods  EF,  GF  are  such  that  BEFG  is  a  rhombus.  It  is  easy  to  show 
that  rays  falling  on  the  mirror  in  the  direction  BC  will  be  reflected 
along  BD.  One  construction  of  the  instrument,  described  in  Jamin's 
Cows  de  physique,  is  shown  in  fig.  3.  The  mirror  mm  is  attached 


to  the  framework  pafe,  the  members  of  which  are  parallel  to  the 
incident  and  reflected  rays  SO,  OR,  and  the  diagonal  pf  is  per- 
pendicular to  the  mirror.  The  framework  is  attached  to  two  inde- 
pendent circular  arcs  Cs  and  rr'  having  their  centres  at  O  and  provided 
with  clamps  D  and  A  on  the  axis  F  of  the  instrument.  The  arc  Cs 
is  graduated,  and  is  set  so  that  the  angle  COD  equals  the  complement 
of  the  sun's  declination.  ^This  can  be  effected  (after  setting  the  axis) 
by  rotating  Cs  until  a  needle  indicates  true  time  on  the  hour  dial  B. 
The  arc  rr  is  set  so  as  to  reflect  the  rays  in  the  required  direction. 
The  axis  F  of  the  instrument  is  set  at  an  angle  equal  to  the  latitude 
of  the  place  of  observation  and  in  the  meridian  by  means  of  the  screw 
K,  and  rotated  by  clockwork  contained  in  the  barrel  H.  The  setting 
in  the  meridian  is  effected  by  turning  the  instrument  after  setting 
for  latitude  until  a  pin-hole  aperture  s  and  a  small  screen  P,  placed 
so  that  Pi  is  parallel  to  CO,  are  in  a  line  with  the  sun. 

Many  other  forms  of  heliostats  have  been  designed,  the  chief 
difference  consisting  in  the  mechanical  devices  for  maintaining  the 
constant  direction  of  the  reflecting  ray.  One  of  the  most  important 
applications  of  the  heliostat  is  as  an  adjunct  to  the  newer  forms  of 
horizontal  telescopes  (q.v.)  and  in  conjunction  with  spectroscopic 
telescopes  in  observations  of  eclipses. 


HELIOTROPE,  or  TURNSOLE,  Heliolropium  (Gr. 
i.e.  a  plant  which  follows  the  sun  with  its  flowers  or  leaves,  or, 
according  to  Theophrastus  (Hist,  plant,  vii.  15),  which  flowers 
at  the  summer  solstice),  a  genus  of  usually  more  or  less  hairy 
herbs  or  undershrubs  of  the  tribe  Heliolropieae  of  the  natural 
order  Boraginaceae,  having  alternate,  rarely  almost  opposite 
leaves;  small  white,  lilac  or  blue  flowers,  in  terminal  or  lateral 
one-sided  simple  or  once  or  twice 
forked  spikes,  with  a  calyx  of  five 
deeply  divided  segments,  a  salver- 
shaped,  hypogynous,  5-lobed  corolla, 
and  entire  4-celled  ovary;  fruit  2- 
to  4-sulcate  or  lobed,  at  length 
separable  into  four  i  -seeded  nutlets 
or  into  two  hard  2-celled  carpels. 
The  genus  contains  220  species 
indigenous  in  the  temperate  and 
warmer  parts  of  both  hemispheres. 
A  few  species  are  natives  of  Europe, 
as  H.  europaeum,  which  is  also  a 
naturalized  species  in  the  southern 
parts  of  North  America. 

The  common  heliotrope  of  English 
hothouses,  H.  peruvianum,  popularly 
known  as  "  cherry-pie,"  is  on 
account  of  the  delicious  odour  of 
its  flowers  a  great  favourite  with 
florists.  It  was  introduced  into 
Europe  by  the  younger  Jussieu, 
who  sent  seed  of  it  from  Peru 
to  the  royal  garden  at  Paris.  About  the  year  1757  it 
was  grown  in  England  by  Philip  Miller  from  seed  obtained 
from  St  Germains.  H.  corymbosum  (also  a  native  of  Peru), 
which  was  grown  in  Hammersmith  nurseries  as  early  as  1812, 
has  larger  but  less  fragant  flowers  than  H.  peruvianum.  The 
species  commonly  grown  in  Russian  gardens  is  H.  suaveolens, 
which  has  white,  highly  fragrant  flowers. 

Heliotropes  may  be  propagated  either  from  seed,  or,  as 
commonly,  by  means  of  cuttings  of  young  growths  taken  an 
inch  or_two  in  length.  Cuttings  when  sufficiently  ripened,  are 
struck  in  spring  or  during  the  summer  months;  when  rooted 
they  should  be  potted  singly  into  small  pots,  using  as  a  compost 
fibry  loam,  sandy  peat  and  well-decomposed  stable  manure 
from  an  old  hotbed.  The  plants  soon  require  to  be  shifted  into 
a  pot  a  size  larger.  To  secure  early-flowering  plants,  cuttings 
should  be  struck  in  August,  potted  off  before  winter  sets  in,  and 
kept  in  a  warm  greenhouse.  In  the  spring  larger  pots  should 
be  given,  and  the  plants  shortened  back  to  make  them  bushy. 
They  require  frequent  shiftings  during  the  summer,  to  induce 
them  to  bloom  freely. 

The  heliotrope  makes  an  elegant  standard.  The  plants  must 
in  this  case  be  allowed  to  send  up  a  central  shoot,  and  all  the 
side  growths  must  be  pinched  off  until  the  necessary  height  is 
reached,  when  the  shoot  must  be  stopped  and  lateral  growths 
will  be  produced  to  form  the  head.  During  winter  they  should 


Heliotropium  suaveolens. 


232 


HELIOZOA 


be  kept  somewhat  dry,  and  in  spring  the  ball  of  soil  should  be 
reduced  and  the  plants  repotted,  the  shoots  being  slightly 
pruned,  so  as  to  maintain  a  symmetrical  head.  When  they 
are  planted  out  against  the  walls  and  pillars  of  the  greenhouse 
or  conservatory  an  abundance  of  highly  perfumed  blossoms 
will  be  supplied  all  the  year  round.  Fcom  the  end  of  May  till 
October  heliotropes  are  excellent  for  massing  in  beds  in  the 
open  air  by  themselves  or  with  other  plants.  Many  florists' 
varieties  of  the  common  heliotrope  are  known  in  cultivation. 

Pliny  (Nat.  hist.  xxii.  29)  distinguishes  two  kinds  of  "  helio- 
tropium,"  the  tricoccum,  and  a  somewhat  taller  plant,  the 
helioscopium;  the  former,  it  has  been  supposed,  is  Croton 
tinctorium,  and  the  latter  the  TJKiOTpbniov  piKpov  of  Dioscorides 
or  Heliotropium  europaeum.  The  helioscopium,  according  to 
Pliny,  was  variously  employed  in  medicine;  thus  the  juice  of 
the  leaves  with  salt  served  for  the  removal  of  warts,  whence 
the  term  herba  iierrucaria  applied  to  the  plant.  What,  from  the 
perfume  of  its  flowers,  is  sometimes  called  winter  heliotrope, 
is  the  fragrant  butterbur,  or  sweet-scented  coltsfoot,  Petasites 
(Tussilago)  fragrans,  a  perennial  Composite  plant. 

HELIOTROPE,  in  mineralogy,  is  the  mineral  commonly  called 
"  bloodstone  "  (q.v.),  and  sometimes  termed  girasol — a  name 
applied  also  to  fire-opal.  The  name,  like  those  of  many  ancient 
names  of  minerals,  seems  to  have  had  a  fanciful  origin.  According 
to  Pliny  the  stone  was  so  called  because  when  thrown  into  the 
water  it  turned  the  sun's  light  falling  upon  it  into  a  reflection 
like  that  of  blood. 

HELIOZOA,  in  zoology,  a  group  of  the  Sarcodina  (q.v.)  so 
named  by  E.  Haeckel,  1866.  They  are  characterized  by  the 
radiate  pseudopods,  finely  tapering  at  the  apex,  springing 
abruptly  from  the  superficial  protoplasm,  containing  a  denser, 
rather  permanent  axial  rod  (figs,  i  (i),  2  (2);  protoplasm  without 
a  clear  ectoplasm  or  pellicle,  often  frothy  with  large  vacuoles, 
like  the  alveoli  of  Radiolaria;  nucleus  i  or  numerous;  skeleton 
absent,  gelatinous  or  of  separate  siliceous  fibres,  plates  or 
spicules,  rarely  complete  and  latticed;  reproduction  by  simple 
fission  or  by  brood-formation,  often  syngamous;  form  usually 
nearly  spherical,  rarely  changing  slowly.  This  group  was 
formerly  included  with  the  Rhizopoda;  but  was  separated 
from  it  by  Haeckel  on  account  of  the  character  of  its  pseudopods, 
and  its  general  adaptation  to  a  semipelagic  existence  correlated 
with  the  frothy  cytoplasm  (fig.  i  (i)).  Actinophrys  sol  and 
Actinosphaerium  eichhurnii  (fig.  2),  known  as  sun  animalcules 
to  the  older  microscopists,  float  freely  in  stagnant  or  slow- 
flowing  waters,  and  Myriophrys  is  able  by  an  investment  of 
long  flagelliform  cilia  to  swim  freely.  The  majority,  however, 
lurk  among  confervae  or  the  light  debris  of  the  bottom  ooze; 
and  come  under  the  head  of  "  sapropelic  "  rather  than  pelagic 
organisms.  The  body  is  usually  of  constant  spherical  form  in 
relation  to  the  floating  habit.  Nuclearia,  however,  shows  amoe- 
boid changes  of  general  outline.  The  pseudopods  are  retractile, 
the  axial  filament  being  absorbed  as  the  filament  grows  shorter 
and  thicker  and  disappearing  when  the  pseudopod  merges  into  the 
ectoplasm,  to  be  reformed  at  the  same  time  with  the  pseudopod. 
There  is  often  a  distinction,  clear,  but  never  sharp,  between  the 
richly  vacuolate,  almost  frothy  ectoplasm  and  the  denser 
endoplasm.  One  or  more  contractile  vacuoles  may  protrude 
from  the  ectoplasm.  The  endoplasm  contains  the  nucleus  or 
nuclei.  The  nucleus  when  single  may  be  central  or  excentric: 
in  the  latter  case,  the  endoplasm  contains  a  clear  central  sphere 
("  centrosome  ")on  which  abut  the  axial  filaments  of  the  pseudo- 
pods.  The  ectoplasm  contains,  in  some  species,  constantly 
(Raphidiophrys  viridis)  or  occasionally  (Actinosphaerium),  green 
cells  belonging  to  the  genera  Zoochlorella  and  Sphaerocystis,  both 
probably — the  latter  certainly — vegetative  stages  of  a  Chlamy- 
domonad  (FLAGELLATA,  q.v.)  and  of  symbiotic  significance. 

The  Heliozoa  can  move  by  rolling  over  on  their  extended  pseudo- 
pods;  Acanthocyslis  ludibunda  traversing  a  path  of  as  much 
as  twenty  times  its  diameter  in  a  minute,  according  to  Penard. 
Several  species  (e.g.  Raphidiophrys  elegans)  remain  associated 
by  the  union  of  their  pseudopods,  whether  into  social  aggregates 
(due  to  approximation)  or  "  colonies  "  due  -to  lack  of  separation 


FIG.  i. — Heliozoa.  i.  Actinophrys  sol,  Ehrb.;  X  800.  a,  Food- 
particle  lying  in  a  large  food-vacuole ;  6,  deep-lying  finely  granular 
protoplasm;  c,  axial  filament  of  a  pseudopodium  extended  inwards 
to  the  nucleus;  d,  the  central  nucleus;  e,  contractile  vacuole;  /, 
superficial  much  vacuolated  prot9plasm.  2.  Clathrulina  elegans, 
Cienk. ;  X  200.  3.  Heterophrys  marina,  H.  and  L.  X  660.  a,  nucleus; 
b,  clearer  protoplasm  surrounding  the  nucleus;  c,  the  peculiar 
felted  envelope.  4.  Raphidiophrys  pallida,  F.  E.  Schultze;  X  430. 
a,  food-particle;  6,  contractile  vacuole;  c,  the  nucleus;  d,  central 
granule  in  which  all  the  axis-filaments  of  the  pseudopodia  meet. 
The  tangentially  disposed  spicules  are  seen  arranged  in  masses  on 
the  surface.  5.  Acanthocystis  turfacea,  Carter;  X  240.  a,  probably 
the  central  nucleus;  6,  clear  protoplasm  around  the  nucleus;  c, 
more  superficial  protoplasm  with  vacuoles  and  chlorophyll  cor- 
puscles; d,  coarser  siliceous  spicules;  e,  finer  forked  siliceous 
spicules;  /,  finely  granular  layer  of  protoplasm.  The  long  pseudo- 
podia  reaching  beyond  the  spicules  are  not  lettered.  6.  Bi-flagellate 
"  flagellula  "  of  Acanthocystts  aculeata.  a,  nucleus.  7.  Id.  of  Clath- 
rulina elegans.  a,  nucleus;  b,  granules.  8.  Astrodisculus  ruber, 
Greeff;  X  320.  o,  red-coloured  central  sphere  (?  nucleus);  b,  peri- 
pheral homogeneous  envelope. 

after  fission,  is  not  accurately  known.  The  multinuclear  species 
Actinosphaerium  eichhornii  (fig.  2),  normally  apocytial  (i.e.  the 
nuclei  divide  repeatedly  without  division  of  the  cytoplasm), 


HELIUM 


233 


FIG.  2. — Heliozoa.  I.  Actinosphaerium  eichhornii,  Ehr. ;  X  200.  a, 
nuclei;  ft,  deeper  protoplasm  with  smaller  vacuoles  and  numerous 
nuclei;  c,  contractile  vacuoles;  d,  peripheral  protoplasm  with 
larger  vacuoles.  2.  A  portion  of  the  same  specimen  more  highly 
magnified  and  seen  in  optical  section,  a,  Nuclei;  ft,  deeper  proto- 
plasm (so-called  endosarc);  d,  peripheral  protoplasm  (so-called 
ectosarc) ;  e,  pseudopodia  showing  the  granular  protoplasm  stream- 
ing over  the  stiff  axial  filament ;  /,  food-particle  in  a  good-vacuole. 
3,  4-  Nuclei  of  Actinosphaerium  in  the  resting  condition.  5-13. 
Successive  stages  in  the  division  of  a  nucleus  of  Actinosphaerium, 
showing  fibrillation,  and  in  7  and  8  formation  of  an  equatorial 
plate  of  chromatin  substance  (after  Hertwig).  14.  Cyst-phase  of 
Actinosphaerium  eichhornii,  showing  the  protoplasm  divided  into 
twelve  chlamydospores,  each  of  which  has  a  siliceous  coat;  a, 
nucleus  of  the  spore;  g,  gelatinous  wall  of  the  cyst;  h,  siliceous 
coat  of  the  spore. 

may  increase  in  size  by  the  fusion  ("  plastogamic  ")  of  small 
individuals.  If  a  large  specimen  be  cut  up  or  fragment  itself 
under  irritation,  the  small  ones  so  produced  soon  approach  one 
another  and  fuse  completely. 

Reproduction.— Binary  fission  has  been  repeatedly  observed;  in 
ome  cases  one  or  both  of  the  daughter  cells  may  swim  for  a  time 


as  a  biflagellate  zoospore  (fig.  I  (6,  7)).  The  process  may  take  place 
when  the  cell  is  naked  or  after  preliminary  encystment.  Budding 
has  been  well  studied  in  Acanthocystis;  the  cell  nucleus  divides 
repeatedly  and  most  of  the  daughter  nuclei  pass  to  the  periphery, 
aggregate  part  of  the  cytoplasm,  and  with  it  are  constricted  off  as 
independent  cells;  one  nucleus  remains  central  and  the  process  may 
be  repeated.  The  detached  bud  may  assume  the  typical  character 
after  a  short  amoeboid  (lobose)  stage,  sometimes  preceded  by  rest, 
or  it  may  develop  2  flagella  and  swim  off  (fig.  I  (6)). 

Brood  formation  is  only  known  here  in  relation  to  a  syngamic 
process;  this  is  a  sharp  contrast  to  Proteomyxa  (q.v.)  where  brood- 
formation  is  the  commonest  mode  of  reproduction,  and  plasmodium- 
formation,  rare  indeed,  is  the  nearest  approach  to  syngamy  observed. 
Indeed,  if  we  knew  the  life-history  of  all  the  species  this  difference 
in  the  life  cycle  would  be  a  convenient  critical  character. 

Equal  conjugation  was  demonstrated  fully  by  F.  Schaudinn  in 
Actinophrys;  two  individuals  approach  and  enter  into  close  contact, 
and  are  surrounded  by  a  common  cyst  wall.  The  nucleus  of  either 
male  divides;  and  one  nucleus  passes  to  the  surface  at  either  side, 
and  is  budded  off  with  a  small  portion  of  the  cytoplasm  as  an  abortive 
cell;  the  two  remaining  nuclei  which  are  "  first  cousins  "  in  cellular 
relationship  now  fuse,  as  is  the  case  with  the  cytoplasts.  The  resulting 
coupled  cell  or  zygote  divides  into  two,  which  again  encyst. 

Actinosphaerium  (fig.  2)  shows  a  still  more  remarkable  process, 
fully  studied  by  R.  Hertwig.  The  large  multinucleate  animal 
withdraws  its  pseudopods,  its  vacuoles  disappear,  it  encysts  and  its 
nuclei  diminish  in  number  to  about  j^th  partly  by  fusion,  2  and 
2,  probably  by  digestion  of  the  majority.  Within  the  primary  cyst 
the  body  is  now  resolved  into  nuclear  cells,  which  again  surround 
themselves  with  secondary  cysts.  The  cell  in  each  secondary  cyst 
divides  (by  karyokinesis),  and  these  sister  cells,  or  rather  their 
offspring,  pair  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  individual  cells  of 
Actinophrys — the  chief  difference  is  that  after  the  first  division  and 
budding  off  of,  a  rudimentary  cell,  a  second  division  of  the  same 
character  takes  place,  with  the  formation  of  a  second  rudimentary 
cell,  which  is  the  niece  of  the  first,  absolutely  in  the  same  way  as  the 
1st  and  2nd  polar  bodies  are  formed  in  the  maturation  of  the  ovum 
in  Metazoa.  The  actual  pairing  cells  are  thus  second  cousins,  great- 
granddaughters  of  the  original  cell  of  the  secondary  cysts.  Complete 
fusion  now  takes  place  to  form  the  coupled  cell,  which  is  now  con- 
tracted and  forms  a  gelatinous  wall  within  the  siliceous  secondary 
cyst  wall  (fig.  2  (14)).  During  a  resting  stage  nuclear  divisions  occur 
and  finally  a  brood  of  young  i-nuclear  Actinosphaerium  leave  the 
cyst. 

Classification. 

Aphrothoraca.  Body  naked.  Actinophrys  Ehrb.  (fig.  I  (i)) 
(nucleate),  Actinosphaerium  Stein  plurmucleate  (fig.  2  (i)), 
Camptonema  (plurinucleate)  Schaud.,  Dimorpha  Gruber  (some- 
times 2  flagellate). 

I.    Chlamydophora.    Investment  gelatinous.    Astrodiscus. 
II.    Chalarothoraca.      Body    protected    by    an   investment    of 
spicules  or  fibre  scattered  or  approximated,  never  fused 
into  a  continuous  skeleton. 

§  I.  Spicules  netted  or  free  in  the  protoplasm.  Hetero- 
phrys  Arch.  (fig.  i  (3)),  Raphidiophrys  Arch.  (fig.  I  (4)), 
Pinacodocystis,  Hertw.  and  Less. 

§2.  Spicules  approximated  radially.  Pinaciophora  Greeff , 
Pompholyxophrys  Arch.,  Lithocolla  F.  E.  Schultze, 
Elaeorhanis  Greeff  (in  the  two  foregoing  genera  the  spicules 
represented  by  sand  granules),  Acanthocystis  Carter  (fig.  I 
(5)),  Pinacocystis  (?)  Hertw.  and  Less,  Myriophrys  Penard. 
(Astrodisculus). 

III.    Desmothoraca.    §  I  attached  by  a  stalk.    Clathrulina  Cienk. 
(fig.  i  (2,  7)),  Hedriocystis,  Hertw.  and  Less. 

§  2.    Free  Blaster,  Grimin,  Choanocystis. 

LITERATURE. — The  most  important  English  original  papers  on  this 
group  are  those  by  W.  Archer,  "  On  some  Freshwater  Rhizopoda, 
new,  or  little  known,"  Quarterly  Journal  of  Microscopic  Science, 
N.S.  ix.-xi.  (1869-1871),  and  "  Re'sume'  of  Recent  Contributions  to 
the  Knowledge  of  Freshwater  Rhizopods,"  ibid,  xvi.,  xvii.  (1876- 
1877).  See  also  R.  Hertwig  and  Lesser,  "  Cber  Rhizopoda  und 
denselben  nahestehenden  Organismen,"  in  Archiv  fur  mikroscopische 
Anatomie,  x.  (1874),  p.  35;  R.  Schaudinn,  "  Heliozoa  "  in  Tierreich 
(1896);  E.  Penard,  Les  Heliozoaires  d'eau  douce  (1904);  the  two 
last  named  contain  full  bibliographies.  (M.  HA.) 

HELIUM  (from  Gr.  rjXtos,  the  sun),  a  gaseous  chemical 
element,  the  modern  discovery  of  which  followed  closely  on  that 
of  argon  (q.v.).  The  investigations  of  Lord  Rayleigh  and  Sir 
William  Ramsay  had  shown  that  indifference  to  chemical 
reagents  did  not  sufficiently  characterize  an  unknown  gas  as 
nitrogen,  and  it  became  necessary  to  reinvestigate  other  cases  of 
the  occurrence  of  "nitrogen"  in  nature.  H.Miers  drew  Ramsay's 
attention  to  the  work  of  W.  F.  Hillebrand,  who  had  noticed,  in 
examining  the  mineral  uraninite,  that  an  inert  gas  was  evolved 
when  the  mineral  was  decomposed  with  acid.  Ramsay,  repeating 
these  experiments,  found  that  the  inert  gas  emitted  refused 


234 


HELIX— HELLANICUS 


to  oxidize  when  sparked  with  oxygen,  and  on  examining  it 
spectroscopically  he  saw  that  the  spectrum  was  not  that  of 
argon,  but  was  characterized  by  a  bright  yellow  line  near  to, 
but  not  identical  with,  the  D  line  of  sodium.  This  was  after- 
wards identified  with  the  Ds  line  of  the  solar  chromosphere, 
observed  in  1868  by  Sir  J.  Norman  Lockyer,  and  ascribed  by 
him  to  a  hypothetical  element  helium.  This  name  was  adopted 
for  the  new  gas. 

Helium  is  relatively  abundant  in  many  minerals,  all  of  which 
are  radioactive,  and  contain  uranium  or  thorium  as  important 
constituents.  (For  the  significance  of  this  fact  see  RADIO- 
ACTIVITY.) The  richest  known  source  is  thorianite,  which 
consists  mainly  of  thorium  oxide,  and  contains  9-5  cc.  of  helium 
per  gram.  Monazite,  a  phosphate  of  thorium  and  other  rare 
earths,  contains  on  the  average  about  i  cc.  per  gram.  Cleveite, 
samarskite  and  fergusonite  contain  a  little  more  than  monazite. 
The  gas  also  occurs  in  minute  quantities  in  the  common  minerals 
of  the  earth's  crust.  In  this  case  too  it  is  associated  with  radio- 
active matter,  which  is  almost  ubiquitous.  In  two  cases,  how- 
ever, it  has  been  found  in  the  absence  of  appreciable  quantities 
of  uranium  and  thorium  compounds,  namely  in  beryl,  and  in 
sylvine  (potassium  chloride).  Helium  is  contained  almost 
universally  in  the  gases  which  bubble  up  with  the  water  of  thermal 
springs.  The  proportion  varies  greatly.  In  the  hot  springs  of 
Bath  it  amounts  to  about  one-thousandth  part  of  the  gas  evolved. 
Much  larger  percentages  have  been  recorded  in  some  French 
springs  (Compt.  rend.,  1906,  143,  p.  795,  and  146,  p.  435),  and 
considerable  quantities  occur  in  some  natural  gas  (Journ.  Amer. 
Chem.  Soc.  29,  p.  1524).  R.  J.  Strutt  has  suggested  that  helium 
in  hot  springs  may  be  derived  from  the  disintegration  of  common 
rocks  at  great  depths. 

Helium  is  present  in  the  atmosphere,  of  which  it  constitutes 
four  parts  in  a  million.  It  is  conspicuous  by  its  absorption 
spectrum  in  many  of  the  white  stars.  Certain  stars  and  nebulae 
show  a  bright  line  helium  spectrum. 

Much  the  best  practical  source  of  helium  is  thorianite,  a 
mineral  imported  from  Ceylon  for  the  manufacture  of  thoria. 
It  dissolves  readily  in  strong  nitric  acid,  and  the  helium  contained 
is  thus  liberated.  The  gas  contains  a  certain  amount  of  hydrogen 
and  oxides  of  carbon,  also  traces  of  nitrogen.  In  order  to  get 
rid  of  hydrogen,  some  oxygen  is  added  to  the  helium,  and  the 
mixture  exploded  by  an  electric  spark.  All  remaining  impurities, 
including  the  excess  of  oxygen,  can  then  be  taken  out  of  the 
gas  by  Sir  James  Dewar's  ingenious  method  of  absorption 
with  charcoal  cooled  in  liquid  air.  Helium  alone  refuses  to  be 
absorbed,  and  it  can  be  pumped  off  from  the  charcoal  in  a  state 
of  absolute  purity.  In  the  absence  of  liquid  air  the  helium  must 
be  purified  by  the  methods  employed  for  argon  (q.v.).  If 
thorianite  cannot  be  obtained,  monazite,  which  is  more  abundant, 
may  be  utilized.  A  part  of  the  helium  contained  in  minerals 
can  be  extracted  by  heat  or  by  grinding  (J.  A.  Gray,  Proc.  Roy. 
Soc.,  1909,  82A,  p.  301). 

Properties. — All  attempts  to  make  helium  enter  into  stable 
chemical  union  have  hitherto  proved  unsuccessful.  The  gas  is 
in  all  probability  only  mechanically  retained  in  the  minerals  in 
which  it  is  found.  Jacquerod  and  Perrot  have  found  that 
quartz-glass  is  freely  permeable  to  helium  below  a  red-heat 
(Contpl.  rend.,  1904,  139,  p.  789).  The  effect  is  even  perceptible 
at  a  temperature  as  low  as  220°  C.  Hydrogen,  and,  in  a  much 
less  degree,  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  will  also  permeate  silica,  but 
only  at  higher  temperatures.  They  have  made  this  observation 
the  basis  of  a  practical  method  of  separating  helium  from  the 
other  inert  gases.  M.  Travers  has  suggested  that  it  may  explain 
the  liberation  of  helium  from  minerals  by  heat,  the  gas  being 
enabled  to  permeate  the  siliceous  materials  in  which  it  is  enclosed. 
Thorianite,  however,  contains  no  silica,  and  until  it  is  shown  that 
metallic  oxides  behave  in  the  same  way  this  explanation  must 
be  accepted  with  reserve. 

The  density  of  helium  has  been  determined  by  Ramsay  and 
Travers  as  1-98.  Its  ratio  'of  specific  heats  has  very  nearly  the 
ideal  value  1-666,  appropriate  to  a  monatomic  molecule.  The 
accepted  atomic  weight  is  accordingly  double  the  density,  i.e. 


approximately  four  times  that  of  hydrogen.     The  refractivity 
of  helium  is  0-1238  (air=i).     The  solubility  in  water  is  the 
lowest  known,  being,  at  18-2°,  only  -0x573  vols.  per  unit  volume 
of  water.     The  viscosity  is  -96  (air=i). 

The  spectrum  of  helium  as  observed  in  a  discharge  tube  is 
distinguished  by  a  moderate  number  of  brilliant  lines,  dis- 
tributed over  the  whole  visual  spectrum.  The  following  are 
the  approximate  wave-lengths  of  the  most  brilliant  lines: 

Red 7066 

Red 6678 

Yellow 5876 

Green 4922 

Blue 4472 

Violet 4026 

When  the  discharge  passes  through  helium  at  a  pressure  of 
several  millimetres,  the  yellow  line  5876  is  prominent.  At  lower 
pressures  the  green  line  4922  becomes  more  conspicuous.  At 
atmospheric  pressure  the  discharge  is  able  to  pass  through  a 
far  greater  distance  in  helium  than  in  the  common  gases. 

M.  Travers,  G.  Senter  and  A.  Jacquerod  (Phil.  Trans.  A.  1903, 
200,  p.  105)  carefully  examined  the  behavour  of  a  constant 
volume  gas  thermometer  filled  with  helium.  For  the  pressure 
coefficient  per  degree,  between  o°  and  100°  C.,  they  give  the 
value  -00366255,  when  the  initial  pressure  is  700  mm.  This 
value  is  indistinguishable  from  that  which  they  find  for  hydrogen. 
Thus  at  high  temperatures  a  helium  thermometer  is  of  no  special 
advantage.  At  low  temperatures,  on  the  other  hand,  they  find, 
using  an  initial  pressure  of  1000  mm.,  that  the  temperatures  on 
the  helium  scale  are  measurably  higher  than  on  the  hydrogen 
scale,  owing  to  the  more  perfectly  gaseous  condition  of  helium. 
This  difference  amounts  to  about  tV  at  the  temperature  of  liquid 
oxygen,  and  about  £°  at  that  of  liquid  hydrogen. 

The  liquefaction  of  helium  was  achieved  by  H.  Kamerlingh 
Onnes  at  Leiden  in  1908.  According  to  him  its  boiling  point 
is  4-3°  abs.  (-268-7°  C.),  the  density  of  the  liquid  0-154,  the 
critical  temperature  5°  abs.,  and  the  critical  pressure  2-3  atmo- 
spheres (Communications  from  the  Physical  Laboratory  at  Leiden, 
No.  108;  see  also  LIQUID  GASES). 

REFERENCES. — A  bibliography  and  summary  of  the  earlier  work 
on  helium  will  be  found  in  a  paper  by  Ramsay,  Ann.  chim.  phys. 
(1898)  [7],  13,  p.  433.  See  also  M.  Travers,  The  Study  of  Gases 
(1901)-  (R.J.S.) 

HELIX  (Gr.  e\i£,  a  spiral  or  twist),  an  architectural  term 
for  the  spiral  tendril  which  is  carried  up  to  support  the  angles 
of  the  abacus  of  the  Corinthian  capital;  from  the  same  stalk 
springs  a  second  helix  rising  to  the  centre  of  the  capital,  its 
junction  with  one  on  the  opposite  side  being  sometimes  marked 
by  a  flower.  Sometimes  the  term  "  volute  "  is  given  to  the  angle 
helix,  which  is  incorrect,  as  it  is  of  a  different  design  and  rises 
from  the  same  stalk  as  the  central  helices.  Its  origin  is  probably 
metallic,  that  is  to  say,  it  was  copied  from  the  conventional 
treatment  in  Corinthian  bronze  of  the  tendrils  of  a  plant. 

HELL  (O.  Eng.  hel,  a  Teutonic  word  from  a  root  meaning  "  to 
cover,"  cf.  Ger.  Holle,  Dutch  hel),  the  word  used  in  English 
both  of  the  place  of  departed  spirits  and  of  the  place  of  torment 
of  the  wicked  after  death.  It  is  used  in  the  Old  Testament 
to  translate  the  Hebrew  Sheol,  and  in  the  New  Testament 
the  Greek  $877$,  Hades,  and  jtivva,  Hebrew  Gehenna  (see 
ESCHATOLOGY). 

HELLANICUS  or  LESBOS,  Greek  logographer,  flourished 
during  the  latter  half  of  the  5th  century  B.C.  According  to 
Suidas,  he  lived  for  some  time  at  the  court  of  one  of  the  kings 
of  Macedon,  and  died  at  Perperene,  a  town  on  the  gulf  of  Adra- 
myttium  opposite  Lesbos.  Some  thirty  works  are  attributed 
to  him — chronological,  historical  and  episodical.  Mention  may 
be  made  of:  The  Priestesses  of  Hera  at  Argos,  a  chronological 
compilation,  arranged  according  to  the  order  of  succession  of 
these  functionaries;  the  Carneonikae,  a  list  of  the  victors  in  the 
Carnean  games  (the  chief  Spartan  musical  festival),  including 
notices  of  literary  events;  an  Atlhis,  giving  the  history  of  Attica 
frpm  683  to  the  end  of  the  Peloppnnesian  War  (404),  which  is 
referred  to  by  Thucydides  (i.  97),  who  says  that  he  treated  the 
events  of  the  years  480-431  briefly  and  superficially,  and  with 


HELLEBORE 


235 


little  regard  to  chronological  sequence:  Phoronis,  chiefly 
genealogical,  with  short  notices  of  events  from  the  times  of 
Phoroneus  the  Argive  "  first  man  "  to  the  return  of  the 
Heraclidae;  Troica  and  Persica,  histories  of  Troy  and 
Persia. 

Hellanicus  marks  a  real  step  in  the  development  of  historio- 
graphy. He  transcended  the  narrow  local  limits  of  the  older 
logographers,  and  was  not  content  to  repeat  the  traditions  that 
had  gained  general  acceptation  through  the  poets.  He  tried  to 
give  the  traditions  as  they  were  locally  current,  and  availed 
himself  of  the  few  national  or  priestly  registers  that  presented 
something  like  contemporary  registration.  He  endeavoured 
to  lay  the  foundations  of  a  scientific  chronology,  based  primarily 
on  the  list  of  the  Argive  priestesses  of  Hera,  and  secondarily 
on  genealogies,  lists  of  magistrates  (e.g.  the  archons  at  Athens)  , 
and  Oriental  dates,  in  place  of  the  old  reckoning  by  generations. 
But  his  materials  were  insufficient  and  he  often  had  recourse 
to  the  older  methods.  On  account  of  his  deviations  from  common 
tradition,  Hellanicus  is  often  called  an  untrustworthy  writer 
by  the  ancients  themselves,  and  it  is  a  curious  fact  that  he 
appears  to  have  made  no  systematic  use  of  the  many  inscriptions 
which  were  ready  to  hand.  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  censures 
him  for  arranging  his  history,  not  according  to  the  natural 
connexion  of  events,  but  according  to  the  locality  or  the  nation 
he  was  describing;  and  undoubtedly  he  never,  like  his  contem- 
porary Herodotus,  rose  to  the  conception  of  a  single  current  of 
events  wider  than  the  local  distinction  of  race.  His  style,  like 
that  of  the  older  logographers,  was  dry  and  bald. 

Fragments  in  Miiller,  Fragmenta  historicorum  Graecorum,  \.  and  iv.  ; 
see  among  older  works  L.  Preller,  De  Hellanico  Lesbip  historieo 
(1840)  ;  Mure,  History  of  Greek  Literature,  iv.  ;  late  criticism  in 
H.  Kullmer,  "  Hellanikos  "  in  Jahrbucher  fur  klass.  Philologie 
(Supplementband,  xxvii.  455  sqq.)  (1902),  which  contains  new 
edition  and  arrangement  of  fragments;  C.  F.  Lehmann-Haupt, 
"  Hellanikos,  Heroaot,  Thukydides,"  in  Klio  vi.  127  sqq.  (1906); 
J.  B.  Bury,  Ancient  Greek  Historians  (1909),  pp.  27  sqq. 


HELLEBORE  (Gr.  eXXt/Sopos:  mod.  Gr.  also 
Ger.  Nieswurz,  Christwurz;  Fr.  hellebore,  and  in  the  district  of 
Avranche,  herbe  enragee),  a  genus  (Helleborus)  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Ranunculaceae,  natives  of  Europe  and  western 
Asia.  They  are  coarse  perennial  herbs  with  palmately  or  pedately 
lobed  leaves.  The  flowers  have  five  persistent  petaloid  sepals, 
within  the  circle  of  which  are  placed  the  minute  honey-containing 
tubular  petals  of  the  form  of  a  horn  with  an  irregular  opening. 
The  stamens  are  very  numerous,  and  are  spirally  arranged;  and 
the  carpels  are  variable  in  number,  sessile  or  stipitate  and  slightly 
united  at  the  base  and  dehisce  by  ventral  suture. 

Helleborus  niger,  black  hellebore,  or,  as  from  blooming  in  mid- 
winter it  is  termed  the  Christmas  rose  (Ger.  Schwarze  Nieswurz; 
Fr.,  rose  de  Noel  or  rose  d'hiver),  is  found  in  southern  and 
central  Europe,  and  with  other  species  was  cultivated  in  the  time 
of  Gerard  (see  Herball,  p.  977,  ed.  Johnson,  1633)  in  English 
gardens.  Its  knotty  root-stock  is  blackish-brown  externally, 
and,  as  with  other  species,  gives  origin  to  numerous  straight  roots. 
The  leaves  spring  from  the  top  of  the  root-stock,  and  are  smooth, 
distinctly  pedate,  dark-green  above,  and  lighter  below,  with  7  to 
9  segments  and  long  petioles.  The  scapes,  which  end  the 
branches  of  the  rhizome,  have  a  loose  entire  bract  at  the  base,  and 
terminate  in  a  single  flower,  with  two  bracts,  from  the  axis  of 
one  of  which  a  second  flower  may  be  developed.  The  flowers 
have  5  white  or  pale-rose,  eventually  greenish  sepals,  15  to  18 
lines  in  breadth;  8  to  13  tubular  green  petals  containing  honey; 
and  5  to  10  free  carpels.  There  are  several  forms,  the  best  being 
maximus.  The  Christmas  rose  is  extensively  grown  in  many 
market  gardens  to  provide  white  flowers  forced  in  gentle  heat 
about  Christmas  time  for  decorations,  emblems,  &c. 

H.  orientalis,  the  Lenten  rose,  has  given  rise  to  several  fine 
hybrids  with  H.  niger,  some  of  the  best  forms  being  clear  in 
colour  and  distinctly  spotted.  H.  foetidus,  stinking  hellebore, 
is  a  native  of  England,  where  like  H.  uiridis,  it  is  confined  chiefly 
to  limestone  districts;  it  is  common  in  France  and  the  south 
of  Europe.  Its  leaves  have  7-  to  n-toothed  divisions,  and  the 
flowers  are  in  panicles,  numerous,  cup-shaped  and  drooping, 


with  many  bracts,  and  green  sepals  tinged  with  purple,  alternating 
with  the  five  petals. 

H.  viridis,  or  green  hellebore  proper,  is  probably  indigenous 
in  some  of  the  southern  and  eastern  counties  of  England,  and 
occurs  also  in  central  and  southern  Europe.  It  has  bright 
yellowish-green  flowers,  2  to  4  on  a  stem,  with  large  leaf-like 
bracts.  O.  Brunfels  and  H.  Bock  (i6th  century)  regarded  the 
plant  as  the  black  hellebore  of  the  Greeks. 

H.  lividus,  holly-leaved  hellebore,  found  in  the  Balearic 
Islands,  and  in  Corsica  and  Sardinia,  is  remarkable  for  the  hand- 
someness of  its  foliage.  White  hellebore  is  Veralrum  album 
(see  VERATRUM),  a  liliaceous  plant. 

Hellebores  may  be  grown  in  any  ordinary  light  garden  mould, 
but  thrive  best  in  a  soil  of  about  equal  parts  of  turfy  loam  and 


Helleborus  niger.     I,  Vertical  section  of  flower;  2,  Nectary,  side 
and  front  view  (nat.  size). 

well-rotted  manure,  with  half  a  part  each  of  fibrous  peat  and 
coarse  sand,  and  in  moist  but  thoroughly-drained  situations, 
more  especially  where,  as  at  the  margins  of  shrubberies,  the 
plants  can  receive  partial  shade  in  summer.  For  propagation 
cuttings  of  the  rhizome  may  be  taken  in  August,  and  placed  in 
pans  of  light  soil,  with  a  bottom  heat  of  60°  to  70°  Fahr. ;  helle- 
bores can  also  be  grown  from  seed,  which  must  be  sown  as  soon 
as  ripe,  since  it  quickly  loses  its  vitality.  The  seedlings  usually 
blossom  in  their  third  year.  The  exclusion  of  frost  favours 
the  production  of  flowers;  but  the  plants,  if  forced,  must  be 
gradually  inured  to  a  warm  atmosphere,  and  a  free  supply  of 
air  must  be  afforded,  without  which  they  are  apt  to  become 
much  affected  by  greenfly.  For  potting,  H .  niger  and  its  varieties, 
and  H.  orientalis,  atrorubens  and  olympicus  have  been  found 
well  suited.  After  lifting,  preferably  in  September,  the  plants 
should  receive  plenty  of  light,  with  abundance  of  water,  and  once 
a  week  liquid  manure,  not  over-strong.  The  flowers  are  improved 
in  delicacy  of  hue,  and  are  brought  well  up  among  the  leaves, 
by  preventing  access  of  light  except  to  the  upper  part  of  the 
plants.  Of  the  numerous  species  of  hellebore  now  grown,  the 
deep-purple-flowered  H.  colchicus  is  one  of  the  handsomest; 
by  crossing  with  H .  gultalus  and  other  species  several  valuable 
garden  forms  have  been  produced,  having  variously  coloured 
spreading  or  bell-shaped  flowers,  spotted  with  crimson,  red  or 
purple. 

The  rhizome  of  H .  niger  occurs  in  commerce  in  irregular  and 
nodular  pieces,  from  about  i  to  3  in.  in  length,  white  and  of  a 
horny  texture  within.  Cut  transversely  it  presents  internally 
a  circle  of  8  to  12  cuneiform  ligneous  bundles,  surrounded  by 
a  thick  bark.  It  emits  a  faint  odour  when  cut  or  broken,  and 
has  a  bitter  and  slightly  acrid  taste.  The  drug  is  sometimes 
adulterated  with  the  rhizome  of  baneberry,  Actaea  spicata, 
which,  however,  may  be  recognized  by  the  distinctly  cruciate 
appearance  of  the  central  portion  of  the  attached  roots  when 


236 


HELLENISM 


cut  across,  and  by  its  decoction  giving  the  chemical  reactions 
for  tannin.1  The  rhizome  is  darker  in  colour  in  proportion 
to  its  degree  of  dryness,  age  and  richness  in  oil.  A  specimen 
dried  by  Schroff  lost  in  eleven  days  65%  of  water. 

H.  niger,  orientalis,  viridis,  foetidus,  and  several  other  species  of 
hellebore  contain  the  glucosides  helleborin,  C»H«O6,  and  helleborein, 
Cz8H«Oi6,  the  former  yielding  glucose  and  helleboresin,  CwH&Oi, 
and  the  latter  glucose  and  a  violet-coloured  substance  helleboretin, 
CuHaoOa.  Helleborin  is  most  abundant  in  H.  viridis.  A  third  and 
volatile  principle  is  probably  present  in  H.  foetidus.  Both  helleborin 
and  helleborein  act  poisonously  on  animals,  but  their  decomposition- 
products  helleboresin  and  helleboretin  seem  to  be  devoid  of  any 
mi  urious  qualities.  Helleborin  produces  excitement  and  restlessness, 
followed  by  paralysis  of  the  lower  extremities  or  whole  body,  q  uickened 
respiration,  swelling  and  injection  of  the  mucous  membranes, 
dilatation  of  the  pupil,  and,  as  with  helleborein,  salivation,  vomiting 
and  diarrhoea.  hHleborein  exercises  on  the  heart  an  action  similar 
to  that  of  digitalis,  but  more  powerful,  accompanied  by  at  first 
quickened  and  then  slow  and  laboured  respiration;  it  irritates  the 
conjunctiva,  and  acts  as  a  sternutatory,  but  less  violently  than 
veratrine.  Pliny  states  that  horses,  oxen  and  swine  are  killed  by 
eating  "black  hellebore";  and  Christison  (On  Poisons,  p.  876, 
nth  ed.,  1845)  writes:  "  I  have  known  severe  griping  produced 
by  merely  tasting  the  fresh  root  in  January."  Poisonous  doses  of 
hellebore  occasion  in  man  singing  in  the  ears,  vertigo,  stupor,  thirst, 
with  a  feeling  of  suffocation,  swelling  of  the  tongue  and  fauces, 
emesis  and  catharsis,  slowing  of  the  pulse,  and  finally  collapse  and 
death  from  cardiac  paralysis.  Inspection  after  death  reveals  much 
inflammation  of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  more  especially  the 
rectum.  The  drug  has  been  observed  to  exercise  a  cumulative 
action.  Its  extract  was  an  ingredient  in  Bacher's  pills,  an  empirical 
remedy  once  in  great  repute  in  France.  In  British  medicine  the 
rhizome  was  formerly  official.  H.  foetidus  was  in  past  times  much 
extolled  as  an  anthelmintic,  and  is  recommended  by  Bisset  (Med. 
Ess.,  pp.  169  and  195,  1766)  as  the  best  vermifuge  for  children; 
J.  Cook,  however,  remarks  of  it  (Oxford  Mag.,  March  1769,  p.  99) : 

Where  it  killed  not  the  patient,  it  would  certainly  kill  the  worms; 
but  the  worst  of  it  is,  it  will  sometimes  kill  both.  '  This  plant,  of 
old  termed  by  farriers  ox-heel,  setter-wort  and  setter-grass,  as  well 
as  H.  viridis  (Fr.  Herbe  &  seton),  is  employed  in  veterinary  surgery, 
to  which  also  the  use  of  H.  niger  is  now  chiefly  confined  in  Britain. 

In  the  early  days  of  medicine  two  kinds  of  hellebore  were  recog- 
nized, the  white  or  Veratrum  album  (see  VERATRUM),  and  the  black, 
including  the  various  species  of  Helleborus.  The  former,  according 
to  Codronchius  (Comm. . . .  de  elleb.,  1610),  Castellus  (De  helleb. 
epist.,  1622),  and  others,  is  the  drug  usually  signified  in  the  writings 
of  Hippocrates.  Among  the  hellebores  indigenous  to  Greece  and 
Asia  Minor,  H.  orientalis,  the  rhizome  of  which  differs  from  that 
of  H.  niger  and  of  H.  viridis  in  the  bark  being  readily  separable  from 
the  woody  axis,  is  the  species  found  by  Schroff  to  answer  best  to  the 
descriptions  given  by  the  ancients  of  black  hellebore,  the  i\X«/3opos 
fieXa?  of  Dioscorides.  The  rhizome  of  this  plant,  if  identical,  as 
would  appear,  with  that  obtained  by  Tournefort  at  Prusa  in  Asia 
Minor  (Rel.  d'un  voy.  du  Levant,  ii.  189,  1718),  must  be  a  remedy 
of  no  small  toxic  properties.  According  to  an  early  tradition,  black 
hellebore  administered  by  the  soothsayer  and  physician  Melampus 
(whence  its  name  Melampodium) ,  was  the  means  of  curing  the  mad- 
ness of  the  daughters  of  Proetus,  king  of  Argos.  The  drug  was  used 
by  the  ancients  in  paralysis,  gout  and  other  diseases,  more  particu- 
larly in  insanity,  a  fact  frequently  alluded  to  by  classical  writers, 
e.g.  Horace  (Sat.  ii.  3.  80-83,  Ep.  ad  Pis.  300).  Various  supersti- 
tions were  in  olden  times  connected  with  the  cutting  of  black  hellebore. 
The  best  is  said  by  Pliny  (Nat.  hist.  xxv.  21)  to  grow  on  Mt  Helicon. 
Of  the  three  Anticyras  that  in  Phocis  was  the  most  famed  for  its 
hellebore,  which,  being  there  used  combined  with  "  sesamoides," 
was,  according  to  Pliny,  taken  with  more  safety  than  elsewhere. 

The  British  Pharmaceutical  Conference  has  recommended 
the  preparation  which  it  terms  the  linctura  veratri  viridis,  as  the 
best  form  in  which  to  administer  this  drug.  It  may  be  given  in 
doses  of  5-15  minims.  The  tincture  is  prepared  from  the  dried 
rhizome  and  rootlets  of  green  hellebore,  containing  the  alkaloids 
jervine,  veratrine  and  veratroidine.  It  is  recommended  as  a 
cardiac  and  nervous  sedative  in  cerebral  haemorrhage  and 
puerperal  eclampsia.  Black  hellebore  is  a  purgative  and  uterine 
stimulant. 

HELLENISM  (from  Gr.  eXXrjwfeii',  to  imitate  the  Greeks,  who 
were  known  as  "EXX^es,  after  "EXXTjv,  the  son  of  Deucalion). 
The  term  "  Hellenism  "  is  ambiguous.  It  may  be  used  to  denote 
ancient  Greek  culture  in  all  its  phases,  and  even  those  elements 
in  modern  civilization  which  are  Greek  in  origin  or  in  spirit; 
but,  while  Matthew  Arnold  made  the  term  popular  in  the  latter 
connexion  as  the  antithesis  of  "  Hebraism,"  the  German  historian 

1  For  the  microscopical  characters  and  for  figures  of  transverse 
sections  of  the  rhizome,  see  Lanessan,  Hist,  des  drogues,  i.  6  (1878). 


J.  G.  Droysen  introduced  the  fashion  (1836)  of  using  it  to 
describe  particularly  the  latter  phases  of  Greek  culture  from  the 
conquests  of  Alexander  to  the  end  of  the  ancient  world,  when 
those  over  whom  this  culture  extended  were  largely  not  Greek 
in  blood,  i.e.  Hellenes,  but  peoples  who  had  adopted  the  Greek 
speech  and  way  of  life,  Hellenistai.  Greek  culture  had,  however, 
both  in  "  Hellenic  "  and  "  Hellenistic  "  times,  a  common  essence, 
just  as  light  is  light  whether  in  the  original  luminous  body  or  in 
a  reflection,  and  to  describe  this  by  the  term  Hellenism  seems  most 
natural.  But  whilst  using  the  term  in  the  larger  sense,  this 
article,  in  deference  to  the  associations  which  have  come  to  be 
specially  connected  with  it,  will  devote  its  principal  attention 
to  Hellenism  as  it  appeared  in  the  world  after  the  Macedonian 
conquests.  But  it  will  be  first  necessary  to  indicate  briefly 
what  Hellenism  in  itself  implied. 

No  verbal  formula  can  really  enclose  the  life  of  a  people  or  an 
age,  but  we  can  best  understand  the  significance  of  the  old 
Greek  cities  and  the  life  they  developed,  when,  looking  at  the 
history  of  mankind  as  a  whole,  we  see  the  part  played  by  reason, 
active  and  critical,  in  breaking  down  the  barriers  by  which  custom 
hinders  movement,  in  guiding  movement  to  definite  ends,  in 
dissipating  groundless  beliefs  and  leading  onwards  to  fresh 
scientific  conquests — when  we  see  this  and  then  take  note  that 
among  the  ancient  Greeks  such  an  activity  of  reason  began  in  an 
entirely  novel  degree  and  that  its  activity  in  Europe  ever  since 
is  due  to  their  impulsion.  When  Hellenism  came  to  stand  in  the 
world  for  something  concrete  and  organic,  it  was,  of  course,  no 
mere  abstract  principle,  but  embodied  in  a  language,  a  literature, 
an  artistic  tradition.  In  the  earliest  existing  monument  of  the 
Hellenic  genius,  the  Homeric  poems,  one  may  already  observe 
that  regulative  sense  of  form  and  proportion,  which  shaped  the 
later  achievements  of  the  race  in  the  intellectual  and  artistic 
spheres.  It  was  not  till  the  great  colonizing  epoch  of  the  8th  and 
7th  centuries  B.C.,  when  the  name  "  Hellene  "  came  into  use  as 
the  antithesis  of  "  barbarian,"  that  the  Greek  race  came  to  be 
conscious  of  itself  as  a  peculiar  people;  it  was  yet  some  three 
centuries  more  before  Hellenism  stood  fully  declared  in  art  and 
literature,  in  politics  and  in  thought.  There  was  now  a  new  thing 
in  the  world,  and  to  see  how  the  world  was  affected  by  it  is  our 
immediate  concern. 

I.  THE  EXPANSION  OF  HELLENISM  BEFORE  ALEXANDER. — In 
the  sth  century  B.C.  Greek  cities  dotted  the  coasts  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  Black  Sea  from  Spain  to  Egypt  and  the  Caucasus, 
and  already  Greek  culture  was  beginning  to  pass  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  Greek  race.  Already  in  the  7th  century  B.C.,  when 
Hellenism  was  still  in  a  rudimentary  stage,  the  citizens  of  the 
Greek  city-states  had  been  known  to  the  courts  of  Babylon 
and  Egypt  as  admirable  soldiers,  combining  hardihood  with 
discipline,  and  Greek  mercenaries  came  to  be  in  request  through- 
out the  Nearer  East.  But  as  Hellenism  developed,  its  social 
and  intellectual  life  began  to  exercise  a  power  of  attraction. 
The  proud  old  civilizations  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Nile 
might  ignore  it,  but  the  ruder  barbarian  peoples  in  East  and  West, 
on  whose  coasts  the  Greek  colonies  had  been  planted,  came  in 
various  degrees  under  its  spell.  In  some  cases  an  outlying  colony 
would  coalesce  with  a  native  population,  and  a  fusion  of  Hellenism 
with  barbarian  customs  take  place,  as  at  Emporium  in  Spain 
(Strabo  iii.  p.  160)  and  at  Locri  in  S.  Italy  (Polyb.  xii.  5.  10). 
Perinthus  included  a  Thracian  phyle.  The  stories  of  Anacharsis 
and  Scylas  (Herod,  iv.  76-80)  show  how  the  leading  men  of  the 
tribes  in  contact  with  the  Greek  colonies  in  the  Black  Sea  might 
be  fascinated  by  the  appeal  which  the  exotic  culture  made  to 
mind  and  to  eye. 

The  great  developments  of  the  century  and  a  half  before 
Alexander  set  the  Greek  people  in  a  very  different  light  before  the 
world.  In  the  sphere  of  material  power  the  repulse  of  Xerxes 
and  the  extension  of  Athenian  or  Spartan  supremacy  in  the 
eastern  Mediterranean  were  large  facts  patent  to  the  most  obtuse. 
The  kings  of  the  East  leant  more  than  ever  upon  Greek  mercen- 
aries, whose  superiority  to  barbarian  levies  was  sensibly  brought 
home  to  them  by  the  expedition  of  Cyrus.  But  the  developments 
within  the  Hellenic  sphere  itself  were  also  of  great  consequence 


HELLENISM 


237 


for  its  expansion  outwards.  The  political  disunion  of  the  Greeks 
was  to  some  extent  neutralized  by  the  rise  of  Athens  to  a  leading 
position  in  art,  in  literature  and  in  philosophy.  In  Athens 
the  Hellenic  genius  was  focussed,  its  tendencies  drawn  together 
and  combined;  nor  was  it  a  circumstance  of  small  moment 
that  the  Attic  dialect  attained,  for  prose,  a  classical  authority; 
for  if  Hellenism  was  to  be  propagated  in  the  world  at  large, 
it  was  obviously  convenient  that  it  should  have  some  one  definite 
form  of  speech  to  be  its  medium. 

1.  The  Persians. — The  ruling  race  of  the  East,  the  Persian, 
was  but  little  open  to  the  influences  of  the  new  culture.     The 
military  qualities  of  the  Greeks  were  appreciated,  and  so,  too, 
was  Greek  science,  where  it  touched  the  immediately  useful; 
a  Greek  captain  was  entrusted  by  Darius  with  the  exploration 
of  the  Indus;  a  Greek  architect  bridged  the  Bosporus  for  him; 
Greek  physicians  (e.g.  Democedes,  Ctesias)  were  retained  for 
enormous  fees  at   the  Persian  court.     The  brisk   diplomatic 
intercourse  between  the  Great  King  and  the  Greek  states  in  the 
4th  century  may  have  produced  effects  that  were  not  merely 
political.     We  certainly  find  among  those  members  of  the  Persian 
aristocracy,  who  came  by  residence  in  Asia  Minor  into  closer 
contact  with  the  Greeks,  some  traces  of  interest  in  the  more 
ideal  side  of  Hellenism.     A  man  like  the  younger  Cyrus  invited 
Greek  captains  to  his  friendship  for  something  more  than  their 
utility  in  war,  and  procured   Greek  hetaerae  for  something 
more  than  sensual  pleasure.     There  is  the  Mithradates  who 
presented  the  Academy  with  a  statue  of  Plato  by  Silanion,  not 
improbably  identical  (though  the  supposition  implies  a  correction 
in  the  text  of  Diogenes  Laertius)  with  that  Mithradates  who, 
together  with  his  father  Ariobarzanes,  received  the  citizenship  of 
Athens  (Dem.  xxiii.  141,  202).     Exactly  how  far  Greek  influence 
can  be  traced  in  the  remains  of  Persian  art,  such  as  the  royal 
palaces  of  Persepolis  and  Susa  may  be  doubtful  (see  Gayet, 
L' 'Art  person;  R.   Phene  Spiers,   Architecture  East  and  West, 
p.  245  f.),  but  it  is  certain  that  the  engraved  gems  for  which 
there  was  a  demand  in  the  Persian  empire  were  largely  the 
work  of  Greek  artists  (Furtwangler,  Antike  Gemmen,  iii.  p.  1 16  f.). 

2 .  The  Phoenicians. — As  early  as  the  first  half  of  the  4th  century 
we  find  communities  of  Phoenician  traders  established  in  the 
Peiraeus  (C.I. A.  ii.  86).     In  Cyprus,  on  the  frontier  between 
the  Greek  and  Semitic  worlds,  a  struggle  for  ascendancy  went  on. 
The  Phoenician  element  seems  to  have  been  dominant  in  the 
island  when  Evagoras  made  himself  king  of  Salamis  in  412, 
and  restored  Hellenism  with  a  strong  hand.    The  words  of 
Isocrates  (even  allowing  for  their  rhetorical  colour)  give  us  a 
vivid  insight  into  what  such  a  process  meant.     "  Before  Evagoras 
established  his  rule,  they  were  so  hostile  and  exclusive,  that 
those  of  their  rulers  were  actually  held  to  be  the  best  who  were 
the  fiercest  adversaries  of  the  Greeks;  but  now  such  a  change 
has  taken  place,  that  it  is  a  matter  of  emulation  who  shall  show 
himself  the  most  ardent  phil-hellen,  that  for  the  mothers  of 
their  children  most  of  them  choose  wives  from  amongst  us, 
and  that  they  take  pride  in  having  Greek  things  about  rather 
than  native,  in  following  the  Greek  fashion  of  life,  whilst  our 
masters  of  the  fine  arts  and  other  branches  of  culture  now  resort 
to  them  in  greater  numbers  than  were  once  to  be  found  in  those 
quarters  they  specially  frequented  "  (Isoc.  109  =  Evag.  §§49,  50). 
Even  into  the  original  seats  of  the  Phoenicians  Hellenism  began  to 
intrude.     Evagoras  at  one  time  (about  386)  made  himself  master 
of  Tyre  (Isoc.  Evag.  §  62;  Diod.  xv.  2, 4).     His  grandson  Evagoras 
II.  is  found  as  governor  of  Sidon  for  the  Persian  king  349-346. 
(Babelon,  Perses  Achemenides,  p.  cxxii.;  cf.  Diod.  xvi.  46,  3). 

Abdashtart,  king  of  Sidon  (374-362  B.C.),  called  Straton 
by  the  Greeks,  had  already  entered  into  close  relations  with 
the  Greek  states,  and  imitated  the  Hellenic  princes  of  Cyprus 
(Athen.  xii.  531;  C.I. A.  ii.  86;  Corp.  inscr.  Sentit.  i.  114). 
The  Phoenician  colonists  in  Sardinia  purchased  or  imitated  the 
work  of  Greek  artists  (Furtwangler,  Antike  Gemmen,  iii.  109). 

3.  The  Carians  and  Lycians. — The  seats  of  the  Greeks  in 
the  East  touched  peoples  more  or  less  nearly  related  to  the 
Hellenic  stock,  with  native  traditions  not  so  far  remote  from 
those  of  the  Greeks  in  a  more  primitive  age,  the  Carians  and  the 


Lycians.  It  came  about  in  the  last  century  preceding  Alexander 
that  the  first  of  these  peoples  was  organized  as  a  strong  state 
under  native  princes,  the  line  founded  by  Hecatomnus  of  Mylasa. 
Hecatomnus  made  himself  master  of  Caria  in  the  first  decade  of 
the  4th  century,  but  it  was  under  his  son  Mausolus,  who  succeeded 
him  in  377-376  that  the  house  rose  to  its  zenith.  These  Carian 
princes  ruled  as  satraps  for  the  Great  King,  but  they  modelled 
themselves  upon  the  pattern  of  the  Greek  tyrant.  The  capital 
of  Mausolus  was  a  Greek  city,  Halicarnassus,  and  all  that  we 
can  still  trace  of  his  great  works  of  construction  and  adornment 
shows  conformity  to  the  pure  Hellenic  type.  His  famous 
sepulchre,  the  Mausoleum  (the  remains  of  it  are  now  in  the 
British  Museum),  was  a  monument  upon  which  the  most  eminent 
Greek  sculptors  of  the  time  worked  in  rivalry  (Plin.  N.H.  xxxvi. 
S>  §  3°;  Vitruv.  vii.  13).  His  court  gave  a  welcome  to  the  vagrant 
Greek  philosopher  (Diog.  Laert.  viii.  8,  §  87).  Even  the  Carian 
town  of  Mylasa  now  shows  the  forms  of  a  Greek  city  and  records 
its  public  decrees  in  Greek  (C.I.G.  2691  c,d,e= Michel  471). 
In  Lycia,  which  in  spite  of  "  the  son  of  Harpagus  "  and  King 
Pericles,  had  never  been  brought  under  one  man's  rule,  the  Greek 
influence  is  more  limited.  Here,  for  the  most  part  in  the  in- 
scriptions, the  native  language  maintains  itself  against  Greek. 
The  proper  names  are  (if  not  native)  mainly  Persian.  But  the 
Greek  language  makes  an  occasional  appearance;  Greek  names 
are  borne  by  others  beside  Pericles.  The  coins  are  Greek  in  type. 
And  above  all  the  monumental  remains  of  Lycia  show  strong 
Greek  influence,  especially  the  well-known  "  Nereid  Monument  " 
in  the  British  Museum,  whose  date  is  held  to  go  back  to  the 
5th  century  (Gardner,  Handbook  of  Gk.  Sculp,  p.  344). 

4.  South  Russia. — Hellenic  influences  continued  to  penetrate 
the  Scythian  peoples  from  the  Greek  colonies  of  the  Black  Sea, 
at  any  rate  in  the  matter  of  artistic  fabrication.     Our  evidence 
is  the  actual  objects  recovered  from  the  soil.     (See  SCYTHIA.) 

5.  Egypt. — From  the  time  of  Psammetichus  (d.  610  B.C.) 
Greek  mercenaries  had  been  used  to  prop  Pharaoh's  throne. 
At  the  same  time  Greek  merchants  had  begun  to  find  their  way 
up  the  Nile  and  even  to  the  Oases.     A  Greek  city  Naucratis  (q.v.) 
was  allowed  to  arise  at  the  Bolbitinic  mouth  of  the  Nile.     But 
the  racial  repugnance  to  the  Greek,  which  forbade  an  Egyptian 
even  to  eat  an  animal  which  had  been  carved  with  a  Greek's  knife 
(Hdt.  ii.  41 ) ,  probably  kept  the  soul  of  the  people  more  shut  against 
Hellenic  influences  than  was  that  of  the  other  races  of  the  East. 

6.  Macedonia. — In  Macedonia  the  native  chiefs  had  been 
attracted  by  the  rich  Hellenic  life  at  any  rate  from  the  beginning 
of  the  5th  century,  when  Alexander  I.,  surnamed  "  Phil-hellen," 
persuaded  the  judges  at  Olympia  that  the  Temenid  house  was 
of  good  Argive  descent   (Hdt.  v.   22).     And,  although   their 
enemies  might  stigmatize  them  as  barbarians,  the  Macedonian 
kings  maintained  that  they  were  not  Macedonians,  but  Greeks 
(cf.   avrjp  "EXXiji'  MaKfSoviav  wrapxos,  Hdt.  v.  20).      It  was  not 
probably  till  the  reorganization  of  the  kingdom  by  Archelaus 
(413-399)   that   Greek  culture  found  any  abundant  entrance 
into  Macedonia.     Now  all  that  was  most  brilliant  in  Greek 
literature  and  Greek  art  was  concentrated  in  the  court  of  Aegae; 
the  palace  was  decorated  by  Zeuxis;  Euripides  spent   there 
the  end  of  his  days.     From  that  time,  no  doubt,  a  certain  degree 
of  literary  culture  was  general  among  the  Macedonian  nobility; 
their  names  in   the   days  of   Philip   are  largely    Greek;   the 
Macedonian  service  was  full  of  men  from  the  Greek  cities  within 
Philip's  dominions.     The  values  recognized  at  the  court  would 
naturally  be  recognized  in  noble  families  generally,  and  Philip 
chose  Aristotle  to  be  the  educator  of  his  son.    How  far  the  country 
generally  may  be  regarded  as  Hellenized  is  a  problem  which 
involves  the  vexed  question  what  right  the  Macedonian  people 
itself  has  to  be  classed  among  the  Hellenes,  and  Macedonian 
to  be  considered  a  dialect  of  Greek.1    As  the  literary  and  official 
language,  Greek  alone  would  seem  to  have  had  any  status. 

1  See,  among  recent  writers,  on  one  side  Kaerst,  Gesch.  des  Hellenist. 
Zeitalters,  pp.  97  f.,  and  on  the  other  Beloch,  Griech.  Gesch.,  iii. 
Ii.]  1-9;  Kretschmer,  Einleitung  in  die  Gesch.  d.  griech.  Sprache, 
p.  283  f . ;  O.  Hoffmann,  Die  Makedonen,  ihre  Sprache  u.  ihr  Volkstum 
(1906). 


HELLENISM 


7.  In  the  West:  the  Native  Races  of  Sicily. — Italy  and  the 
south  of  Gaul  had  not  remained  unaffected  by  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  Greek  colonies.  Under  the  rule  of  the  elder  and  younger 
Dionysius  in  the  4th  century,  the  hellenization  of  the  Sicels  in 
the  interior  of  Sicily  seems  to  have  become  complete  (Freeman, 
History  of  Sicily,  ii.  387,  388,  422-424;  Beloch,  Griech.  Gesch. 
iii.  [i.]  261). 

The  alphabets  used  by  the  various  Italian  races  from  the  sth 
century  were  directly  or  indirectly  learnt  from  the  Greeks. 
The  peoples  of  the  south  (Lucanians,  Bruttians,  Mamertines) 
show  a  Greek  principle  of  nomenclature  (Mommsen,  Unterital. 
Dialekt,  p.  240  f.).  The  Pythagorean  philosophy,  whose  seat 
was  in  southern  Italy,  won  adherents  among  the  native  chiefs 
(Cic.  Desenec.  12,  cf.  Dio  Chrys.  Oral.  Cor.  37,  §  24).  From  the 
Greeks  of  southern  Gaul  Hellenic  influences  penetrated  the  Celtic 
races  so  far  that  imitations  of  Greek  coins  were  struck  even  on 
the  coasts  of  the  Atlantic. 

II.  AFTER  ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT. — When  we  review 
generally  the  extent  to  which  Hellenism  had  penetrated  the 
outer  world  in  the  middle  of  the  4th  century  B.C.,  it  must  be 
admitted  that  it  had  not  seriously  affected  any  but  the  more 
primitive  races  which  dwelt  upon  the  borders  of  the  Hellenic 
lands,  and  here  it  would  seem,  with  the  doubtful  exception  of 
the  Macedonians,  to  have  been  an  affair  rather  of  the  courts 
than  of  the  life  of  the  people.  On  the  other  hand  it  must  be 
taken  into  account  that  Hellenism  had  as  yet  only  been  a  very 
short  while  in  the  world.  What  would  have  happened  had  it 
continued  to  depend  upon  its  spiritual  force  only  for  propagation 
we  cannot  say.  Everything  was  changed  when  by  the  conquests 
of  Alexander  (334-323)  it  suddenly  rose  to  material  supremacy 
in  all  the  East  as  far  as  India,  and  when  cities  of  Greek  speech 
and  constitution  were  planted  by  the  might  of  kings  at  all  the 
cardinal  points  of  intercourse  within  those  lands.  The  values 
honoured  by  the  rulers  of  the  world  must  naturally  impress 
themselves  upon  the  subject  multitudes.  The  Macedonian 
chiefs  found  their  pride  in  being  champions  of  Hellenism.  Of 
Alexander  there  is  no  need  to  speak.  The  courts  of  his  successors 
in  Asia  Minor,  Syria  and  Egypt  were  Greek  in  language  and 
atmosphere.  All  kings  liked  to  win  the  good  word  of  the  Greeks 
by  munificence  bestowed  upon  Greek  cities  and  Greek  institutions. 
All  of  them  in  some  degree  patronized  Greek  art  and  letters, 
and  some  sought  fame  for  themselves  as  authors.  Even  the 
barbarian  courts,  their  neighbours  or  vassals,  were  swayed 
by  the  dominant  fashion  to  imitation.  'But  by  the  courts  alone 
Hellenism  could  never  have  been  propagated  far.  Greek  culture 
had  been  the  product  of  the  city-state,  and  Hellenism  could  not 
be  dissevered  from  the  city.  It  was  upon  the  system  of  Greek 
and  Macedonian  cities,  planted  by  Alexander  and  his  successors, 
that  their  work  rested,  and  though  their  dynasties  crumbled, 
their  work  remained.  Rome,  when  it  stepped  into  their  place, 
did  no  more  than  safeguard  its  continuance;  in  the  East 
Rome  acted  as  a  Hellenistic  power,  and  if,  when  the  legions  had 
thundered  past,  the  brooding  East  "  plunged  in  thought  again," 
that  thought  was  largely  directed  by  the  Greek  schoolmaster  who 
followed  in  the  legions'  train.  From  our  present  point  of  view 
we  may  therefore  regard  this  work  of  Hellenism  as  one  continuous 
process,  initiated  by  the  Macedonians  and  carried  on  under 
Roman  protection,  and  ask  in  the  first  place  what  the  institution 
of  a  Greek  city  implied. 

The  Character  of  the  New  Greek  Cities. — The  citizen  bodies 
at  the  outset  were  really  of  Greek  or  Macedonian  blood — soldiers 
who  had  served  in  the  royal  armies,  or  men  attracted  from  the 
older  Greek  cities  to  the  new  lands  thrown  open  to  commerce. 
To  fix  their  European  soldiery  upon  the  new  soil  was  an  obvious 
necessity  for  the  Macedonian  chiefs  who  had  set  up  kingdoms 
among  the  barbarians,  and  the  lots  of  the  veterans  (except  in 
Egypt)  were  naturally  attached  to  various  urban  centres.  The 
cities,  of  course,  drew  in  numbers  beside  of  the  people  of  the 
land;  Alexander  is  specially  said  to  have  incorporated  large 
bodies  of  natives  in  some  of  the  new  cities  of  the  Eastern  provinces 
(Arr.  iv.  4,  i;  Diod.  xvii.  83,  2;  Curtius  ix.  10,  7).  It  may 
generally  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  lower  strata  of  the  city- 


populations  was  mainly  native;  to  be  included  in  the  city 
population  was  not,  however,  to  be  included  in  the  citizen  body, 
and  it  remains  a  question  how  far  the  latter  admitted  members 
of  other  than  European  origin  (Beloch  iii.  [i.]  414).  The 
statements,  for  instance,  of  Josephus  that  the  Jews  were  given 
full  citizen  rights  in  the  new  foundations  are  probably  false 
(Willrich,  Juden  und  Griechen  vor  der  makkabaischen  Erhebung, 
1895,  p.  19  f.).  The  social  organization  of  the  citizen-body 
conformed  to  the  regular  Hellenic  type  with  a  division  into 
phylae  and,  in  Egypt,  at  any  rate,  into  demi  (Liban.  Or.  xix. 
62;  Satyrus,  frag.  2i=F.H.G.  iii.  164;  Sir  W.  M.  Ramsay, 
Cities  and  Bishoprics,  i.  60;  Kenyon,  Archiv  f.  Papyr.  ii.  74; 
Jonguet,  Bull.  corr.  hell,  xxi.,  1897,  184  f.;  Liebenam,  Stddte- 
•aerwaltung,  220  f.).  The  cities  appear  equally  Hellenic  in 
their  political  organs  and  functions  with  boule  and  demos  and 
popularly  elected  magistrates.  Life  was  filled  with  the  universal 
Hellenic  interests,  which  centred  in  the  gymnasium  and  the 
religious  festivals,  these  last  including,  of  course,  not  only  athletic 
contests  but  performances  of  the  classical  dramas  or  later 
imitations  of  them.  The  wandering  sophist  and  rhetorician 
would  find  a  hearing  no  less  than  the  musical  artist.  The 
language  of  the  upper  classes  was  Greek;  and  the  material 
background  of  building  and  decoration,  of  dress  and  furniture, 
was  of  Greek  design.  A  greater  regularity  in  the  street-plans 
seems  to  have  distinguished  the  new  cities  from  the  older  slowly 
grown  cities  of  the  Greek  lands,  just  as  it  distinguishes  the  cities 
of  the  New  World  to-day  from  those  of  Europe.  Alexandria 
and  Antioch  were  both  traversed  from  end  to  end  by  one  long 
straight  street,  crossed  by  shorter  ones  at  right  angles;  Nicaea 
was  a  square  from  the  centre  of  which  all  the  four  gates  could 
be  seen  at  the  ends  of  the  intersecting  thoroughfares  (Strabo 
xii.  565);  similar  characteristics  are  noted  in  the  rebuilt  Smyrna 
(ib.  xiv.  646). 

Sometimes  the  Greek  city  was  not  an  absolutely  new  founda- 
tion, but  an  old  Oriental  city,  re-colonized  and  transformed. 
And  in  such  cases  the  old  name  was  often  replaced  by  a  Greek 
one.  Thus  Celaenae  in  Phrygia  became  Apamea;  Haleb 
(Aleppo)  in  Syria  became  Beroea;  Nisibis  in  Mesopotamia, 
Antioch;  Rhagae  (Rai)  in  Media,  Europus.  In  some  cases 
the  old  name  was  left  unchallenged,  e.g.  Thyatira,  Damascus 
and  Samaria.  Even  where  there  was  no  new  foundation  the 
older  cities  of  Phoenicia  and  Syria  became  transformed  from 
the  overwhelming  prestige  of  Hellenic  culture.  In  Tyre  and 
Sidon,  no  less  than  in  Antioch  or  Alexandria,  Greek  literature 
and  philosophy  were  seriously  cultivated,  as  we  may  see  by  the 
great  names  which  they  contributed.  The  process  by  which 
Hellenism  thus  leavened  an  older  city  we  may  trace  with  peculiar 
vividness  in  the  case  of  Jerusalem;  we  see  there  the  younger 
generation  captivated  by  its  ideals,  the  appearance  of  gymnasium 
and  theatre,  the  eager  adoption  of  Greek  political  forms  (i 
Mace.  i.  13  f.;  2  Mace.  4.,  10  f.). 

A.  Characteristics  of  Hellenism  after  Alexander. — To  the  number 
of  Greek  city-states  existing  before  Alexander  were  now  therefore 
added  those  which  extended  Hellas  as  far  as  India.  With  the 
enormous  extension  of  Greek  territory  a  great  shifting  took  place 
in  the  old  centres  of  gravity.  What  changes  in  the  character 
of  Greek  culture  did  the  new  conditions  of  the  world  bring 
about  ? 

Hellenism  had  been  the  product  of  the  free  life  of  the  Greek 
city-state,  and  after  Chaeronea  the  great  days  of  the  city-state 
were   past.     Not   that   all    liberty   was   everywhere      a  v   „ 
extinguished.     Under  Alexander  himself  the   Greek      ment. 
states   were   restive,   and   Aetolia   unsubdued;   and, 
with  the  break-up  of  the  empire  at  Alexander's  death,  there 
was  once  more  scope  for  the  action  of  the  individual  cities  among 
the  rival  great  powers.     In  the  history  of  the  next  two  or  three 
centuries  the  cities  are  by  no  means  ciphers.     Rhodes  takes 
a  great  part  in  Weltpolitik,  as  a  sovereign  ally  of  one  or  other 
of  the  royal  courts.     In  Greece  itself  the  overlordship  to  which 
the  Macedonian  king  aspires  is  imperfect  in  extent  and  only 
maintained   to   that   extent   by   continual   wars.     The    Greek 
states  on  their  side  show  that  they  are  capable  even  of  progressive 


HELLENISM 


239 


political  development,  the  needs  of  the  time  being  met  by  the 
federal  system,  by  larger  unions  of  equal  members  than  the 
leading  cities  of  the  past  would  have  tolerated,  with  their 
extreme  unwillingness  to  forego  the  least  shred  of  sovereign 
independence.  The  Achaean  and  Aetolian  Leagues  are  inde- 
pendent powers,  which  the  Macedonian  can  indeed  check  by 
garrisons  in  Corinth,  Chalcis  and  elsewhere,  but  which  keep  a 
field  clear  for  Hellenic  freedom  within  their  borders.  Sparta 
also  is  a  power  which  can  cross  swords  with  the  Macedonian 
king,  and  Cleomenes  III.  aspires  to  unite  the  Peloponnesus 
under  his  headship.  As  to  the  cities  outside  Greece,  within 
or  around  the  royal  realms,  Seleucid,  Ptolemaic  or  Attalid,  their 
degree  of  freedom  probably  differed  widely  according  to  circum- 
stances. At  one  end  of  the  scale,  cities  of  old  renown,  e.g. 
Lampsacus  or  Smyrna,  could  still  make  good  their  independence 
against  Antiochus  III.  at  the  beginning  of  the  2nd  century  B.C. 
At  the  other  end  of  the  scale  the  cities  which  were  royal  capitals, 
e.g.  Alexandria,  Antioch  and  Pergamum,  were  normally  controlled 
altogether  by  royal  nominees.  At  Pergamum  indeed  and  (at 
any  rate  after  Antiochus  IV.)  at  Antioch,  forms  of  self-govern- 
ment subsisted  upon  which,  of  course,  the  court  had  its  hand, 
whilst  at  Alexandria  even  such  forms  were  wanting.  Between 
the  two  extremes  there  was  variation  not  only  between  city 
and  city,  but,  no  doubt,  in  one  and  the  same  city  at  different 
times.  In  Syria  the  independent  action  of  the  cities  greatly 
increased  during  the  last  weakness  of  the  Seleucid  monarchy. 
With  the  extension  of  the  single  strong  rule  of  Rome  over  this 
Hellenistic  world,  the  conditions  were  changed.  Just  as  the 
Macedonian  conquest,  whilst  increasing  the  domain  of  Greek 
culture,  had  straitened  Greek  liberty,  so  Rome,  whilst  bringing 
Hellenism  finally  into  secure  possession  of  the  nearer  East, 
extinguished  Greek  freedom  altogether.  Even  now  the  old 
forms  were  long  religiously  respected.  Formally,  the  most 
illustrious  Greek  states,  Athens,  for  instance,  or  Marseilles,  or 
Rhodes,  were  not  subjects  of  Rome,  but  free  allies.  Even  in 
the  case  of  civitates  stipendiariae  (tribute-paying  states) ,  municipal 
autonomy,  subject  indeed  to  interference  on  the  part  of  the 
Roman  governor,  was  allowed  to  go  on.  Boute  and  demos  long 
continued  to  function.  The  old  catchword,  "  autonomy  of  the 
Hellens,"  was  still  heard  and  indeed  was  solemnly  proclaimed 
by  Nero  at  the  Isthmian  games  of  A.D.  67.  But  during  the  first 
centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  this  municipal  autonomy,  by  a 
process  which  can  only  be  imperfectly  traced  in  detail,  decayed. 
The  demos  first  sank  into  political  annihilation  and  the  council, 
no  longer  popularly  elected  but  an  aristocratic  order,  concen- 
trated the  whole  administration  in  its  hands.  By  the  end  of 
the  2nd  century  A.D.,  claims  made  by  the  imperial  government 
upon  the  municipal  senate  are  more  and  more  changing  member- 
ship of  the  order  from  an  honour  into  an  intolerable  burden; 
and  financial  disorganization  is  calling  on  imperial  officials  in 
one  place  after  another  to  undertake  the  business  of  government. 
After  Diocletian  and  under  the  Eastern  Empire  the  Greek  world 
is  organized  on  the  principles  of  a  vast  bureaucracy. 

With  this  long  process  of  political  decline  from  Alexander  to 
Diocletian  correspond  the  inner  changes  in  the  temper  of  the 

Hellenic  and  Hellenistic  peoples.  There  were,  of  course, 
changes,  marked  differences  between  one  region  and  another. 

But  certain  general  characteristics  distinguished  at 
once  Greek  society  after  the  Macedonian  conquests  from  the 
society  of  the  earlier  age.  When  the  vast  field  of  the  East  was 
opened  to  Hellenic  enterprise  and  the  bullion  of  its  treasuries 
flung  abroad,  fortunes  were  made  on  a  scale  before  unparalleled. 
A  new  standard  of  sumptuousness  and  splendour  was  set  up  in 
the  richest  stratum  of  society.  This  material  elaboration  of 
life  was  furthered  by  the  existence  of  Hellenistic  courts,  where 
the  great  ministers  amassed  fabulous  riches  (e.g.  Dionysius, 
the  state  secretary  of  Antiochus  IV.,  Polyb.  xxxi.  3,  16;  Hermias, 
the  chief  minister  of  Seleucus  III.,  and  Antiochus  III.,  Polyb. 
v.  50.  2;  cf.  Plutarch,  Agis  o),  and  of  huge  cities  like  Alexandria, 
Antioch  and  the  enlarged  Ephesus.  It  is  significant  that  whereas 
the  earlier  Greeks  had  used  precious  stones  only  as  a  medium 
for  the  engraver's  art,  unengraven  gems,  valuable  for  their 


<ure. 


mere  material,  now  came  to  be  used  in  profusion  for  adornment. 
Already  before  Alexander  pan-hellenic  feeling  had  in  various 
ways  overridden  the  internal  divisions  of  the  Greek  race,  but 
now,  with  the  vast  mingling  of  Greeks  of  all  sorts  in  the  newly- 
conquered  lands,  a  generalized  Greek  culture  in  which  the  old 
local  characteristics  were  merged,  came  to  overspread  the  world. 
The  gradual  supersession  of  the  old  dialects  by  the  Koine  the 
common  speech  of  the  Greeks,  a  modification  of  the  Attic  idiom 
coloured  by  Ionic,  was  one  obvious  sign  of  the  new  order  of  things 
(see  GREEK  LANGUAGE). 

In  its  artistic,  its  literary,  its  spiritual  products  the  age  after 
Alexander  gave  evidence  of  the  change.  In  no  department  did 
activity  immediately  stop;  but  the  old  freshness  and 
creative  exuberance  was  gone.  Artistic  pleasure, 
grown  less  delicate,  required  the  stimulus  of  a  more 
sensational  effect  or  a  more  striking  realism,  as  we 
may  see  by  the  Pergamene  and  Rhodian  schools  of  sculpture, 
by  the  bas-reliefs  with  the  genre  subjects  drawn  from  the  life 
of  the  countryside,  or,  in  literature  by  the  sort  of  historical 
writing  which  became  popular  with  Cleitarchus  and  Duris,  by 
the  studied  emotional  or  rhetorical  point  of  Callimachus,  and 
by  the  portrayal  of  country  life  in  Theocritus.  At  the  same  time, 
artists  and  men  of  letters  were  now  addressing  themselves  in 
most  cases,  not  to  their  fellow-citizens  in  a  free  city,  but  to  kings 
and  courtiers,  or  the  educated  class  generally  of  the  Greek  world. 
In  those  departments  of  intellectual  activity  which  demand 
no  high  ideal  faculty,  in  the  study  of  the  world  of  fact,  the 
centuries  immediately  following  Alexander  witnessed  notable 
advance.  Scientific  research  might  prosper,  just  as  poetry 
withered,  under  the  patronage  of  kings,  and  such  research  had 
now  a  vast  amount  of  new  material  at  its  disposal  and  could 
profit  by  the  old  Babylonian  and  Egyptian  traditions.  The 
medical  schools,  especially  that  of  Alexandria,  really  enlarged 
knowledge  of  the  animal  frame.  Knowledge  of  the  earth  gained 
immensely  by  the  Macedonian  conquests.  The  literary  schools 
of  Alexandria  and  Pergamum  built  up  grammatical  science, 
and  brought  literary  and  artistic  criticism  to  a  fine  point.  If 
indeed  the  earlier  ages  had  been  those  of  creative  and  spontaneous 
life,  the  Hellenistic  age  was  that  of  conscious  criticism  and 
book-learning.  The  classical  products  were  registered,  studied, 
assorted  and  commented  upon.  Men  travelled  and  read  more. 
Books  were  in  demand  and  were  multiplied.  Libraries  became  a 
feature  of  the  age,  the  kings  leading  the  way  as  collectors,  of 
books,  especially  the  rival  dynasties  of  Egypt  and  Pergamum. 
The  library  attached  to  the  Museum  at  Alexandria  is  said  to 
have  contained  at  the  time  of  its  destruction  in  47  B.C.  as  many 
as  700,000  rolls  (Aul.  Cell.  vi.  17.  3).  Even  smaller  cities,  like 
Aphrodisias  in  Caria,  had  public  libraries  for  the  instruction  of 
their  youth  (Le  Bas,  III.  No.  1618). 

With  the  general  decay  of  ancient  civilization  under  the 
Roman  empire,  even  scientific  research  ceased,  and  though  there 
were  literary  revivals,  like  that  connected  with  the  new  Atticism 
under  the  Antonine  emperors,  these  were  mainly  imitative  and 
artificial,  and  even  learning  became  at  last  under  the  Byzantine 
emperors  a  jejune  and  formal  tradition  (see  GREEK  LITERATURE). 

The  diffusion  of  the  Greek  race  far  from  the  former  centres  of 
its  life,  the  mingling  of  citizens  of  many  cities,  the  close  contact 
between  Greek  and  barbarian  in  the  conquered  lands  — 
all  this  had  made  the  old  sanctions  of  civic  religion   Kelilc>0.?ll 
and  civic  morality  of  less  account  than  ever.     New   Sophy. 
guides  of  life  were  needed.     The  Stoic  philosophy,  with 
its  cosmopolitan  note,  its  fixed  dogmas  and  plain  ethical  precepts, 
came  into  the  world  at  the  time  of  the  Macedonian  conquests  to 
meet  the  needs  of  the  new  age.     Its  ideas  became  popular  among 
ordinary  men  as  the  older  philosophies  had  never  been.     The 
Stoic  or  Cynic  preacher,  attacking  theways  of  society,  in  pungent, 
often  coarse,  phrase,  became  a  familiar  figure  of  the  Greek 
market-place  (P.  Wendland,  Beitrdge  zur  Gesch.  d.  griech.  Philo- 
sophic, 1895). 

Although  the  cults  of  the  old  Greek  deities  in  the  new  cities, 
with  their  splendid  apparatus  of  festivals  and  sacrifice  might  still 
hold  the  multitude,  men  turned  ever  in  large  numbers  to  alien 


240 


HELLENISM 


religions,  felt  as  more  potent  because  strange,  and  the  various  gods 
of  Egypt  and  the  East  began  to  find  larger  entrance  in  the  Greek 
world.  Even  in  the  old  Greek  religion  before  Alexander  there  had 
been  large  elements  of  foreign  origin,  and  that  the  Greeks  should 
now  do  honour  to  the  gods  of  the  lands  into  which  they  came,  as 
we  find  the  Cilician  and  Syrian  Greeks  doing  to  Baal-tars  and  Baal- 
marcod  and  the  Egyptian  Greeks  to  the  gods  of  Egypt,  was  only 
in  accordance  with  the  primitive  way  of  thinking.  But  it  was  a 
sign  of  the  times  when  Serapis  and  Isis,  Osiris  and  Anubis  began 
to  take  place  among  the  popular  deities  in  the  old  Greek  lands. 
The  origin  of  the  cult  of  Serapis,  which  Ptolemy  I.  found,  or 
established,  in  Egypt  is  disputed;  the  familiar  type  of  the  god  is 
the  invention  of  a  Greek  artist,  but  the  name  and  religion  came 
from  somewhere  in  the  East  (see  discussion  under  SERAPIS). 
Before  the  end  of  the  and  century  B.C.  there  were  temples  of 
Serapis  in  Athens,  Rhodes,  Delos  and  Orchomenos  in  Boeotia. 
Under  the  Roman  empire  the  cult  of  Isis,  now  furnished  with  an 
official  priesthood  and  elaborate  ritual,  became  really  popular  in 
the  Hellenistic  world.  King  Asoka  in  the  3rd  century  B.C.  sent 
Buddhist  missionaries  from  India  to  the  Mediterranean  lands; 
their  preaching  has,  it  is  true,  left  little  or  no  trace  in  our  Western 
records.  But  other  religions  of  Oriental  origin  penetrated  far, 
the  worship  of  the  Phrygian  Great  Mother,  and  in  the  2nd 
century  A.D.  the  religion  of  the  Mithras  (Lafaye,  Culte  des 
divinites  alexandrines,  1884;  Roscher,  articles  "  Anubis,"  "  Isis," 
&c.;  F.  Cumont,  Mysteres  de  Mithra,  Eng.  trans.,  1903;  Les 
Religions  orientales  dans  le  paganisme  remain,  1906). 

The  Jews,  too,  by  the  time  of  Christ  were  finding  in  many 
quarters  an  open  door.  Besides  those  who  were  ready  to  go  the 
whole  length  and  accept  circumcision,  numbers  adopted  particular 
Jewish  practices,  observing  the  Sabbath,  for  instance,  or  turned 
from  polytheism  to  the  doctrine  of  the  One  God.  The  synagogues 
in  the  Gentile  cities  had  generally  attached  to  them,  in  more  or 
less  close  connexion  a  multitude  of  those  "  who  feared  God  "  and 
frequented  the  services  (Schurer,  Gesch.  d.  jiid.  Volks,  iii.  102- 

135). 

Among  the  religions  which  penetrated  the  Hellenistic  world 
from  an  Eastern  source,  one  ultimately  overpowered  all  the  rest 
and  made  that  world  its  own.  The  inter-action  of 
Christianity  and  Hellenism  opens  large  fields  of  inquiry. 
The  teaching  of  Christ  Himself  contained,  as  it  is  given 
to  us,  no  Hellenic  element;  so  far  as  He  built  with  older  material, 
that  material  was  exclusively  the  sacred  tradition  of  Israel.  So 
soon,  however,  as  the  Gospel  was  carried  in  Greek  to  Greeks, 
Hellenic  elements  began  to  enter  into  it,  in  the  writings,  for 
instance,  of  St  Paul,  the  appeal  to  what  "  nature  "  teaches  would 
be  generally  admitted  to  be  the  adoption  of  a  Greek  mode  of 
thought.  It  was,  of  course,  impossible  that  speaking  in  Greek 
and  living  among  Greeks,  Christians  should  not  to  some  extent 
use  current  conceptions  for  the  expression  of  their  faith.  There 
was,  at  the  same  time,  in  the  early  Church  a  powerful  current  of 
feeling  hostile  to  Greek  culture,  to  the  wisdom  of  the  world. 
What  the  attitude  of  the  New  People  should  be  to  it,  whether  it 
was  all  bad,  or  whether  there  were  good  things  in  it  which 
Christians  should  appropriate,  was  a  vital  question  that  always 
confronted  them.  The  great  Christian  School  of  Alexandria  re- 
presented by  Clement  and  Origen  effected  a  durable  alliance 
between  Greek  education  and  Christian  doctrine.  In  proportion 
as  the  Christian  Church  had  to  go  deeper  into  metaphysics  in  the 
formulation  of  its  belief  as  to  God,  as  to  Christ,  as  to  the  soul,  the 
Greek  philosophical  terminology,  which  was  the  only  vehicle  then 
available  for  precise  thought,  had  to  become  more  and  more  an 
essential  part  of  Christianity.  At  the  same  time  Christian  ethics 
incorporated  much  of  the  current  popular  philosophy,  especially 
large  Stoical  elements.  In  this  way  the  Church  itself,  as  we  shall 
see,  became  a  propagator  of  Hellenism  (see  Hatch,  Hibbert 
Lectures,  1888;  Wendland,  "  Christentum  u.  Hellenismus " 
in  Neue  Jahrb.  f.  kl.  Alt.  ix.  1902,  p.  i  f.;  and  Die  hellenistisch- 
romische  Kultur  in  ihren  Beziehungen  zu  Judentum  u.  Christentum, 
1907). 

B.  Effect  upon  non-Hellenic  Peoples. — Hellenism  secured  by  the 
Macedonian  conquest  points  d'appui  from  the  Mediterranean  to 


Christi- 
anity. 


Greek 
cities. 


India,  and  brought  the  system  of  commerce  and  intercourse  into 
Greek  hands.  What  effect  did  it  produce  in  these  various 
countries?  What  effect  again  in  the  lands  of  the  West  which  fell 
under  the  sway  of  Rome? 

(i.)  India. — In  India  (including  the  valleys  of  the  Kabul  and 
its  northern  tributaries,  then  inhabited  by  an  Indian,  not,  as 
now,  by  an  Iranian,  population)  Alexander  planted 
a  number  of  Greek  towns.  Alexandria  "  under  the 
Caucasus  "  commanded  the  road  from  Bactria  over 
the  Hindu-Kush;  it  lay  somewhere  among  the  hills  to  the  north 
of  Kabul,  perhaps  at  Opian  near  Charikar  (MacCrindle,  Ancient 
India,  p.  87,  note  4);  that  it  is  the  city  meant  by  "  Alasadda 
the  capital  of  the  Yona  (Greek)  country  "  in  the  Buddhist 
Mahavanso,  as  is  generally  affirmed,  seems  doubtful  (Tarn, 
loc.  cit.  below,  p.  269,  note  7).  We  hear  of  a  Nicaea  in  the  Kabul 
valley  itself  (near  Jalalabad?),  another  Nicaea  on  the  Hydaspes 
(Jhelum)  where  Alexander  crossed  it,  with  Bucephala  (see 
BUCEPHALUS)  opposite,  a  city  (unnamed)  on  the  Acesines 
(Chenab)  (Arr.  vi.  29,  3),  and  a  series  of  foundations  strung  along 
the  Indus  to  the  sea.  Soon  after  321,  Macedonian  supremacy 
beyond  the  Indus  collapsed  before  the  advance  of  the  native 
Maurya  dynasty,  and  about  303  even  large  districts  west  of  the 
Indus  were  ceded  by  Seleucus.  But  the  chapter  of  Greek  rule 
in  India  was  not  yet  closed.  The  Maurya  dynasty  broke  up  about 
180  B.C.,  and  at  the  same  time  the  Greek  rulers  of  Bactria  began 
to  lead  expeditions  across  the  Hindu-Kush.  Menander  in  the 
middle  of  the  2nd  century  B.C.  extended  his  rule  from  the  Hindu- 
Kush  to  the  Ganges.  Then  "  Scythian  "  peoples  from  central 
Asia,  Sakas  and  Yue-chi,  having  conquered  Bactria,  gradually 
squeezed  within  ever-narrowing  limits  the  Greek  power  in  India. 
The  last  Greek  prince,  Hermaeus,  seems  to  have  succumbed 
about  30  B.C.  It  was  just  at  this  time  that  the  Graeco-Roman 
world  of  the  West  was  consolidated  as  the  Roman  Empire,  and, 
though  Greek  rule  in  India  had  disappeared,  active  commercial 
intercourse  went  on  between  India  and  the  Hellenistic  lands. 
How  far,  through  these  changes,  did  the  Greek  population  settled 
by  Alexander  or  his  successors  in  India  maintain  their  distinctive 
character?  What  influence  did  Hellenism  during  the  centuries 
in  which  it  was  in  contact  with  India  exert  upon  the  native 
mind?  Only  extremely  qualified  answers  can  be  given  to  these 
questions.  Capital  data  are  possibly  waiting  there  under 
ground — the  Kabul  valley  for  instance  is  almost  virgin  soil  for 
the  archaeologist — and  any  conclusion  we  can  arrive  at  is  merely 
provisional.  If  certain  statements  of  classical  authors  were 
true,  Hellenism  in  India  flourished  exceedingly.  But  the  phil- 
hellenic Brahmins  in  Philostratus'  life  of  Apollonius  had  no  exist- 
ence outside  the  world  of  romance,  and  the  statement  of  Dio 
Chrysostom  that  the  Indians  were  familiar  with  Homer  in  their 
own  tongue  (Or.  liii.  6)  is  a  traveller's  tale.  India,  the  sceptical 
observe,  has  yielded  no  Greek  inscription,  except,  of  course,  on 
the  coins  of  the  Greek  kings  and  their  Scythian  rivals  and  suc- 
cessors. To  what  extent  can  it  be  inferred  from  legends  on  coins 
that  Greek  was  a  living  speech  in  India  ?  Perhaps  to  no  large 
extent  outside  the  Greek  courts.  The  fact,  however,  that  the 
Greek  character  was  still  used  on  coins  for  two  centuries  after  the 
last  Greek  dynasty  had  come  to  an  end  shows  that  the  language 
had  a  prestige  in  India  which  any  theory,  to  be  plausible,  must 
account  for.  If  we  argue  by  probability  from  what  we  know 
of  the  conditions,  we  have  to  consider  that  the  Greek  rule  in 
India  was  all  through  fighting  for  existence,  .and  can  have  had 
"  little  time  or  energy  left  for  such  things  as  art,  science  and 
literature  "  (Tarn,  loc.  cit.  p.  292),  and  it  is  pointed  out  that  a 
casual  reference  to  the  Greeks  in  an  Indian  work  contemporary 
with  Menander  characterizes  them  as  "  viciously  valiant  Yonas." 
How  long  is  it  probable  that  Greek  colonies  planted  in  the  midst 
of  alien  races  would  have  remained  distinct?  Mr  Tarn  builds 
much  upon  the  fact  that  the  descendants  of  the  Greek  Branchidae 
settled  by  Xerxes  in  central  Asia  had  become  bilingual  in  six 
generations  (Curt.  vii.  5,  29).  But  the  Greek  race  before 
Alexander  had  not  its  later  prestige,  and  we  must  consider  such 
a  sentiment  as  leads  the  Eurasian  to-day  to  cling  to  his  Western 
parentage,  so  that  the  instance  of  the  Branchidae  cannot  be 


HELLENISM 


241 


Greek 


used  straight  away  for  the  time  after  Alexander.  Certainly, 
had  the  Greek  colonies  in  India  been  active  political  bodies,  we 
could  hardly  have  failed  to  find  some  trace  of  them,  in  civic 
architecture  or  in  inscriptions,  by  this  time.  Perhaps  we  should 
rather  think  of  them  as  resembling  the  Greeks  found  to-day 
dispersed  over  the  nearer  East  with  interests  mainly  commercial, 
easily  assimilating  themselves  to  their  environment.  A  notice 
derived  from  Agatharchides  (about  140  B.C.)  possibly  refers  to 
the  activity  of  these  Indian  Greeks  in  the  sea-borne  trade  of  the 
Indian  Ocean  (Mtiller,  Geog.  Graeci  min.  i.  p.  191;  cf.  Diod. 
iii.  47.  9).  As  to  what  India  derived  from  Greece  there  has  been 
a  good  deal  of  erudite  debate.  That  the  Indian  drama  took 
its  origin  from  the  Greek  is  still  maintained  by  scime  scholars, 
though  hardly  proved.  There  is  no  doubt  that  Indian  astronomy 
shows  marked  Hellenic  features,  including  actual  Greek  words 
borrowed.  But  by  far  the  most  signal  borrowing  is  in  the  sphere 
of  art.  The  stream  of  Buddhist  art  which  went  out 
eastwards  across  Asia  had  its  rise  in  North-West  India, 
and  the  remains  of  architecture  and  sculpture  un- 
earthed in  this  region  enable  us  to  trace  its  development  back  to 
pure  Greek  types.  It  remains,  of  course,  a  question  whether 
the  tradition  was  transmitted  by  the  Greek  dynasties  from 
Bactria  or  by  intercourse  with  the  Roman  empire;  the  latter 
seems  now  almost  certain;  but  the  fact  of  the  influence  is  equally 
striking  on  either  theory.  How  far  to  the  east  the  distinctive 
influence  of  Greece  went  is  shown  by  the  seal-impressions  with 
Athena  and  Eros  types  found  by  Dr  Stein  in  the  buried  cities  of 
Khotan  (Sand-buried  Ruins  of  Khotan,  p.  396),  and  according  to 
Mr  E.  B.  Havell,  there  exist  "  paintings  treasured  as  the  most 
precious  relics  and  rarely  shown  to  Europeans,  which  closely 
resemble  the  Graeco-Buddhist  art  of  India  "  in  some  of  the  oldest 
temples  of  Japan  (Studio,  vol.  xxvii.  1903,  p.  26). 

See  A.  A.  Macdonell,  History  of  Sanskrit  Literature  (1900)  p.  41 1  f., 
and  the  references  on  p.  452 ;  V.  A.  Smith,  Early  History  of  India 
(1904);  Griinwedel,  Buddhist  Art  in  India  (Eng.  trans.,  edited  by 
Dr  Burgess,  1901);  W.  W.  Tarn,  "  Notes  on  Hellenism  in  Bactria 
and  India"  in  Journ.  of  Hell.  Studies,  xxii.  (1902);  Foucher, 
L'Art  greco-bouddhique  du  Gandhdra  (1905). 

(ii.)  Iran  and  Babylonia. — The  colonizing  activity  of  Alexander 
and  his  successors  found  a  large  field  in  Iran  where,  up  till  his 
time,  hardly  any  walled  towns  seem  to  have  existed. 
Cities  now  arose  in  all  its  provinces,  superseding  in 
many  cases  native  market  places  and  villages,  and 
holding  the  vantage-points  of  commerce.  Media,  Polybius  says, 
was  defended  by  a  chain  of  Greek  cities  from  barbarian  incursion 
(x.  27.  3);  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Teheran  seem  to  have  stood 
Heraclea  and  Europus.  In  Eastern  Iran  the  cities  which  are 
its  chief  places  to-day  then  bore  Greek  names,  and  looked  upon 
Alexander  or  some  other  Hellenic  prince  as  their  founder. 
Khojend,  Herat,  Kandahar  were  Alexandrias,  Merv  was  an 
Alexandria  till  it  changed  that  name  for  Antioch.  When  the 
farther  provinces  broke  away  under  independent  Greek  kings, 
a  Eucratidea  and  a  Demetrias  attested  their  glory.  Even  in  a 
town  definitely  barbarian  like  Syrinca  in  209  B.C.  there  was  a 
resident  mercantile  community  of  Greeks  (Polyb.  x.  31).  The 
bulk  of  Greek  historical  literature  having  perished,  and  in  the 
absence  of  both  archaeological  data  from  Iran,  we  can  only 
speculate  on  the  inner  life  of  these  Greek  cities  under  a  strange 
sky.  One  precious  document  is  the  decree  of  Antioch  in  Persis 
(about  206  B.C.)  cited  in  a  recently  discovered  inscription  (Kern, 
Insc/ir.  v.  Magnesia,  No.  61;  Dittenberger,  Orient,  gr.  Inscr.  i. 
No.  233).  This  shows  us  the  normal  organs  of  a  Greek  city, 
boule,  ecclesia,  prylaneis,  &c.,  in  full  working,  with  the  annual 
election  of  magistrates,  and  ordinary  forms  of  public  action. 
But  more  than  this,  it  throws  a  remarkable  light  upon  the 
solidarity  of  the  Hellenic  Dispersion.  The  citizen  body  had  been 
increased  some  generations  before  by  colonists  from  Magnesia-on- 
Meander  sent  at  the  invitation  of  Antiochus  I.  The  Magnesians 
are  instigated  by  pan-hellenic  enthusiasm.  And  we  see  a  brisk 
diplomatic  intercourse  between  the  scattered  Greek  cities  going 
on.  It  is  especially  the  local  religious  festivals  which  bind  them 
together.  Antioch  in  Persis,  of  course,  sends  athletes  to  the  great 
games  of  Greece,  but  in  this  decree  it  determines  to  take  part  in 


Qnet 

cities. 


the  new  festival  being  started  in  honour  of  Artemis  at  Magnesia. 
The  loyalty,  too,  expressed  towards  the  Seleucid  king  implies 
a  predominant  interest  in  pan-hellenic  unity,  natural  in  colonies- 
isolated  among  barbarians.  A  list  is  given  (fragmentary)  of 
other  Greek  cities  in  Babylonia  and  beyond  from  which  similar 
decrees  had  come. 

In  the  middle  of  the  3rd  century  B.C.  Bactria  and  Sogdiana 
broke  away  from  the  Seleucid  empire;  independent  Greek  kings 
reigned  there  till  the  country  was  conquered  by 
nomads  from  Central  Asia  (Sacae  and  Yue-chi)  a 
century  later.  Alexander  had  settled  large  masses  of 
Greeks  in  these  regions  (Greeks,  it  would  seem,  not  Mace- 
donians), whose  attempts  to  return  home  in  325  and  323  had 
been  frustrated,  and  it  may  well  be  that  a  racial  antagonism 
quickened  the  revolt  against  Macedonian  rule  in  250.  The 
history  of  these  Greek  dynasties  is  for  us  almost  a  blank,  and 
for  estimating  the  amount  and  quality  of  Hellenism  in  Bactria 
during  the  180  years  or  so  of  Macedonian  and  Greek  rule,  we 
are  reduced  to  building  hypotheses  upon  the  scantiest  data. 
Probably  nothing  important  bearing  on  the  subject  has  been  left 
out  of  view  in  W.  W.  Tarn's  learned  discussion  (Journ.  of  Hell. 
Stud,  xxii.,  1902,  p.  268  f.),  and  his  result  is  mainly  negative, 
that  palpable  evidences  of  an  active  Hellenism  have  not  been 
found;  he  inclines  to  think  that  the  Greek  kingdoms  mainly 
took  on  the  native  Iranian  colour.  The  coins,  of  course,  are 
adduced  on  the  other  side,  being  not  only  Greek  in  type  and 
legend,  but  (in  many  cases)  of  a  peculiarly  fine  and  vigorous 
execution;  and  excellence  in  one  branch  of  art  is  thought  to 
imply  that  other  branches  flourished  in  the  same  milieu.  Tarn 
suggests  that  they  may  be  a  "  sport,"  a  spasmodic  outbreak 
of  genius  (see  BACTRIA  and  works  there  quoted).  In  these  out- 
lying provinces  the  national  Iranian  sentiment  seems  to  have 
been  most  intense,  and  it  is  interesting  to  see  that  under  Alexander 
Hellenism  appeared  as  "  belligerent  civilization,"  in  the  attempt 
to  suppress  practices  like  the  exposure  of  the  dying  to  the  dogs 
(an  exaggeration  of  Zoroastrianism)  and,  possibly  also,  abhorrent 
forms  of  marriage  (Strabo  xi.  517;  Porphyr.  De  abstin.  4.  21; 
Plut.  Defort.  Al.  5). 

The  west  of  Iran  slipped  from  the  Seleucids  in  the  course  of 
the  and  century  B.C.  to  be  joined  to  the  Parthian  kingdom,  or 
fall  under  petty  native  dynasties.  Soon  after  130  Babylonia 
too  was  conquered  by  the  Parthian,  and  Mesopotamia  before  88. 
Then  the  reconquest  of  the  nearer  East  by  Oriental  dynasties 
was  checked  by  the  advance  of  Rome.  Asia  Minor  and  Syria 
remained  substantial  parts  of  the  Roman  Empire  till  the  Mahom- 
medan  conquests  of  the  7th  century  A.D.  began  a  new  process 
of  recoil  on  the  part  of  the  Hellenistic  power.  In  Babylonia,  also, 
in  Susiana  and  Mesopotamia,  Hellenism  had  been  established 
in  a  system  of  cities  for  200  years  before  the  coming  of  the 
Parthian.  The  greatest  of  all  of  them  stood  here — almost  on 
the  site  of  Bagdad — Seleucia  on  the  Tigris.  It  superseded 
Babylon  as  the  industrial  focus  of  Babylonia  and  counted  some 
600,000  inhabitants  (plebs  urbana)  according  to  Pliny,  N.H.  vi. 
§122  (cf.  Joseph.  Arch,  xviii.  §  372,  374;  for  coins,  probably  of 
Seleucia,  with  the  type  of  Tyche  issued  in  the  years  A.D.  43-44 
see  Wroth,  Coins  of  Parthia,  p.  xlvi.).  The  list  of  other  Greek 
cities  known  to  us  in  these  regions  is  too  long  to  give  here  (see 
Droysen,  loc.  cit.,  and  E.  Schwartz  in  Kern's  Inschr.  v.  Magnesia, 
p.  171  f.).  In  Mesopotamia,  Pliny  especially  notes  how  the 
character  of  the  country  was  changed  when  the  old  village  life 
was  broken  in  upon  by  new  centres  of  population  in  the  cities  of 
Macedonian  foundation  (Pliny,  N.H.  vi.  §  117;  cf.  K.  Regling, 
"  Histor.  geog.  d.  mesopot.  Parallelograms,"  in  Lehmann's 
Beitriige,  i.  p.  442  f.). 

We  do  not  look  in  vain  for  notable  names  in  Hellenistic 
literature  and  philosophy  produced  on  an  Asiatic  soil.     Diogenes, 
the  Stoic  philosopher  (head  of  the  school  in  156  B.C.), 
was  a  "  Babylonian,"  i.e.  a  citizen  of  Seleucia  on  the     Heikak- 
Tigris;  so  too  was  Seleucus,  the  mathematician  and      culture. 
astronomer,    being    possibly    a    native    Babylonian; 
Berossus,  who  wrote  a  Babylonian  history  in  Greek  (before 
261  B.C.)  was  a  Hellenized  native.  Apollodorus,  Strabo's  authority 


242 


HELLENISM 


for  Parthian  history  (c.  80  B.C.  ?),  was  from  the  Greek  city  of 
Artemita  in  Assyria.  When  the  Parthians  rent  away  provinces 
from  the  Seleucid  empire,  the  Greek  cities  did  not  cease  to  exist 
by  passing  under  barbarian  rule.  Gradually  no  doubt  the 
Greek  colonies  were  absorbed,  but  the  process  was  a  long  one. 
In  140  and  130  B.C.  those  of  Iran  were  ready  to  rise  in  support 
of  the  Seleucid  invader  (Joseph.  Arch.  xiii.  §  184;  Justin  xxxviii. 
10.6-8).  Just  so,  Crassus  in  53  B.C.  found  a  welcome  in  the  Greek 
cities  of  Mesopotamia.  Seleucia  on  the  Tigris  is  spoken  of  by 
Tacitus  as  being  in  A.D.  36  "  proof  against  barbarian  influences 
and  mindful  of  its  founder  Seleucus  "  (Ann.  vi.  42).  How  im- 
portant an  element  the  Greek  population  of  their  realm  seemed 
to  the  Parthian  kings  we  can  see  by  the  fact  that  they  claimed 
to  be  themselves  champions  of  Hellenism.  From  the  reign  of 
Artabanus  I.  (128/7-123  B.C.)  they  bear  the  epithet  of  "  Phil- 
hellen  "  as  a  regular  part  of  their  title  upon  the  coins.  Under 
the  later  reigns  the  Tyche  figure  (the  personification  of  a  Greek 
city)  becomes  common  as  a  coin  type  (Wroth,  Coins  of  Parthia, 
pp.  liii.,  Ixxiv.).  The  coinage  may,  of  course,  give  a  somewhat 
one-sided  representation  of  the  Parthian  kingdom,  being  specially 
designed  for  the  commercial  class,  in  which  the  population  of 
the  Greek  cities  was,  we  may  guess,  predominant.  The  state  of 
things  which  prevails  in  modern  Afghanistan,  where  trade  is  in 
the  hands  of  a  class  distinct  in  race  and  speech  (Persian  in  this 
case)  from  the  ruling  race  of  fighters  is  very  probably  analogous 
to  that  which  we  should  have  found  in  Iran  under  the  Parthians.1 
That  the  Parthian  court  itself  was  to  some  extent  Hellenized 
is  shown  by  the  story,  often  adduced,  that  a  Greek  company  of 
actors  was  performing  the  Bacchae  before  the  king  when  the 
head  of  Crassus  was  brought  in.  This  single  instance  need  not, 
it  is  true,  show  a  Hellenism  of  any  profundity;  still  it  does  show 
that  certain  parts  of  Hellenism  had  become  so  essential  to  the 
lustre  of  a  court  that  even  an  Arsacid  could  not  be  without  them. 
Artavasdes,  king  of  Armenia  (54?~34  B.C.)  composed  Greek 
tragedies  and  histories  (Plut.  Crass.  33).  Then  the  prestige 
of  the  Roman  Empire,  with  its  prevailingly  Hellenistic  culture, 
must  have  told  powerfully.  The  Parthian  princes  were  in  many 
cases  the  children  of  Greek  mothers  who  had  been  taken  into  the 
royal  harems  (Plut.  Crass.  32).  Musa,  the  queen-mother,  whose 
head  appears  on  the  coins  of  Phraataces  (3/2  B.C.-A.D.  4)  had 
been  an  Italian  slave-girl.  Many  of  the  Parthian  princes  resided 
temporarily,  as  hostages  or  refugees,  in  the  Roman  Empire; 
but  one  notes  that  the  nation  at  large  looked  with  anything  but 
favour  upon  too  liberal  an  introduction  of  foreign  manners  at 
the  court  (Tac.  Ann.  ii.  2). 

Such  slight  notices  in  Western  literature  do  not  give  us  any 
penetrating  view  into  the  operation  of  Hellenism  among  the 
Iranians.  As  an  expression  of  the  Iranian  mind  we  have  the 
Avesta  and  the  Pehlevi  theological  literature.  Unfortunately 
in  a  question  of  this  kind  the  dating  of  our  documents  is  the  first 
matter  of  importance,  and  it  seems  that  we  can  only  assign 
dates  to  the  different  parts  of  the  Avesta  by  processes  of  fine- 
drawn conjecture.  And  even  if  we  could  date  the  Avesta 
securely,  we  could  only  prove  borrowing  by  more  or  less  close 
coincidences  of  idea,  a  tempting  but  uncertain  method  of  inquiry. 
Taking  an  opinion  based  on  such  data  for  what  it  is  worth,  we 
may  note  that  Darmesteter  believed  in  the  influence  of  the  later 
Greek  philosophy  (Philonian  and  Neo-platonic)  as  one  of  those 
which  shaped  the  Avesta  as  we  have  it  (Sacred  Books  of  the  East, 
iv.  54  f.),  but  we  must  also  note  that  such  an  influence  is 
emphatically  denied  by  Dr  L.  Mills  (Zarathushtra  and  the  Greeks, 
Leipzig,  1906).  Outside  literature,  we  have  to  look  to  the 
artistic  remains  offered  by  the  region  to  determine  Hellenic 
influence.  But  here,  too,  the  preliminary  classification  of  the 
documents  is  beset  with  doubt.  In  the  case  of  small  objects  like 
gems  the  place  of  manufacture  may  be  far  from  the  place  of 
discovery.  The  architectural  remains  are  solidly  in  situ,  but 

1  "  Ce  sont  les  Tadjik  de  1'Afghanistan  qui  constituent  les  trente- 
deux  corps  de  metier,  qui  tiennent  boutique,  expedient  les  marchan- 
dises,  repr^sentent,  en  un  mot,  la  vie  industrielle  et  commerciale  de 
la  nation.  Ce  sont  aussi  les  Tadjik  des  villes  qui  forment  la  classe 
Iettr6e,  et  qui  ont  emp^che'  les  Afghans  de  retomber  dans  la  barbarie." 
(Reclus,  Nouvelle  Geograph.  univ.  ix.  p.  71.) 


we  may  have  such  vast  disagreement  as  to  date  as  that  between 
Dieulafoy  and  M.  de  Morgan  with  respect  to  domed  buildings  of 
Susa,  a  disagreement  of  at  least  five  centuries.  It  is  enough 
then  here  to  observe  that  Iran  and  Babylonia  do,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  continually  yield  the  explorer  objects  of  workmanship 
either  Greek  or  influenced  by  Greek  models,  belonging  to  the  age 
after  Alexander,  and  that  we  may  hence  infer  at  any  rate  such 
an  influence  of  Hellenism  upon  the  tastes  of  the  richer  classes 
as  would  create  a  demand  for  these  things. 

For  gems  see  "  Gobineau  "  in  the  Rei:  archeol.,  yols.  xxvii.,  xxviii. 
(1874);  M6nant,  Recherches  sur  la  glyptique  orientate,  ii.  189  f.  ; 
E.  Babelon,  Catalogue  des  camees  de  la  Bibl.  Nat.  (1897),  p.  56; 
A.  Furtwangler,  Die  antiken  Gemmen,  pp.  165,  369  ff.  ;  Figurines: 
Heuzey,  Fig.  ant.  du  Louvre  (1883)  p.  3;  J.  P.  Peters,  Nippur, 
ii.  128;  Military  standard:  Heuzey,  Comptes  rendus  de  lAcad. 
d.  Inscr.  (1895)  p.  16;  Rev.  d'Assyr.  \.  (1903),  p.  103  f.  Alabaster 
vase:  Sykes,  Ten  Thousand  Miles  in  Persia,  p.  445.  In  the  case 
of  the  architectural  remains,  the  Greek  tradition  is  obvious  at  Hatra 
(Jacquerel,  Rev.  arcMol.,  1897  [ii.],  343  f.),  and  in  the  relics  of  the 
temple  at  Kingavar  (Dieulafoy,  L  Art  antique  de  la  Perse,  v.  p.  10  f.). 

If  any  vestige  of  Hellenism  still  survived  under  the  Sassanian 
kings,  our  records  do  not  show  it.  The  spirit  of  the  Sassanian 
monarchy  was  more  jealously  national  than  that  of  the 
Arsacid,  and  alien  grafts  could  hardly  have  flourished 
under  it.  Of  course,  if  Darmesteter  was  right  in  seeing 
a  Greek  element  in  Zoroastrianism,  Greek  influence  must  still 
have  operated  under  the  new  dynasty,  which  recognized  the 
national  religion.  But,  as  we  saw,  the  Greek  influence  has  been 
authoritatively  denied.  At  the  court  a  limited  recognition 
might  be  given,  as  fashion  veered,  to  the  values  prevalent  in  the 
Hellenistic  world.  The  story  of  Hormisdas  in  Zosimus  is  sugges- 
tive in  this  connexion  (Zosim.  Hist.  nov.  ii.  27).  Chosroes  I. 
interested  himself  in  Greek  philosophy  and  received  its  professors 
from  the  West  with  open  arms  (Agath.  ii.  28  f.);  according  to 
one  account,  he  had  his  palace  at  Ctesiphon  built  by  Greeks 
(Theophylact.  Simocat.  v.  6). 

But  the  account  of  Chosroes'  mode  of  action  makes  it  plain 
that  the  Hellenism  once  planted  in  Iran  had  withered  away; 
representatives  of  Greek  learning  and  skill  have  all  to  be  imported 
from  across  the  frontier. 

For  Hellenism  in  Babylonia  and  Iran,  see  the  useful  article  of 
M.  Victor  Chapot  in  the  Bull,  et  memoires  de  la  Soc.  Nat.  des  Anti- 
quaires  de  France  for  1902  (published  1904),  p.  206  f.,  which  gives 
a  conspectus  of  the  relevant  literature. 

(iii.)  Asia  Minor.  —  Very  different  were  the  fortunes  of  Hellen- 
ism in  those  lands  which  became  annexed  to  the  Roman  Empire. 

In  Asia  Minor,  we  have  seen  how,  even  before  Alexander, 
Hellenism  had  begun  to  affect  the  native  races  and  Persian 
nobility.  During  Alexander's  own  reign,  we  cannot  anek 
trace  any  progress  in  the  Hellenization  of  the  interior,  cities 
nor  can  we  prove  here  his  activity  as  a  builder  of 
cities.  But  under  the  dynasties  of  his  successors  a 
great  work  of  city-building  and  colonization  went  on.  Antigonus 
fixed  his  capital  at  the  old  Phrygian  town  of  Celaenae,  and  the 
famous  cities  of  Nicaea  and  Alexandria  Troas  owed  to  him 
their  first  foundation,  each  as  an  Antigonia;  they  were  refounded 
and  renamed  by  Lysimachus  (301-281  B.C.).  Then  we  have 
the  great  system  of  Seleucid  foundations.  Sardis,  the  Seleucid 
capital  in  Asia  Minor,  had  become  a  Greek  city  before  the  end 
of  the  3rd  century  B.C.  The  main  high  road  between  the  Aegean 
coast  and  the  East  was  held  by  a  series  of  new  cities.  Going 
west  from  the  Cilician  Gates  we  have  Laodicea  Catacecaumene, 
Apamea,  the  Phrygian  capital  which  absorbed  Celaenae,  Laodicea 
on  the  Lycus,  Antioch-on-Meander,  Antioch-Nysa,  Antioch- 
Tralles.  To  the  south  of  this  high  road  we  have  among  the 
Seleucid  foundations  Antioch  in  Pisidia  (colonized  with  Mag- 
nesians  from  the  Meander)  and  Stratonicea  in  Caria;  in  the 
region  to  the  north  of  it  the  most  famous  Seleucid  colony  was 
Thyatira.  Along  the  southern  coast,  where  the  houses  of  Seleucus 
and  Ptolemy  strove  for  predominance,  we  find  the  names  of 
Berenice,  Arsinoe  and  Ptolemais  confronting  those  of  Antioch 
and  Seleucia.  With  the  rise  of  the  Attalid  dynasty  of  Pergamum  , 
a  system  of  Pergamene  foundation  begins  to  oppose  the  Seleucid 
in  the  interior,  bearing  such  names  as  Attalia,  Philetaeria, 


a  e 


HELLENISM 


243 


Eumenia,  Apollonis.  Of  these,  one  may  note  for  their  later 
celebrity  Philadelphia  in  Lydia  and  Attalia  on  the  Pamphylian 
coast.  The  native  Bithynian  dynasty  became  Hellenized  in  the 
course  of  the  3rd  century,  and  in  the  matter  of  city  building 
Prusias  (the  old  Cius) ,  Apamea  (the  old  Myrlea) ,  probably  Prusa, 
and  above  all  Nicomedia  attested  its  activity.  While  new 
Greek  cities  were  rising  in  the  interior,  the  older  Hellenism  of 
the  western  coast  grew  in  material  splendour  under  the  muni- 
ficence of  Hellenistic  kings.  Its  centres  of  gravity  to  some 
extent  shifted.  There  was  a  tendency  towards  concentration 
in  large  cities  of  the  new  type,  which  caused  many  of  the  lesser 
towns,  like  Lebedus,  Myus  or  Colophon,  to  sink  to  insignificance, 
while  Ephesus  grew  in  greatness  and  wealth,  and  Smyrna  rose 
again  after  an  extinction  of  four  centuries.  The  great  importance 
of  Rhodes  belongs  to  the  days  after  Alexander,  when  it  received 
the  riches  of  the  East  from  the  trade-routes  which  debouched 
into  the  Mediterranean  at  Alexandria  and  Antioch.  In  Aeolis, 
of  course,  the  centre  of  gravity  moved  to  the  Attalid  capital, 
Pergamum.  It  was  the  irruption  of  the  Celts,  beginning  in 
278-277  B.C.,  which  checked  the  Hellenization  of  the  interior. 
Not  only  did  the  Galatian  tribes  take  large  tracts  towards  the 
north  of  the  plateau  in  possession,  but  they  were  an  element  of 
perpetual  unrest,  which  hampered  and  distracted  the  Hellenistic 
monarchies.  The  wars,  therefore,  in  which  the  Pergamene 
kings  in  the  latter  part  of  the  3rd  century  stemmed  their  aggres- 
sions, had  the  glory  of  a  Hellenic  crusade. 

The  minor  dynasties  of  non-Greek  origin,  the  native  Bithynian 
and  the  two  Persian  dynasties  in  Pontus  and  Cappadocia,  were 

Hellenized  before  the  Romans  drove  the  Seleucid  out 
dynasties.  °^  l^e  country-  In  Bithynia  the  upper  classes  seem  to 

have  followed  the  fashion  of  the  court  (Beloch  iii.  [i.], 
278);  the  dynasty  of  Pontus  was  phil-hellenic  by  ancestral 
tradition;  the  dynasty  of  Cappadocia,  the  most  conservative, 
dated  its  conversion  to  Hellenism  from  the  time  when  a  Seleucid 
princess  came  to  reign  there  early  in  the  2nd  century  B.C.  as  the 
wife  of  Ariarathes  V.  (Diod.  xxxi.  19.  8).  But  Hellenism  in 
Cappadocia  was  for  centuries  to  come  still  confined  to  the  castles 
of  the  king  and  the  barons,  and  the  few  towns. 

When  Rome  began  to  interfere  in  Asia  Minor,  its  first  action 
was  to  break  the  power  of  the  Gauls  (189  B.C.).  In  133  Rome 
Hellenism  entered  formally  upon  the  heritage  of  the  Attalid 
under  kingdom  and  became  the  dominant  power  in  the 
Roman  Anatolian  peninsula  for  1 200  years.  Under  Rome  the 

process  of  Hellenization,  which  the  divisions  and 
weaknessof  the  Macedonian  kingdoms  had  checked,  went  forward. 
The  coast  regions  of  the  west  and  south  the  Romans  found 
already  Hellenized.  In  Lydia  "  not  a  trace  "  of  the  old  language 
was  left  in  Strabo's  time  (Strabo  xiv.  631);  in  Lycia,  the  old 
language  became  obsolete  in  the  early  days  of  Macedonian  rule 
(see  Kalinka,  Tituli  Asioe  minoris,  i.  8).  But  inland,  in 
Phrygia,  Hellenism  had  as  yet  made  little  headway  outside 
the  Greek  cities.  Even  the  Attalids  had  not  effected  much  here 
(Korte,  Athen.  Mitth.  xxiii.,  1898,  p.  152),  and  under  the  Romans, 
the  penetration  of  the  interior  by  Hellenism  was  slow.  It  was 
not  till  the  reign  of  Hadrian  that  city  life  on  the  Phrygian  plateau 
became  rich  and  vigorous,  with  its  material  circumstances  of 
temples,  theatres  and  baths.  Among  the  villages  of  the  north 
and  east  of  Phrygia,  Hellenism  "  was  only  beginning  to  make 
itself  felt  in  the  middle  of  the  3rd  century  A.D."  (Ramsay  in 
Kuhn's  Zeitsch.  f.  vergleich.  Sprachforschung,  xxviii.,  1885, 
p.  382).  Gravestones  in  this  region  as  late  as  the  4th  century 
curse  violators  in  the  old  Phrygian  speech.  The  lower  classes 
at  Lystra  in  St  Paul's  time  spoke  Lycaonian  (Acts  xiv.  u). 
In  that  part  of  Phrygia,  which  by  the  settlement  of  the  Celtic 
invaders  became  Galatia,  the  larger  towns  seem  to  have  become 
Hellenized  by  the  time  of  the  Christian  era,  whilst  the  Celtic 
speech  maintained  itself  in  the  country  villages  till  the  4th 
century  A.D.  (Jerome,  Preface  to  Comment,  in  Epist.  ad  Gal. 
book  ii.;  see  J.  G.  C.  Anderson,  Journ.  of  Hell,  Stud,  xix.,  1899, 
p.  312  f.).  Cappadocia  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era 
was  still  comparatively  townless  (Strabo  xii.  537),  a  country 
of  large  estates  with  a  servile  peasantry.  Even  in  the  4th  century 


its  Hellenization  was  still  far  from  complete;  but  Christianity 
had  assimilated  so  much  of  the  older  Hellenic  culture  that  the 
Church  was  now  a  main  propagator  of  Hellenism  in  the  backward 
regions.  The  native  languages  of  Asia  Minor  all  ultimately 
gave  way  to  Greek  (unless  Phrygian  lingered  on  in  parts  till  the 
Turkish  invasions;  see  Mordtmann,  Sitzungsb.  d.  bayer.  Ak. 
1862,  i.  p.  30;  K.  Holl  in  Hermes,  xliii.,  1908,  p.  240  f.). 
The  effective  Hellenization  of  Armenia  did  not  take  place  till 
the  sth  century,  when  the  school  of  Mesrop  and  Sahak  gave 
Armenia  a  literature  translated  from,  or  imitating,  Greek 
books  (Gelzer  in  I.  v.  Miiller's  Handbuch,  vol.  ix.  Abt.  i. 
p.  916.) 

(iv.)  Syria. — In  Syria,  which  with  Cilicia  and  Mesopotamia, 
formed  the  central  part  of  the  Seleucid  empire,  the  new  colonies 
were  especially  numerous.  Alexander  himself  had 
perhaps  made  a  beginning  with  Alexandria-by-Issus  emp/re 
(mod.  Alexandretta),  Samaria,  Pella  (the  later 
Apamea),  Carrhae,  &c.  Antigonus  founded  Antigonia,  which 
was  absorbed  a  few  years  later  by  Antioch,  and  after  the  fall 
of  Antigonus  in  301,  the  work  of  planting  Syria  with  Greek 
cities  was  pursued  effectively  north  of  the  Lebanon  by  the  house 
of  Seleucus,  and,  less  energetically,  south  of  the  Lebanon  by  the 
house  of  Ptolemy.  In  the  north  of  Syria  four  cities  stood 
pre-eminent  above  the  rest,  (i)  Antioch  on  the  Orontes,  the 
Seleucid  capital;  (2)  Seleucia-in-Pieria  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Orontes,  which  guarded  the  approach  to  Antioch  from  the  sea; 
(3)  Apamea  (mod.  Famia),  on  the  middle  Orontes,  the  military 
headquarters  of  the  kingdom;  and  (4)  Laodicea  "  on  sea  "  (ad 
mare),  which  had  a  commercial  importance  in  connexion  with 
the  export  of  Syrian  wine.  Of  the  Ptolemaic  foundations  in 
Coele-Syria  only  one  attained  an  importance  comparable  with 
that  of  the  larger  Seleucid  foundations,  Ptolemais  on  the  coast, 
which  was  the  old  Semitic  Acco  transformed  (mod.  Acre).  The 
group  of  Greek  cities  east  of  the  Jordan  also  fell  within  the 
Ptolemaic  realm  during  the  3rd  century  B.C.,  though  their 
greatness  belonged  to  a  somewhat  later  day.  The  whole  of 
Syria  was  brought  under  the  Seleucid  sceptre,  together  with 
Cilicia,  by  Antiochus  III.  the  Great  (223-187  B.C.).  Under  his 
son,  Antiochus  IV.  Epiphanes  (175-164),  a  fresh  impulse  was 
given  to  Syrian  Hellenism.  In  i  Maccabees  he  is  represented 
as  writing  an  order  to  all  his  subjects  to  forsake  the  ways  of  their 
fathers  and  conform  to  a  single  prescribed  pattern,  and  though 
in  this  form  the  account  can  hardly  be  exact,  it  does  no  doubt 
represent  the  spirit  of  his  action.  Other  facts  there  are  which 
point  the  same  way.  We  now  find  a  sudden  issue  of  bronze 
money  by  a  large  number  of  the  cities  of  the  kingdom  in  their 
own  name — an  indication  of  liberties  extended  or  confirmed. 
Many  of  them  exchange  their  existing  name  for  that  of  Antioch 
(Adana,  Tarsus,  Gadara,  Ptolemais),  Seleucia  (Mopsuestia, 
Gadara)  or  Epiphanea  (Oeniandus,  Hamath).  At  Antioch 
itself  great  public  works  were  carried  out,  such  as  were  involved 
in  the  addition  of  a  new  quarter  to  the  city,  including,  we  may 
suppose,  the  civic  council  chamber  which  is  afterwards  spoken 
of  as  being  here.  With  the  ever-growing  weakness  of  the  Seleucid 
dynasty,  the  independence  and  activity  of  the  cities  increased, 
although,  if,  on  the  one  hand,  they  were  less  suppressed  by  a 
strong  central  government,  they  were  less  protected  against 
military  adventurers  and  barbarian  chieftains.  Accordingly, 
when  Pompey  annexed  Syria  in  64  B.C.  as  a  Roman  province, 
he  found  it  a  chaos  of  city-states  and  petty  princi- 
palities.  The  Nabataeans  and  the  Jews  above  all  had 
encroached  upon  the  Hellenistic  domain;  in  the 
south  the  Jewish  raids  had  spread  desolation  and  left  many 
cities  practically  in  ruins.  Under  Roman  protection,  the  cities 
were  soon  rebuilt  and  Hellenism  secured  from  the  barbarian  peril. 
Greek  city  life,  with  its  political  forms,  its  complement  of 
festivities,  amusements  and  intellectual  exercise,  went  on  more 
largely  than  before.  The  great  majority  of  the  Hellenistic  remains 
in  Syria  belong  to  the  Roman  period.  Such  local  dynasties  as 
were  suffered  by  the  Romans  to  exist  had,  of  course,  a  Hellenistic 
complexion.  Especially  was  this  the  case  with  that  of  the  Herods. 
Not  only  were  such  marks  of  Hellenism  as  a  theatre  introduced 


244 


HELLENISM 


by  Herod  the  Great  (37-34  B.C.)  at  Jerusalem,  but  in  the  work 
of  city-building  this  dynasty  showed  itself  active.  Sebaste 
(the  old  Samaria),  Caesarea,  Antipatris  were  built  by  Herod 
the  Great,  Tiberias  by  Herod  Antipas  (4  B.C.-A.D.  39).  The 
reclaiming  of  the  wild  district  of  Hauran  for  civilization  and 
Hellenistic  life  was  due  in  the  first  instance  to  the  house  of 
Herod  (Schiirer,  Gesch.  d.  jiid.  Volk.  3rd  ed.,  ii.  p.  12  f.).  In 
Syria,  too,  Hellenism  under  the  Romans  advanced  upon  new 
ground.  Palmyra,  of  which  we  hear  nothing  before  Roman  times, 
is  a  notable  instance. 

As  to  the  effect  of  this  network  of  Greek  cities  upon  the 
aboriginal  population  of  Syria,  we  do  not  find  here  the  same 
disappearance  of  native  languages  and  racial  charac- 
teristics as  in  Asia  Minor.  Still  less  was  this  the  case 
la  Syria.  in  Mesopotamia,  where  a  strong  native  element  in  such 
a  city  as  Edessa  is  indicated  by  its  epithet  /ji£o/3dp/3apos. 
The  old  cults  naturally  went  on,  and  at  Carrhae  (Harran)  even 
survived  the  establishment  of  Christianity.  The  lower  classes 
at  Antioch,  and  no  doubt  in  the  cities  generally,  were  in  speech 
Aramaic  or  bilingual;  we  find  Aramaic  popular  nicknames 
of  the  later  Seleucids  (K.  O.  Midler,  Antiq.  Ant.  p.  29).  The 
villages,  of  course,  spoke  Aramaic.  The  richer  natives,  on  the 
other  hand,  those  who  made  their  way  into  the  educated  classes 
of  the  towns,  and  attained  official  position,  would  become 
Hellenized  in  language  and  manners,  and  the  "  Syrian  Code  " 
shows  how  far  the  social  structure  was  modified  by  the  Hellenic 
tradition  (Mitteis,  Reichsrecht  und  Volksrecht  in  den  o'st.  Pro- 
vinzen  des  rom.  Kaiserreichs,  1891;  Arnold  Meyer,  Jesu  Mutter- 
sprache,  1896).  Of  the  Syrians  who  made  their  mark  in 
Greek  literature,  some  were  of  native  blood,  e.g.  Lucian  of 
Samosata. 

One  may  notice  the  great  part  taken  by  natives  of  the 
Phoenician  cities  in  the  history  of  later  Greek  philosophy,  and 
in  the  poetic  movement  of  the  last  century  B.C.,  which  led  to 
fresh  cultivation  of  the  epigram.  Greek,  in  fact,  held  the 
field  as  the  language  of  literature  and  polite  society.  Possibly 
at  places  like  Edessa,  which  for  some  350  years  (till  A.D.  216) 
was  under  a  dynasty  of  native  princes,  Aramaic  was  cultivated 
as  a  literary  language.  There  was  a  Syriac-speaking  church  here 
as  early  as  the  2nd  century,  and  with  the  spread  of  Christianity 
Syriac  asserted  itself  against  Greek.  The  Syriac  literature 
which  we  possess  is  all  Christian. 

But  where  Greek  gave  place  to  Syriac,  Hellenism  was  not  thereby 
effaced.  It  was  to  some  extent  the  passing  over  of  the  Hellenic 
tradition  into  a  new  medium.  We  must  remember  the  marked 
Hellenic  elements  in  Christian  theology.  The  earliest  Syriac 
work  which  we  possess,  the  book  "  On  Fate,"  produced  in  the 
circle  of  the  heretic  Bardaisan  or  Bardesanes  (end  of  the  2nd 
century),  largely  follows  Greek  models.  There  was  an  extensive 
translation  of  Greek  works  into  Syriac  during  the  next  centuries, 
handbooks  of  philosophy  and  science  for  the  most  part.  The 
version  of  Homer  into  Syriac  verses  made  in  the  8th  century 
has  perished,  all  but  a  few  lines  (R.  Duval,  La  Litt.  syriaque, 
1900,  p.  325). 

(v.)  The  relation  of  the  Jews  to  Hellenism  in  the  first  century 
and  a  half  of  Macedonian  rule  is  very  obscure,  since  the  state- 
ments  made  by  later  writers  like  Josephus,  as  to  the 
visit  of  Alexander  to  Jerusalem  or  the  privileges  con- 
ferred upon  the  Jews  in  the  new  Macedonian  realms  are  justly 
suspected  of  being  fiction.  It  has  been  maintained  that  Greek 
influence  is  to  be  traced  in  parts  of  the  Old  Testament  assigned 
to  this  period,  as,  for  instance,  the  Book  of  Proverbs;  but  even 
in  the  case  of  Ecclesiastes,  the  canonical  writing  whose  affinity 
with  Greek  thought  is  closest,  the  coincidence  of  idea  need  not 
necessarily  prove  a  Greek  source.  The  one  solid  fact  in  this  con- 
nexion is  the  translation  of  the  Jewish  Law  into  Greek  in  the  3rd 
century  B.C.,  implying  a  Jewish  Diaspora  at  Alexandria,  so  far 
Hellenized  as  to  have  forgotten  the  speech  of  Palestine.  Early 
in  the  2nd  century  B.  c.  we  see  that  the  priestly  aristocracy  of 
Jerusalem  had,  like  the  well-to-do  classes  everywhere  in  Syria, 
been  carried  away  by  the  Hellenistic  current,  its  strength 
being  evidenced  no  less  by  the  intensity  of  the  conservative 


opposition  embodied  in  the  party  of  the  "  Pious  "  (Assideans, 
JJasldim). 

Under  Antiochus  IV.  Epiphanes  (176-165)  the  Hellenistic 
aristocracy  contrived  to  get  Jerusalem  converted  into  a  Greek 
city;  the  gymnasium  appeared,  and  Greek  dress  became  fashion- 
able with  the  young  men.  But  when  Antiochus,  owing  to 
political  developments,  interfered  violently  at  Jerusalem,  the 
conservative  opposition  carried  the  nation  with  them.  The 
revolt  under  the  Hasmonaean  family  (Judas  Maccabaeus  and 
his  brethren)  followed,  ending  in  143-142  in  the  establishment 
of  an  independent  Jewish  state  under  a  Hasmonaean  prince. 
But  whilst  the  old  Hellenistic  party  had  been  crushed  the 
Hasmonaean  state  was  of  the  nature  of  a  compromise.  The 
Mosaic  Law  was  respected,  but  Hellenism  still  found  an  entrance 
in  various  forms.  The  first  Hasmonaean  "  king,"  Aristobulus  I. 
(104-103),  was  known  to  the  Greeks  as  Phil-hellen.  He  and  all 
later  kings  of  the  dynasty  bear  Greek  names  as  well  as  Hebrew 
ones,  and  after  Jannaeus  Alexander  (103-76)  the  Greek  legends 
are  common  on  the  coins  beside  the  Hebrew.  Herod,  who  sup- 
planted the  Hasmonaean  dynasty  (37-34  B.C,)  made,  outside 
Judaea,  a  display  of  Phil-hellenism,  building  new  Greek  cities 
and  temples,  or  bestowing  gifts  upon  the  older  ones  of  fame. 
His  court,  at  the  same  time,  welcomed  Greek  men  of  letters 
like  Nicolaus  of  Damascus.  Even  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Jerusalem,  he  erected  a  theatre  and  an  amphitheatre.  We  have 
already  noticed  the  work  done  by  the  Herodian  dynasty  in 
furthering  Hellenism  in  Syria  (see  Schiirer,  Gesch.  des  jiidisch. 
Volkes,  vols.  i.  and  ii.).  Meanwhile  a  great  part  of  the  Jewish 
people  was  living  dispersed  among  the  cities  of  the  Greek  world, 
speaking  Greek  as  their  mother-tongue,  and  absorbing  Greek 
influences  in  much  larger  measure  than  their  brethren  of  Palestine. 
These  are  the  Jews  whom  we  find  contrasted  as  "  Hellenists  " 
with  the  "  Hebrews  "  in  Acts.  They  still  kept  in  touch  with 
the  mother-city,  and  indeed  we  hear  of  special  synagogues  in 
Jerusalem  in  which  the  Hellenists  temporarily  resident  there 
gathered  (Acts  vi.  9).  A  large  Jewish  literature  in  Greek  had 
grown  up  since  the  translation  of  the  Law  in  the  3rd  century. 
Beside  the  other  canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  translated 
in  many  cases  with  modifications  or  additions,  it  included  transla- 
tions of  other  Hebrew  books  (Ecclesiasticus,  Judith,  &c.),  works 
composed  originally  in  Greek  but  imitating  to  some  extent  the 
Hebraic  style  (like  Wisdom),  works  modelled  more  closely  on 
the  Greek  literary  tradition,  either  historical,  like  2  Maccabees, 
or  philosophical,  like  the  productions  of  the  Alexandrian  school, 
represented  for  us  by  Aristobulus  and  Philo,  in  which  style 
and  thought  are  almost  wholly  Greek  and  the  reference  to  the 
Old  Testament  a  mere  pretext;  or  Greek  poems  on  Jewish 
subjects,  like  the  epic  of  the  elder  Philo  and  Ezechiel's  tragedy, 
Exagoge.  It  included  also  a  number  of  forgeries,  circulated 
under  the  names  of  famous  Greek  authors,  verses  fathered  upon 
Aeschylus  or  Sophocles,  or  books  like  the  false  Hecataeus,  or 
above  all  the  pretended  prophecies  of  ancient  Sibyls  in  epic 
verse.  These  frauds  were  all  contrived  for  the  heathen  public, 
as  a  means  of  propaganda,  calculated  to  inspire  them  with  respect 
for  Jewish  antiquity  or  turn  them  from  idols  to  God. 

For  Jewish  Hellenism  see  Schiirer,  op.  cit.  iii. ;  Susemihl,  Gesch. 
der  griech.  Lit.  in  der  Alexandrinerzeit,  ii.  601  f. ;  Willrich,  Juden 
und  Griechen  (1895),  Judaica  (1900);  Hastings'  Diet,  of  the  Bible, 
art.  "Greece";  Encyclop.  Biblica,  art.  "Hellenism";  Pauly- 
Wissowa,  art.  "  Aristobulus  (15)  ";  also  the  work  of  P.  Wendland 
cited  above. 

Through  the  Hellenistic  Jews,  Greek  influences  reached 
Jerusalem  itself,  though  their  effect  upon  the  Aramaic-speaking 
Rabbinical  schools  was  naturally  not  so  pronounced.  The  large 
number  of  Greek  words,  however,  in  the  language  of  the  Mishnah 
and  the  Talmud  is  a  significant  phenomenon.  The  attitude  of 
the  Rabbinic  doctors  to  a  Greek  education  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  hostile  till  the  time  of  Hadrian.  The  sect  of  the 
Essenes  probably  shows  an  intermingling  of  the  Greek  with 
other  lines  of  tradition  among  the  Jews  of  Palestine. 

See  Schiirer  ii.  42-67,  583;  .  S.  Krauss,  Griech.  u.  latein. 
Lehnworter  im  Talmud  (1898);  Jewish  Encyclopedia,  art.  "Greek 
Language." 


HELLENISM 


245 


(vi.)  In  Egypt  the  Ptolemies  were  hindered  by  special  considera- 
tions from  building  Greek  cities  after  the  manner  of  the  other 
Macedonian  houses.  One  Greek  city  they  found 
existing,  Naucratis;  Alexander  had  called  Alexandria 
into  being;  the  first  Ptolemy  added  Ptolemais  as 
a  Greek  centre  for  Upper  Egypt.  They  seem  to  have  suffered 
no  other  community  in  the  Nile  Valley  with  the  inde- 
pendent life  of  a  Greek  city,  for  the  Greek  and  Macedonian 
soldier-colonies  settled  in  the  Fayum  or  elsewhere  had  no 
political  self-existence.  And  even  at  Alexandria  Hellenism 
was  not  allowed  full  development.  Ptolemais,  indeed,  enjoyed 
all  the  ordinary  forms  of  self-government,  but  Alexandria  was 
governed  despotically  by  royal  officials.  In  its  population,  too, 
Alexandria  was  only  semi-Hellenic;  for  besides  the  proportion 
of  Egyptian  natives  in  its  lower  strata,  its  commercial  greatness 
drew  in  elements  from  every  quarter;  the  Jews,  for  instance, 
formed  a  majority  of  the  population  in  two  out  of  the  five 
divisions  of  the  city.  At  the  same  time  the  prevalent  tone  of 
the  populace  was,  no  doubt,  Hellenistic,  as  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  the  Jews  who  settled  there  acquired  Greek  in  place 
of  Aramaic  as  their  mother-tongue,  and  in  its  upper  circles 
Alexandrian  society  under  the  Ptolemies  was  not  only 
Hellenistic,  but  notable  among  the  Hellenes  for  its  literary  and 
artistic  brilliance.  The  state  university,  the  "  Museum,"  was 
in  close  connexion  with  the  court,  and  gave  to  Alexandria 
the  same  pre-eminence  in  natural  science  and  literary  scholar- 
ship which  Athens  had  in  moral  philosophy. 

Probably  in  no  other  country,  except  Judaea,  did  Hellenism 
encounter  as  stubborn  a  national  antagonism  as  in  Egypt. 
The  common  description  of  "  the  Oriental "  as  indurated  in 
his  antagonism  to  the  alien  conqueror  here  perhaps  has  some 
truth  in  it.  The  assault  made  upon  the  Macedonian  devotee 
in  the  temple  of  Serapis  at  Memphis  "  because  he  was  a  Greek  " 
is  significant  (Papyr.  Brit.  Mus.  i.  No.  44;  cf.  Grenfell,  Amherst 
Papyr.  p.  48) .  And  yet  even  here  one  must  observe  qualifications. 
The  papyri  show  us  habitual  marriage  of  Greeks  and  native 
women  and  a  frequent  adoption  by  natives  of  Greek  names. 
It  has  even  been  thought  that  some  developments  of  the  Egyptain 
religion  are  due  to  Hellenistic  influence,  such  as  the  deification 
of  Imhotp  (Bissing,  Deutsche  Literaturzeitung,  1902,  col.  2330) 
or  the  practice  of  forming  voluntary  religious  associations  (Otto, 
Priester  und  Tempel,  i.  125).  The  worship  of  Serapis  was 
patronized  by  the  court  with  the  very  object  of  affording  a 
mixed  cultus  in  which  Greek  and  native  might  unite.  In  Egypt, 
too,  the  triumph  of  Christianity  brought  into  being  a  native 
Christian  literature,  and  if  this  was  in  one  way  the  assertion  of 
the  native  against  Hellenistic  predominance,  one  must  remember 
that  Coptic  literature,  like  Syriac,  necessarily  incorporated 
those  Greek  elements  which  had  become  an  essential  part  of 
Christian  theology. 

From  the  Ptolemaic  kingdom  Hellenism  early  travelled  up 
the  Nile  into  Ethiopia.  Ergamenes,  the  king  of  the  Ethiopians 

Ethiopia  *n  tne  t'me  °^  tne  second  Ptolemy,  "who  had  received 
a  Greek  education  and  cultivated  philosophy,"  broke 
with  the  native  priesthood  (Diod.  iii.  6),  and  from  that  time 
traces  of  Greek  influence  continue  to  be  found  in  the  monuments 
of  the  Upper  Nile.  When  Ethiopia  became  a  Christian  country 
in  the  4th  century,  its  connexion  with  the  Hellenistic  world 
became  closer. 

(vii.)  Hellenism  in  the  West. — Whilst  in  the  East  Hellenism 
had  been  sustained  by  the  political  supremacy  of  the  Greeks,  in 
Qnek  Italy  Graecia  capta  had  only  the  inherent  power  and 
culture  charm  of  her  culture  wherewith  to  win  her  way.  At 
la  the  Carthage  in  the  3rd  century  the  educated  classes 
seem  generally  to  have  been  familiar  with  Greek 
culture  (Bernhardy,  Grundriss  d.  griech.  Lit.  §  77). 
The  philosopher  Clitomachus,  who  presided  over  the  Academy 
at  Athens  in  the  2nd  century,  was  a  Carthaginian.  Even  before 
Alexander,  as  we  saw,  Hellenism  had  affected  the  peoples  of 
Italy,  but  it  was  not  till  the  Greeks  of  south  Italy  and  Sicily 
were  brought  under  the  supremacy  of  Rome  in  the  3rd  century 
B.C.  that  the  stream  of  Greek  influence  entered  Rome  in  any 


Roman 
world. 


volume.  It  was  now  that  the  Greek  freedman,  L.  Livius 
Andronicus,  laid  the  foundation  of  a  new  Latin  literature  by 
his  translation  of  the  Odyssey,  and  that  the  Greek  dramas  were 
recast  in  a  Latin  mould.  The  first  Romans  who  set  about 
writing  history  wrote  in  Greek.  At  the  end  of  the  3rd  century 
there  was  a  circle  of  enthusiastic  phil-hellenes  among  the  Roman 
aristocracy,  led  by  Titus  Quinctius  Flamininus,  who  in  Rome's 
name  proclaimed  the  autonomy  of  the  Greeks  at  the  Isthmian 
games  of  196.  In  the  middle  of  the  2nd  century  Roman  Hellen- 
ism centred  in  the  circle  of  Scipio  Aemilianus,  which  included 
men  like  Polybius  and  the  philosopher  Panaetius.  The  visit 
of  the  three  great  philosophers,  Diogenes  the  "  Babylonian," 
Critolaus  and  Carneades  in  155,  was  an  epoch-making  event  in 
the  history  of  Hellenism  at  Rome.  Opposition  there  could  not 
fail  to  be,  and  in  161  a  senatus  consultum  ordered  all  Greek 
philosophers  and  rhetoricians  to  leave  the  city.  The  effect  of 
such  measures  was,  of  course,  transient.  Even  though  the 
opposition  found  so  doughty  a  champion  as  the  elder  Cato 
(censor  in  184),  it  was  ultimately  of  no  avail.  The  Italians  did 
not  indeed  surrender  themselves  passively  to  the  Greek  tradition. 
In  different  departments  of  culture  the  degree  of  their  inde- 
pendence was  different.  The  system  of  government  framed  by 
Rome  was  an  original  creation.  Even  in  the  spheres  of  art  and 
literature,  the  Italians,  while  so  largely  guided  by  Greek  canons, 
had  something  of  their  own  to  contribute.  The  mere  fact  that 
they  produced,  a  literature  in  Latin  argues  a  power  of  creation 
as  well  as  receptivity.  The  great  Latin  poets  were  imitators 
indeed,  but  mere  imitators  they  were  no  more  than  Petrarch  or 
Milton.  On  the  other  hand,  even  where  the  creative  originality 
of  Rome  was  most  pronounced,  as  in  the  sphere  of  Law,  there 
were  elements  of  Hellenic  origin.  It  has  been  often  pointed  out 
how  the  Stoic  philosophy  especially  helped  to  shape  Roman 
jurisprudence  (Schmekel,  Philos.  d.  mittl.  Stoa,  p.  454  f.). 

Whilst  the  upper  classes  in  Italy  absorbed  Greek  influences 
by  their  education,  by  the  literary  and  artistic  tradition,  the 
lower  strata  of  the  population  of  Rome  became  largely  hellenized 
by  the  actual  influx  on  a  vast  scale  of  Greeks  and  hellenized 
Asiatics,  brought  in  for  the  most  part  as  slaves,  and  coalescing 
as  freedmen  with  the  citizen  body.  Of  the  Jewish  inscriptions 
found  at  Rome  some  two-thirds  are  in  Greek.  So  too  the  early 
Christian  church  in  Rome,  to  which  St  Paul  addressed  his 
epistle,  was  Greek-speaking,  and  continued  to  be  till  far  into  the 
3rd  century. 

III.  LATER  HISTORY. — It  remains  only  to  glance  at  the 
ultimate  destinies  of  Hellenism  in  West  and  East.  In  the  Latin 
West  knowledge  of  Greek,  first-hand  acquaintance 
with  the  Greek  classics,  became  rarer  and  rarer  as 
general  culture  declined,  till  in  the  dark  ages  (after  ages. 
the  $th  century)  it  existed  practically  nowhere  but  in 
Ireland  (Sandys,  History  of  Classical  Scholarship,  i.  438).  In 
Latin  literature,  however,  a  great  mass  of  Hellenistic  tradition 
in  a  derived  form  was  maintained  in  currency,  wherever,  that  is, 
culture  of  any  kind  continued  to  exist.  It  was  a  small  number 
of  monkish  communities  whose  care  of  those  narrow  channels 
prevented  their  ever  drying  up  altogether.  Then  the  stream 
began  to  rise  again,  first  with  the  influx  of  the  learning  of  the 
Spanish  Moors,  then  with  the  new  knowledge  of  Greek  brought 
from  Constantinople  in  the  I4th  century.  With  the  Renaissance 
and  the  new  learning,  Hellenism  came  in  again  in  flood,  to  form 
a  chief  part  of  that  great  river  on  which  the  modern  world  is 
being  carried  forward  into  a  future,  of  which  one  can  only  say 
that  it  must  be  utterly  unlike  anything  that  has  gone  before. 
In  the  East  it  is  popularly  thought  that  Hellenism,  as  an  exotic, 
withered  altogether  away.  This  view  is  superficial.  During 
the  dark  ages,  in  the  Byzantine  East,  as  well  as  in  the  West, 
Hellenism  had  become  little  more  than  a  dried  and  shrivelled 
tradition,  although  the  closer  study  of  Byzantine  culture  in 
latter  years  has  seemed  to  discover  more  vitality  than  was  once 
supposed.  Ultimately  the  Greek  East  was  absorbed  by  Islam; 
the  popular  mistake  lies  in  supposing  that  the  Hel-  fa/am 
lenistic  tradition  thereby  came  to  an  end.  The 
Mahommedan  conquerors  found  a  considerable  part  of  it  taken 


246 


HELLER— HELMERSEN 


over,  as  we  saw,  by  the  Syrian  Christians,  and  Greek  philosophical 
and  scientific  classics  were  now  translated  from  Syriac  into 
Arabic.  These  were  the  starting-points  for  the  Mahommedan 
schools  in  these  subjects.  Accordingly  we  find  that  Arabian 
philosophy  (g.v.),  mathematics,  geography,  medicine  and 
philology  are  all  based  professedly  upon  Greek  works  (Brockel- 
mann,  Gesch.  d.  arabischen  Literatur,  1898,  vol.  i.;  R.  A. 
Nicholson,  A  Literary  History  of  the  Arabs,  1907,  pp.  358-361). 
Aristotle  in  the  East  no  less  than  in  the  West  was  the  "  master 
of  them  that  know  ";  and  Moslem  physicians  to  this  day  invoke 
the  names  of  Hippocrates  and  Galen.  The  Hellenistic  strain 
in  Mahommedan  civilization  has,  it  is  true,  flagged  and  failed, 
but  only  as  that  civilization  as  a  whole  has  declined.  It  was 
not  that  the  Hellenistic  element  failed,  whilst  the  native  elements 
in  the  civilization  prospered;  the  culture  of  Islam  has,  as  a 
whole  (from  whatever  causes),  sunk  ever  lower  during  the 
centuries  that  have  witnessed  the  marvellous  expansion  of 
Europe. 

AUTHORITIES. — For  the  inner  history  of  Hellenism  after  Alexander, 
the  general  historical  literature  dealing  with  later  Greece  and  Rome 
supplies  material  in  various  degrees.  See  works  quoted  in  articles 
GREECE,  History;  ROME,  History;  PTOLEMIES;  SELEUCID  DYNASTY; 
BACTRIA,  &c. 

Different  elements  (literature,  philosophy,  art,  &c.)  are  dealt 
with  in  works  dealing  specially  with  these  subjects,  among  which 
those  of  Susemihl,  Wilamowitz-Moellendorff,  Erwin  Rohde  and 
E.  Schwartz  are  of  especial  importance  for  the  literature;  those  of 
Schreiber  and  Strzygowski  for  the  later  Greek  art. 

Sketches  of  Hellenistic  civilization  generally  are  found  in  J.  P. 
Mahaffy's  Greek  Life  and  Thought  (1887),  The  Greek  World  under 
Roman  Sway  (1890),  The  Silver  Age  of  the  Greek  World  (1906); 
Julius  Kaerst,  Gesch.  d.  hellenist.  Zeitalters  (Band  ii.,  publ.  1909) ; 
and  in  Beloch's  Griechische  Geschichte,  vol.  iii.  (for  the  century 
immediately  succeeding  Alexander).  R.  von  Scala's  "  The  Greeks 
after  Alexander,"  in  Helmolt's  History  of  the.  World  (vol.  v.),  covers 
the  whole  period  from  Alexander  to  the  end  of  the  Byzantine  Empire. 
P.  Wendland's  Hellenistisch-rdmische  Kultur  in  ihren  Beziehungen 
zu  Judentum  u.  Christentum  (1907)  is  an  illuminating  monograph, 
giving  a  conspectus  of  the  material.  For  Hellenistic  Egypt,  Bouch<§- 
Leclercq,  Histoire  des  Lagides,  vol.  iii.  (1906).  (E.  R.  B.) 

HELLER,  STEPHEN  (1815-1888),  Austrian  pianist  and 
composer,  was  born  at  Pest  on  the  isth  of  May  1815.  (Fetis's 
dictionary  says  1814,  but  this  is  almost  certainly  wrong.)  He 
was  at  first  intended  for  a  lawyer,  but  at  nine  years  of  age 
performed  so  successfully  at  a  concert  that  he  was  sent  to  Vienna 
to  study  under  Czerny.  Halm  was  his  principal  master,  and 
from  the  age  of  twelve  he  gave  concerts  in  Vienna,  and  made  a 
tour  through  Hungary,  Poland  and  Germany.  At  Augsburg 
he  had  the  good  fortune  to  be  befriended  when  ill  by  a  wealthy 
family,  who  practically  adopted  him  and  gave  him  the  oppor- 
tunity to  complete  his  musical  education.  In  1838  he  went  to 
Paris,  and  soon  became  intimate  with  Liszt,  Chopin,  Berlioz 
and  their  set,  among  whom  was  Halle,  throughout  his  life  an 
indefatigable  performer  of  Heller's  music.  In  1849  he  came  to 
England  and  played  a  few  times,  and  in  1862  he  appeared  with 
Halle  at  the  Crystal  Palace.  He  outlived  the  great  reputation 
he  had  enjoyed  among  cultivated  amateurs  for  so  many  years, 
and  was  almost  forgotten  when  he  died  at  Paris  on  the  i4th  of 
January  1888.  His  pianoforte  pieces,  almost  all  of  them  pub- 
lished in  sets  and  provided  with  fancy  names,  do  not  show  very 
startling  originality,  but  their  grace  and  refinement  could  not 
but  make  them  popular  with  players  and  listeners  of  all  classes. 

HELLESPONT  (i.e.  "  Sea  of  Helle  ";  variously  named  in 
classical  literature  'EXX^o-TrofTOJ,  6  "EXXjjj  -nwTOS,  Helle- 
spontum  Pelagus,  and  Fretum  Hellesponticuni),  the  ancient  name 
of  the  Dardanelles  (?.».)•  It  was  so-called  from  Helle,  the 
daughter  of  Athamas  (<?.».),  who  was  drowned  here.  See 
ARGONAUTS. 

HELLEVOETSLUIS,  or  HELVOETSLUIS,  a  fortified  seaport  in 
the  province  of  South  Holland,  the  kingdom  of  Holland,  on  the 
south  side  of  the  island  of  Voorne-and-Putten,  on  the  sea-arm 
known  as  the  Haringvliet,  55 m.  S.  of  Brielle.  It  has  dailysteam- 
boat  connexion  with  Rotterdam  by  the  Voornsche  canal.  Pop. 
(1900),  4152.  Hellevoetsluis  is  an  important  naval  station,  and 
possesses  a  naval  arsenal,  dry  and  wet  docks,  wharves  and  a 
naval  college  for  engineers.  Among  the  public  buildings  are  the 


communal  chambers,  a  Reformed  church  (1661),  a  Roman 
Catholic  church  and  a  synagogue. 

HELLIN,  a  town  of  south-eastern  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Albacete,  on  the  Albacete-Murcia  railway.  Pop.  (1900),  12,558. 
Hellin  is  built  on  the  outskirts  of  the  low  hills  which  line  the  left 
bank  of  the  river  Mundo.  It  possesses  the  remains  of  an  old 
Roman  castle  and  a  beautiful  parish  church,  the  masonry  and 
marble  pavement  at  the  entrance  of  which  are  worthy  of  special 
notice.  The  surrounding  country  yields  wine,  oil  and  saffron  in 
abundance;  within  the  town  there  are  manufactures  of  coarse 
cloth,  leather  and  pottery.  Sulphur  is  obtained  from  the  cele- 
brated mining  district  of  Minas  del  Mundo,  12  m.  S.,  at  the  junc- 
tion between  the  Mundo  and  the  Segura;  and  there  are  warm 
sulphurous  springs  in  the  neighbouring  village  of  Azaraque. 
Hellin  was  known  to  the  Romans  who  first  exploited  its  sulphur 
as  Illunum. 

HELLO,  ERNEST  (1828-1885),  French  critic,  was  born  at 
Treguier.  He  was  the  son  of  a  lawyer  who  held  posts  of  great 
importance  at  Rennes  and  in  Paris,  and  was  well  educated  at 
both  places,  but  took  to  no  profession  and  resided  much,  fora 
time,  in  his  father's  country-house  in  Brittany.  A  very  strong 
Roman  Catholic,  he  appears  to  have  been  specially  excited  by  his 
countryman  Renan's  attitude  to  religious  matters,  and  coming 
under  the  influence  of  J.  A.  Barbey  d' Aurevilly  and  Louis  Veuillot, 
the  two  most  brilliant  crusaders  of  the  Church  in  the  press,  he 
started  a  newspaper  of  his  own,  Le  Croise,  in  1859;  but  it  only 
lasted  two  years.  He  wrote,  however,  much  in  other  papers. 
He  had  very  bad  health,  suffering  apparently  from  spinal  or  bone 
disease.  But  he  was  fortunate  enough  to  meet  with  a  wife,  Zoe 
Berthier,  who,  ten  years  older  than  himself,  and  a  friend  for  some 
years  before  their  marriage,  became  his  devoted  nurse,  and  even 
brought  upon  herself  abuse  from  gutter  journalists  of  the  time  for 
the  care  with  which  she  guarded  him.  He  died  in  1885.  Hello's 
work  is  somewhat  varied  in  form  but  uniform  in  spirit.  His  best- 
known  book,  Physionomie  de  saints  (1875),  which  has  been  trans- 
lated into  English  (1903)  as  Studies  in  Saintship,  does  not  display 
his  qualities  best.  Contes  extraordinaires,  published  not  long 
before  his  death,  is  better  and  more  original.  But  the  real  Hello 
is  to  be  found  in  a  series  of  philosophical  and  critical  essays, 
from  Renan,  I'Attemagne  et  I'alheisme  (1861),  through  L'Homme 
(1871)  and  Les  Plateaux  de  la  balance  (1880),  perhaps  his  chief 
book,  to  the  posthumously  published  Le  Siecle.  The  peculiarity 
of  his  standpoint  and  the  originality  and  vigour  of  his  handling 
make  his  studies,  of  Shakespeare,  Hugo  and  others,  of  abiding 
importance  as  literary  "  triangulations,"  results  of  object,  sub- 
ject and  point  of  view. 

HELMERS,  JAN  FREDERIK  (1767-1813),  Dutch  poet,  was 
born  at  Amsterdam  on  the  7th  of  March  1767.  His  early  poems, 
Night  (1788)  and  Socrates  (1790),  were  tame  and  sentimental,  but 
after  1805  he  determined,  in  company  with  his  brother-in-law, 
Cornells  Loots  (1765-1834),  to  rouse  national  feeling  by  a  burst 
of  patriotic  poetry.  His  Poems  ( 2  vols. ,  1 809- 1 8 1  o) ,  but  especially 
his  great  work  The  Dutch  Nation,  a  poem  in  six  cantos  (1812), 
created  great  enthusiasm  and  enjoyed  immense  success.  Helmers 
died  at  Amsterdam  on  the  26th  of  February  1813.  He  owed  his 
success  mainly  to  the  integrity  of  his  patriotism  and  the  opportune 
moment  at  which  he  sounded  his  counterblast  to  the  French 
oppression.  His  posthumous  poems  were  collected  in  1815. 

HELMERSEN,  GREGOR  VON  (1803-1885),  Russian  geologist, 
was  born  at  Laugut-Duckershof,  near  Dorpat,  on  the  29th  of 
September  (O.S.)  1803.  He  received  an  engineering  training  and 
became  major-general  in  the  corps  of  Mining  Engineers.  In  1837 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  geology  in  the  mining  institute  at  St 
Petersburg.  He  was  author  of  numerous  memoirs  on  the  geology 
of  Russia,  especially  on  the  coal  and  other  mineral  deposits  of  the 
country;  and  he  wrote  also  some  explanations  to  accompany 
separate  sheets  of  the  geological  map  of  Russia.  His  geological 
work  was  continued  to  an  advanced  age,  one  of  the  later  publica- 
tions being  Studien  iiber  die  Wanderblocke  und  die  Diluvial gebilde 
Russlands  (1869  and  1882).  Most  of  his  memoirs  were  published 
by  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences  at  St  Petersburg.  He  died 
at  St  Petersburg  on  the  3rd  of  February  (O.S.)  1885, 


HELMET 


247 


W 


HELMET  (from  an  obsolete  diminutive  of  O.  Fr.  helme,  mod. 
heaume;  the  English  word  is  "  helm,"  as  in  O.  Eng.,  Dutch  and 
Ger.;  all  are  from  the  Teutonic  base  hal-,  pre-Teut.  kal-,  to  cover; 
:f.  Lat.  celare,  to  hide,  Eng.  "  hell,"  &c.),  a  defensive  covering  for 
he  head.'  The  present  article  deals  with  the  helmet  during  the 
iddle  ages  down  to  the  close  of  the  period  when  body  armour 
was  worn.  For  the  helmet  worn  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  see 
ARMS  AND  ARMOUR. 

The  head-dress  of  the  warriors  of  the  dark  ages  and  of  the 
earlier  feudal  period  was  far  from  being  the  elaborate  helmet 
which  is  associated  in  the  imagination  with 
the  knight  in  armour  and  the  tourney.  It 
was  a  mere  casque,  a  cap  with  or  without 
additional  safeguards  for  the  ears,  the  nape 
of  the  neck  and  the  nose  (fig.  i).  By  those 
warriors  who  possessed  the  means  to  equip 
themselves  fully,  the  casque  was  worn  over 
a  hood  of  mail,  as  shown  in  fig.  2.  In 
manuscripts,  &c.,  armoured  men  are  some- 
times portrayed  fighting  in  their  hoods,  without  casques,  basinets 
or  other  form  of  helmet.  The  casque  was,  of  course,  normally  of 
plate,  but  in  some  instances  it  was  a  strong  leather  cap  covered 
with  mail  or  imbricated  plates.  The  most 
advanced  form  of  this  early  helmet  is  the 
conical  steel  or  iron  cap  with  nasal  (fig.  2), 
worn  in  conjunction  with  the  hood  of  mail. 
This  is  the  typical  helmet  of  the  nth-century 
warrior,  and  is  made  familiar  by  the  Bayeux 
Tapestry.  From  this  point  however  (c.  1 100) 
the  evolution  of  war  head-gear  follows  two 
different  paths  for  many  years.  On  the  one 
hand  the  simple  casque  easily  transformed 
itself  into  the  basinet,  originally  a  pointed  iron 
skull-cap  without  nasal,  ear-guards,  &c.  On 
the  other  hand  the  knight  in  armour,  especially 
/JG\^-r:Vasclu?  after  the  fashion  of  the  tournament  set  in, 
found  the  mere  cap  with  nasal  insufficient, 
and  the  heaume  (or  "  helmet  ")  gradually 
came  into  vogue.  This  was  in  principle  a  large  heavy  iron  pot 
covering  the  head  and  neck.  Often  a  light  basinet  was  worn 
underneath  it— or  rather  the  knight  usually  wore  his  basinet  and 
only  put  the  heaume  on  over  it  at  the 
last  moment  before  engaging.  The 
earlier  (i2th  century)  war  heaumes  are 
intended  to  be  worn  with  the  mail 
hood  and  have  nasals  (fig.  3).  Towards 
the  end  of  the  i3th  century,  however, 
the  basinet  grew  in  size  and  strength, 

just    as    the    casque    had    grown,    and 

plc  , Heaume  early  began  to  challenge  comparison  with  the 

1 3th  century.          heavy     and     clumsy     heaume.    There- 
upon the  heaume  became,  by  degrees, 

the  special  head-dress  of  the  tournament,  and  grew  heavier, 
larger  and  more  elaborate,  while  the  basinet,  reinforced  with 


with     Nasal 
Mail  Hood. 


and 


Fie.  4.— Heaume,  isth  century.       FIG.  5.— Heaume,  isth  century 


camail  and  vizor,   was  worn  in  battle.     Types  of  the  later, 
purely  tilting,  heaume  are  shown  in  figs.  4  and  5. 

The  basinet,  then,  is  the  battle  head-dress  of  nobles,  knights 
and  sergeants  in  the  uth  century.    Its  development  from  the 


loth-century  cap  to  the  towering  helmet  of  1350,  with  its  long 
snouted  vizor  and  ample  drooping  "  camail,"  is  shown  in  fig.  6, 
a,  b,  c  and  d,  the  two  latter  showing  the  same  helmet  with  vizor 
down  and  up.  But  the  tendency  set  in  during  the  earlier  years 
of  the  1 5th  century  to  make  all  parts  of  the  armour  thicker. 
Chain  "  mail  "  gradually  gave  way  to  plate  on  the  body  and  the 
limbs,  remaining  only  in  those  parts,  such  as  neck  and  elbows, 
where  flexibility  was  essential,  and  even  there  it  was  in  the  end 
replaced  by  jointed  steel  bands  or  small  plates.  The  final  step 
was  the  discarding  of  the  "  camail  "  and  the  introduction  of  the 


FIG.  6. — Basinets. 

"  armet."  The  latter  will  be  described  later.  Soon  after  the 
beginning  of  the  1 5th  century  the  high-crowned  basinet  gave  place 
to  the  salade  or  sallet,  a  helmet  with  a  low  rounded  crown  and  a 
long  brim  or  neck-guard  at  the  back.  This  was  the  typical  head- 
piece of  the  last  half  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War  as  the  vizored 
basinet  had  been  of  the  first.  Like  the  basinet  it  was  worn  in  a 
simple  form  by  archers  and  pikemen  and  in  a  more  elaborate 
form  by  the  knights  and  men-at  arms.  The  larger  and  heavier 
salades  were  also  often  used  instead  of  the  heaume  in  tournaments. 
Here  again,  however,  there  is  a  great  difference  between  those 
worn  by  light  armed  men,  foot-soldiers  and  archers  and  those  of 
the  heavy  cavalry.  The  former,  while  possessing  as  a  rule  the 
bowl  shape  and  the  lip  or  brim  of  the  type,  and  always  destitute 
of  the  conical  point  which  is  the  distinguishing  mark  of  the 
basinet,  are  cut  away  in  front  of 
the  face  (fig.  70).  In  some  cases 
this  was  remedied  in  part  by  the 
addition  of  a  small  pivoted  vizor, 
which,  however,  could  not  protect 
the  throat.  In  the  larger  salades 
of  the  heavy  cavalry  the  wide 
brim  served  to  protect  the  whole^ 
head,  a  slit  being 
made  in  that  part 
of  the  brim  which 
came  in  front  of 
the  eyes  (in  some 
examples  the  whole 
of  the  front  part 
of  the  brim  was 
made  movable). 
But  the  chin  and 
neck,  directly  opposed  to  the  enemy's  blows,  were  scarcely 
protected  at  all,  and  with  these  helmets  a  large  volant-piece 
or  beaver  (mentonniere) — usually  a  continuation  of  the  body 
armour  up  to  the  chin  or  even  beyond — was  worn  for  this  purpose, 
as  shown  in  fig.  7  b.  This  arrangement  combined,  in  a  rough  way, 
the  advantages  of  freedom  of  movement  for  the  head  with 
adequate  protection  for  the  neck  and  lower  part  of  the  face. 
The  armet,  which  came  into  use  about  1475-1500  and  com- 
pletely superseded  the  salade,  realized  these  requirements  far 
better,  and  later  at  the  zenith  of  the  armourer's  art  (about  1520) 
and  throughout  the  period  of  the  decline  of  armour  it  remained 
the  standard  pattern  of  helmet,  whether  for  war  or  for  tourna- 
ment. It  figures  indeed  in  nearly  all  portraits  of  kings,  nobles  and 


FIG.  7. — Salades  or  Sallets. 


248 


HELMHOLTZ 


soldiers  up  to  the  time  of  Frederick  the  Great,  either  with  the 
suit  of  armour  or  half-armour  worn  by  the  subject  of  the  portrait 
or  in  allegorical  trophies,  &c.  The  armet  was  a  fairly  close- 
fitting  rounded  shell  of  iron  or  steel,  with  a  movable  vizor  in 
front  and  complete  plating  over  chin,  ears  and  neck,  the  latter 
replacing  the  mentonniere  or  beaver.  The  armet  was  connected 
to  the  rest  of  the  suit  by  the  gorget,  which  was  usually  of  thin 
laminated  steel  plates.  With  a  good  arrhet  and  gorget  there  was 
no  weak  point  for  the  enemy's  sword  to  attack,  a  roped  lower 
edge  of  the  armet  generally  fitting  into  a  sort  of  flange  round  the 
top  of  the  gorget.  Thus,  and  in  other  and  slightly  different  ways, 


FIG.  8. — Armets. 

was  solved  the  problem  which  in  the  early  days  of  plate  armour 
had  been  attempted  by  the  clumsy  heaume  and  the  flexible,  if 
tough,  camail  of  the  vizored  basinet,  and  still  more  clumsily  in 
the  succeeding  period  by  the  salade  and  its  grotesque  mentonniere. 
As  far  as  existing  examples  show,  the  wide-brimmed  salade  itself 
first  gave  way  to  the  more  rounded  armet,  the  mentonniere 
being  carried  up  to  the  level  of  the  eyes.  Then  the  use  (growing 
throughout  the  isth  century)  of  laminated  armour  for  the  joints 
of  the  harness  probably  suggested  the  gorget,  and  once  this  was 
applied  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  armet  by  a  satisfactory  joint,  it 
was  an  easy  step  to  the  elaborate  pivoted  vizor  which  completed 
the  new  head-dress.  Types  of  armets  are  shown  in  fig.  8. 

The  burgonet,  often  confused  with  the  armet,  is  the  typical 
helmet  of  the  late  i6th  and  early  i7th  centuries.  In  its  simple 
form  it  was  worn  by  the  foot  and  light  cavalry — though  the 
latter  must  not  be  held  to  include  the  pistol-armed  chevaux-Ugers 
of  the  wars  of  religion,  these  being  clad  in  half-armour  and 


FIG.  9. — Burgonets. 

vizored  burgonet — and  consisted  of  a  (generally  rounded)  cap 
with  a  projecting  brim  shielding  the  eyes,  a  neck-guard  and  ear- 
pieces. It  had  almost  invariably  a  crest  or  comb,  as  shown  in  the 
illustrations  (fig.  9).  Other  forms  of  infantry  head-gear  much 
in  vogue  during  the  i6th  century  are  shown  in  figs.  10  and  n, 
which  represent  the  morion  and  cabasset  respectively.  Both 
these  were  lighter  and  smaller  than  the  burgonet;  indeed  much 
of  their  popularity  was  due  to  the  ease  with  which  they  were 
worn  or  put  on  and  off,  for  in  the  matter  of  protection  they  could 
not  compare  with  the  burgonet,  which  in  one  form  or  another 
was  used  by  cavalry  (and  often  by  pikemen)  up  to  the  final 


disappearance  of  armour  from  the  field  of  battle  about  1670. 
Fig.  9  *  gives  the  general  outline  of  richly  decorated  16th-century 
Italian  burgonet  which  is  preserved  in  Vienna.     The  archetype 
of  the  burgonet  is  perhaps  the  casque  worn  by  the  Swiss  infantry 
(fig.  9  a)  at  the  epoch  of  Marignan  (1515). 
This  was  probably  copied  by  them  from 
their  former  Burgundian  antagonists,  whose 
connexion  with  this  helmet  is  sufficiently 
indicated  by  its  name.  The  lower  part  of 
the   more   elaborate   burgonets   worn   by 
nobles  and  cavalrymen  is  often  formed  into 
a  complete  covering  for  the  ears,  cheek 
and  chin,  and  connected  closely  with   the 
gorget.  They  therefore  resemble  the  armets 
and  have  often  been  confused  with  them, 
but  the  distinguishing  feature  of  the  bur- 
gonet is  invariably  the  front  peak.  Various 
forms  of  vizor  were  fitted  to  such  helmets; 
these   as   a   rule   were   either   fixed   bars 
(fig.  9  c)  or  mere  upward  continuations  of 
the  chin  piece.  Often  a  nasal  was  the  only 
face  protection  (fig.  9  d,  a  Hungarian  type). 
The  latest  form  of  the  burgonet  used  in    FIG.  n.—  Cabasset. 
active  service  is  the  familiar  Cromwellian 
cavalry  helmet  with  its  straight  brim,  from  which  depends  the 
slight  vizor  of  three  bars  or  stout  wires  joined  together  at  the 
bottom. 

The  above  are  of  course  only  the  main  types.  Some  writers 
class  all  remaining  examples  either  as  casques  or  as  "  war-hats," 
the  latter  term  conveniently  covering  all  those  helmets  which 
resemble  in  any  way  the  head-gear  of  civil  life.  For  illustrations 
of  many  curiosities  of  this  sort,  including  the  famous  iron  hat 
of  King  Charles  I.  of  England,  and  also  for  examples  of  Russian, 
Mongolian,  Indian  and  Chinese  helmets,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
pp.  262-269  and  285-286  of  Demmin's  Arms  and  Armour  (English 
edition  1894).  The  helmets  in  brass,  steel  or  cloth,  worn  by 
troops  since  the  general  introduction  of  uniforms  and  the  disuse 
of  armour,  depend  for  their  shape  and  material  solely  on  con- 
siderations of  comfort  and  good  appearance.  From  time  to 
time,  however,  the  readoption  of  serviceable  helmets  is  advocated 
by  cavalrymen,  and  there  is  much  to  be  said  in  favour  of  this. 
The  burgonet,  which  was  the  final  type  of  war  helmet  evolved  by 
the  old  armourers,  would  certainly  appear  to  be  by  far  the  best 
head-gear  to  adopt  should  these  views  prevail,  and  indeed  it  is 
still  worn,  in  a  modified  yet  perfectly  recognizable  form,  by  the 
German  and  other  cuirassiers. 

HELMHOLTZ,  HERMANN  LUDWIG  FERDINAND  VON 
(1821-1894),  German  philosopher  and  man  of  science,  was  born 
on  the  3ist  of  August  1821  at  Potsdam,  near  Berlin.  His  father, 
Ferdinand,  was  a  teacher  of  philology  and  philosophy  in  the 
gymnasium,  while  his  mother  was  a  Hanoverian  lady,  a  lineal 
descendant  of  the  great  Quaker  William  Penn.  Delicate  in 
early  life,  Helmholtz  became  by  habit  a  student,  and  his  father 
at  the  same  time  directed  his  thoughts  to  natural  phenomena. 
He  soon  showed  mathematical  powers,  but  these  were  not 
fostered  by  the  careful  training  mathematicians  usually  receive, 
and  it  may  be  said  that  in  after  years  his  attention  was  directed 
to  the  higher  mathematics  mainly  by  force  of  circumstances. 
As  his  parents  were  poor,  and  could  not  afford  to  allow  him  to 
follow  a  purely  scientific  career,  he  became  a  surgeon  of  the 
Prussian  army.  In  1842  he  wrote  a  thesis  in  which  he  announced 
the  discovery  of  nerve-cells  in  ganglia.  This  was  his  first  work, 
and  from  1842  to  1894,  the  year  of  his  death,  scarcely  a  year 
passed  without  several  important,  and  in  some  cases  epoch- 
making,  papers  on  scientific  subjects  coming  from  his  pen.  He 
lived  in  Berlin  from  1842  to  1849,  when  he  became  professor  of 
physiology  in  Konigsberg.  There  he  remained  from  1849  to 
1855,  when  he  removed  to  the  chair  of  physiology  in  Bonn.  In 
1858  he  became  professor  of  physiology  in  Heidelberg,  and  in 
1871  he  was  called  to  occupy  the  chair  of  physics  in  Berlin.  To 
this  professorship  was  added  in  1887  the  post  of  director  of 
the  physico-technical  institute  at  Charlottenburg,  near  Berlin, 


HELMOLD— HELMONT 


249 


and  he  held  the  two  positions  together  until  his  death  on  the 
8th  of  September  1894. 

His  investigations  occupied  almost  the  whole  field  of  science, 
including  physiology,  physiological  optics,  physiological  acoustics, 
chemistry,  mathematics,  electricity  and  magnetism,  meteorology 
and  theoretical  mechanics.  At  an  early  age  he  contributed  to 
our  knowledge  of  the  causes  of  putrefaction  and  fermentation. 
In  physiological  science  he  investigated  quantitatively  the 
phenomena  of  animal  heat,  and  he  was  one  of  the  earliest  in  the 
field  of  animal  electricity.  He  studied  the  nature  of  muscular 
contraction,  causing  a  muscle  to  record  its  movements  on  a 
smoked  glass  plate,  and  he  worked  out  the  problem  of  the  velocity 
of  the  nervous  impulse  both  in  the  motor  nerves  of  the  frog  and 
in  the  sensory  nerves  of  man.  In  1847  Helmholtz  read  to  the 
Physical  Society  of  Berlin  a  famous  paper,  ffber  die  Erhaltung 
der  Kraft  (on  the  conservation  of  force) ,  which  became  one  of  the 
epoch-making  papers  of  the  century;  indeed,  along  with  J.  R. 
Mayer,  J.  P.  Joule  and  W.  Thomson  (Lord  Kelvin),  he  may 
be  regarded  as  one  of  the  founders  of  the  now  universally  received 
law  of  the  conservation  of  energy.  The  year  1851,  while  he  was 
lecturing  on  physiology  at  Konigsberg,  saw  the  brilliant  invention 
of  the  ophthalmoscope,  an  instrument  which  has  been  of  in- 
estimable value  to  medicine.  It  arose  from  an  attempt  to 
demonstrate  to  his  class  the  nature  of  the  glow  of  reflected  light 
sometimes  seen  in  the  eyes  of  animals  such  as  the  cat.  When 
the  great  ophthalmologist,  A.  von  Grafe,  first  saw  the  fundus 
of  the  living  human  eye,  with  its  optic  disc  and  blood-vessels, 
his  face  flushed  with  excitement,  and  he  cried,  "  Helmholtz 
has  unfolded  to  us  a  new  world!"  Helmholtz's  contributions 
to  physiological  optics  are  of  great  importance.  He  investigated 
the  optical  constants  of  the  eye,  measured  by  his  invention, 
the  ophthalmometer,  the  radii  of  curvature  of  the  crystalline 
lens  for  near  and  far  vision,  explained  the  mechanism  of  accom- 
modation by  which  the  eye  can  focus  within  certain  limits, 
discussed  the  phenomena  of  colour  vision,  and  gave  a  luminous 
account  of  the  movements  of  the  eyeballs  so  as  to  secure  single 
vision  with  two  eyes.  In  particular  he  revived  and  gave  new 
force  to  the  theory  of  colour-vision  associated  with  the  name  of 
Thomas  Young,  showing  the  three  primary  colours  to  be  red, 
green  and  violet,  and  he  applied  the  theory  to  the  explanation 
of  colour-blindness.  His  great  work  on  Physiological  Optics 
(1856-1866)  is  by  far  the  most  important  book  that  has  appeared 
on  the  physiology  and  physics  of  vision.  Equally  distinguished 
were  his  labours  in  physiological  acoustics.  He  explained 
accurately  the  mechanism  of  the  bones  of  the  ear,  and  he  discussed 
the  physiological  action  of  the  cochlea  on  the  principles  of  sym- 
pathetic vibration.  Perhaps  his  greatest  contribution,  however, 
was  his  attempt  to  account  for  our  perception  of  quality  of 
tone.  He  showed,  both  by  analysis  and  by  synthesis,  that 
quality  depends  on  the  order,  number  and  intensity  of  the  over- 
tones or  harmonics  that  may,  and  usually  do,  enter  into  the 
structure  of  a  musical  tone.  He  also  developed  the  theory 
of  differential  and  of  summational  tones.  His  work  on  Sensa- 
tions of  Tone  (1862)  may  well  be  termed  the  principia  of  physio- 
logical acoustics.  He  may  also  be  said  to  be  the  founder  of  the 
fixed-pitch  theory  of  vowel  tones,  according  to  which  it  is 
asserted  that  the  pitch  of  a  vowel  depends  on  the  resonance  of 
the  mouth,  according  to  the  form  of  the  cavity  while  singing  it, 
and  this  independently  of  the  pitch  of  the  note  on  which  the 
vowel  is  sung.  For  the  later  years  of  his  life  his  labours  may 
be  summed  up  under  the  following  heads:  (i)  On  the  conserva- 
tion of  energy;  (2)  on  hydro-dynamics;  (3)  on  electro-dynamics 
and  theories  of  electricity;  (4)  on  meteorological  physics; 
(5)  on  optics;  and  (6)  on  the  abstract  principles  of  dynamics. 
In  all  these  fields  of  labour  he  made  important  contributions  to 
science,  and  showed  himself  to  be  equally  great  as  a  mathe- 
matician and  a  physicist.  He  studied  the  phenomena  of  electrical 
oscillations  from  186910  1871,  and  in  the  latter  year  he  announced 
that  the  velocity  of  the  propagation  of  electromagnetic  induction 
was  about  3 14,000  metres  per  second.  Faraday  had  shown  that 
the  passage  of  electrical  action  involved  time,  and  he  also 
asserted  that  electrical  phenomena  are  brought  about  by  changes 


in  intervening  non-conductors  or  dielectric  substances.  This 
led  Clerk  Maxwell  to  frame  his  theory  of  electro-dynamics,  in 
which  electrical  impulses  were  assumed  to  be  transmitted 
through  the  ether  by  waves.  G.  F.  Fitzgerald  was  the  first  to 
attempt  to  measure  the  length  of  electric  waves;  Helmholtz 
put  the  problem  into  the  hands  of  his  favourite  pupil,  Heinrich 
Hertz,  and  the  latter  finally  gave  an  experimental  demonstration 
of  electromagnetic  waves,  the  "  Hertzian  waves,"  on  which 
wireless  telegraphy  depends,  and  the  velocity  of  which  is  the 
same  as  that  of  light.  The  last  investigations  of  Helmholtz 
related  to  problems  in  theoretical  mechanics,  more  especially 
as  to  the  relations  of  matter  to  the  ether,  and  as  to  the  distribu- 
tion of  energy  in  mechanical  systems.  In  particular  he  explained 
the  principle  of  least  action,  first  advanced  by  P.  L.  M.  de 
Maupertuis,  and  developed  by  Sir  W.  R.  Hamilton,  of  quaternion 
fame.  Helmholtz  also  wrote  on  philosophical  and  aesthetic 
problems.  His  position  was  that  of  an  empiricist,  denying  the 
doctrine  of  innate  ideas  and  holding  that  all  knowledge  is  founded 
on  experience,  hereditarily  transmitted  or  acquired. 

The  life  of  Helmholtz  was  uneventful  in  the  usual  sense. 
He  was  twice  married,  first,  in  1849, to  Olga  von  Velten  (by  whom 
he  had  two  children,  a  son  and  daughter),  and  secondly,  in  1861, 
to  Anna  von  Mohl,  of  a  Wiirtemberg  family  of  high  social  position. 
Two  children  were  born  of  this  marriage,  a  son,  Robert,  who  died 
in  1889,  after  showing  in  experimental  physics  indications  of 
his  father's  genius,  and  a  daughter,  who  married  a  son  of  Werner 
von  Siemens.  Helmholtz  was  a  man  of  simple  but  refined 
tastes,  of  noble  carriage  and  somewhat  austere  manner.  His 
life  from  first  to  last  was  one  of  devotion  to  science,  and  he  must 
be  accounted,  on  intellectual  grounds,  one  of  the  foremost  men 
of  the  i gth  century. 

See  L.  Konigsberger,  Hermann  von  Helmholtz  (1902;  English 
translation  by  F.  A.  Welby,  Oxford,  1906);  J.  G.  M"Kendrick, 
H.  L.  F.  von  Helmholtz  (1899).  (J.  G.  M.) 

HELMOLD,  an  historian  of  the  izth  century,  was  a  priest 
at  Bosau  near  Plon.  He  was  a  friend  of  the  two  bishops  of 
Oldenburg,  Vicelin  (d.  1154)  and  Gerold  (d.  1163),  who  did 
much  to  Christianize  the  Slavs.  At  Bishop  Gerold's  instigation 
Helmold  wrote  his  Chronica  Slawrum,  a  history  of  the  conquest 
and  conversion  of  the  Slavonic  countries  from  the  time  of 
Charlemagne.  For  the  life  and  times  of  Henry  the  Lion,  duke  of 
Saxony,  Helmold's  chronicle,  as  that  of  a  contemporary  who  had 
exceptional  means  for  gaining  information,  is  of  first-rate 
importance.  The  history  was  continued  down  to  1209  by  Abbot 
Arnold  of  Lubeck. 

The  Chronica  were  first  edited  by  Siegmund  Schorkcl  (Frankfort 
a.  M.,  1556).  The  best  edition  is  by  J.  M.  Lappenberg  in  Man. 
Germ.  hist,  scriptores,  xxi.  (1869).  For  critical  works  on  the 
Chronica  see  A.  Potthast,  Bibliotheca  hist.  med.  aevi,  s.  "  Helmoldus." 

HELMOND,  a  town  in  the  province  of  North  Brabant,  Holland, 
on  the  small  river  Aa,  and  on  the  canal  (Zuid-Willems  Vaart) 
between  'sHertogenbosch  and  Maastricht,  245  m.  by  rail  W.N.W. 
of  Venlo.  It  is  connected  by  steam  tramway  with  'sHertogen- 
bosch (21  m.  N.W.),  a  branch  line  northwards  to  Osch  being 
given  off  at  Veghel.  Pop.  (1900)  11,465.  The  castle  of  Helmond, 
built  in  1402,  is  a  beautiful  specimen  of  architecture,  and  among 
the  other  buildings  of  note  in  the  town  are  the  spacious  church 
of  St  Lambert,  the  Reformed  church  and  the  town  hall.  Helmond 
is  one  of  the  industrial  centres  of  the  province,  and  possesses 
over  a  score  of  factories  for  cotton  and  silk  weaving,  cotton 
printing,  dyeing,  iron  founding,  brewing,  soap  boiling  and 
tobacco  dressing,  as  well  as  engine  works  and  a  margarine 
factory.  There  is  an  art  school  in  the  town. 

HELMONT,  JEAN  BAPTISTE  VAN  (1577-1644),  Belgian 
chemist,  physiologist  and  physician,  a  member  of  a  noble 
family,  was  born  at  Brussels  in  1577.*  He  was  educated  at 
Louvain,  and  after  ranging  restlessly  from  one  science  to  another 
and  finding  satisfaction  in  none,  turned  to  medicine,  in  which 
he  took  his  doctor's  degree  in  1599.  The  next  few  years  he  spent 
in  travelling  through  Switzerland,  Italy,  France  and  England. 
Returning  to  his  own  country  he  was  at  Antwerp  at  t,he  time  of 

1  An  alternative  date  for  his  birth  is  1579  and  for  his  death  1635 
(see  Bull.  Roy.  Acad.  Belg.,  1907,  7,  p.  732). 


25° 


HELMSTEDT— HELMUND 


the  great  plague  in  1605,  and  having  contracted  a  rich  marriage 
settled  in  1609  at  Vilvorde,  near  Brussels,  where  he  occupied 
himself  with  chemical  experiments  and  medical  practice  until 
his  death  on  the  3oth  of  December  1644.  Van  Helmont  presents 
curious  contradictions.  On  the  one  hand  he  was  a  disciple  of 
Paracelsus  (though  he  scornfully  repudiates  his  errors  was  well  as 
those  of  most  other  contemporary  authorities),  a  mystic  with 
strong  leanings  to  the  supernatural,  an  alchemist  who  believed 
that  with  a  small  piece  of  the  philosopher's  stone  he  had  trans- 
muted 2000  times  as  much  mercury  into  gold;  on  the  other 
hand  he  was  touched  with  the  new  learning  that  was  producing 
men  like  Harvey,  Galileo  and  Bacon,  a  careful  observer  of  nature, 
and  an  exact  experimenter  who  in  some  cases  realized  that 
matter  can  neither  be  created  nor  destroyed.  As  a  chemist 
he  deserves  to  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  pneumatic  chemistry, 
even  though  it  made  no  substantial  progress  for  a  century  after 
his  time,  and  he  was  the  first  to  understand  that  there  are  gases 
distinct  in  kind  from  atmospheric  air.  The  very  word  "  gas  " 
he  claims  as  his  own  invention,  and  he  perceived  that  his  "  gas 
sylvestre  "  (our  carbon  dioxide)  given  off  by  burning  charcoal 
is  the  same  as  that  produced  by  fermenting  must  and  that 
which  sometimes  renders  the  air  of  caves  irrespirable.  For 
him  air  and  water  are  the  two  primitive  elements  of  things. 
Fire  he  explicitly  denies  to  be  an  element,  and  earth  is  not  one 
because  it  can  be  reduced  to  water.  That  plants,  for  instance, 
are  composed  of  water  he  sought  to  show  by  the  ingenious 
quantitative  experiment  of  planting  a  willow  weighing  5  Ib  in 
200  Ib  of  dry  soil  and  allowing  it  to  grow  for  five  years;  at  the 
end  of  that  time  it  had  become  a  tree  weighing  169  ft,  and  since 
it  had  received  nothing  but  water  and  the  soil  weighed  practically 
the  same  as  at  the  beginning,  he  argued  that  the  increased  weight 
of  wood,  bark  and  roots  had  been  formed  from  water  alone. 
It  was  an  old  idea  that  the  processes  of  the  living  body  are 
fermentative  in  character,  but  he  applied  it  more  elaborately 
than  any  of  his  predecessors.  For  him  digestion,  nutrition  and 
even  movement  are  due  to  ferments,  which  convert  dead  food 
into  living  flesh  in  six  stages.  But  having  got  so  far  with  the 
application  of  chemical  principles  to  physiological  problems, 
he  introduces  a  complicated  system  of  supernatural  agencies 
like  the  archei  of  Paracelsus,  which  preside  over  and  direct  the 
affairs  of  the  body.  A  central  archeus  controls  a  number  of 
subsidiary  archei  which  move  through  the  ferments,  and  just 
as  diseases  are  primarily  caused  by  some  affection  (exorbitatio) 
of  the  archeus,  so  remedies  act  by  bringing  it  back  to  the  normal. 
At  the  same  time  chemical  principles  guided  him  in  the  choice 
of  medicines — undue  acidity  of  ihe  digestive  juices,  for  example, 
was  to  be  corrected  by  alkalies  and  vice  versa;  he  was  thus  a 
forerunner  of  the  iatrochemical  school,  and  did  good  service  to 
the  art  of  medicine  by  applying  chemical  methods  to  the  prepara- 
tion of  drugs.  Over  and  above  the  archeus  he  taught  that  there 
is  the  sensitive  soul  which  is  the  husk  or  shell  of  the  immortal 
mind.  Before  the  Fall  the  archeus  obeyed  the  immortal  mind 
and  was  directly  controlled  by  it,  but  at  the  Fall  men  received 
also  the  sensitive  soul  and  with  it  lost  immortality,  for  when  it 
perishes  the  immortal  mind  can  no  longer  remain  in  the  body. 
In  addition  to  the  archeus,  which  he  described  as  "  aura  vitalis 
seminum,  vitae  directrix,"  Van  Helmont  had  other  governing 
agencies  resembling  the  archeus  and  not  always  clearly  distin- 
guished from  it.  From  these  he  invented  the  term  bias,  defined 
as  the  "  vis  motus  tarn  alterivi  quam  localis."  Of  bias  there 
were  several  kinds,  e.g.  bias  humanum  and  bias  meteoron;  the 
heavens  he  said  "  constare  gas  materia  et  bias  efficiente."  He 
was  a  faithful  Catholic,  but  incurred  the  suspicion  of  the  Church 
by  his  tract  De  magnetica  vulnerum  curatione  (1621),  which  was 
thought  to  derogate  from  some  of  the  miracles.  His  works  were 
collected  and  published  at  Amsterdam  as  Ortus  medicinae,  vd 
opera  et  opuscula  omnia  in  1668  by  his  son  Franz  Mercurius 
(b.  i6r8  at  Vilvorde,  d.  1699  at  Berlin),  in  whose  own  writings, 
e.g.  Cabbalah  Denudata  (1677)  and  Opuscula  philosophica  (1690), 
mystical  theosophy  and  alchemy  appear  in  still  wilder  confusion. 

See  M.  Foster,  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Physiology  (1901);  also 
Chevreul  in  Journ.  des  savants  (Feb.  and  March  1850),  and  Cap 


in  Journ.  pharm.  Mm.  (1852).  Other  authorities  are  Poultier 
d'Elmoth,  Memoire  sur  J.  B.  van  Helmont  (1817) ;  Rixner  and  Sieber, 
Beitrdge  zur  Geschichte  der  Physiologic  (1819-1826),  vol.  ii.;  Spiers, 
Helmont' s  System  der  Medicin  (1840);  Melsens,  Lemons  sur  van 
Helmont  (1848) ;  Rommelaere,  fttudes  sur  J.  B.  van  Helmont  (1860). 

HELMSTEDT,  or  more  rarely  Helmstadt,  a  town  of  Germany, 
in  the  duchy  of  Brunswick,  30  m.  N.W.  of  Magdeburg  on  the 
main  line  of  railway  to  Brunswick.  Pop.  (1905)  15,415.  The 
principal  buildings  are  the  Juleum,  the  former  university,  built 
in  the  Renaissance  style  towards  the  close  of  the  i6th  century, 
and  containing  a  library  of  40,000  volumes;  the  fine  Stephans- 
kirche  dating  from  the  I2th  century;  the  Walpurgiskirche 
restored  in  1893-1894;  the  Marienberger  Kirche,  a  beautiful 
church  in  the  Roman  style,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  church. 
The  Augustinian  nunnery  of  Marienberg  founded  in  1176  is 
now  a  Lutheran  school.  The  town  contains  the  ruins  of  the 
Benedictine  abbey  of  St  Ludger,  which  was  secularized  in  1803. 
The  educational  institutions  include  several  schools.  The 
principal  manufactures  are  furniture,  yarn,  soap,  tobacco, 
sugar,  vitriol  and  earthenware.  Near  the  town  is  Bad  Helmstedt, 
which  has  an  iron  mineral  spring,  and  the  Liibbensteine,  two 
blocks  of  granite  on  which  sacrifices  to  Woden  are  said  to  have 
been  offered.  Near  Bad  Helmstedt  a  monument  has  been  erect  cd 
to  those  who  fell  in  the  Franco-German  War;  in  the  town  there 
is  one  to  those  killed  at  Waterloo.  Helmstedt  originated, 
according  to  legend,  in  connexion  with  the  monastery  founded 
by  Ludger  or  Liudger  (d.  809) ,  the  first  bishop  of  Munster.  There 
appears,  however,  little  doubt  that  this  tradition  is  mythical 
and  that  Helmstedt  was  not  founded  until  about  900.  It  obtained 
civic  rights  in  1099  and,  although  destroyed  by  the  archbishop 
of  Magdeburg  in  1199,  it  was  soon  rebuilt.  In  1457  it  joined  the 
Hanseatic  League,  and  in  1490  it  came  into  the  possession  of 
Brunswick.  In  1576  Julius,  duke  of  Brunswick,  founded  a 
university  here,  and  throughout  the  i7th  century  this  was  one 
of  the  chief  seats  of  Protestant  learning.  It  was  closed  by 
Jerome,  king  of  Westphalia,  in  1809. 

See  Ludewig,  Geschichte  und  Beschreibung  der  Stadt  Helmstedt 
(Helmstedt,  1821). 

HELMUND,  a  river  of  Afghanistan,  in  length  about  600  m. 
The  Helmund,  which  is  identical  with  the  ancient  Etymander, 
is  the  most  important  river  in  Afghanistan,  next  to  the  Kabul 
river,  which  it  exceeds  both  in  volume  and  length.  It  rises 
in  the  recesses  of  the  Koh-i-Baba  to  the  west  of  Kabul,  its 
infant  stream  parting  the  Unai  pass  from  the  Irak,  the  two 
chief  passes  on  the  well-known  road  from  Kabul  to  Bamian. 
For  50  m.  from  its  source  its  course  is  ascertained,  but  beyond 
that  point  for  the  next  50  no  European  has  followed  it.  About 
the  parallel  of  33°  N.  it  enters  the  Zamindawar  province  which 
lies  to  the  N.W.  of  Kandahar,  and  thenceforward  it  is  a  well- 
mapped  river  to  its  termination  in  the  lake  of  Seistan.  Till 
about  40  m.  above  Girishk  the  character  of  the  Helmund  is  that 
of  a  mountain  river,  flowing  through  valleys  which  in  summer  are 
the  resort  of  pastoral  tribes.  On  leaving  the  hills  it  enters  on  a 
flat  country,  and  extends  over  a  gravelly  bed.  Here  also  it  begins 
to  be  used  in  irrigation.  At  Girishk  it  is  crossed  by  the  principal 
route  from  Herat  to  Kandahar.  Forty-five  miles  below  Girishk 
the  Helmund  receives  its  greatest  tributary,  the  Arghandab, 
from  the  high  Ghilzai  country  beyond  Kandahar,  and  becomes 
a  very  considerable  river,  with  a  width  of  300  or  400  yds.  and 
an  occasional  depth  of  9  to  12  ft.  Even  in  the  dry  season  it  is 
never  without  a  plentiful  supply  of  water.  The  course  of  the 
river  is  more  or  less  south-west  from  its  source  till  in  Seistan 
it  crosses  meridian  62°,  when  it  turns  nearly  north,  and  so  flows 
for  70  or  80  m.  till  it  falls  into  the  Seistan  hamuns,  or  swamps, 
by  various  mouths.  In  this  latter  part  of  its  course  it  forms 
the  boundary  between  Afghan  and  Persian  Seistan,  and  owing 
to  constant  changes  in  its  bed  and  the  swampy  nature  of  its 
borders  it  has  been  a  fertile  source  of  frontier  squabbles.  Persian 
Seistan  was  once  highly  cultivated  by  means  of  a  great  system 
of  canal  irrigation;  but  for  centuries,  since  the  country  was 
devastated  by  Timur,  it  has  been  a  barren,  treeless  waste  of 
flat  alluvial  plain.  In  years  of  exceptional  flood  the  Seistan 
lakes  spread  southwards  into  an  overflow  channel  called  the 


HELM  WIND— HELPS,  SIR  A. 


251 


Shclag  which,  running  parallel  to  the  northern  course  of  the 
Helmund  in  the  opposite  direction,  finally  loses  its  waters  in 
the  Gaod-i-Zirreh  swamp,  which  thus  becomes  the  final  bourne 
of  the  river.  Throughout  its  course  from  its  confluence  with  the 
Arghandab  to  the  ford  of  Chahar  Burjak,  where  it  bends  north- 
ward, the  Helmund  valley  is  a  narrow  green  belt  of  fertility 
sunk  in  the  midst  of  a  wide  alluvial  desert,  with  many  thriving 
villages  interspersed  amongst  the  remains  of  ancient  cities, 
relics  of  Kaiani  rule.  The  recent  political  mission  to  Seistan 
under  Sir  Henry  McMahon  (1904-1905)  added  much  information 
respecting  the  ancient  and  modern  channels  of  the  lower  Helmund, 
proving  that  river  to  have  been  constantly  shifting  its  bed  over 
a  vast  area,  changing  the  level  of  the  country  by  silt  deposits, 
and  in  conjunction  with  the  terrific  action  of  Seistan  winds 
actually,  altering  its  configuration.  (T.  H.  H.*) 

HELM  WIND,  a  wind  that  under  certain  conditions  blows 
over  the  escarpment  of  the  Pennines,  near  Cross  Fell  from  the 
eastward,  when  a  helm  (helmet)  cloud  covers  the  summit.  The 
helm  bar  is  a  roll  of  cloud  that  forms  in  front  of  it,  to  leeward. 

See  "  Report  on  the  Helm  Wind  Inquiry,"  by  W.  Marriott, 
Quart.  Journ.  Roy.  Met.  Soc.  xv.  103. 

HELOTS  (Gr.  eiXcores  or  tiXcorcu),  the  serfs  of  the  ancient 
Spartans.  The  word  was  derived  in  antiquity  from  the  town 
of  Helos  in  Laconia,  but  is  more  probably  connected  with  eXos, 
a  fen,  or  with  the  root  of  f\tiv,  to  capture.  Some  scholars 
suppose  them  to  have  been  of  Achaean  race,  but  they  were 
more  probably  the  aborigines  of  Laconia  who  had  been  enslaved 
by  the  Achaeans  before  the  Dorian  conquest.  After  the  second 
Messenian  war  (see  SPARTA)  the  conquered  Messenians  were 
reduced  to  the  status  of  helots,  from  which  Epaminondas 
liberated  them  three  centuries  later  after  the  battle  of  Leuctra 
(371  B.C.).  The  helots  were  state  slaves  bound  to  the  soil — • 
adscripts  glebae — and  assigned  to  individual  Spartiates  to  till 
their  holdings  ((cXijpoi) ;  their  masters  could  neither  emancipate 
them  nor  sell  them  off  the  land,  and  they  were  under  an  oath 
not  to  raise  the  rent  payable  yearly  in  kind  by  the  helots.  In 
time  of  war  they  served  as  light-armed  troops  or  as  rowers  in 
the  fleet;  from  the  Peloponnesian  War  onwards  they  were 
occasionally  employed  as  heavy  infantry  (oirXtrat),  distinguished 
bravery  being  rewarded  by  emancipation.  That  the  general 
attitude  of  the  Spartans  towards  them  was  one  of  distrust  and 
cruelty  cannot  be  doubted.  Aristotle  says  that  the  ephors  of 
each  year  on  entering  office  declared  war  on  the  helots  so  that 
they  might  be  put  to  death  at  any  time  without  violating  religious 
scruple  (Plutarch,  Lycurgus  28),  and  we  have  a  well-attested 
record  of  2000  helots  being  freed  for  service  in  war  and  then 
secretly  assassinated  (Thuc.  iv.  80).  But  when  we  remember 
the  value  of  the  helots  from  a  military  and  agricultural  point 
of  view  we  shall  not  readily  believe  that  the  crypteia  was  really, 
as  some  authors  represent  it,  an  organized  system  of  massacre; 
we  shall  see  in  it  "  a  good  police  training,  inculcating  hardihood 
and  vigour  in  the  young,"  while  at  the  same  time  getting  rid 
of  any  helots  who  were  found  to  be  plotting  against  the  state 
(see  further  CRYPTEIA). 

Intermediate  between  Helots  and  Spartiates  were  the  two 
classes  of  Ncodamodes  and  Mothones.  The  former  were  emanci- 
pated helots,  or  possibly  their  descendants,  and  were  much 
used  in  war  from  the  end  of  the  5th  century;  they  served  especi- 
ally on  foreign  campaigns,  as  those  of  Thibron  (400-399  B.C.) 
and  Agesilaus  (396-394  B.C.)  in  Asia  Minor.  The  mothones  or 
mothakes  were  usually  the  sons  of  Spartiates  and  helot  mothers; 
they  were  free  men  sharing  the  Spartan  training,  but  were  not 
full  citizens,  though  they  might  become  such  in  recognition  of 
special  merit. 

See  C.  O.  Miiller,  History  and  Antiquities  of  the  Doric  Race  (Eng. 
trans.),  bk.  iii.  ch.  3.;  G.  Gilbert,  Greek  Constitutional  Antiquities 
(Eng.  trans.),  pp.  30-35;  A.  H.  J.  Greenidge,  Handbook  of  Greek 
Constitutional  History,  pp.  83-85;  G.  Busolt,  Die  griech.  Stoats-  u. 
htsaltertumer,  §  84;  Griechische  Geschichte,  i.2  525-528;  G.  F. 
Schomann,  Antiquities  of  Greece:  The  State  (Eng.  trans.)  pp.  104  ff. 

(M.  N.  T.) 

HELPS,  SIR  ARTHUR  (1813-1875),  English  writer  and  clerk 
of  the  Privy  Council,  youngest  son  of  Thomas  Helps,  a  London 


merchant,  was  born  near  London  on  the  loth  of  July  1813.  He 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
coming  out  3ist  wrangler  in  the  mathematical  tripos  in  1835.  He 
was  recognized  by  the  ablest  of  his  contemporaries  there  as  a 
man  of  superior  gifts,  and  likely  to  make  his  mark  in  after  life. 
As  a  member  of  the  Conversazione  Society,  better  known  as  the 
"  Apostles,"  a  society  established  in  1820  for  the  purposes  of 
discussion  on  social  and  literary  questions  by  a  few  young  men 
attracted  to  each  other  by  a  common  taste  for  literature  and 
speculation,  he  was  associated  with  Charles  Buller,  Frederick 
Maurice,  Richard  Chenevix  Trench,  Monckton  Milnes,  Arthur 
Hallam  and  Alfred  Tennyson.  His  first  literary  effort,  Thoughts 
in  the  Cloister  and  the  Crowd  (1835),  was  a  series  of  aphorisms 
upon  life,  character,  politics  and  manners.  Soon  after  leaving 
the  university  Arthur  Helps  became  private  secretary  to  Spring 
Rice  (afterwards  Lord  Monteagle),  then  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
chequer. This  appointment  he  filled  till  1839,  when  he  went 
to  Ireland  as  private  secretary  to  Lord  Morpeth  (afterwards 
earl  of  Carlisle),  chief  secretary  for  Ireland.  In  the  meanwhile 
(28th  October  1836)  Helps  had  married  Bessy,  daughter  of 
Captain  Edward  Fuller.  He  was  one  of  the  commissioners 
for  the  settlement  of  certain  Danish  claims  which  dated  so  far 
back  as  the  siege  of  Copenhagen;  but  with  the  fall  of  the 
Melbourne  administration  (1841)  his  official  experience  closed 
for  a  period  of  nearly  twenty  years.  He  was  not,  however, 
forgotten  by  his  political  friends.  He  possessed  admirable 
tact  and  sagacity;  his  fitness  for  official  life  was  unmistakable, 
and  in  1860  he  was  appointed  clerk  of  the  Privy  Council,  on  the 
recommendation  of  Lord  Granville. 

His  Essays  written  in  the  Intervals  of  Business  had  appeared 
in  1841,  and  his  Claims  of  Labour,  an  Essay  on  the  Duties  of  the 
Employers  to  the  Employed,  in  1844.  Two  plays,  King  Henry 
the  Second,  an  Historical  Drama,  and  Catherine  Douglas,  a  Tragedy, 
published  in  1843,  have  no  particular  merit.  Neither  in  these, 
nor  in  his  only  other  dramatic  effort,  Oulita  the  Serf  (1858)  did 
he  show  any  real  qualifications  as  a  playwright. 

Helps  possessed,  however,  enough  dramatic  power  to  give 
life  and  individuality  to  the  dialogues  with  which  he  enlivened 
many  of  his  other  books.  In  his  Friends  in  Council,  a  Series 
of  Readings,  and  Discourse  thereon  (1847-1859),  Helps  varied 
his  presentment  of  social  and  moral  problems  by  dialogues 
between  imaginary  personages,  who,  under  the  names  of  Milver- 
ton,  Ellesmere  and  Dunsford,  grew  to  be  almost  as  real  to 
Helps's  readers  as  they  certainly  became  to  himself.  The  book 
was  very  popular,  and  the  same  expedient  was  resorted  to  in 
Conversations  on  War  and  General  Culture,  published  in  1871. 
The  familiar  speakers,  with  others  added,  also  appeared  in  his 
Realmah  (1868)  and  in  the  best  of  its  author's  later  works,  Talk 
about  Animals  and  their  Masters  (1873). 

A  long  essay  on  slavery  in  the  first  series  of  Friends  in  Council 
was  subsequently  elaborated  into  a  work  in  two  volumes  pub- 
lished in  1848  and  1852,  called  The  Conquerors  of  the  New  World 
and  their  Bondsmen.  Helps  went  to  Spain  in  1847  to  examine 
the  numerous  MSS.  bearing  upon  his  subject  at  Madrid.  The 
fruits  of  these  researches  were  embodied  in  an  historical  work 
based  upon  his  Conquerors  of  the  New  World,  and  called  The 
Spanish  Conquest  in  America,  and  its  Relation  to  the  History  of 
Slavery  and  the  Government  of  Colonies  (4  vols.,  1855-1857-1861). 
But  in  spite  of  his  scrupulous  efforts  after  accuracy,  the  success 
of  the  book  was  marred  by  its  obtrusively  moral  purpose  and 
its  discursive  character. 

The  Life  of  Las  Casas,  the  Apostle  of  the  Indians  (1868),  The 
Life  of  Columbus  (1869),  The  Life  of  Pizarro  (1869),  and  The 
Life  of  Hernando  Cortes  (1871),  when  extracted  from  the  work 
and  published  separately,  proved  successful.  Besides  the  books 
which  have  been  already  mentioned  he  wrote:  Organization 
in  Daily  Life,  an  Essay  (1862),  Casimir  Maremma  (1870),  Brevia, 
Short  Essays  and  Aphorisms  (1871),  Thoughts  upon  Government 
(1872),  Life  and  Labours  of  Mr  Thomas  Brassey  (1872),  Ivan 
de  Biron  (1874),  Social  Pressure  (1875). 

His  appointment  as  clerk  of  the  Council  brought  him  into 
personal  communication  with  Queen  Victoria  and  the  Prince 


252 


HELSINGBORG— HELST 


Consort,  both  of  whom  came  to  regard  him  with  confidence 
and  respect.  After  the  Prince's  death,  the  Queen  early  turned 
to  Helps  to  prepare  an  appreciation  of  her  husband's  life  and 
character.  In  his  introduction  to  the  collection  (1862)  of  the 
Prince  Consort's  speeches  and  addresses  Helps  adequately 
fulfilled  his  task.  Some  years  afterwards  he  edited  and  wrote 
a  preface  to  the  Queen's  Leaves  from  a  Journal  of  our  Life  in 
the  Highlands  (1868).  In  1864  he  received  the  honorary  degree 
of  D.C.L.  from  the  university  of  Oxford.  He  was  made  a  C.B. 
in  1871  and  K.C.B.  in  the  following  year.  His  later  years 
were  troubled  by  financial  embarrassments,  and  he  died  on  the 
7th  of  March  1875. 

HELSINGBORG,  a  seaport  of  Sweden  in  the  district  (Ian) 
of  Malmohus,  35  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Copenhagen  by  rail  and  water. 
Pop.  (1900),  24,670.  It  is  beautifully  situated  at  the  narrowest 
part  of  Oresund,  or  the  Sound,  here  only  3  m.  wide,  opposite 
Helsingor  (Elsinore)  in  Denmark.  Above  the  town  the  brick 
tower  of  a  former  castle  crowns  a  hill,  commanding  a  fine  view 
over  the  Sound.  On  the  outskirts  are  the  Oresund  Park,  gardens 
containing  iodide  and  bromide  springs,  and  frequented  sea-baths. 
On  the  coast  to  the  north  is  the  royal  chateau  of  Sofiero;  to  the 
south,  the  small  spa  of  Ramlosa.  A  system  of  electric  trams  is 
maintained.  North  and  east  of  Helsingborg  lies  the  only  coal- 
field in  Sweden,  extending  into  the  lofty  Kullen  peninsula, 
which  forms  the  northern  part  of  the  east  shore  of  the  Sound. 
Potter's  clay  is  also  found.  Helsingborg  ranks  among  the  first 
manufacturing  towns  of  Sweden,  having  copper  works,  using 
ore  from  Sulitelma  in  Norway,  india-rubber  works  and  breweries. 
The  artificial  harbour  has  a  depth  of  24  ft.,  and  there  are 
extensive  docks.  The  chief  exports  are  timber,  butter  and  iron. 
The  town  is  the  headquarters  of  the  first  army  division. 

The  original  site  of  the  town  is  marked  by  the  tower  of  the 
old  fortress,  which  is  first  mentioned  in  1135.  In  the  i4th  century 
it  was  several  times  besieged.  From  1370  along  with  other 
towns  in  the  province  of  Skane,  it  was  united  for  fifteen  years 
with  the  Hanseatic  League.  The  fortress  was  destroyed  by  fire 
in  1418,  and  about  1425  Eric  XIII.  built  another  near  the  sea, 
and  caused  the  town  to  be  transported  thither,  bestowing  upon 
it  important  privileges.  Until  1658  it  belonged  to  Denmark, 
and  it  was  again  occupied  by  the  Danes  in  1676  and  1677.  In 
i684itsfortificationsweredismantled.  It  was  taken  by  Frederick 
IV.  of  Denmark  in  November  1709,  but  on  the  28th  of  February 
1710  the  Danes  were  defeated  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  the 
town  came  finally  into  the  possession  of  Sweden,  though  in  1711 
it  was  again  bombarded  by  the  Danes.  A  tablet  on  the  quay 
commemorates  the  landing  of  Bernadotte  after  his  election 
as  successor  to  the  throne  in  1810. 

HELSIN6FORS  (Finnish  Helsinki),  a  seaport  and  the  capital 
of  Finland  and  of  the  province  of  Nyland,  centre  of  the  admini- 
strative, scientific,  educational  and  industrial  life  of  Finland. 
The  fine  harbour  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  a  promontory, 
and  is  protected  at  its  entrance  by  a  group  of  small  islands,  on 
one  of  which  stands  the  fortress  of  Sveaborg.  A  third  harbour 
is  situated  on  the  west  side  of  the  promontory,  and  all  three 
have  granite  quays.  The  city,  which  in  1810  had  only  4065 
inhabitants,  Abo  the  then  capital  having  10,224,  has  increased 
with  great  rapidity,  having  22,228  inhabitants  in  1860,  61,530 
in  1890  and  111,654  in  1904.  It  is  the  centre  of  an  active  shipping 
trade  with  the  Baltic  ports  and  with  England,  and  of  a  railway 
system  connecting  it  with  all  parts  of  the  grand  duchy  and  with 
St  Petersburg.  Helsingfors  is  handsome  and  well  laid  out  with 
wide  streets,  parks,  gardens  and  monuments.  The  principal 
square  contains  the  cathedral  of  St  Nicholas,  the  Senate  House 
and  the  university,  all  striking  buildings  of  considerable  archi- 
tectural distinction.  In  the  centre  is  the  statue  of  the  Tsar 
Alexander  II.,  who  is  looked  upon  as  the  protector  of  the  liberties 
of  Finland,  the  monument  being  annually  decorated  with  wreaths 
and  garlands.  The  university  has  a  teaching  staff  of  141  with 
(1906)  1921  students,  of  whom  328  were  women.  The  university 
is  well  provided  with  museums  and  laboratories  and  has  a 
library  of  over  250,000  volumes.  Other  public  institutions 
are  the  Athenaeum,  with  picture  gallery,  a  Swedish  theatre 


and  opera  house,  a  Finnish  theatre,  the  Archives,  the  Senate 
House,  the  Nobles'  House  (Riddarhuset)  and  the  House  of  the 
Estates,  the  German  (Lutheran)  church  and  the  Russian  church. 
Some  of  the  scientific  societies  of  Helsingfors  have  a  wide 
repute,  such  as  the  academy  of  sciences,  the  geographical, 
historical,  Finno-Ugrian,  biblical,  medical,  law,  arts  and  forestry 
societies,  as  also  societies  for  the  spread  of  popular  education 
and  of  arts  and  crafts.  There  are  a  polytechnic,  ten  high  schools, 
navigation  and  trade  schools,  institutes  for  the  blind  and  the 
mentally  deficient,  and  numerous  elementary  schools.  The 
general  standard  of  education  is  high,  the  publication  of  books, 
reviews  and  newspapers  being  very  active.  The  language  of 
culture  is  Swedish,  but  owing  to  recent  manufacturing  develop- 
ments the  majority  of  the  population  is  Finnish-speaking. 
Helsingfors  displays  great  manufacturing  and  commercial 
activity,  the  imports  being  coal,  machinery,  sugar,  grain  and 
clothing.  The  manufactures  of  the  city  consist  largely  of 
tobacco,  beer  and  spirits,  carpets,  machinery  and  sugar. 

HELST,  BARTHOLOMAEUS  VAN  DER,  Dutch  painter,  was 
born  in  Holland  at  the  opening  of  the  I7th  century,  and  died 
at  Amsterdam  in  1670.  The  date  and  place  of  his  birth  are 
uncertain;  and  it  is  equally  difficult  to  confirm  or  to  deny  the 
time-honoured  statement  that  he  was  born  in  1613  at  Amsterdam. 
It  has  been  urged  indeed  by  competent  authority  that  Van  der 
Heist  was  not  a  native  of  Amsterdam,  because  a  family  of  that 
name  lived  as  early  as  1607  at  Haarlem,  and  pictures  are  shown 
as  works  of  Van  der  Heist  in  the  Haarlem  Museum  which  might 
tend  to  prove  that  he  was  in  practice  there  before  he  acquired 
repute  at  Amsterdam.  Unhappily  Bartholomew  has  not  been 
traced  amongst  the  children  of  Severijn  van  der  Heist,  who 
married  at  Haarlem  in  1607,  and  there  is  no  proof  that  the 
pictures  at  Haarlem  are  really  his;  though  if  they  were  so  they 
would  show  that  he  learnt  his  art  from  Frans  Hals  and  became 
a  skilled  master  as  early  as  1631.  Scheltema,  a  very  competent 
judge  in  matters  of  Dutch  art  chronology,  supposes  that  Van 
der  Heist  was  a  resident  at  Amsterdam  in  1636.  His  first  great 
picture,  representing  a  gathering  of  civic  guards  at  a  brewery, 
is  variously  assigned  to  1639  and  1643,  and  still  adorns  the 
town-hall  of  Amsterdam.  His  noble  portraits  of  the  burgo- 
master Bicker  and  Andreas  Bicker  the  younger,  in  the  gallery  of 
Amsterdam,  of  the  same  date  no  doubt  as  Bicker's  wife  lately 
in  the  Ruhl  collection  at  Cologne,  were  completed  in  1642. 
From  that  time  till  his  death  there  is  no  difficulty  in  tracing  Van 
der  Heist's  career  at  Amsterdam.  He  acquired  and  kept  the 
position  of  a  distinguished  portrait-painter,  producing  indeed 
little  or  nothing  besides  portraits  at  any  time,  but  founding, 
in  conjunction  with  Nicolaes  de  Helt  Stokade,  the  painters' 
guild  at  Amsterdam  in  1654.  At  some  unknown  date  he  married 
Constance  Reynst,  of  a  good  patrician  family  in  the  Netherlands, 
bought  himself  a  house  in  the  Doelenstrasse  and  ended  by 
earning  a  competence.  His  likeness  of  Paul  Potter  at  the  Hague, 
executed  in  1654,  and  his  partnership  with  Backhuysen,  who  laid 
in  the  backgrounds  of  some  of  his  pictures  in  1668,  indicate 
a  constant  companionship  with  the  best  artists  of  the  time. 
Wagen  has  said  that  his  portrait  of  Admiral  Kortenaar,  in 
the  gallery  of  Amsterdam,  betrays  the  teaching  of  Frans  Hals, 
and  the  statement  need  not  be  gainsaid;  yet  on  the  whole 
Van  der  Heist's  career  as  a  painter  was  mainly  a  protest  against 
the  systems  of  Hals  and  Rembrandt.  It  is  needless  to  dwell 
on  the  pictures  which  preceded  that  of  1648,  called  the  Peace 
of  Miinster,  in  the  gallery  of  Amsterdam.  The  Peace  challenges 
comparison  at  once  with  the  so-called  Night  Watch  by  Rembrandt 
and  the  less  important  but  not  less  characteristic  portraits  of 
Hals  and  his  wife  in  a  neighbouring  room.  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds 
was  disappointed  by  Rembrandt,  whilst  Van  der  Heist  surpassed 
his  expectation.  But  Biirger  asked  whether  Reynolds  had  not 
already  been  struck  with  blindness  when  he  ventured  on  this 
criticism.  The  question  is  still  an  open  one.  But  certainly 
Van  der  Heist  attracts  by  qualities  entirely  differing  from  those 
of  Rembrandt  and  Frans  Hals.  Nothing  can  be  more  striking 
than  the  contrast  between  the  strong  concentrated  light  and  the 
deep  gloom  of  Rembrandt  and  the  contempt  of  chiaroscuro 


HELSTON— HELVETII 


253 


peculiar  to  his  rival,  except  the  contrast  between  the  rapid 
sketchy  touch  of  Hals  and  the  careful  finish  and  rounding  of 
van  der  Heist.  "  The  Peace  "  is  a  meeting  of  guards  to  celebrate 
the  signature  of  the  treaty  of  Munster.  The  members  of  the 
Doele  of  St  George  meet  to  feast  and  congratulate  each  other  not 
at  a  formal  banquet  but  in  a  spot  laid  out  for  good  cheer,  where 
de  Wit,  the  captain  of  his  company,  can  shake  hands  with  his 
lieutenant  Waveren,  yet  hold  in  solemn  state  the  great  drinking- 
horn  of  St  George.  The  rest  of  the  company  sit,  stand  or  busy 
themselves  around — some  eating,  others  drinking,  others 
carving  or  serving — an  animated  scene  on  a  long  canvas,  with 
figures  large  as  life.  Well  has  Burger  said,  the  heads  are  full 
of  life  and  the  hands  admirable.  The  dresses  and  subordinate 
parts  are  finished  to  a  nicety  without  sacrifice  of  detail  or  loss 
of  breadth  in  touch  or  impast.  But  the  eye  glides  from  shape  to 
shape,  arrested  here  by  expressive  features,  there  by  a  bright 
stretch  of  colours,  nowhere  at  perfect  rest  because  of  the  lack 
of  a  central  thought  in  light  and  shade,  harmonies  or  composition. 
Great  as  the  qualities  of  van  der  Heist  undoubtedly  are,  he 
remains  below  the  line  of  demarcation  which  separates  the 
second  from  the  first-rate  masters  of  art. 

His  pictures  are  very  numerous,  and  almost  uniformly  good ;  but 
in  his  later  creations  he  wants  power,  and  though  still  amazingly 
careful,  he  becomes  grey  and  woolly  in  touch.  At  Amsterdam  the 
four  regents  in  the  Werkhuys  (1650),  four  syndics  in  the  gallery 
(1656),  and  four  syndics  in  the  town-hall  (1657)  are  masterpieces, 
to  which  may  be  added  a  number  of  fine  single  portraits.  Rotterdam, 
notwithstanding  the  fire  of  1864,  still  boasts  of  three  of  van  der 
Heist's  works.  The  Hague  owns  but  one.  St  Petersburg,  on  the 
other  hand,  possesses  ten  or  eleven,  of  various  shades  of  excellence. 
The  Louvre  has  three,  Munich  four.  Other  pieces  are  in  the  galleries 
of  Berlin,  Brunswick,  Brussels,  Carlsruhe,  Cassel,  Darmstadt, 
Dresden,  Frankfort,  Gotha,  Stuttgart  and  Vienna. 

HELSTON,  a  market  town  and  municipal  borough  in  the 
Truro  parliamentary  division  of  Cornwall,  England,  n  m.  by 
road  W.S.W.  of  Falmouth,  on  a  branch  of  the  Great  Western 
railway.  Pop.  (1901)  3088.  It  is  pleasantly  situated  on  rising 
ground  above  the  small  river  Cober,  which,  a  little  below  the 
town,  expands  into  a  picturesque  estuary  called  Looe  Pool,  the 
water  being  banked  up  by  the  formation  of  Looe  Bar  at  the 
mouth.  Formerly,  when  floods  resulted  from  this  obstruction, 
the  townsfolk  of  Helston  acquired  the  right  of  clearing  a  passage 
through  it  by  presenting  leathern  purses  containing  three 
halfpence  to  the  lord  of  the  manor.  The  mining  industry  on 
which  the  town  formerly  depended  is  extinct,  but  the  district 
is  agricultural  and  dairy  farming  is  carried  on,  while  the  town 
has  flour  mills,  tanneries  and  iron  foundries.  As  Helston  has 
the  nearest  railway  station  to  the  Lizard,  with  its  magnificent 
coast-scenery,  there  is  a  considerable  tourist  traffic  in  summer. 
Some  trade  passes  through  the  small  port  of  Porthleven,  3  m. 
S.W.,  where  the  harbour  admits  vessels  of  500  tons.  On  the 
8th  of  May  a  holiday  is  still  observed  in  Helston  and  known  as 
Flora  or  Furry  day.  It  has  been  regarded  as  a  survival  of  the 
Roman  Floralia,  but  its  origin  is  believed  by  some  to  be  Celtic. 
Flowers  and  branches  were  gathered,  and  dancing  took  place  in 
the  streets  and  through  the  houses,  all  being  thrown  open,  while 
a  pageant  was  also  given  and  a  special  ancient  folk-song  chanted. 
This  ceremony,  after  being  almost  forgotten,  has  been  revived 
in  modern  times.  The  borough  is  under  a  mayor,  4  aldermen 
and  12  councillors.  Area,  309  acres. 

Helston  (Henliston,  Haliston,  Helleston),  the  capital  of  the 
Meneage  district  of  Cornwall,  was  held  by  Earl  Harold  in  the 
time  of  the  Confessor  and  by  King  William  at  the  Domesday 
Survey.  At  the  latter  date  besides  seventy-three  villeins,  bordars 
and  serfs  there  were  forty  cenisarii,  a  species  of  unfree  tenants 
who  rendered  their  custom  in  the  form  of  beer.  King  John 
(1201)  constituted  Helleston  a  free  borough,  established  a  gild 
merchant,  and  granted  the  burgesses  freedom  from  toll  and  other 
similar  dues  throughout  the  realm,  and  the  cognizance  of  all 
pleas  within  the  borough  except  crown  pleas.  Richard,  king  of 
the  Romans  (1260),  extended  the  boundaries  of  the  borough 
and  granted  permission  for  the  erection  of  an  additional  mill. 
Edward  I.  (1304)  granted  the  pesage  of  tin,  and  Edward  III.  a 


Saturday  market  and  four  fairs.  Of  these  the  Saturday  market 
and  a  fair  on  the  feast  of  SS.  Simon  and  Jude  are  still  held,  also 
iive  other  fairs  of  uncertain  origin.  In  1585  Elizabeth  granted 
a  charter  of  incorporation  under  the  name  of  the  mayor  and 
commonalty  of  Helston.  This  was  confirmed  in  1641,  when  it 
was  also  provided  that  the  mayor  and  recorder  should  be  ipso 
facto  justices  of  the  peace.  From  1294  to  1832  Helston  returned 
two  members  to  parliament.  In  1774  the  number  of  electors 
(which  by  usage  had  been  restricted  to  the  mayor,  aldermen 
and  freemen  elected  by  them)  had  dwindled  to  six,  and  in  1790 
to  one  person  only,  whose  return  of  two  members,  however, 
was  rejected  and  that  of  the  general  body  of  the  freemen  accepted. 
In  1832  Helston  lost  one  of  its  members,  and  in  1885  it  lost  the 
other  and  became  merged  in  the  county. 

HELVETIC  CONFESSIONS,  the  name  of  two  documents 
expressing  the  common  belief  of  the  reformed  churches  of 
Switzerland.  The  first,  known  also  as  the  Second  Confession  of 
Basel,  was  drawn  up  at  that  city  in  1536  by  Bullinger  and  Leo 
Jud  of  Zurich,  Megander  of  Bern, Oswald  Myconius  and  Grynaeus 
of  Basel,  Bucer  and  Capito  of  Strassburg,  with  other  representa- 
tives from  Schaffhausen,  St  Gall,  Miihlhausen  and  Biel.  The 
first  draft  was  in  Latin  and  the  Zurich  delegates  objected  to  its 
Lutheran  phraseology.1  Leo  Jud's  German  translation  was, 
however,  accepted  by  all,  and  after  Myconius  and  Grynaeus 
had  modified  the  Latin  form,  both  versions  were  agreed  to  and 
adopted  on  the  26th  of  February  1536. 

The  Second  Helvetic  Confession  was  written  by  Bullinger  in 
1562  and  revised  in  1564  as  a  private  exercise.  It  came  to  the 
notice  of  the  elector  palatine  Friedrich  III.,  who  had  it  translated 
into  German  and  published.  It  gained  a  favourable  hold  on  the 
Swiss  churches,  who  had  found  the  First  Confession  too  short 
and  too  Lutheran.  It  was  adopted  by  the  Reformed  Church  not 
only  throughout  Switzerland  but  in  Scotland  (1566),  Hungary 
(1567),  France  (1571),  Poland  (1578),  and  next  to  the  Heidelberg 
Catechism  is  the  most  generally  recognized  Confession  of  the 
Reformed  Church. 

See  L.  Thomas,  La  Confession  helvetique  (Geneva,  1853);  'P. 
Schaff,  Creeds  of  Christendom,  i.  390-420,  iii.  234-306;  Muller, 
Die  Bekenntnisschriften  der  reformierten  Kirche  (Leipzig,  1903). 


HELVETII  ("EXoi^rioi,  'EXjS^rrtoO,  a  Celtic  people,  whose 
original  home  was  the  country  between  the  Hercynian  forest 
(probably  the  Rauhe  Alp),  the  Rhine  and  the  Main  (Tacitus, 
Germania,  28).  In  Caesar's  time  they  appear  to  have  been 
driven  farther  west,  since,  according  to  him  (Bell.  Gall.  i.  2.  3) 
their  boundaries  were  on  the  W.  the  Jura,  on  the  S.  the  Rhone 
and  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  on  the  N.  and  E.  the  Rhine  as  far  as 
Lake  Constance.  They  thus  inhabited  the  western  part  of 
modern  Switzerland.  They  were  divided  into  four  cantons 
(pagi) ,  common  affairs  being  managed  by  the  cantonal  assemblies. 
They  possessed  the  elements  of  a  higher  civilization  (gold  coinage, 
the  Greek  alphabet),  and,  according  to  Caesar,  were  the  bravest 
people  of  Gaul.  The  reports  of  gold  and  plunder  spread  by  the 
Cimbri  and  Teutones  on  their  way  to  southern  Gaul  induced 
the  Helvetii  to  follow  their  example.  In  107,  under  Divico,  two 
of  their  tribes,  the  Tougeni  and  Tigurini,  crossed  the  Jura  and 
made  their  way  as  far  as  Aginnum  (Agen  on  the  Garonne), 
where  they  utterly  defeated  the  Romans  under  L.  Cassius 
Longinus,  and  forced  them  to  pass  under  the  yoke  (Livy,  Epit. 
65;  according  to  a  different  reading,  the  battle  took  place  near 
the  Lake  of  Geneva).  In  102  the  Helvetii  joined  the  Cimbri  in 
the  invasion  of  Italy,  but  after  the  defeat  of  the  latter  by  Marius 
they  returned  home.  In  58,  hard  pressed  by  the  Germans  and 
incited  by  one  of  their  princes,  Orgetorix,  they  resolved  to  found 
a  new  home  west  of  the  Jura.  Orgetorix  was  thrown  into  prison, 
being  suspected  of  a  design  to  make  himself  king,  but  the  Helvetii 
themselves  persisted  in  their  plan.  Joined  by  the  Rauraci, 
Tulingi,  Latobrigi  and  some  of  the  Boii — according  to  their  own 
reckoning  368,000  in  all — they  agreed  to  meet  on  the  28th  of 

1  Some  of  the  delegates,  especially  Bucer,  were  anxious  to  effect 
a  union  of  the  Reformed  and  Lutheran  Churches.  There  was  also 
a  desire  to  lay  the  Confession  before  the  council  summoned  at 
Mantua  by  Pope  Paul  III. 


254 


HELVETIUS 


March  at  Geneva  and  to  advance  through  the  territory  of  the 
Allobroges.  They  were  overtaken,  however,  by  Caesar  at 
Bibracte,  defeated  and  forced  to  submit.  Those  who  survived 
were  sent  back  home  to  defend  the  frontier  of  the  Rhine  against 
German  invaders.  During  the  civil  wars  and  for  some  time 
after  the  death  of  Caesar  little  is  heard  of  the  Helvetii. 

Under  Augustus  Helvetia  (not  so  called  till  later  times,  earlier 
ager  Helvetiorum)  proper  was  included  under  Gallia  Belgica. 
Two  Roman  colonies  had  previously  been  founded  at  Noviodunum 
(Colonia  Julia  Equestris,  mod.  Nyon)  and  at  Colonia  Rauracorum 
(afterwards  Augusta  Rauracorum,  Augst  near  Basel)  to  keep 
watch  over  the  inhabitants,  who  were  treated  with  generosity  by 
their  conquerors.  Under  the  name  of  foederati  they  retained 
their  original  constitution  and  division  into  four  cantons.  They 
were  under  an  obligation  to  furnish  a  contingent  to  the  Roman 
army  for  foreign  service,  but  were  allowed  to  maintain  garrisons 
of  their  own,  and  their  magistrates  had  the  right  to  call  out  a 
militia.  Their  religion  was  not  interfered  with;  they  managed 
their  own  local  affairs  and  kept  their  own  language,  although 
Latin  was  used  officially.  Their  chief  towns  were  Aventicum 
(Avenches)  and  Vindonissa  (Windisch).  Under  Tiberius  the 
Helvetii  were  separated  from  Gallia  Belgica  and  made  part  of 
Germania  Superior.  After  the  death  of  Galba  (A.D.  69),  having 
refused  submission  to  Vitellius,  their  land  was  devastated  by 
Alienus  Caecina,  and  only  the  eloquent  appeal  of  one  of  their 
leaders  named  Claudius  Cossus  saved  them  from  annihilation. 
Under  Vespasian  they  attained  the  height  of  their  prosperity. 
He  greatly  increased  the  importance  of  Aventicum,  where  his 
father  had  carried  on  business.  Its  inhabitants,  with  those  of 
other  towns,  probably  obtained  the  tits  Latinum,  had  a  senate, 
a  council  of  decuriones,  a  prefect  of  public  works  and  flamens  of 
Augustus.  After  the  extension  of  the  eastern  frontier,  the  troops 
were  withdrawn  from  the  garrisons  and  fortresses,  and  Helvetia, 
free  from  warlike  disturbances,  gradually  became  completely 
romanized.  Aventicum  had  an  amphitheatre,  a  public 
gymnasium  and  an  academy  with  Roman  professors.  Roads 
were  made  wherever  possible,  and  commerce  rapidly  developed. 
'  The  old  Celtic  religion  was  also  supplanted  by  the  Roman. 
The  west  of  the  country,  however,  was  more  susceptible  to  Roman 
influence,  and  hence  preserved  its  independence  against  barbarian 
invaders  longer  than  its  eastern  portion.  During  the  reign  of 
Gallienus  (260-268)  the  Alamanni  overran  the  country;  and 
although  Probus,  Constantius  Chlorus,  Julian,  Valentinian  I. 
and  Gratian  to  some  extent  checked  the  inroads  of  the  barbarians, 
it  never  regained  its  former  prosperity.  In  the  subdivision  of 
Gaul  in  the  4th  century,  Helvetia,  with  the  territory  of  the 
Sequani  and  Rauraci,  formed  the  Provincia  Maxima  Sequanorum , 
the  chief  town  of  which  was  Vesontio  (Besan$on).  Under 
Honorius  (395-423)  it  was  probably  definitely  occupied  by  the 
Alamanni,  except  in  the  west,  where  the  small  portion  remaining 
to  the  Romano  was  ceded  in  436  by  Aetius  to  the  Burgundians. 

See  L.  von  Haller,  Helvetien  unter  den  Romern  (Bern,  1811); 
T.  Mommsen,  Die  Schweiz  in  romischer  Zeit  (Zurich,  1854);  J.  Brosi, 
Die  Kelten  und  Althehietier  (Solothurn,  1851);  L.  Hug  and  R.  Stead, 
"Switzerland"  in  Story  of  the  Nations,  xxvi. ;  C.  Diindliker,  Ge- 
schichte  der  Schweiz  (1892-1895),  and  English  translation  (of  a  shorter 
history  by  the  same)  by  E.  Salisbury  (1899);  Die  Schweiz  unter  den 
Romern  (anonymous)  published  by  the  Historischer  Verein  of  St 
Gall  (Scheitlin  and  Zollikofer,  St  Gall,  1862);  and  G.  Wyss,  "  t)ber 
das  romische  Helvetien  "  in  Archiv  fur  schweizerische^  Geschichte, 
vii.  (1851).  For  Caesar's  campaign  against  the  Helvetii,  see  T.  R. 
Holmes,  Caesar's  Conquest  of  Gaul  (1899)  and  Mommsen,  Hist,  of 
Rome  (Eng.  trans.),  bk.  v.  ch.  7;  ancient  authorities  in  A.  Holder, 
Altkeltischer  Sprachschatz  (1896),  s.v.  Elvetii. 

HELVETIUS,  CLAUDE  ADRIEN  (1715-1771),  French  philo- 
sopher and  litterateur,  was  born  in  Paris  in  January  1715.  He 
was  descended  from  a  family  of  physicians,  whose  original  name 
was  Schweitzer  (latinized  as  Helvetius).  His  grandfather 
introduced  the  use  of  ipecacuanha;  his  father  was  first  physician 
to  Queen  Marie  Leczinska  of  France.  Claude  Adrien  was 
trained  for  a  financial  career,  but  he  occupied  his  spare  time  with 
writing  verses.  At  the  age  of  twenty-three,  at  the  queen's 
request,  he  was  appointed  farmer-general,  a  post  of  great  re- 
sponsibility and  dignity  worth  a  100,000  crowns  a  year.  Thus 


provided  for,  he  proceeded  to  enjoy  life  to  the  utmost,  with 
the  help  of  his  wealth  and  liberality,  his  literary  and  artistic 
tastes.  As  he  grew  older,  however,  his  social  successes  ceased, 
and  he  began  to  dream  of  more  lasting  distinctions,  stimulated 
by  the  success  of  Maupertuis  as  a  mathematician,  of  Voltaire 
as  a  poet,  of  Montesquieu  as  a  philosopher.  The  mathematical 
dream  seems  to  have  produced  nothing;  his  poetical  ambitions 
resulted  in  the  poem  called  Le  Bonheur  (published  posthumously, 
with  an  account  of  Helvetius's  life  and  works,  by  C.  F.  de  Saint- 
Lambert,  1773),  in  which  he  develops  the  idea  that  true  happiness 
is  only  to  be  found  in  making  the  interest  of  one  that  of  all; 
his  philosophical  studies  ended  in  the  production  of  his  famous 
book  De  I 'esprit.  It  was  characteristic  of  the  man  that,  as  soon 
as  he  thought  his  fortune  sufficient,  he  gave  up  his  post  of  farmer- 
general,  and  retired  to  an  estate  in  the  country,  where  he 
employed  his  large  means  in  the  relief  of  the  poor,  the  encourage- 
ment of  agriculture  and  the  development  of  industries.  De 
I'esprit  (Eng.  trans,  by  W.  Mudford,  1807),  intended  to  be  the 
rival  of  Montesquieu's  L'Esprit  des  lois,  appeared  in  1758.  It 
attracted  immediate  attention  and  aroused  the  most  formidable 
opposition,  especially  from  the  dauphin,  son  of  Louis  XV.  The 
Sorbonne  condemned  the  book,  the  priests  persuaded  the  court 
that  it  was  full  of  the  most  dangerous  doctrines,  and  the  author, 
terrified  at  the  storm,  he  had  raised,  wrote  three  separate  re- 
tractations; yet,  in  spite  of  his  protestations  of  orthodoxy, 
he  had  to  give  up  his  office  at  the  court,  and  the  book  was 
publicly  burned  by  the  hangman.  The  virulence  of  the  attacks 
upon  the  work,  as  much  as  its  intrinsic  merit,  caused  it.  to  be 
widely  read;  it  was  translated  into  almost  all  the  languages 
of  Europe.  Voltaire  said  that  it  was  full  of  commonplaces,  and 
that  what  was  original  was  false  or  problematical;  Rousseau 
declared  that  the  very  benevolence  of  the  author  gave  the  lie 
to  his  principles;  Grimm  thought  that  all  the  ideas  in  the  book 
were  borrowed  from  Diderot;  according  to  Madame  du  Deffand, 
Helvetius  had  raised  such  a  storm  by  saying  openly  what  every 
one  thought  in  secret;  Madame  de  Graffigny  averred  that  all 
the  good  things  in  the  book  had  been  picked  up  in  her  own  salon. 
In  1764  Helvetius  visited  England,  and  the  next  year,  on  the 
invitation  of  Frederick  II.,  he  went  to  Berlin,  where  the  king 
paid  him  marked  attention.  He  then  returned  to  his  country 
estate  and  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  perfect  tranquillity. 
He  died  on  the  26th  of  December  1771. 

His  philosophy  belongs  to  the  utilitarian  school.  The  four 
discussions  of  which  his  book  consists  have  been  thus  summed 
up:  (i)  All  man's  faculties  may  be  reduced  to  physical  sensa- 
tion, even  memory,  comparison,  judgment;  our  only  difference 
from  the  lower  animals  lies  in  our  external  organization.  (2) 
Self-interest,  founded  on  the  love  of  pleasure  and  the  fear  of  pain , 
is  the  sole  spring  of  judgment,  action,  affection;  self-sacrifice 
is  prompted  by  the  fact  that  the  sensation  of  pleasure  outweighs 
the  accompanying  pain;  it  is  thus  the  result  of  deliberate 
calculation;  we  have  no  liberty  of  choice  between  good  and 
evil ;  there  is  no  such  thing  as  absolute  right — ideas  of  justice 
and  injustice  change  according  to  customs.  (3)  All  intellects 
are  equal;  their  apparent  inequalities  do  not  depend  on  a  more 
or  less  perfect  organization,  but  have  their  cause  in  the  unequal 
desire  for  instruction,  and  this  desire  springs  from  passions,  of 
which  all  men  commonly  well  organized  are  susceptible  to  the 
same  degree;  and  we  can,  therefore,  all  love  glory  with  the  same 
enthusiasm  and  we  owe  all  to  education.  (4)  In  this  discourse 
the  author  treats  of  the  ideas  which  are  attached  to  such  words 
as  genius,  imagination,  talent,  taste,  good  sense,  &c.  The  only 
original  ideas  in  his  system  are  those  of  the  natural  equality  of 
intelligences  and  the  omnipotence  of  education,  neither  of  which, 
however,  is  generally  accepted,  though  both  were  prominent  in 
the  system  of  J.  S.  Mill.  There  is  no  doubt  that  his  thinking 
was  unsystematic;  but  many  of  his  critics  have  entirely  mis- 
represented him  (e.g.  Cairns  in  his  Unbelief  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century).  As  J.  M.  Robertson  (Short  History  of  Free  Thought) 
points  out,  he  had  great  influence  upon  Bentham,  and  C.  Beccaria 
states  that  he  himself  was  largely  inspired  by  Helvetius  in  his 
attempt  to  modify  penal  laws.  The  keynote  of  his  thought  was 


HELVIDIUS  PRISCUS— HELY-HUTCHINSON 


255 


that  public  ethics  has  a  utilitarian  basis,  and  he  insisted  strongly 
on  the  importance  of  culture  in  national  development. 

A  sort  of  supplement  to  the  De  I'esprit,  called  De  I  homme,  de  ses 
facultes  intellectuelles  et  de  son  education  (Eng.  trans,  by  W.  Hooper, 
1777)  found  among  his  manuscripts,  was  published  after  his  death, 
but  created  little  interest.  There  is  a  complete  edition  of  the  works  of 
HelviStius,  published  at  Paris,  1 8 1 8.  For  an  estimate  of  his  work  and 
his  place  among  the  philosophers  of  the  1 8th  century  see  Victor 
Cousin's  Philosophic  sensualiste  (1863);  P.  L.  Lezaud,  Resumes 
philosophiques  (1853);  F.  D.  Maurice,  in  his  Modern  Philosophy 
(1862)  pp  537  seq.;  J.  Morley,  Diderot  and  the  Encyclopaedists 
(London  1878);  D.  G.  Mostratos,  Die  Pddagogik  des  Helvetius 
(Berlin,  1891);  A.  Guillois,  Le  Salon  de  Madame  Helvetius  (1894); 
A.  Piazzi,  Le  Ideefilosofiche  specialmente  pedagogiche  deC.A.  Helvetius 
(Milan,  1889);  G.  Plekhanov,  Beitrdge  zur  Geschichte  des  Materia- 
tismus  (Stuttgart,  1896);  L.  Limentani,  Le  Teorie  psicologiche  di 
C.  A.  Helvetius  (Verona,  1902);  A.  Keim,  Helvetius,  sa  vie  et  son 
tcvore  (1907). 

HELVIDIUS  PRISCUS,  Stoic  philosopher  and  statesman, 
lived  during  the  reigns  of  Nero,  Galba,  Otho,  Vitellius  and 
Vespasian.  Like  his  father-in-law,  Thrasea  Paetus,  he  was 
distinguished  for  his  ardent  and  courageous  republicanism. 
Although  he  repeatedly  offended  his  rulers,  he  held  several  high 
offices.  During  Nero's  reign  he  was  quaestor  of  Achaea  and 
tribune  of  the  plebs  (A.D.  56);  he  restored  peace  and  order  in 
Armenia,  and  gained  the  respect  and  confidence  of  the  pro- 
vincials. His  declared  sympathy  with  Brutus  and  Cassius 
occasioned  his  banishment  in  66.  Having  been  recalled  to  Rome 
by  Galba  in  68,  he  at  once  impeached  Eprius  Marcellus,  the 
accuser  of  Thrasea  Paetus,  but  dropped  the  charge,  as  the 
condemnation  of  Marcellus  would  have  involved  a  number  of 
senators.  As  praetor  elect  he  ventured  to  oppose  Vitellius  in  the 
senate  (Tacitus,  Hist.  ii.  91),  and  as  praetor  (70)  he  maintained, 
in  opposition  to  Vespasian,  that  the  management  of  the  finances 
ought  to  be  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  senate;  he  proposed 
that  the  capitol,  which  had  been  destroyed  in  the  Neronian 
conflagration,  should  be  restored  at  the  public  expense;  he 
saluted  Vespasian  by  his  private  name,  and  did  not  recognize 
him  as  emperor  in  his  praetorian  edicts.  At  length  he  was 
banished  a  second  time,  and  shortly  afterwards  was  executed 
by  Vespasian's  order.  His  life,  in  the  form  of  a  warm  panegyric, 
written  at  his  widow's  request  by  Herennius  Senecio,  caused 
its  author's  death  in  the  reign  of  Domitian. 

Tacitus,  Hist.  iv.  5,  Dialogus,  5;  Dio  Cassius  Ixvi.  12,  Ixvii.  13; 
Suetonius,  Vespasian,  15;  Pliny,  Epp.  vii.  19. 

HELY-HUTCHINSON,  JOHN  (1724-1794),  Irish  lawyer,  states- 
man, and  provost  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  son  of  Francis  Hely, 
a  gentleman  of  County  Cork,  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  and  was  called  to  the  Irish  bar  in  1748.  He  took  the 
additional  name  of  Hutchinson  on  his  marriage  in  1751  with 
Christiana  Nixon,  heiress  of  her  uncle,  Richard  Hutchinson.  He 
was  elected  member  of  the  Irish  House  of  Commons  for  the 
borough  of  Lanesborough  in  1759,  but  after  1761  he  represented 
the  city  of  Cork.  He  at  first  attached  himself  to  the  "  patriotic  " 
party  in  opposition  to  the  government,  and  although  he  after- 
wards joined  the  administration  he  never  abandoned  his  advocacy 
of  popular  measures.  He  was  a  man  of  brilliant  and  versatile 
ability,  whom  Lord  Townshend,  the  lord  lieutenant,  described  as 
"  by  far  the  most  powerful  man  in  parliament."  William 
Gerard  Hamilton  said  of  him  that  "  Ireland  never  bred  a  more 
able,  nor  any  country  a  more  honest  man."  Hely-Hutchinson 
was,  however,  an  inveterate  place-hunter,  and  there  was  point  in 
Lord  North's  witticism  that  "if  you  were  to  give  him  the  whole 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  for  an  estate,  he  would  ask  the  Isle 
of  Man  for  a  potato  garden."  After  a  session  or  two  in  parliament 
he  was  made  a  privy  councillor  and  prime  serjeant-at-law;  and 
from  this  time  he  gave  a  general,  though  by  no  means  invariable, 
support  to  the  government.  In  1767  the  ministry  contemplated 
an  increase  of  the  army  establishment  in  Ireland  from  12,000  to 
15,000  men,  but  the  Augmentation  Bill  met  with  strenuous 
opposition,  not  only  from  Flood,  Ponsonby  and  the  habitual 
opponents  of  the  government,  but  from  the  Undertakers,  or  pro- 
prietors of  boroughs,  on  whom  the  government  had  hitherto 
relied  to  secure  them  a  majority  in  the  House  of  Commons.  It 


therefore  became  necessary  for  Lord  Townshend  to  turn  to  other 
methods  for  procuring  support.  Early  in  1768  an  English  act 
was  passed  for  the  increase  of  the  army,  and  a  message  from  the 
king  setting  forth  the  necessity  for  the  measure  was  laid  before 
the  House  of  Commons  in  Dublin.  An  address  favourable  to  the 
government  policy  was,  however,  rejected ;  and  Hely-Hutchinson , 
together  with  the  speaker  and  the  attorney-general,  did  their 
utmost  both  in  public  and  private  to  obstruct  the  bill.  Parlia- 
ment was  dissolved  in  May  1768,  and  the  lord  lieutenant  set 
about  the  task  of  purchasing  or  otherwise  securing  a  majority  in 
the  new  parliament.  Peerages,  pensions  and  places  were  bestowed 
lavishly  on  those  whose  support  could  be  thus  secured;  Hely- 
Hutchinson  was  won  over  by  the  concession  that  the  Irish  army 
should  be  established  by  the  authority  of  an  Irish  act  of  parlia- 
ment instead  of  an  English  one.  The  Augmentation  Bill  was 
carried  in  the  session  of  1769  by  a  large  majority.  Hely- 
Hutchinson's  support  had  been  so  valuable  that  he  received  as 
reward  an  addition  of  £1000  a  year  to  the  salary  of  his  sinecure 
of  Alnagar,  a  major's  commission  in  a  cavalry  regiment,  and  a 
promise  of  the  secretaryship  of  state.  He  was  at  this  time  one  of 
the  most  brilliant  debaters  in  the  Irish  parliament,  and  he  was 
enjoying  an  exceedingly  lucrative  practice  at  the  bar.  This  in- 
come, however,  together  with  his  well-salaried  sinecure,  and  his 
place  as  prime  Serjeant,  he  surrendered  in  1 7  74,  to  become  provost 
of  Trinity  College,  although  the  statute  requiring  the  provost  to 
be  in  holy  orders  had  to  be  dispensed  with  in  his  favour. 

For  this  great  academic  position  Hely-Hutchinson  was  in  no 
way  qualified,  and  his  appointment  to  it  for  purely  political 
service  to  the  government  was  justly  criticized  with  much 
asperity.  His  conduct  in  using  his  position  as  provost  to  secure 
the  parliamentary  representation  of  the  university  for  his  eldest 
son  brought  him  into  conflict  with  Duigenan,  who  attacked  him 
in  Lacrymae  academicae,  and  involved  him  in  a  duel  with  a  Mr 
Doyle;  while  a  similar  attempt  on  behalf  of  his  second  son  in 
1790  led  to  his  being  accused  before  a  select  committee  of  the 
House  of  Commons  of  impropriety  as  returning  officer.  But 
although  without  scholarship  Hely-Hutchinson  was  an  efficient 
provost,  during  whose  rule  material  benefits  were  conferred  on 
Trinity  College.  He  continued  to  occupy  a  pBominent  place  in 
parliament,  where  he  advocated  free  trade,  the  relief  of  the 
Catholics  from  penal  legislation,  and  the  reform  of  parliament. 
He  was  one  of  the  very  earliest  politicians  to  recognize  the 
soundness  of  Adam  Smith's  views  on  trade;  and  he  quoted  from 
the  Wealth  of  Nations,  adopting  some  of  its  principles,  in  his 
Commercial  Restraints  of  Ireland,  published  in  1779,  which  Lecky 
pronounces  "  one  of  the  best  specimens  of  political  literature 
produced  in  Ireland  in  the  latter  half  of  the  1 8th  century."  In  the 
same  year,  the  economic  condition  of  Ireland  being  the  cause 
of  great  anxiety,  the  government  solicited  from  several  leading 
politicians  their  opinion  on  the  state  of  the  country  with  sugges- 
tions for  a  remedy.  Hely-Hutchinson's  response  was  a  remark- 
ably able  state  paper(MS.  in  the  Record  Office),  which  also  showed 
clear  traces  of  the  influence  of  Adam  Smith.  The  Commercial 
Restraints,  condemned  by  the  authorities  as  seditious,  went  far  to 
restore  Hely-Hutchinson's  popularity  which  had  been  damaged  by 
his  greed  of  office.  Not  less  enlightened  were  his  views  on  the 
Catholic  question.  In  a  speech  in  parliament  on  Catholic  educa- 
tion in  1782  the  provost  declared  that  Catholic  students  were  in 
fact  to  be  found  at  Trinity  College,  but  that  he  desired  their 
presence  there  to  be  legalized  on  the  largest  scale.  "  My  opinion," 
he  said,  "  is  strongly  against  sending  Roman  Catholics  abroad  for 
education,  nor  would  I  establish  Popish  colleges  at  home.  The 
advantage  of  being  admitted  into  the  university  of  Dublin  will  be 
very  great  to  Catholics;  they  need  not  be  obliged  to  attend  the 
divinity  professor,  they  may  have  one  of  their  own;  and  I  would 
have  a  part  of  the  public  money  applied  to  their  use,  to  the 
support  of  a  number  of  poor  lads  as  sizars,  and  to  provide 
premiums  for  persons  of  merit,  for  I  would  have  them  go  into 
examinations  and  make  no  distinction  between  them  and  the 
Protestants  but  such  as  merit  might  claim."  And  after  sketching 
a  scheme  for  increasing  the  number  of  diocesan  schools  where 
Roman  Catholics  might  receive  free  education,  he  went  on  to 


256 


HELYOT— REMANS 


urge  that  "  it  is  certainly  a  matter  of  importance  that  the  educa- 
tion of  their  priests  should  be  as  perfect  as  possible,  and  that  if  they 
have  any  prejudices  they  should  be  prejudices  in  favour  of  their 
own  country.  The  Roman  Catholics  should  receive  the  best  educa- 
tion in  the  established  university  at  the  public  expense;  but  by 
no  means  should  Popish  colleges  be  allowed,  for  by  them  we 
should  again  have  the  press  groaning  with  themes  of  controversy, 
and  subjects  of  religious  disputation  that  have  long  slept  in 
oblivion  would  again  awake,  and  awaken  with  them  all  the  worst 
passions  of  the  human  mind."1 

In  1777  Hely-Hutchinson  became  secretary  of  state.  When 
Grattan  in  1782  moved  an  address  to  the  king  containing  a 
declaration  of  Irish  legislative  independence,  Hely-Hutchinson 
supported  the  attorney-general's  motion  postponing  the  question; 
but  on  the  i6th  of  April,  after  the  Easter  recess,  he  read  a 
message  from  the  lord  lieutenant,  the  duke  of  Portland,  giving 
the  king's  permission  for  the  House  to  take  the  matter  into  con- 
sideration, and  he  expressed  his  personal  sympathy  with  the 
popular  cause  which  Grattan  on  the  same  day  brought  to  a 
triumphant  issue  (see  GRATTAN,  HENRY).  Hely-Hutchinson 
supported  the  opposition  on  the  regency  question  in  1788,  and 
one  of  his  last  votes  in  the  House  was  in  favour  of  parliamentary 
reform.  In  1790  he  exchanged  the  constituency  of  Cork  for  that 
of  Taghmon  in  County  Wexford,  for  which  borough  he  remained 
member  till  his  death  at  Buxton  on  the  4th  of  September 
1794. 

In  1785  his  wife  had  been  created  Baroness  Donoughmore 
and  on  her  death  in  1788,  his  eldest  son  Richard  (1756-1825) 
succeeded  to  the  title.  Lord  Donoughmore  was  an  ardent 
advocate  of  Catholic  emancipation.  In  1797  he  was  created 
Viscount  Donoughmore,2  and  in  1800  (having  voted  for  the 
Union,  hoping  to  secure  Catholic  emancipation  from  the  united 
parliament)  he  was  further  created  earl  of  Donoughmore  of 
Knocklofty,  being  succeeded  first  by  his  brother  John  Hely- 
Hutchinson  (1757-1832)  and  then  by  his  nephew  John,  3rd 
«arl  (1787-1851),  from  whom  the  title  descended. 

See  W.  E.  H.  Lecky,  Hist,  of  Ireland  in  the  Eighteenth  Century 
(5  vols.,  London,  1892);  J.  A.  Froude,  The  English  in  Ireland  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century  (3  vols.,  London,  1872-1874);  H.  Grattan, 
Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Times  of'Henry  Grattan  (8  vols.,  London, 
1839-1846);  Baratariana,  by  various  writers  (Dublin,  1773). 

(R.  J.  M.) 

HELYOT,  PIERRE  (1660-1716),  Franciscan  friar  and  his- 
torian, was  born  at  Paris  in  January  1660,  of  supposed  English 
ancestry.  After  spending  his  youth  in  study,  he  entered  in  his 
twenty-fourth  year  the  convent  of  the  third  order  of  St  Francis, 
founded  at  Picpus,  near  Paris,  by  his  uncle  Jer6me  Helyot, 
canon  of  St  Sepulchre.  There  he  took  the  name  of  Pere  Hip- 
polyte.  Two  journeys  to  Rome  on  monastic  business  afforded 
him  the  opportunity  of  travelling  over  most  of  Italy;  and  after 
his  final  return  he  saw  much  of  France,  while  acting  as  secretary 
to  various  provincials  of  his  order  there.  Both  in  Italy  and 
France  he  was  engaged  in  collecting  materials  for  his  great  work, 
which  occupied  him  about  twenty-five  years,  L'Histoire  des 
ordres  monastiques,  religieux,  et  militaires,  et  des  congregations 
sSculieres,  de  I'un  et  de  I'autre  sexe,  qui  ont  ete  elablies  jusqu'a 
present,  published  in  8  volumes  in  1714-1721.  Helyot  died  on 
the  sth  of  January  1716,  before  the  fifth  volume  appeared,  but 
his  friend  Maximilien  Bullot  completed  the  edition.  Helyot's 
only  other  noteworthy  work  is  Le  Chretien  mourant  (1695) 

The  Histoire  is  a  work  of  first  importance,  being  the  great  repertory 
of  information  for  the  general  history  of  the  religious  orders  up  to  the 
end  of  the  I7th  century.  It  is  profusely  illustrated  by  large  plates 


1  Irish  Parl.  Debates,  i.  309,  310. 

2  It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  title  conferred  by  this  patent 
was  that  of  Viscount  Suirdale,  and  such  is  the  courtesy  title  by  which 
the  heir  apparent  of  the  earls  of  Donoughmore  is  usually  styled. 
This,  however,  appears  to  be  an  error.     In  all  the  three  creations 
(barony     1783,     viscountcy     1797,     earldom     1800)     the    title    is 
"  Donoughmore  of  Knocklofty."     In  1821  the  1st  earl  was  further 
created  Viscount  Hutchinson  of  Knocklofty  in  the  peerage  of  the 
United  Kingdom.     The  courtesy  title  of  the  earl's  eldest  son  should, 
therefore,  apparently  be  either  "  Viscount  Hutchinson  "  or  "  Vis- 
count Knocklofty."     See  G.  E.  C.  Complete  Peerage  (London,  1890). 


exhibiting  the  dress  of  the  various  orders,  and  in  the  edition  of  1792 
the  plates  are  coloured.  It  was  translated  into  Italian  (l/37)  and 
into  German  (1753).  The  material  has  been  arranged  in  dictionary 
form  in  Migne's  Encyclopedic  theologique,  under  the  title  "Dictionnaire 
des  orders  religieux  "  (4  vols.,  1858). 

REMANS,  FELICIA  DOROTHEA  (1793-1835),  English  poet, 
was  born  in  Duke  Street,  Liverpool,  on  the  25th  of  September 
1793.  Her  father,  George  Browne,  of  Irish  extraction,  was  a 
merchant  in  Liverpool,  and  her  mother,  whose  maiden  name 
was  Wagner,  was  the  daughter  of  the  Austrian  and  Tuscan 
consul  at  Liverpool.  Felicia,  the  fifth  of  seven  children,  was 
scarcely  seven  years  old  when  her  father  failed  in  business,  and 
retired  with  his  family  to  Gwrych,  near  Abergele,  Denbighshire; 
and  there  the  young  poet  and  her  brothers  and  sisters  grew 
up  in  a  romantic  old  house  by  the  sea-shore,  and  in  the  very 
midst  of  the  mountains  and  myths  of  Wales.  Felicia's  education 
was  desultory.  Books  of  chronicle  and  romance,  and  every 
kind  of  poetry,  she  read  with  avidity;  and  she  also  studied 
Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese  and  German.  She  played  both 
harp  and  piano,  and  cared  especially  for  the  simple  national 
melodies  of  Wales  and  Spain.  In  1808,  when  she  was  only 
fourteen,  a  quarto  volume  of  her  Juvenile  Poems,  was  published 
by  subscription,  and  was  harshly  criticized  in  the  Monthly  Review. 
Two  of  her  brothers  were  fighting  in  Spain  under  Sir  John  Moore; 
and  Felicia,  fired  with  military  enthusiasm,  wrote  England  and 
Spain,  or  Valour  and  Patriotism,  a  poem  afterwards  translated 
into  Spanish.  Her  second  volume,  The  Domestic  A/ections  and 
other  Poems,  appeared  in  1812,  on  the  eve  of  her  marriage  to 
Captain  Alfred  Hemans.  She  lived  for  some  time  at  Daventry, 
where  her  husband  was  adjutant  of  the  Northamptonshire 
militia.  About  this  time  her  father  went  to  Quebec  on  business 
and  died  there;  and,  after  the  birth  of  her  first  son,  she  and 
her  husband  went  to  live  with  her  mother  at  Bronwylfa,  a  house 
near  St  Asaph.  Here  during  the  next  six  years  four  more 
children — all  boys — were  born;  but  in  spite  of  domestic  cares 
and  failing  health  she  still  read  and  wrote  indefatigably.  Her 
poem  entitled  The  Restoration  of  Works  of  Art  to  Italy  was 
published  in  1816,  her  Modern  Greece  in  1817,  and  in  1818 
Translations  from  Camoens  and  other  Poets. 

In  1818  Captain  Hemans  went  to  Rome,  leaving  his  wife, 
shortly  before  the  birth  of  their  fifth  child,  with  her  mother  at 
Bronwylfa.  There  seems  to  have  been  a  tacit  agreement, 
perhaps  on  account  of  their  limited  means,  that  they  should 
separate.  Letters  were  interchanged,  and  Captain  Hemans  was 
often  consulted  about  his  children;  but  the  husband  and  wife 
never  met  again.  Many  friends — among  them  the  bishop  of 
St  Asaph  and  Bishop  Heber— gathered  round  Mrs  Hemans  and 
her  children.  In  1819  she  published  Tales  and  Historic  Scenesin 
Verse,  and  gained  a  prize  of  £50  offered  for  the  best  poem  on 
The  Meeting  of  Wallace  and  Bruce  on  the  Banks  of  the  Carron. 
In  1820  appeared  The  Sceptic  and  Stanzas  to  the  Memory  of  the 
late  King.  In  June  1821  she  won  the  prize  awarded  by  the  Royal 
Society  of  Literature  for  the  best  poem  on  the  subject  of  Dart- 
moor, and.  began  her  play,  The  Vespers  of  Palermo.  She  now 
applied  herself  to  a  course  of  German  reading.  Korner  was  her 
favourite  German  poet,  and  her  lines  on  the  grave  of  Korner 
were  one  of  the  first  English  tributes  to  the  genius  of  the  young 
soldier-poet.  In  the  summer  of  1823  a  volume  of  her  poems 
was  published  by  Murray,  containing  "  The  Siege  of  Valencia," 
"The  Last  Constantino "  and  "  Belshazzar's  Feast."  The 
Vespers  of  Palermo  was  acted  at  Covent  Garden,  December 
12,  1823,  and  Mrs  Hemans  received  £200  for  the  copy- 
right ;  but,  though  the  leading  parts  were  taken  by  Young  and 
Charles  Kemble,  the  play  was  a  failure,  and  was  withdrawn 
after  the  first  performance.  It  was  acted  again  in  Edinburgh 
in  the  following  April  with  greater  success,  when  an  epilogue, 
written  for  it  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  at  Joanna  Baillie's  request, 
was  spoken  by  Harriet  Siddons.  This  was  the  beginning  of  a 
cordial  friendship  between  Mrs  Hemans  and  Scott.  In  the  same 
year  she  wrote  De  Chatillon,  or  the  Crusaders;  but  the  manu- 
script was  lost,  and  the  poem  Was  published  after  her  death, 
from  a  rough  copy.  In  1824  she  began  "  The  Forest  Sanctuary," 


HEMEL  HEMPSTEAD— HEMICHORDA 


257 


which  appeared  a  year  later  with  the  "Lays  of  Many  Lands" 
and  miscellaneous  pieces  collected  from  the  New  Monthly 
Magazine  and  other  periodicals. 

In  the  spring  of  1825  Mrs  Hemans  removed  from  Bronwylfa, 
which  had  been  purchased  by  her  brother,  to  Rhyllon,  a  house 
on  an  opposite  height  across  the  river  Clwyd.  The  contrast 
between  the  two  houses  suggested  her  Dramatic  Scene  between 
Bronwylfa  and  Rhyllon.  The  house  itself  was  bare  and  un- 
picturesque,  but  the  beauty  of  its  surroundings  has  been  cele- 
brated in  "  The  Hour  of  Romance,"  "  To  the  River  Clwyd  in 
North  Wales,"  "  Our  Lady's  Well  "  and  "  To  a  Distant  Scene." 
This  time  seems  to  have  been  the  most  tranquil  in  Mrs  Hemans's 
life.  But  the  death  of  her  mother  in  January  1-827  was  a  second 
great  breaking-point  in  her  life.  Her  heart  was  affected,  and 
she  was  from  this  time  an  acknowledged  invalid.  In  the  summer 
of  1828  the  Records  of  Woman  was  published  by  Blackwood, 
and  in  the  same  year  the  home  in  Wales  was  finally  broken  up 
by  the  marriage  of  Mrs  Hemans's  sister  and  the  departure  of 
her  two  elder  boys  to  their  father  in  Rome.  Mrs  Hemans 
removed  to  Wavertree,  near  Liverpool.  But,  although  she  had 
a  few  intimate  friends  there — among  them  her  two  subsequent 
biographers,  Henry  F.  Chorley  and  Mrs  Lawrence  of  Wavertree 
Hall — she  was  disappointed  in  her  new  home,  She  thought  the 
people  of  Liverpool  stupid  and  provincial;  and  they,  on  the 
other  hand,  found  her  uncommunicative  and  eccentric.  In  the 
following  summer  she  travelled  by  sea  to  Scotland  with  two  of 
her  boys,  to  visit  the  Hamiltons  of  Chiefswood. 

Here  she  enjoyed  "  constant,  almost  daily,  intercourse " 
with  Sir  Walter  Scott,  with  whom  she  and  her  boys  afterwards 
stayed  some  time  at  Abbotsford.  "  There  are  some  whom  we 
meet,  and  should  like  ever  after  to  claim  as  kith  and  kin;  and 
you  are  one  of  those,"  was  Scott's  compliment  to  her  at  parting. 
One  of  the  results  of  her  Edinburgh  visit  was  an  article,  full  of 
praise,  judiciously  tempered  with  criticism,  by  Jeffrey  himself 
for  the  Edinburgh  Review.  Mrs  Hemans  returned  to  Wavertree 
to  write  her  Songs  of  the  Affections,  which  were  published  early 
in  1830.  In  the  following  June,  however,  she  again  left  home, 
this  time  to  visit  Wordsworth  and  the  Lake  country;  and  in 
August  she  paid  a  second  visit  to  Scotland.  In  1831  she  removed 
to  Dublin.  Her  poetry  of  this  date  is  chiefly  religious.  Early 
in  1834  her  Hymns  for  Childhood,  which  had  appeared  some 
years  before  in  America,  were  published  in  Dublin.  At  the  same 
time  appeared  her  collection  of  National  Lyrics,  and  shortly 
afterwards  Scenes  and  Hymns  of  Life.  She  was  planning  also  a 
series  of  German  studies,  one  of  which,  on  Goethe's  Tasso, 
was  completed  and  published  in  the  New  Monthly  Magazine 
for  January  1834.  In  intervals  of  acute  suffering  she  wrote  the 
lyric  Despondency  and  Aspiration,  and  dictated  a  series  of  sonnets 
called  Thoughts  during  Sickness,  the  last  of  which,  "  Recovery," 
was  written  when  she  fancied  she  was  getting  well.  After  three 
months  spent  at  Redesdale,  Archbishop  Whately's  country  seat, 
she  was  again  brought  into  Dublin,  where  she  lingered  till  spring. 
Her  last  poem,  the  Sabbath  Sonnet,  was  dedicated  to  her  brother 
on  Sunday  April  26th,  and  she  died  in  Dublin  on  the  i6th  of 
May  1835  at  the  age  of  forty-one. 

Mrs  Hemans's  poetry  is  the  production  of  a  fine  imaginative 
and  enthusiastic  temperament,  but  not  of  a  commanding 
intellect  or  very  complex  or  subtle  nature.  It  is  the  outcome 
of  a  beautiful  but  singularly  circumscribed  life,  a  life  spent 
in  romantic  seclusion,  without  much  worldly  experience,  and 
warped  and  saddened  by  domestic  unhappiness  and  physical 
suffering.  An  undue  preponderance  of  the  emotional  is  its 
prevailing  characteristic.  Scott  complained  that  it  was  "  too 
poetical,"  that  it  contained  "  too  many  flowers  "  and  "  too 
little  fruit."  Many  of  her  short  poems,  such  as  "  The  Treasures 
of  the  Deep,"  "  The  Better  Land,"  "  The  Homes  of  England," 
"  Casabianca,"  "  The  Palm  Tree,"  "The  Gravesof  a  Household," 
''  The  Wreck,"  "  The  Dying  Improvisatore,"  and  "  The  Lost 
Pleiad,"  have  become  standard  English  lyrics.  It  is  on  the 
strength  of  these  that  her  reputation  must  rest. 

Mrs  Hemans's  Poetical  Works  were  collected  in  1 832 ;  her  Memorials 
&c.,  by  H.  F.  Chorley  (1836). 

xiii.  9 


HEMEL  HEMPSTEAD,  a  market-town  and  municipal  borough 
in  the  Watford  parliamentary  division  of  Hertfordshire,  England, 
25  m.  N.W.  from  London,  with  a  station  on  a  branch  of  the 
Midland  railway  from  Harpenden,  and  near  Boxmoor  station 
on  the  London  and  North  Western  main  line.  Pop.  (1891) 
9678;  (1001)  11,264.  It  is  pleasantly  situated  in  the  steep- 
sided  valley  of  the  river  Gade,  immediately  above  its  junction 
with  the  Bulbourne,  near  the  Grand  Junction  canal.  The  church 
of  St  Mary  is  a  very  fine  Norman  building  with  Decorated 
additions.  Industries  include  the  manufacture  of  paper,  iron 
founding,  brewing  and  tanning.  Boxmoor,  within  the  parish,  is 
a  considerable  township  of  modern  growth.  Hemel  Hempstead 
is  governed  by  a  mayor,  6  aldermen  and  18  councillors.  Area, 
7184  acres. 

Settlements  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Hemel  Hempstead 
(Hamalamslede,  Hemel  Hampsted)  date  from  pre-Roman  times, 
and  a  Roman  villa  has  been  discovered  at  Boxmoor.  The  manor, 
royal  demesne  in  1086,  was  granted  by  Edmund  Plantagenet 
in  1285  to  the  house  of  Ashridge,  and  the  town  developed  under 
monastic  protection.  In  1539  a  charter  incorporated  the  bailiff 
and  inhabitants.  A  mayor,  aldermen  and  councillors  received 
governing  power  by  a  charter  of  1898.  The  town  has  never  had 
parliamentary  representation.  A  market  on  Thursday  and  a 
fair  on  the  feast  of  Corpus  Christi  were  conferred  in  1539.  A 
statute  fair,  for  long  a  hiring  fair,  originated  in  1803. 

HEMEROBAPTISTS,  an  ancient  Jewish  sect,  so  named  from 
their  observing  a  practice  of  daily  ablution  as  an  essential  part 
of  religion.  Epiphanius  (Panarion,  i.  17),  who  mentions  their 
doctrine  as  the  fourth  heresy  among  the  Jews,  classes  the 
Hemerobaptists  doctrinally  with  the  Pharisees  (q.v.)  from  whom 
they  differed  only  in,  like  the  Sadducees,  denying  the  resurrection 
of  the  dead.  The  name  has  been  sometimes  given  to  the  Mandaeans 
on  account  of  their  frequent  ablutions;  and  in  the  Clementine 
Homilies  (ii.  23)  St  John  the  Baptist  is  spoken  of  as  a  Hemero- 
baptist.  Mention  of  the  sect  is  made  by  Hegesippus  (see  Euseb. 
Hist.  Eccl.  iv.  22)  and  by  Justin  Martyr  in  the  Dialogue  with 
Trypho,  §  80.  They  were  probably  a  division  of  the  Essenes. 

HEMICHORDA,  or  HEMICHORDATA,  a  zoological  term  intro- 
duced by  W.  Bateson  in  1884,  without  special  definition,  as 
equivalent  to  Enteropneusta,  which  then  included  the  single 
genus  Balanoglossus,  and  now  generally  employed  to  cover  a 
group  of  marine  worm-like  animals  believed  by  many  zoologists 
to  be  related  to  the  lower  vertebrates  and  so  to  represent  the 
invertebrate  stock  from  which  Vertebrates  have  been  derived. 
Vertebrates,  or  as  they  are  sometimes  termed  Chordates,  are 
distinguished  from  other  animals  by  several  important  features. 
The  chief  of  these  is  the  presence  of  an  elastic  rod,  the  notochord, 
which  forms  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  body,  and  which  persists 
throughout  life  in  some  of  the  lowest  forms,  but  which  appears 
only  in  the  embryo  of  the  higher  forms,  being  replaced  by  the 
jointed  backbone  or  vertebral  column.  A  second  feature  is  the 
development  of  outgrowths  of  the  pharynx  which  unite  with  the 
skin  of  the  neck  and  form  a  series  of  perforations  leading  to  the 
exterior.  These  structures  are  the  gill-slits,  which  in  fishes  are 
lined  with  vascular  tufts,  but  which  in  terrestrial  breathing 
animals  appear  only  in  the  embryo.  The  third  feature  of 
importance  is  the  position  of  structure  of  the  central  nervous 
system,  which  in  all  the  Chordates  lies  dorsally  to  the  alimentary 
canal  and  is  formed  by  the  sinking  in  of  a  longitudinal  media 
dorsal  groove.  Of  these  structures  the  Vertebrata  or  Craniata 
possess  all  three  in  a  typical  form;  the  Cephalochordata  (see 
AMPHIOXUS)  also  possess  them,  but  the  notochord  extends 
throughout  the  whole  length  of  the  body  to  the  extreme  tip  of 
the  snout;  the  Urochordata  (see  TUNICATA)  possess  them  in  a 
larval  condition,  but  the  notochord  is  present  only  in  the  tail, 
whilst  in  the  adult  the  notochord  disappears  and  the  nervous 
system  becomes  profoundly  modified;  in  the  Hemichorda,  the 
respiratory  organs  very  closely  resemble  gill-slits,  and  structures 
comparable  with  the  notochord  and  the  tubular  dorsal  nervous 
system  are  present. 

The  Hemichorda  include  three  orders,  the  Phoronidea  (?.».), 
the  Pterobranchia  (q.v.}  and  the  Enteropneusta  (see  BALANO- 


258 


HEMICYCLE— HEMIPTERA 


GLOSSUS),  but  the  relationship  to  the  Chordata  expressed  in  the 
designation  Hemichordata  cannot  be  regarded  as  more  than  an 
attractive  theory  with  certain  arguments  in  its  favour.  (P.  C.  M.) 
HEMICYCLE  (Gr.  iw*i-,  half,  and  KuxXos,  circle),  a  semi- 
circular recess  of  considerable  size  which  formed  one  of  the  most 
conspicuous  features  in  the  Roman  Thermae,  where  it  was 
always  covered  with  a  hemispherical  vault.  A  small  example 
exists  in  Pompeii,  in  the  street  of  tombs,  with  a  seat  round  inside, 
where  those  who  came  to  pay  their  respects  to  the  departed 
could  rest.  An  immense  hemicycle  was  designed  by  Bramante 
for  the  Vatican,  where  it  constitutes  a  fine  architectural  effect 
at  the  end  of  the  great  court. 

HEMIMERUS,  an  Orthopterous  or  Dermapterous  insect,  the 
sole  representative  of  the  family  Hemimeridae,  which  has  affinities 
with  both  the  Forficulidae  (earwigs)  and  the  Blattidae  (cock- 
roaches). Only  two  species  have  been  discovered,  both  from 
West  Africa.  The  better  known  of  these  (H .  hanseni)  lives  upon 
a  large  rat-like  rodent  (Cricetomys  gambianus)  feeding  perhaps 
upon  its  external  parasites,  perhaps  upon  scurf  and  other  dermal 
products.  Like  many  epizoic  or  parasitic  insects,  Hemimerus 
is  wingless,  eyeless  and  has  relatively  short  and  strong  legs. 
Correlated  also  with  its  mode  of  life  is  the  curious  fact  that  it  is 
viviparous,  the  young  being  born  in  an  advanced  stage  of  growth. 
HEMIMORPHITE,  a  mineral  consisting  of  hydrous  zinc 
silicate,  HzZnzSiOs,  of  importance  as  an  ore  of  the  metal,  of 
which  it  contains  54-4%.  It  is  interesting  crystallographically 
by  reason  of  the  hemimorphic  development  of  its  orthorhombic 
crystals;  these  are  prismatic  in  habit  and  are 
differently  terminated  at  the  two  ends.  In 
the  figure,  the  faces  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
crystal  are  the  basal  plane  k  and  the  domes 
o,  p,  I,  m,  whilst  at  the  lower  end  there  are 
only  the  four  faces  of  the  pyramid  P.  Con- 
nected with  this  polarity  of  the  crystals  is 
their  pyroelectric  character — when  a  crystal 
is  subjected  to  changes  of  temperature  it 
becomes  positively  electrified  at  one  end  and 
negatively  at  the  opposite  end.  There  are  per- 
fect cleavages  parallel  to  theprism  faces  (din the 
figure).  Crystals  are  usually  colourless,  some- 
times yellowish  or  greenish,  and  transparent; 
they  have  vitreous  lustre.  The  hardness  is  5,  and  the  specific 
gravity  3.45.  The  mineral  also  occurs  as  stalactitic  or  botryoidal 
masses  with  a  fibrou?  structure,  or  in  a  massive,  cellular  or 
granular  condition  intermixed  with  calamine  and  clay.  It  is 
decomposed  by  hydrochloric  acid  with  gelatinization;  this 
property  affords  a  ready  means  of  distinguishing  hemimorphite 
from  calamine  (zinc  carbonate),  these  two  minerals  being,  when 
not  crystallized,  very  like  each  other  in  appearance.  The  water 
contained  in  hemimorphite  is  expelled  only  at  a  red  heat,  and 
the  mineral  must  therefore  be  considered  as  a  basic  metasilicate, 
(ZnOH)2SiO3. 

The  name  hemimorphite  was  given  by  G.  A.  Kenngott  in  1853 
because  of  the  typical  hemimorphic  development  of  the  crystals. 
The  mineral  had  long  been  confused  with  calamine  (q.v.)  and 
even  now  this  name  is  often  applied  to  it.  On  account  of  its 
pyroelectric  properties,  it  was  called  electric  calamine  by  J. 
Smithson  in  1803. 

Hemimorphite  occurs  with  other  ores  of  zinc  (calamine  and 
blende),  forming  veins  and  beds  in  sedimentry  limestones. 
British  localities  are  Matlock,  Alston,  Mendip  Hills  and  Lead- 
hills;  at  Roughten  Gill,  Caldbeck  Fells,  Cumberland,  it  occurs  as 
mammillated  incrustations  of  a  sky-blue  colour.  Well-crystallized 
specimens  have  been  found  in  the  zinc  mines  at  Altenberg  near 
Aachen  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  Nerchinsk  mining  district  in  Siberia, 
and  Elkhorn  in  Montana.  (L.  J.  S.) 

HEMINGBURGH,  WALTER  OF,  also  commonly,  but  errone- 
ously, called  WALTER  HEMINGFORD,  a  Latin  chronicler  of  the 
I4th  century,  was  a  canon  regular  of  the  Austin  priory  of  Gisburn 
in  Yorkshire.  Hence  he  is  sometimes  known  as  Walter  of  Gisburn 
(Walterus  Gisburnensis).  Bale  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to 
give  him  the  name  by  which  he  became  more  commonly  known. 


His  chronicle  embraces  the  period  of  English  history  from  the  • 
Conquest  (1066)  to  the  nineteenth  year  of  Edward  III.,  with 
the  exception  of  the  years  1316-1326.  It  ends  with  the  title  of  a 
chapter  in  which  it  was  proposed  to  describe  the  battle  of  Crefy 
(1346);  but  the  chronicler  seems  to  have  died  before  the  required 
information  reached  him.  There  is,  however,  some  controversy 
as  to  whether  the  later  portions  which  are  lacking  in  some  of  the 
MSS.  are  by  him.  In  compiling  the  first  part,  Hemingburgh 
apparently  used  the  histories  of  Eadmer,  Hoveden,  Henry  of 
Huntingdon,  and  William  of  Newburgh;  but  the  reigns  of  the 
three  Edwards  are  original,  composed  from  personal  observation 
and  information.  There  are  several  manuscripts  of  the  history 
extant — the  best  perhaps  being  that  presented  to  the  College  of 
Arms  by  the  earl  of  Arundel.  The  work  is  correct  and  judicious, 
and  written  in  a  pleasing  style.  One  of  its  special  features  is  the 
preservation  in  its  pages  of  copies  of  the  great  charters,  and 
Hemingburgh's  versions  have  more  than  once  supplied  deficiencies 
and  cleared  up  obscurities  in  copies  from  other  sources. 

The  first  three  books  were  published  by  Thomas  Gale  in  1687,  in 
his  Historiae  Anglicanae  scriptores  quinque,  and  the  remainder  by 
Thomas  Hearne  in  1731.  The  first  portion  was  again  published  in 
1848  by  the  English  Historical  Society,  under  the  title  Chronicon 
Walteri  de  Hemingburgh,  vulgo  Hemingford  nuncupate,  de  gestis 
regum  Angliae,  edited  by  H.  C.  Hamilton. 

HEMIPTERA  (Gr.  ^ti-,  half  and  irrtpbv,  a  wing),  the  name 
applied  in  zoological  classification  to  that  order  of  the  class 
Hexapoda  (q.v.)  which  includes  bugs,  cicads,  aphids  and  scale- 
insects.  The  name  was  first  used  by  Linnaeus  (1735),  who 
derived  it  from  the  half-coriaceous  and  half-membranous  con- 
dition of  the  forewing  in  many  members  of  the  order.  But  the 
wings  vary  considerably  in  different  families,  and  the  most  dis- 
tinctive feature  is  the  structure  of  the  jaws,  which  form  a  beak- 
like  organ  with  stylets  adapted  for  piercing  and  sucking.  Hence 
the  name  Rhyngota  (or  Rhynchota),  proposed  by  J.  C.  Fabricius 
(1775),  is  used  by  many  writers  in  preference  to  Hemiptera. 

Structure. —  The  head  varies  greatly  in  shape,  and  the  feelers 
have  usually  but  few  segments — often  only  four  or  five.  The 
arrangement  of  the  jaws  is  remarkably  constant  throughout 
the  order,  if  we  exclude  from  it  the  lice  (Anoplura).  Taking  as 
our  type  the  head  of  a  cicad,  we  find  a  jointed  rostrum  or  beak 
(figs,  i  and  2,  IV.  b,  c)  with  a  deep  groove  on  its  anterior  face; 
this  organ  is  formed  by 
the  second  pair  of  maxillae 
and  corresponds  therefore 
to  the  labium  or  "  lower 
lip "  of  biting  insects. 
Within  the  groove  of  the 
rostrum  two  pairs  of 
slender  piercers  —  often 
barbed  at  the  tip — work 
to  and  fro.  One  of  these 
pairs  (fig.  2,  II.  a,  b,  c) 
represents  the  mandibles, 
the  other  (fig.  2,  III.  a,  b, 
c)  the  first  maxillae.  The 
piercing  portions  of  the 
latter — representing  their 
inner  lobes  or 
lie  median  to  the  man- 
dibular  piercers  in  the 
natural  position  of  the 
organs.  These  homologies 
of  the  hemipterous  jaws 
were  determined  by  J.  C. 
Savigny  in  1816,  and  though  disputed  by  various  subsequent 
writers,  they  have  been  lately  confirmed  by  the  embryological 
researches  of  R.  Heymons  (1899).  Vestigial  palps  have  been 
described  in  various  species  of  Hemiptera,  but  the  true  nature 
of  these  structures  is  doubtful.  In  front  of  the  rostrum  and  the 
piercers  lies  the  pointed  flexible  labrum  and  within  its  base  a 
small  hypopharynx  (fig.  2,  IV.  d)  consisting  of  paired  conical 
processes  which  lie  dorsal  to.  the  "syringe"  of  the  salivary 
glands.  This  latter  organ  injects  a  secretion  into  the  plant  or 


After  Marlatt,  Bull.  14  (N.S.)  Div.  Enl.  U.S. 

lacmiae —  Dept.Agr. 

the    man-  FIG.  I. — Head  and  Prothorax  of  Cicad 
from  side. 

.    Frons. 

.    Base  of  mandible. 

.    Base  of  first  maxillae. 

'.    Second  maxillae  forming  rostrum. 

.    Pronotum. 


IV. 
V. 


HEMIPTERA 


259 


animal  tissue  from  which  the  insect  is  sucking.  The  point  of  the 
rostrum  is  pressed  against  the  surface  to  be  pierced;  then  the 
stylets  come  into  play  and  the  fluid  food  is  believed  to  pass  into 
the  mouth  by  capillary  attraction. 

The  prothorax  (figs,  i  and  2,V.)  in  Hemiptera  is  large  and 
free,  and  the  mesothoracic  scutellum  is  usually  extensive.  The 
number  of  tarsal  segments  is  reduced;  often  three,  two  or  only 
one  may  be  present  instead  of  the  typical  insectan  number 
five.  The  wings  will  be  described  in  connexion  with  the  various 


After  Marlatt,  Bull.  14  (N.  S.)  Div.  Ent.  U.S.  Depl.  Agr. 

FIG.  2. — Head  and  Prothorax  of  Cicad,  parts  separated. 

,    I.,  a,  frons;   b,  clypeus;   c,  labrum;   d,  epipharynx. 
I'.,  Same  from  behind. 
II.,  Mandible. 

III.,  1st  maxilla;   a,  base;   6,  sheath;  c,  stylet;  c',  muscle. 
IV.,  2nd  maxillae,  a,  sub-mentum;    b,  mentum;    c,  ligula,  forming 
beak;    d,    hypopharynx    (shown     also     from    front    d',   and 
behind  d'). 
V.,  Prothorax,  6,  haunch;   a,  trochanter. 

sub-orders,  but  an  interesting  peculiarity  of  the  Hemiptera 
is  the  occasional  presence  of  winged  and  wingless  races  of  the 
same  species.  Eleven  abdominal  segments  can  be  recognized, 
at  least  in  the  early  stages;  as  the  adult  condition  is  reached, 
the  hinder  segments  become  reduced  or  modified  in  connexion 
with  the  external  reproductive  organs,  and  show,  in  some  male 
Hemiptera,  a  marked  asymmetry.  The  typical  insectan  ovi- 
positor with  its  three  pairs  of  processes,  one  pair  belonging  to  the 
eighth  and  two  pairs  to  the  ninth  abdominal  segment,  can  be 
distinguished  in  the  female. 
In  the  nervous  system  the  concentration  of  the  trunk  ganglia 


a. 


After  Marlatt,  Bull.  4  (N.S.)  Dtv.  Ent.  U.S.  Deft.  Agr. 

FIG,  3--^-a,  Cast-off  nymphal  skin  of  Bed-bug  (Cimex  lectularius) ; 
i  Second  instar  after  emergence  from  a\  c,  The  same  after  a  meal. 
Magnified  30  times. 

into  a  single  nerve-centre  situated  in  the  thorax  is  remarkable. 
The  digestive  system  has  a  slender  gullet,  a  large  crop  and  no 
gizzard;  in  some  Hemiptera  the  hinder  region  of  the  mid-gut 
forms  a  twisted  loop  with  the  gullet.  Usually  there  are  four 
excretory  (Malpighian)  tubes;  but  there  are  only  two  in  the 
Coccidae  and  none  in  the  Aphidae.  "  Stink  glands,"  which 
secrete  a  nauseous  fluid  with  a  defensive  function,  are  present 


in  many  Hemiptera.  In  the  adult  there  is  a  pair  of  such  glands 
opening  ventrally  on  the  hindmost  thoracic  segment,  or  at  the 
base  of  the  abdomen;  but  in  the  young  insect  the  glands  are 
situated  dorsally  and  open  to  the  exterior  on  a  variable  number  of 
the  abdominal  terga. 

Development.  —  In  most  Hemiptera  the  young  insect  (fig.  3) 
resembles  its  parents  except  for  the  absence  of  wings,  and  is 
active  through  all  stages  of  its  growth.  In  all  Hemiptera  the 
wing-rudiments  develop  externally  on  the  nymphal  cuticle, 
but  in  some  families  —  the  cicads  for  example  —  the  young  insect 
(fig.  10)  is  a  larva  differing  markedly  in  form  from  its  parent, 
and  adapted  for  a  different  mode  of  life,  while  the  nymph  before 
the  final  moult  is  sluggish  and  inactive.  In  the  male  Coccidae 
(Scale-insects)  the  nymph  (fig.  4)  remains  passive  and  takes  no 
food.  The  order  of  the  Hemiptera  affords,  therefore,  some 
interesting  transition  stages  towards  the  complete  metamorphosis 
of  the  higher  insects. 

Distribution  and  Habits.  —  Hemiptera  are  widely  distributed, 
and  are  plentiful  in  most  quarters  of  the  globe,  though  they 
probably  have  not  penetrated  as  far  into  remote  and  inhospitable 
regions  as  have  the  Coleoptera,  Diptera 
and  Aptera.  They  feed  entirely  by 
suction,  and  the  majority  of  the  species 
pierce  plant  tissues  and  suck  sap.  The 
leaves  of  plants  are  for  the  most  part  the 
objects  of  attack,  but  many  aphids  and 
scale-insects  pierce  stems,  and  some  go 
underground  and  feed  on  roots.  The 
enormous  rate  at  which  aphids  multiply 
under  favourable  conditions  makes  them 
of  the  greatest  economic  importance, 
since  the  growth  of  immense  numbers  of 
the  same  kind  of  plant  in  close  proximity 

—  as  in  ordinary  farm-crops  —  is  especially 
advantageous  to  the  insects  that  feed  on 
them.     Several  families  of  bugs  are  pre- 

daceous  in  habit,  attacking  other  insects     Uta  Rney  ^a  Howard, 

—  often   members   of   their   own   order  —  I"*"'  L'le-    V°L  '•   (U-S- 

Dept.  Agr.). 


j  ,  •  ^i     •        •    •  /-,„! 

and    sucking    their    juices.      Others    are 

scavengers  feeding  on   decaying  organic      FIG.     4.  —  Passive 

matter;  the  pond  skaters,  for  example,  JrSSe  °r«lSS5ct 

live  mostly  on  the  juices  of  dead  float-  (Icerya).  Magnified  15 

ing  insects.    And  some,  like  the  bed-bugs,  times. 

are  parasites  of  vertebrate  animals,   on 

whose  bodies  they  live  temporarily  or  permanently,  and  whose 

blood  they  suck. 

The  Hemiptera  are  especially  interesting  as  an  order  from 
the  variety  of  aquatic  insects  included  therein.  Some  of  these  — 
the  Hydromelridae  or  pond-skaters,  for  example  —  move  over 
the  surface-film,  on  which  they  are  supported  by  their  elongated, 
slender  legs,  the  body  of  the  insect  being  raised  clear  of  the  water. 
They  are  covered  with  short  hairs  which  form  a  velvet-like  pile, 
so  dense  that  water  cannot  penetrate.  Consequently  when  the 
insect  dives,  an  air-bubble  forms  around  it,  a  supply  of  oxygen  is 
thus  secured  for  breathing  and  the  water  is  kept  away  from  the 
spiracles.  In  many  of  these  insects,  while  most  individuals 
of  the  species  are  wingless,  winged  specimens  are  now  and  then 
met  with.  The  occasional  development  of  wings  is  probably 
of  service  to  the  species  in  enabling  the  insects  to  reach  new 
fresh-water  breeding-grounds.  This  family  of  Hemiptera  (the 
Hydrometridae)  and  the  Saldidae  contain  several  insects  that 
are  marine,  haunting  the  tidal  margin.  One  genus  of  Hydrome- 
tridae (Halobales)  is  even  oceanic  in  its  habit,  the  species  being 
met  with  skimming  over  the  surface  of  the  sea  hundreds  of  miles 
from  land.  Probably  they  dive  when  the  surface  becomes 
ruffled.  In  these  marine  genera  the  abdomen  often  undergoes 
excessive  reduction  (fig.  5). 

Other  i'amilies  of  Hemiptera  —  such  as  the  "  Boatmen  " 
(Notoneclidae)  and  the  "  Water-scorpions  "  (fig.  6)  and  their 
allies  (Nepidae)  dive  and  swim  through  the  water.  They  obtain 
their  supply  of  air  from  the  surface.  The  Nepidae  breathe  by 
means  of  a  pair  of  long,  grooved  tail  processes  (really  out-growths 


260 


HEMIPTERA 


of  the  abdominal  pleura)  which  when  pressed  together  form 
a  tube  whose  point  can  pierce  the  surface  film  and  convey 
air  to  the  hindmost  spiracles  which  are  alone  functional  in  the 
adult.  The  Notonectidae  breathe  mostly  through  the  thoracic 
spiracles;  the  air  is  conveyed  to  these  from  the  tail-end,  which 
is  brought  to  the  surface,  along  a  kind  of  tunnel  formed  by 
overlapping  hairs. 

Sound-producing   Organs. — The    Hemiptera    are  remarkable 
for  the  variety  of  their  stridulating  organs.    In  many  genera  of 


After  Carpenter,  Proc.  R.  Dublin  Soc., 
vol.  viii. 

FIG.  5. — A  reef-haunting 
hemipteron  (H ermatobates 
haddonii)  with  excessively  re- 
duced abdomen.  Magnified. 


FIG.  6. — W ater-scorpion 
(Nepa  cinerea)  with  raptorial 
fore-legs,  heteropterous  wings, 
and  long  siphon  for  conveying 
air  to  spiracles.  Somewhat 
magnified,  sc,  scutellum;  co, 
cl,  m,  corium,  clavus  and 
membrane  of  forewing. 


the  Pentalomidae,  bristle-bearing  tubercles  on  the  legs  are 
scraped  across  a  set  of  fine  striations  on  the  abdominal  sterna. 
In  Halobates  a  comb-like  series  of  sharp  spines  on  the  fore-shin 
can  be  drawn  across  a  set  of  blunt  processes  on  the  shin  of  the 
opposite  leg.  Males  of  the  little  water-bugs  of  the  genus  Corixa 
make  a  shrill  chirping  note  by  drawing  a  row  of  teeth  on  the 
flattened  fore-foot  across  a  group  of  spines  on  the  haunch  of 
the  opposite  leg.  But  the  loudest  and  most  remarkable  vocal 
organs  of  all  insects  are  those  of  the  male  cicads,  which  "  sing  " 


d  e 

From  Marlatt,  Bull.  14  (N.S.)  Div.  Eat.  U.S.  Depl.  Agr. 

FIG.  7. 

a,  Body    of    male    Cicad    from    c,   Section  showing  muscles  which 

below,    showing   cover-plates  vibrate  drum  (magnified) ; 

of  musical  organs;  d,  A  drum  at  rest; 

b,  From  above  snowing  drums,     e,   Thrown  into  vibration,  more 

natural  size;  highly  magnified. 

by  the  rapid  vibration  of  a  pair  of  "  drums  "  or  membranes 
within  the  metathorax.  These  drums  are  worked  by  special 
muscles,  and  the  cavities  in  which  they  lie  are  protected  by 
conspicuous  plates  visible  beneath  the  base  of  the  abdomen 
(see  fig.  7). 


Fossil  History. — The  Heteroptera  can  be  traced  back  farther 
than  any  other  winged  insects  if  the  fossil  Protocimev  silurica 
Moberg,  from  the  Ordovician  slates  of  Sweden  is  rightly  regarded 
as  the  wing  of  a  bug.  But  according  to  the  recent  researches 
of  A.  Handlirsch  it  is  not  insectan  at  all.  Both  Heteropterous 
and  Homopterous  genera  have  been  described  from  the  Carbon- 
iferous, but  the  true  nature  of  some  of  these  is  doubtful.  Eugereon 
is  a  remarkable  Permian  fossil,  with  jaws  that  are  typically 
hemipterous  except  that  the  second  maxillae  are  not  fused  and 
with  cockroach-like  wings.  In  the  Jurassic  period  many  of  the 
existing  families,  such  as  the  Cicadidae,  Fulgoridae,  Aphidae, 
Nepidae,  Redwviidae,  Hydromelridae,  Lygaeidae  and  Coreidae, 
had  already  become  differentiated. 

Classification. — The  number  of  described  species  of  Hemiptera 
must  now  be  nearly  20,000.  The  order  is  divided  into  two  sub- 
orders, the  Heteroptera  and  the  Homoptera.  The  Anoplura  or  lice 
should  not  be  included  among  the  Hemiptera,  but  it  has  been  thought 
convenient  to  refer  briefly  to  them  at  the  close  of  this  article. 

HETEROPTERA 

In  this  sub-order  are  included  the  various  families  of  bugs  and  their 
aquatic  relations.  The  front  of  the  head  is  not  in  contact  with  the 
haunches  of  the  fore-legs.  There  is  usually  a  marked  difference  between 
the  wings  of  the  two  pairs.  The  fore-wing  is  generally  divided  into  a 
firm  coriaceous  basal  region,  occupying  most  of  the  area,  and  a  mem- 
branous terminal  portion,  while  the  hind-wing  is  delicate  and  entirely 
membranous  (see  fig.  6).  In  the  firm  portion  of  the  fore-wing  two 


After  Marlatt,  Bull.  4  (N.S.)  Div.  Enl.  U.S.  Depl.  Agr. 

FIG.  8. — Bed-bug  (Cimex  lectularius,  Linn.). 


C, 


Female  from  above; 

From  beneath,    magnified    5 

times; 
Vestigial  wing; 


d,  Jaws,  more  highly  magnified 
(tips  of  mandibles  and  1st 
maxillae  still  more  highly 
magnified). 


distinct  regions  can  usually  be  distinguished ;  most  of  the  area  is 
formed  by  the  corium  (fig.  6,  co),  which  is  separated  by  a  longitudinal 
suture  from  the  clavus  (fig.  6,  cl)  on  its  hinder  edge,  and  in  some 
families  there  is  also  a  cuneus  (fig.  9  cu)  external  _to  and  an  embolium 
in  front  of  the  corium. 

Most  Heteroptera  are  flattened  in  form,  and  the  wings  lie  flat,  or 
nearly  so,  when  closed.  The  young  Heteropteron  is  hatched  from 
the  egg  in  a  form  not  markedly  different  from  that  of  its  parent; 
it  is  active  and  takes  food  through  all  the  stages  of  its  growth.  It  is 
usual  to  divide  the  Heteroptera  into  two  tribes — the  Gymnocerata 
and  the  Cryptocerata. 

Gymnocerata.. — This  tribe  includes  some  eighteen  families  of 
terrestrial,  arboreal  and  marsh-haunting  bugs,  as  well  as  those 
aquatic  Heteroptera  that  live  on  the  surface-film  of  water.  The 
feelers  are  elongate  and  conspicuous.  The  Pentatomidae  (shield- 
bugs),  some  of  which 'are  metallic  or  otherwise  brightly  coloured, 
are  easily  recognized  by  the  great  development  of  the  scutellum, 
which  reaches  at  least  half-way  back  towards  the  tip  of  the  abdomen, 
and  in  some  genera  covers  the  whole  of  the  hind  body,  and  also  the 
wings  when  these  are  closed.  The  Coreidae  have  a  smaller  scutellum, 
and  the  feelers  are  inserted  high  on  the  head,  while  in  the  Lygaeidae 
they  are  inserted  lower  down.  These  three  families  have  the  foot  with 
three  segments.  In  the  curious  little  Tingidae,  whose  integuments 
exhibit  a  pattern  of  network-like  ridges,  the  feet  are  two-segmented 
and  the  scutellum  is  hidden  by  the  prpnotum.  The  Aradidae  have 
two  segmented  feet,  and  a  large  visible  scutellum.  The  Hydro- 
melridae are  a  large  family  including  the  pond-skaters  and  other 
dwellers  on  the  surface-film  of  fresh  water,  as  well  as  the  remarkable 
oceanic  genus  Halobates  already  referred  to.  The  Reduviidae  are 


HEMIPTERA 


261 


a  family  of  predaceous  bugs  that  attack  other  insects  and  suck 
their  juices;  the  beak  is  short,  and  carried  under  the  head  in  a  hook- 
like  curve,  not — as  in  the  preceding  families — lying  close  against  the 
breast.  The  Cimicidae  have  the  feet  three-segmented  and  the  fore- 
wings  greatly  reduced;  most  of  the  species  are  parasites  on  birds 
and  bats,  but  one — Cimex  lectulariits  (figs.  3,  8) — is  the  well-known 
"  bed-bug  "  which  abounds  in  unclean  dwellings  and  sucks  human 
blood  (see  BUG).  The  Anthocoridae  are  nearly  related  to  the  Cimi- 
cidae, but  the  wings  are  usually  well  developed  and  the  forewing 
possesses  cuneus  and  embolium  as  well  as  corium  and  clavus.  The 
Capsidae  are  a  large  family  of  rather  soft-skinned  bugs  mostly 

elongate  in  form  with  the  two 
basal  segments  of  the  feelers 
stouter  than  the  two  terminal. 
The  forewing  in  this  family  has  a 
cuneus  (fig.  9  cu),  but  not  an 
embolium.  These  insects  are  often 
found  in  large  numbers  on  plants 
whose  juices  they  suck. 

Cryptocerata. — In  this  tribe  are 
included  five  or  six  families  of 
aquatic  Heteroptera  which  spend 
the  greater  part  of  their  lives 
submerged,  diving  and  swimming 
through  the  water.  The  feelers 
are  very  small  and  are  often 
hidden  in  cavities  beneath  the 
head.  The  Naucoridae  and 
Belostomatidae  are  flattened  in- 
sects, with  four-segmented  feelers 
and  fore-legs  inserted  at  the  front 
of  the  prosternum.  Two  species 
of  the  former  family  inhabit  our 
islands,  but  the  Belostomatidae 
are  found  only  in  the  warmer 
regions  of  the  globe;  some  of 
them,  attaining  a  length  of  4  to 
5  in.,  are  giants  among  insects.  The 
FIG.  9. — Capsid  Leaf-bug  (Poe-  Nepidae  (fig.  6)  or  water-scorpions 
cilocapsus  lineatus)  N.  America,  (q.v.) — two  British  species — 
Magnified  4  times,  cu  cuneus.  are  distinguished  by  their  three- 
segmented  feelers,  their  raptorial 

fore-legs  (in  which  the  shin  and  foot,  fused  together,  work  like  a  sharp 
knife-blade  on  the  grooved  thigh),  and  their  elongate  tail-processes 
formed  of  the  abdominal  pleura  and  used  for  respiration.  The 
Notonectidae,  or  "  water-boatmen  "  (Q.V.)  have  convex  ovoid  bodies 
admirably  Adapted  for  aquatic  life.  By  msans  of  the  oar-like  hind- 
legs  they  swim  actively  through  the  water  with  the  ventral  surface 
upwards;  the  fore-legs  are  inserted  at  the  hinder  edge  of  the  pro- 
sternum.  The  Corixidae  are  small  flattened  water-bugs,  with  very 
short  unjointed  beak,  the  labrum  being  enclosed  within  the  second 


After  M.  V.  Slingerland,  Cornell  Univ. 
Ent.  Bull.  58. 


d, 

From  Marlatt,  Butt.  14  (N.  S.),  Div.  Ent.  V.  S.  Deft.  Agr. 

FIG.  10. — a,  Nymph  (4th  stage)  of  Cicad,  magnified  5  times; 
c,  d,  inner  and  outer  faces  of  front  leg,  magnified  7j  times;  b,  teeth 
on  thigh,  more  highly  magnified. 

maxillae,  and  the  foot  in  the  fore  and  intermediate  leg  having  but 
a  single  segment.  The  hinder  abdominal  segments  in  the  male  show 
a  curious  asymmetrical  arrangement,  the  sixth  segment  bearing  on  its 
upper  side  a  small  stalked  plate  (strigil)  of  unknown  function, 
furnished  with  rows  of  teeth.  On  account  of  the  reduction  and 
modification  of  the  jaws  in  the  Corixidae,  C.  Borner  has  lately 
suggested  that  they  should  form  a  special  sub-order  of  Hemiptera — 
the  Sandaliorrhyncha. 


HOMOPTERA 

This  sub-order  includes  the  cicads,  lantern-flies,  frog-hoppers, 
aphids  and  scale-insects.  The  face  has  such  a  marked  backward 
slope  (see  fig.  i)  as  to  bring  the  beak  into  close  contact  with  the 
haunches  of  the  fore-legs.  The  feelers  have  one  or  more  thickened 
basal  segments,  while  the  remaining  segments  are  slender  and  thread- 
like. The  fore-wings  are  sometimes  membranous  like  the  hind-wings, 
usually  they  are  firmer  in  texture,  but  they  never  show  the  distinct 
areas  that  characterize  the  wings  of  Heteroptera.  When  at  rest 
the  wings  of  Homoptera  slope  roofwise  across  the  back  of  the  insect. 
In  their  life-history  the  Homoptera  are  more  specialized  than  the 
Heteroptera;  the  young  insect  often  differs  markedly  from  its 


c. 


After  Weed,  Riley  and  Howard,  Insect  Life,  vol.  iii. 

FIG.  II. — Cabbage  Aphid  (Aphisbrassicae).  a,  Male;  c,  female 
(wingless).  Magnified,  b  and  d.  Head  and  feelers  of  male  and 
female,  more  highly  magnified. 

parent  and  does  not  live  in  the  same  situations;  while  in  some 
families  there  is  a  passive  stage  before  the  last  moult. 

The  Cicadidae  are  for  the  most  part  large  insects  with  ample  wings; 
they  are  distinguished  from  other  Homoptera  by  the  front  thighs 
being  thickened  and  toothed  beneath.  The  broad  head  carries,  in 
addition  to  the  prominent  compound  eyes,  three  simple  eyes  (ocelli) 
on  the  crown,  while  the  feeler  consists  of  a  stout  basal  segment, 
followed  by  five  slender  segments.  The  female,  by  means  of  her 
serrated  ovipositor,  lays  her  eggs  in  slits  cut  in  the  twigs  of  plants. 
The  young  have  simple  feelers  and  stout  fore-legs  (fig.  10)  adapted 
for  digging;  they  live  underground  and  feed  on  the  roots  of  plants. 


After  Howard,  Year  Book  U.  S.  Depl.  Agr.,  1894. 

FIG.  12. — Apple  Scale  Insect  (Mytilaspis  pomorum).  a,  Male; 
e,  female;  c,  larva,  magnified  20  times;  b,  foot  of  male;  d, 
feeler  of  larva,  more  highly  magnified. 

In  the  case  of  a  North  American  species  it  is  known  that  this  larval 
life  lasts  for  seventeen  years.  The  "  song  "  of  the  male  cicads  is 
notorious  and  the  structures  by  which  it  is  produced  have  already 
been  described  (see  also  CICADA).  There  are  about  900  known 
species,  but  the  family  is  mostly  confined  to  warm  countries;  only 
a  single  cicad  is  found  in  England,  and  that  is  restricted  to  the  south. 
The  Fulgoridae  and  Membracidae  are  two  allied  families  most  of 
whose  members  are  also  natives  of  hot  regions.  The  Fulgoridae 


262 


HEMLOCK 


have  the  head  with  two  ocelli  and  three-segmented  feelers ;  frequently 
as  in  the  tropical  "  lantern-flies  "  (q.v.)  the  head  is  prolonged  into  a 
conspicuous  bladder,  or  trunk-like  process.  The  Membracidae  are 
remarkable  on  account  of  the  backward  prolongation  of  the  pronotum 


After  Howard,  Year  Book  U.S.  Dept.  Agr.,  1894. 

FIG.  13.  —  Apple  Scale  Insect  (Mytilaspis  pomorum).  a.  Scale  from 
beneath  showing  female  and  eggs;  b,  from  above,  magnified  24 
times;  c  and  e,  female  and  male  scales  on  twigs,  natural  size;  d, 
male  scale  magnified  12  times. 

into  a  process  or  hood-like  structure  which  may  extend  far  behind  the 
tail-end  of  the  abdomen.  Two  other  allied  families,  the  Cercopidae 
and  Jassidae,  are  more  numerously  represented  in  our  islands. 
The  young  of  many  of  these  insects  are  green  and  soft-skinned, 

protecting      themselves 

by       the       well-known 

frothy  secretion  that  is 

called   "  cuckoo-spit." 
In   all    the   above- 

mentioned    families    of 

Homoptera    there    are 

three  segments  in  each 

foot.        Tho   remaining 

four  families  have  feet 

with     only     two     seg- 

ments.     They    are    of 
Enl'.  very     great     zoological 

interest  on   account   of 

the       peculiarities       of 

their    life-history  —  par- 

thenogenesis   being    of 

normal  occurrence 

The  families  Psyllidae 

(or  "  jumpers  ")  with  eight  or  ten  segments  in 
the   feeler  and   the  Aleyrodidae    (or   "  snowy- 
flies  ")    distinguished    by    their    white    mealy 
wings,  are  of  comparatively  slight  importance. 
The   two  families   to   which   special   attention 
has  been   paid  are  the  Aphidae  or  plant-lice 
("  green  fly  ")  and  the  Coccidae  or  scale-insects. 
The  aphids  (fig.  ll)  have  feelers  with  seven  or 
fewer  distinct  segments,  and  the  fifth  abdominal 
segment  usually  carries  a  pair  of  tubular  pro- 
cesses  through  which  a  waxy  secretion  is  dis-  Div. 
charged.     Tha    sweet      "  honey-dew,"      often  Ag 
sought  as  a  food  by  ants,  is  secreted  from  the      FIG.     15.  —  Pro- 
intestines  of  aphids.     The  peculiar  life-cycle  in  boscis  of  Pediculus. 
which    successive    generations    are    produced  Highly  magnified. 
through  the  summer  months  by  virgin  females 
—  the    egg    developing    within    the    body    of    the    mother  —  is   de- 
scribed at  length  in  the  articles  APHIDES  and  PHYLLOXERA.    The 
Coccidae  have  only  a  single  claw  to  the  foot;    the  males  (fig.  12  o) 
have  the  fore-wings  developed  and  the  hind-wings  greatly  reduced, 
while  in  the  female  wings  are  totally  absent  and  the  body  undergoes 
marked  degradation  (figs.  12,  e,  13,  a,  b).    In  the  Coccids  the  forma- 


FromOsborn  (after  Denny), 
Bull.    5   (N.S.),  Div.     ~ 
U.S.  Dept.  Agr. 

FIG.      14. — Louse 

(Pediculus  vestimenti) . 
Magnified. 

among  most  of  them. 


Enl. 


Dept. 


tion  of  a  protective  waxy  secretion— present  in  many  genera  of 
Homoptera — reaches  its  most  extreme  development.  In  some  coccids 
—the  "  mealy-bugs  "  (Dactylopius,  &c.)  for  example— the  secretion 
forms  a  white  thread-like  or  plate-like  covering  which  the  insect 
carries  about.  But  in  most  members  of  the  family,  the  secretion, 
united  with  cast  cuticles  and  excrement,  forms  a  firm  "  scale  " 
closely  attached  by  its  edges  to  the  surface  of  the  plant  on  which 
the  insect  lives,  and  serving  as  a  shield  beneath  which  the  female 
coccid,  with  her  eggs  (fig.  13  a}  and  brood,  finds  shelter.  The  male 
coccid  passes  through  a  passive  stage  (fig.  4)  before  attaining  the 
perfect  condition.  Many  scale-insects  are  among  the  most  serious 
of  pests,  but  various  species  have  been  utilized  by  man  for  the 
production  of  wax  (lac)  and  red  dye  (cochineal).  See  ECONOMIC 
ENTOMOLOGY,  SCALE-INSECT. 

ANOPLURA 

The  Anoplura  or  lice  (see  LOUSE)  are  wingless  parasitic  insects 
(ng.  14)  forming  an  order  distinct  from  the  Hemiptera,  their  sucking 
and  piercing  mouth-organs  being  apparently  formed  on  quite  a 
different  plan  from  those  of  the  Heteroptera  and  Homoptera.  In 
front  of  the  head  is  a  short  tube  armed  with  strong  recurved  hooks 
which  can  be  fixed  into  the  skin  of  the  host,  and  from  the  tube  an 
elongate  more  slender  sucking-trunk  can  be  protruded  (fig.  15). 
Each  foot  is  provided  with  a  single  strong  claw  which,  opposed  to 
a  process  on  the  shin,  serves  to  grasp  a  hair  of  the  host,  all  the  lice 
being  parasites  on  different  mammals.  Although  G.  Enderlein  has 
recently  shown  that  the  jaws  of  the  Hemiptera  can  be  recognized 
in  a  reduced  condition  in  connexion  with  the  louse's  proboscis,  the 
modification  is  so  excessive  that  the  group  certainly  deserves  ordinal 
separation. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A  recent  standard  work  on  the  morphology  of 
the  Hemiptera  by  R.  Heymons  (Nova  Acta  Acad.  Leap.  Carol. 
Ixxiv.  3,  1899)  contains  numerous  references  to  older  literature. 
An  excellent  survey  of  the  order  is  given  by  D.  Sharp  (Cambridge 
Nat.  Hist.  vol.  vi.,  1898).  For  internal  structure  of  Heteroptera  see 
R.  Dufour,  Mem.  savans  etrangers  (Paris,  iv.,  1833);  of  Homoptera, 
E.  Witlaczil  (Arb.  Zool.  Inst.  Wien,  iv.,  1882,  Zeits.  f.  wiss.  Zool. 
xliii.,  1885).  The  development  of  Aphids  has  been  dealt  with  by 
T.  H.  Huxley  (Trans.  Linn.  Soc.  xxii.,  1858)  and  E.  Witlaczil  (Zeits. 
f.  wiss.  Zool.  xl.,  1884).  Fossil  Hemiptera  are  described  by  S.  H. 
Scudder  in  K.  Zittel's  Paleontologie  (French  translation,  vol.  ii. 
Paris,  1887,  and  English  edition,  vol.  L,  London,  1900),  and  by  A. 
Handlirsch  (Verh.  zoo/,  hot.  Gesell.  Wien,  lii.,  1902).  Among  general 
systematic  works  on  Heteroptera  may  be  mentioned  J.  C.  Schiodte 
(Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.  (4)  vi.,  1870);  C.  Stal's  Enumeratio  Hemip- 
terorum  (K.  Svensk.  Vet.  Akad.  Handl.  ix.-xiv.,  1870-1876);  L. 
Lethierry  and  G.  Severin's  Catalogue  generate  des  hemipteres  (Brussels 
!893>  &c.);  G.  C.  Champion's  volumes  in  the  Biologia  Centrali- 
Americana;  W.  L.  Distant's  Oriental  Cicadidae  (London,  1889-1892), 
and  many  other  papers;  M.  E.  Fernald's  Catalogue  of  the  Coccidae 
(Amherst,  U.S.A.,  1903).  European  Hemiptera  have  been  dealt  with 
in  numerous  papers  by  A.  Puton.  For  British  species  we  have 
E.  Saunders's  Hemiptera-Heteroptera  of  the  British  Isles  (London, 
1892);  J.  Edwards's  Hemiptera-Homoptera  of  the  British  Isles 
(London,  1896);  J.  B.  Buckton's  British  Aphidae  (London,  Ray 
Society,  1875-1882);  and  R.  Newstead's  British  Coccidae  (London, 
Ray  Society,  1901-1903).  Aquatic  Hemiptera  are  described  by 
L.  C.  Miall  (Nat.  History  Aquatic  Insects;  London,  1895),  and  by 
G.  W.  Kirkaldy  in  numerous  recent  papers  (Entomologist,  &c.).  For 
marine  Hemiptera  (Halobates)  see  F.  B.  White  (Challenger  Reports, 
vii.,  1883);  J.  J.  Walker  (Ent.  Mo.  Mag.,  1893);  N.  Nassonov 
(Warsaw,  1893),  and  G.  H.  Carpenter  (Knowledge,  1901,  and  Report, 
Pearl  Oyster  Fisheries,  Royal  Society,  1906).  Sound-producing 
organs  of  Heteroptera  are  described  by  A.  Handlirsch  (Ann.  Hofmus. 
Wien,  xv.  1900),  and  G.  W.  Kirkaldy  (Journ.  Quekett  Club  (2)  viii. 
1901);  of  Cicads  by  G.  Carlet  (Ann.  Sci.  Nat.  Zool.  (6)  v.  1877). 
For  the  Anoplura  see  E.  Piaget's  Pediculines  (Leiden,  1880-1905), 
and  G.  Enderlein  (Zool.  Anz.  xxviii.,  1904).  (G.  H.  C.) 

HEMLOCK  (in  O.  Eng.  hemlic  or  hymlice;  no  cognate  is  found 
in  any  other  language,  and  the  origin  is  unknown),  the  Conium 
maculatum  of  botanists,  a  biennial  umbelliferous  plant,  found 
wild  in  many  parts  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  where  it  occurs 
in  waste  places  on  hedge-banks,  and  by  the  borders  of  fields, 
and  also  widely  spread  over  Europe  and  temperate  Asia,  and 
naturalized  in  the  cultivated  districts  of  North  and  South 
America.  It  is  an  erect  branching  plant,  growing  from  3  to  6  ft. 
high,  and  emitting  a  disagreeable  smell,  like  that  of  mice.  The 
stems  are  hollow,  smooth,  somewhat  glaucous  green,  spotted  with 
dull  dark  purple,  as  alluded  to  in  the  specific  name,  maculatum. 
The  root-leaves  have  long  furrowed  footstalks,  sheathing  the 
stem  at  the  base,  and  are  large,  triangular  in  outline,  and 
repeatedly  divided  or  compound,  the  ultimate  and  very  numerous 
segments  being  small,  ovate,  and  deeply  incised  at  the  edge. 
These  leaves  generally  perish  after  the  growth  of  the  flowering 
stem,  which  takes  place  in  the  second  year,  while  the  leaves 


HEMP 


263 


produced  on  the  stem  became  gradually  smaller  upwards.  The 
branches  are  all  terminated  by  compound  many-rayed  umbels 
of  small  white  flowers,  the  general  involucres  consisting  of  several, 
the  partial  ones  of  about  three  short  lanceolate  bracts,  the  latter 
being  usually  turned  towards  the  outside  of  the  umbel.  The 
flowers  are  succeeded  by  broadly  ovate  fruits,  the  mericarps 
(half-fruits)  having  five  ribs  which,  when  mature,  are  waved 
or  crenated;  and  when  cut  across  the  albumen  is  seen  to  be 
deeply  furrowed  on  the  inner  face,  so  as  to  exhibit  in  section  a 
reniform  outline.  The  fruits  when  triturated  with  a  solution 
of  caustic  potash  evolve  a  most  unpleasant  odour. 

Hemlock  is  a  virulent  poison,  but  it  varies  much  in  potency 
according  to  the  conditions  under  which  it  has  grown,  and  the 
season  or  stage  of  growth  at  which  it  is  gathered.  In  the  first 
year  the  leaves  have  little  power,  nor  in  the  second  are  their 
properties  developed  until  the  flowering  period,  at  which  time, 
or  later  on  when  the  fruits  are  fully  grown,  the  plant  should  be 
gathered.  The  wild  plant  growing  in  exposed  situations  is  to 
be  preferred  to  garden-grown  samples,  and  is  more  potent  in 
dry  warm  summers  than  in  those  which  are  dull  and  moist. 

The  poisonous  property  of  hemlock  resides  chiefly  in  the 
alkaloid  canine  or  conia  which  is  found  in  both  the  fruits  and 
the  leaves,  though  in  exceedingly  small  proportions  in  the  latter. 
Conine  resembles  nicotine  in  its  deleterious  action,  but  is  much 
less  powerful.  No  chemical  antidote  for  it  is  known.  The 
plant  also  yields  a  second  less  poisonous  crystallizable  base 
called  conhydrine,  which  may  be  converted  into  conine  by  the 
abstraction  of  the  elements  of  water.  When  collected  for 
medicinal  purposes,  for  which  both  leaves  and  fruits  are  used, 
the  former  should  be  gathered  at  the  time  the  plant  is  in  full 
blossom,  while  the  latter  are  said  to  possess  the  greatest  degree 
of  energy  just  before  they  ripen.  The  fruits  are  the  chief  source 
whence  conine  is  prepared.  The  principal  forms  in  which  hemlock 
is  employed  are  the  extract  and  juice  of  hemlock,  hemlock 
poultice,  and  the  tincture  of  hemlock  fruits.  Large  doses 
produce  vertigo,  nausea  and  paralysis;  but  in  smaller  quantities, 
administered  by  skilful  hands,  it  has  a  sedative  action  on  the 
nerves.  It  has  also  some  reputation  as  an  alterative  and  resolvent, 
and  as  an  anodyne. 

The  acrid  narcotic  properties  of  the  plant  render  it  of  some 
importance  that  one  should  be  able  to  identify  it,  the  more  so 
as  some  of  the  compound-leaved  umbellifers,  which  have  a 
general  similarity  of  appearance  to  it,  form  wholesome  food 
for  man  and  animals.  Not  only  is  this  knowledge  desirable 
to  prevent  the  poisonous  plant  being  detrimentally  used  in  place 
of  the  wholesome  one;  it  is  equally  important  in  the  opposite 
case,  namely,  to  prevent  the  inert  being  substituted  for  the 
remedial  agent.  The  plant  with  which  hemlock  is  most  likely 
to  be  confounded  is  Anlhriscus  sylvestris,  or  cow-parsley,  the 
leaves  of  which  are  freely  eaten  by  cattle  and  rabbits;  this  plant, 
like  the  hemlock,  has  spotted  stems  but  they  are  hairy,  not 
hairless;  it  has  much-divided  leaves  of  the  same  general  form, 
but  they  are  downy  and  aromatic,  not  smooth  and  nauseous 
when  bruised;  and  the  fruit  of  Anthriscus  is  linear-oblong 
and  not  ovate. 

HEMP  (in  O.  Eng.  henep,  cf .  Dutch  hennep,  Ger.  Hanf,  cognate 
with  Gr.  KavvajSis,  La.t.  cannabis),  an  annual  herb  (Cannabis  saliva) 
having  angular  rough  stems  and  alternate  deeply  lobed  leaves. 
The  bast  fibres  of  Cannabis  are  the  hemp  of  commerce,  but, 
unfortunately,  the  products  from  many  totally  different  plants 
are  often  included  under  the  general  name  of  hemp.  In  some 
cases  the  fibre  is  obtained  from  the  stem,  while  in  others  it 
comes  from  the  leaf.  Sunn  hemp,  Manila  hemp,  Sisal  hemp, 
and  Phormium  (New  Zealand  flax,  which  is  neither  flax  nor 
hemp)  are  treated  separately.  All  these,  however,  are  often 
classed  under  the  above  general  name,  and  so  are  the  following: — 
Deccan  or  Ambari  hemp,  Hibiscus  cannabinus,  an  Indian  and 
East  Indian  malvaceous  plant,  the  fibre  from  which  is  often 
known  as  brown  hemp  or  Bombay  hemp;  Pile  hemp,  which 
is  obtained  from  the  American  aloe,  Agave  americana;  and 
Moorva  or  bowstring-hemp,  Sansevieria  zeylanica,  which  is 
obtained  from  an  aloe-like  plant,  and  is  a  native  of  India  and 


Ceylon.  Then  there  are  Canada  hemp,  Apocynum  cannabinum, 
Kentucky  hemp,  Urtica  cannabina,  and  others. 

The  hemp  plant,  like  the  hop,  which  is  of  the  same  natural 
order,  Cannabinaceae,  is  dioecious,  i.e.  the  male  and  female 
flowers  are  borne  on  separate  plants.  The  female  plant  grows 
to  a  greater  height  than  the  male,  and  its  foliage  is  darker  and 
more  luxuriant,  but  the  plant  takes  from  five  to  six  weeks  longer 
to  ripen.  When  the  male  plants  are  ripe  they  are  pulled,  put 
up  into  bundles,  and  steeped  in  a  similar  manner  to  flax,  but 
the  female  plants  are  allowed  to  remain  until  the  seed  is  perfectly 
ripe.  They  are  then  pulled,  and  after  the  seed  has  been  removed 
are  retted  in  the  ordinary  way.  The  seed  is  also  a  valuable 
product;  the  finest  is  kept  for  sowing,  a  large  quantity  is  sold 
for  the  food  of  cage  birds,  while  the  remainder  is  sent  to  the  oil 
mills  to  be  crushed.  The  extracted  oil  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  soap',  while  the  solid  remains,  known  as  oil-cake,  are  valuable 
as  a  food  for  cattle.  The  leaves  of  hemp  have  five  to  seven 
leaflets,  the  form  of  which  is  lanceolate-acuminate,  with  a 
serrate  margin.  The  loose  panicles  of  male  flowers,  and  the 
short  spikes  of  female  flowers,  arise  from  the  axils  of  the  upper 
leaves.  The  height  of  the  plant  varies  greatly  with  season,  soil 
and  manuring;  in  some  districts  it  varies  from  3  to  8  ft., 
but  in  the  Piedmont  province  it  is  not  unusual  to  see  them 
from  8  to  16  ft.  in  height,  whilst  a  variety  (Cannabis 
sotiva,  variety  gigantea)  has  produced  specimens  over  17  ft.  in 
height. 

All  cultivated  hemp  belongs  to  the  same  species,  Cannabis 
saliva;  the  special  varieties  such  as  Cannabis  indica,  Cannabis 
chinensis,  &c.,  owe  their  differences  to  climate  and  soil,  and  they 
lose  many  of  their  peculiarities  when  cultivated  in  temperate 
regions.  Rumphius  (in  the  i?th  century)  had  noticed  these 
differences  between  Indian  and  European  hemp. 

Wild  hemp  still  grows  on  the  banks  of  the  lower  Ural,  and 
the  Volga,  near  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  extends  to  Persia,  the 
Altai  range  and  northern  and  western  China.  The  authors  of 
the  Pharmacographia  say: — "  It  is  found  in  Kashmir  and  in 
the  Himalaya,  growing  10  to  12  ft.  high,  and  thriving  vigorously 
at  an  elevation  of  6000  to  10,000  ft."  Wild  hemp  is,  however, 
of  very  little  use  as  a  fibre  producer,  although  a  drug  is  obtained 
from  it. 

It  would  appear  that  the  native  country  of  the  hemp  plant  is 
in  some  part  of  temperate  Asia,  probably  near  the  Caspian  Sea. 
It  spread  westward  throughout  Europe,  and  southward  through 
the  Indian  peninsula. 

The  names  given  to  the  plant  and  to  its  products  in  different 
countries  are  of  interest  in  connexion  with  the  utilization  of  the 
fibre  and  resin.  In  Sans,  it  is  called  goni,  sana,  shanapu,  banga 
and  ganjika;  in  Bengali,  ganga;  Pers.  bang  and  canna;  Arab. 
kinnub  or  cannub;  Gr.  kannabis;  Lat.  cannabis;  Ital.  canappa; 
Fr.  chanvre;  Span,  canamo;  Portuguese,  canamo;  Russ. 
kondpel;  Lettish  and  Lithuanian,  kannapes;  Slav,  konopi; 
Erse,  canaib  and  canab;  A.  Sax.  hoenep;  Dutch,  hennep; 
Ger.  Hanf;  Eng.  hemp;  Danish  and  Norwegian,  hamp;  Icelandic, 
hampr;  and  in  Swed.  hampa.  The  English  word  canvas 
sufficiently  reveals  its  derivation  from  cannabis. 

Very  little  hemp  is  now  grown  in  the  British  Isles,  although 
this  variety  was  considered  to  be  of  very  good  quality,  and  to 
possess  great  strength.  The  chief  continental  hemp-producing 
countries  are  Italy,  Russia  and  France;  it  is  also  grown  in 
several  parts  of  Canada  and  the  United  States  and  India.  The 
Central  Provinces,  Bengal  and  Bombay  are  the  chief  centres 
of  hemp  cultivation  in  India,  where  the  plant  is  of  most  use  for 
narcotics.  The  satisfactory  growth  of  hemp  demands  a  light, 
rich  and  fertile  soil,  but,  unlike  most  substances,  it  may  be 
reared  for  a  few  years  in  succession.  The  time  of  sowing,  the 
quantity  of  seed  per  acre  (about  three  bushels)  and  the  method 
of  gathering  and  retting  are  very  similar  to  those  of  flax;  but, 
as  a  rule,  it  is  a  hardier  plant  than  flax,  does  not  possess  the  same 
pliability,  is  much  coarser  and  more  brittle,  and  does  not  require 
the  same  amount  of  attention  during  the  first  few  weeks  of  its 
growth. 

The  very  finest  hemp,  that  grown  in  the  province  of  Piedmont, 


264 


HEMSTERHUIS,  F. 


Italy,  is,  however,  very  similar  to  flax,  and  in  many  cases  the  two 
fibres  are  mixed  in  the  same  material.  The  hemp  fibre  has 
always  been  valuable  for  the  rope  industry,  and  it  was  at  one 
time  very  extensively  used  in  the  production  of  yarns  for  the 
manufacture  of  sail  cloth,  sheeting,  covers,  bagging,  sacking,  &c. 
Much  of  the  finer  quality  is  still  made  into  cloth,  but  almost  all 
the  coarser  quality  finds  its  way  into  ropes  and  similar  material. 

A  large  quantity  of  hemp  cloth  is  still  made  for  the  British 
navy.  The  cloth,  when  finished,  is  cut  up  into  lengths,  made 
into  bags  and  tarred.  They  are  then  used  as  coal  sacks.  There 
is  also  a  quantity  made  into  sacks  which  are  intended  to  hold 
very  heavy  material.  Hemp  yarns  are  also  used  in  certain 
classes  of  carpets,  for  special  bags  for  use  in  cop  dyeing  and  for 
similar  special  purposes,  but  for  the  ordinary  bagging  and 
sacking  the  employment  of  hemp  yarns  has  been  almost  entirely 
supplanted  by  yarns  made  from  the  jute  fibre. 

Hemp  is  grown  for  three  products — (i)  the  fibre  of  its  stem; 
(2)  the  resinous  secretion  which  is  developed  in  hot  countries 
upon  its  leaves  and  flowering  heads;  (3)  its  oily  seeds. 

Hemp  has  been  employed  for  its  fibre  from  ancient  times. 
Herodotus  (iv.  74)  mentions  the  wild  and  cultivated  hemp  of 
Scythia,  and  describes  the  hempen  garments  made  by  the 
Thracians  as  equal  to  linen  in  fineness.  Hesychius  says  the 
Thracian  women  made  sheets  of  hemp.  Moschion  (about  200 
B.C.)  records  the  use  of  hempen  ropes  for  rigging  the  ship 
"  Syracusia  "  built  for  Hiero  II.  The  hemp  plant  has  been 
cultivated  in  northern  India  from  a  considerable  antiquity, 
not  only  as  a  drug  but  for  its  fibre.  The  Anglo-Saxons  were 
well  acquainted  with  the  mode  of  preparing  hemp.  Hempen 
cloth  became  common  in  central  and  southern  Europe  in  the 
I3th  century. 

Hemp-resin. — Hemp  as  a  drug  or  intoxicant  for  smoking 
and  chewing  occurs  in  the  three  forms  of  bhang,  ganja  and 
charas. 

1.  Bhang,   the   Hindustani  siddhi  or  sabzi,  consists  of  the 
dried  leaves  and  small  stalks  of  the  hemp;  a  faw  fruits  occur  in 
it.    It  is  of  a  dark  brownish-green  colour,  and  has  a  faint  peculiar 
odour  and  but  a  slight  taste.     It  is  smoked  with  or  without 
tobacco;  or  it  is  made  into  a  sweetmeat  with  honey,  sugar 
and  aromatic  spices;  or  it  is  powdered  and  infused  in  cold  water, 
yielding  a  turbid  drink,  subdschi.    Hashish  is  one  of  the  Arabic 
names  given  to  the  Syrian  and  Turkish  preparations  of  the 
resinous  hemp  leaves.    One  of  the  commonest  of  these  prepara- 
tions is  made  by  heating  the  bhang  with  water  and  butter,  the 
butter  becoming  thus  charged  with  the  resinous  and  active 
substances  of  the  plant. 

2.  Ganja,  the  guaza  of  the  London  brokers,  consists  of  the 
flowering  and  fruiting  heads  of  the  female  plant.    It  is  brownish- 
green,  and  otherwise  resembles  bhang,  as  in  odour  and  taste. 
Some  of  the  more  esteemed  kinds  of  hashish  are  prepared  from 
this  ganja.     Ganja  is  met  with  in  the  Indian  bazaars  in  dense 
bundles  of  24  plants  or  heads  apiece.     The  hashish  in  such 
extensive  use  in  Central  Asia  is  often  seen  in  the  bazaars  of  large 
cities  in  the  form  of  cakes,  i  to  3  in.  thick,  5  to  10  in.  broad  and 
10  to  15  in.  long. 

3.  Charas,  or  churrus,  is  the  resin  itself  collected,  as  it  exudes 
naturally  from  the  plant,  in  different  ways.     The  best  sort  is 
gathered   by   the   hand   like  opium;   sometimes   the   resinous 
exudation  of  the  plant  is  made  to  stick  first  of  all  to  cloths,  or 
to  the  leather  garments  of  men,  or  even  to  their  skin,  and  is  then 
removed  by  scraping,  and  afterwards  consolidated  by  kneading, 
pressing  and  rolling.    It  contains  about  one-third  or  one-fourth 
its  weight  of  the  resin.    But  the  churrus  prepared  by  different 
methods  and  in  different  countries  differs  greatly  in  appearance 
and  purity.    Sometimes  it  takes  the  form  of  egg-like  masses  of 
greyish-brown   colour,  having  when  of  high  quality  a  shining 
resinous  fracture.     Often  it  occurs  in  the  form  of  irregular 
friable  lumps,  like  pieces  of  impure  linseed  oil-cake. 

The  medicinal  and  intoxicating  properties  of  hemp  have 
probably  been  known  in  Oriental  countries  from  a  very  early 
period.  An  ancient  Chinese  herbal,  part  of  which  was  written 
about  the  5th  century  B.C.,  while  the  remainder  is  of  still  earlier 


date,  notices  the  seed  and  flower-bearing  kinds  of  hemp.  Other 
early  writers  refer  to  hemp  as  a  remedy.  The  medicinal  and 
dietetic  use  of  hemp  spread  through  India,  Persia  and  Arabia 
in  the  early  middle  ages.  The  use  of  hemp  (bhang)  in  India  was 
noticed  by  Garcia  d'Orta  in  1563.  Berlu  in  his  Treasury  of  Drugs 
(1690)  describes  it  as  of  "  an  infatuating  quality  and  pernicious 
use."  Attention  was  recalled  to  this  drug,  in  consequence  of 
Napoleon's  Egyptian  expedition,  by  de  Sacy  (1809)  and  Rouger 
(1810).  Its  modern  medicinal  use  is  chiefly  due  to  trials  by  Dr 
O'Shaughnessy  in  Calcutta  (1838-1842).  The  plant  is  grown 
partly  and  of  ten  mainly  for  the  sake  of  its  resin  in  Persia,  northern 
India  and  Arabia,  in  many  parts  of  Africa  and  in  Brazil. 

Pharmacology  and  Therapeutics. — The  composition  of  this 
drug  is  still  extremely  obscure;  partly,  perhaps,  because  it 
varies  so  much  in  individual  specimens.  It  appears  to  contain 
at  least  two  alkaloids — cannabinine  and  tetano-cannabine — of 
which  the  former  is  volatile.  The  chief  active  principle  may 
possibly  be  neither  of  these,  but  the  substance  cannabinon. 
There  are  also  resins,  a  volatile  oil  and  several  other  constituents. 
Cannabis  indica — as  the  drug  is  termed  in  the  pharmacopoeias — 
may  be  given  as  an  extract  (dose  j-i  gr.)  or  tincture  (dose  5-15 
minims). 

The  drug  has  no  external  action.  The  effects  of  its  absorption, 
whether  it  be  swallowed  or  smoked,  vary  within  wide  limits 
in  different  individuals  and  races.  So  great  is  this  variation  as 
to  be  inexplicable  except  on  the  view  that  the  nature  and  propor- 
tions of  the  active  principles  vary  greatly  in  different  specimens. 
But  typically  the  drug  in  an  intoxicant,  resembling  alcohol  in 
many  features  of  its  action,  but  differing  in  others.  The  early 
symptoms  are  highly  pleasurable,  and  it  is  for  these,  as  in  the  case 
of  other  stimulants,  that  the  drug  is  so  largely  consumed  in  the 
East.  There  is  a  subjective  sensation  of  mental  brilliance,  but, 
as  in  other  cases,  this  is  not  borne  out  by  the  objective  results. 
It  has  been  suggested  that  the  incoordination  of  nervous  action 
under  the  influence  of  Indian  hemp  may  be  due  to  independent 
and  non-concerted  action  on  the  part  of  the  two  halves  of  the 
cerebrum.  Following  on  a  decided  lowering  of  the  pain  and 
touch  senses,  which  may  even  lead  to  complete  loss  of  cutaneous 
sensation,  there  comes  a  sleep  which  is  often  accompanied  by 
pleasant  dreams.  There  appears  to  be  no  evidence  in  the  case 
of  either  the  lower  animals  or  the  human  subject  that  the  drug 
is  an  aphrodisiac.  Excessive  indulgence  in  cannabis  indica  is 
very  rare,  but  may  lead  to  general  ill-health  and  occasionally  to 
insanity.  The  apparent  impossibility  of  obtaining  pure  and 
trustworthy  samples  of  the  drug  has  led  to  its  entire  abandon- 
ment in  therapeutics.  When  a  good  sample  is  obtained  it  is  a 
safe  and  efficient  hypnotic,  at  any  rate  in  the  case  of  a  European. 
The  tincture  should  not  be  prescribed  unless  precautions  are 
taken  to  avoid  the  precipitation  of  the  resin  which  follows  its 
dilution  with  water. 

See  Watt,  Dictionary  of  the  Economic  Products  of  India. 

HEMSTERHUIS,  FRANCOIS  (1721-1790),  Dutch  writer  on 
aesthetics  and  moral  philosophy,  son  of  Tiberius  Hemsterhuis, 
was  born  at  Franeker  in  Holland,  on  the  27th  of  December  1721. 
He  was  educated  at  the  university  of  Leiden,  where  he  studied 
Plato.  Failing  to  obtain  a  professorship,  he  entered  the  service 
of  the  state,  and  for  many  years  acted  as  secretary  to  the  state 
council  of  the  United  Provinces.  He  died  at  the  Hague  on  the 
7th  of  July  1790.  Through  his  philosophical  writings  he  became 
acquainted  with  many  distinguished  persons — Goethe,  Herder, 
Princess  Amalia  of  Gallitzin,  and  especially  Jacobi,  with  whom 
he  had  much  in  common.  Both  were  idealists,  and  their  works 
suffer  from  a  similar  lack  of  arrangement,  although  distinguished 
by  elegance  of  form  and  refined  sentiment.  His  most  valuable 
contributions  are  in  the  department  of  aesthetics  or  the  general 
analysis  of  feeling.  His  philosophy  has  been  characterized  as 
Socratic  in  content  and  Platonic  in  form.  Its  foundation  was 
the  desire  for  self-knowledge  and  truth,  untrammelled  by  the 
rigid  bonds  of  any  particular  system. 

His  most  important  works,  all  of  which  were  written  in  French,  are : 
Lettre  sur  la  sculpture  (1769),  in  which  occurs  the  well-known  defini- 
tion of  the  Beautiful  as  "  that  which  gives  us  the  greatest  number  of 


HEMSTERHUIS,  T.— HENBANE 


265 


ideas  in  the  shortest  space  of  time  " ;  its  continuation,  Lettre  sur 
Its  desirs  (1770);  Lettre  sur  I'homme  et  ses  rapports  (1772),  in  which 
the  "moral  organ"  and  the  theory  of  knowledge  are  discussed; 
Sopyle  (1778),  a  dialogue  on  the  relation  between  the  soul  and  the 
body,  and  also  an  attack  on  materialism;  Aristee  (1779),  the 
"  theodicy  "  of  Hemsterhuis,  discussing  the  existence  of  God  and  his 
relation  to  man;  Simon '(1787),  on  the  four  faculties  of  the  soul, 
which  are  the  will,  the  imagination,  the  moral  principle  (which  is 
both  passive  and  active);  Alexis  (1787),  an  attempt  to  prove  that 
chere  are  three  golden  ages,  the  last  being  the  life  beyond  the  grave ; 
Lettre  sur  Vatheisme  (1/87). 

The  best  collected  edition  of  his  works  is  by  P.  S.  Meijboom 
(1846-1850);  see  also  S.  A.  Gronemann,  F.  Hemsterhuis,  de  Neder- 
landische  Wijsgeer  (Utrecht,  1867) ;  E.  Grucker,  Francois  Hemsterhuis , 
so,  vie  et  ses  ceuvres  (Paris,  1866);  E.  Meyer,  Der  Philosoph  Franz 
Hemsterhuis  (Breslau,  1893),  with  bibliographical  notice. 

HEMSTERHUIS,  TIBERIUS  (1685-1766),  Dutch  philologist 
and  critic,  was  born  on  the  pth  of  January  1685  at  Groningen 
in  Holland.  His  father,  a  learned  physician,  gave  him  so  good 
an  early  education  that,  when  he  entered  the  university  of  his 
native  town  in  his  fifteenth  year,  he  speedily  proved  himself  to 
be  the  best  student  of  mathematics.  After  a  year  or  two  at 
Groningen,  he  was  attracted  to  the  university  of  Leiden  by  the 
fame  of  Perizonius;  and  while  there  he  was  entrusted  with  the 
duty  of  arranging  the  manuscripts  in  the  library.  Though  he 
accepted  an  appointment  as  professor  of  mathematics  and 
philosophy  at  Amsterdam  in  his  twentieth  year,  he  had  already 
directed  his  attention  to  the  study  of  the  ancient  languages. 
In  1706  he  completed  the  edition  of  Pollux's  Onomasticon  begun 
by  Lederlin;  but  the  praise  he  received  from  his  countrymen 
was  more  than  counterbalanced  by  two  letters  of  criticism  from 
Bentley,  which  mortified  him  so  keenly  that  for  two  months  he 
refused  to  open  a  Greek  book.  In  1717  Hemsterhuis  was 
appointed  professor  of  Greek  at  Franeker,  but  he  did  not  enter 
on  his  duties  there  till  1720.  In  1738  he  became  professor  of 
national  history  also.  Two  years  afterwards  he  was  called  to 
teach  the  same  subjects  at  Leiden,  where  he  died  on  the  7th  of 
April  1766.  Hemsterhuis  was  the  founder  of  a  laborious  and 
useful  Dutch  school  of  criticism,  which  had  famous  disciples 
in  Valckenaer,  Lennep  and  Ruhnken. 

His  chief  writings  are  the  following:  Luciani  cottoquia  et  Timon 
(1708);  Aristophanis  Plutus  (1744);  Notae,  &c.,  ad  Xenopkontem 
Ephesium  in  the  Miscellanea  crilica  of  Amsterdam,  vols.  iii.  and 
iv.;  Observationes  ad  Chrysostomi  homilias ;  Orationes  (1784); 
a  Latin  translation  of  the  Birds  of  Aristophanes,  in  Kiister's  edition ; 
notes  to  Bernard's  Thomas  Magister,  to  Alberti's  Hesychius,  to 
Ernesti's  Callimachus  and  to  Burmann's  Propertius.  See  Elogium 
T.  Hemsterhusii  (with  Bentley's  letters)  by  Ruhnken  (1789),  and 
Supplementa  annotalionis  ad  elogium  T.  Hemsterhusii,  &c.  (Leiden, 
1874) ;  also  J.  E.  Sandys'  Hist.  Class.  Scholarship,  ii.  (1908). 

HEMY,  CHARLES  NAPIER  (1841-  ),  British  painter, 
born  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  was  trained  in  the  Newcastle  school 
of  art,  in  the  Antwerp  academy  and  in  the  studio  of  Baron  Leys. 
He  has  produced  some  figure  subjects  and  landscapes,  but  is 
best  known  by  his  admirable  marine  paintings.  He  was  elected 
an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1898,  associate  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Painters  in  Water  Colours  in  1890  and  member  in 
1897.  Two  of  his  paintings,  "  Pilchards  "  (1897)  and  "  London 
River  "  (1904),  are  in  the  National  Gallery  of  British  Art. 

HEN,  a  female  bird,  especially  the  female  of  the  common  fowl 
((?.».) .  The  O.  Eng.  keen  is  the  feminine  form  of  hana,  the  male  bird, 
a  correlation  of  words  which  is  represented  in  other  Teutonic 
languages,  cf.  Ger.  Hahn,  Henne,  Dutch  haan,  hen,  Swed.  hane, 
honne,  &c.  The  O.  Eng.  name  for  the  male  bird  has  disappeared, 
its  place  being  taken  by  "  cock,"  a  word  probably  of  onomato- 
poeic origin,  being  from  a  base  kuk-  or  kik-,  seen  also  in  "  chicken." 
This  word  also  appears  in  Fr.  coq,  and  medieval  Lat.  coccus. 

HENAULT,  CHARLES  JEAN  FRANCOIS  (1685-1770),  French 
historian,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  8th  of  February  1685.  His 
father,  a  farmer-general  of  taxes,  was  a  man  of  literary  tastes, 
and  young  Renault  obtained  a  good  education  at  the  Jesuit 
college.  Captivated  by  the  eloquence  of  Massillon,  in  his  fifteenth 
year  he  entered  the  Oratory  with  the  view  of  becoming  a  preacher, 
but  after  two  years'  residence  he  changed  his  intention,  and, 
inheriting  a  position  which  secured  him  access  to  the  most  select 
society  of  Paris,  he  achieved  distinction  at  an  early  period  by  his 


gay,  witty  and  graceful  manners.  His  literary  talent,  mani- 
fested in  the  composition  of  various  light  poetical  pieces,  an 
opera,  a  tragedy  (Cornelie  vestale,  1710),  &c.,  obtained  his  entrance 
to  the  Academy  (1723).  Petit-matire  as  he  was,  he  had  also 
serious  capacity,  for  he  became  councillor  of  the  parlement  of 
Paris  (1705),  and  in  1710  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  court  of 
enquetes.  After  the  death  of  the  count  de  Rieux  (son  of  the 
famous  financier,  Samuel  Bernard)  he  became  (1753)  super- 
intendent of  the  household  of  Queen  Marie  Leszczynska,  whose 
intimate  friendship  he  had  previously  enjoyed.  On  his  recovery 
in  his  eightieth  year  from  a  dangerous  malady  (1765)  he  pro- 
fessed to  have  undergone  religious  conversion  and  retired  into 
private  life,  devoting  the  remainder  of  his  days  to  study  and 
devotion.  His  religion  was,  however,  according  to  the  marquis 
d'Argenson,  "  exempt  from  fanaticism,  persecution,  bitterness 
and  intrigue  ";  and  it  did  not  prevent  him  from  continuing  his 
friendship  with  Voltaire,  to  whom  it  is  said  he  had  formerly 
rendered  the  service  of  saving  the  manuscript  of  La  Henriade, 
when  its  author  was  about  to  commit  it  to  the  flames.  The 
literary  work  on  which  Henault  bestowed  his  chief  attention  was 
the  Abr6g6  chronologique  de  I'histoire  de  France,  first  published 
in  1744  without  the  author's  name.  In  the  compass  of  two 
volumes  he  comprised  the  whole  history  of  France  from  the 
earliest  times  to  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.  The  work  has  no 
originality.  Henault  had  kept  his  note-books  of  the  history 
lectures  at  the  Jesuit  college,  of  which  the  substance  was  taken 
from  Mezeray  and  P.  Daniel.  He  revised  them  first  in  1723, 
and  later  put  them  in  the  form  of  question  and  answer  on  the 
model  of  P.  le  Ragois,  and  by  following  Dubos  and  Boulain- 
villiers  and  with  the  aid  of  the  abbe  Boudot  he  compiled  his^l  bregi. 
The  research  is  all  on  the  surface  and  is  only  borrowed.  But 
the  work  had  a  prodigious  success,  and  was  translated  into 
several  languages,  even  into  Chinese.  This  was  due  partly  to 
Renault's  popularity  and  position,  partly  to  the  agreeable  style 
which  made  the  history  readable.  He  inserted,  according  to 
the  fashion  of  the  period,  moral  and  political  reflections, 
which  are  always  brief  and  generally  as  fresh  and  pleasing  as  they 
are  just.  A  few  masterly  strokes  reproduced  the  leading  features 
of  each  age  and  the  characters  of  its  illustrious  men;  accurate 
chronological  tables  set  forth  the  most  interesting  events  in  the 
history  of  each  sovereign  and  the  names  of  the  great  men 
who  flourished  during  his  reign;  and  interspersed  throughout 
the  work  are  occasional  chapters  on  the  social  and  civil  state  of 
the  country  at  the  dose  of  each  era  in  its  history.  Continuations 
of  the  work  have  been  made  at  separate  periods  by  Fantin  des 
Odoards,  by  Anguis  with  notes  by  Walckenaer,  and  by  Michaud. 
He  died  at  Paris  on  the  24th  of  November  1770. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Renault's  Memoires  have  come  down  to  us  in 
two  different  versions,  both  claiming  to  be  authentic.  One  was 
published  in  1855  by  M.  du  Vigan;  the  other  was  owned  by  the 
Comte  de  Coutades,  who  permitted  Lucien  Percy  to  give  long  extracts 
in  his  work  on  President  Henault  (Paris,  1893).  The  memoirs  are 
fragmentary  and  disconnected,  but  contain  interesting  anecdotes  and 
details  concerning  persons  of  note.  See  the  Correspondence  of  Grimm , 
of  Madame  du  Deffand  and  of  Voltaire;  the  notice  by  Walckenaer 
in  the  edition  of  the  Abrege;  Sainte-Beuve,  Causeries  du  lundi, 
vol.  xi. ;  and  the  Origines  de  I'abrege  (Ann.  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  de 
I'histoire  de  France,  1901).  Also  H.  Lion,  Le  President  Henault 
(Paris,  1903). 

HENBANE  (Fr.  jusquiaume,  from  the  Gr.  voo-Kvafios,  or 
hog's-bean;  Ital.  giusquiamo;  Ger.  Sckwarzes  Bilsenkraut, 
Hiihnertod,  Saubohne  and  Zigeuner-Korn  or  "  gipsies'  corn  "), 
the  common  name  of  the  plant  Hyoscyamus  niger,  a  member 
of  the  natural  order  Solanaceae,  indigenous  to  Britain,  found 
wild  in  waste  places,  on  rubbish  about  villages  and  old  castles, 
and  cultivated  for  medicinal  use  in  various  counties  in  the  south 
and  east  of  England.  It  occurs  also  in  central  and  southern 
Europe  and  in  western  Asia  extending  to  India  and  Siberia, 
and  has  long  been  naturalized  in  the  United  States.  There 
are  two  forms  of  the  plant,  an  annual  and  a  biennial,  which 
spring  indifferently  from  the  same  crop  of  seed — the  one  growing 
on  during  summer  to  a  height  of  from  i  to  2  ft.,  and  flowering 
and  perfecting  seed;  the  other  producing  the  first  season  only 
a  tuft  of  radical  leaves,  which  disappear  in  winter,  leaving  under- 


266 


HENCHMAN— HENDERSON,  A. 


ground  a  thick  fleshy  root,  from  the  crown  of  which  arises  in 
spring  a  branched  flowering  stem,  usually  much  taller  and  more 
vigorous  than  the  flowering  stems  of  the  annual  plants.  The 
biennial  form  is  that  which  is  considered  officinal.  The  radical 
leaves  of  this  biennial  plant  spread  out  flat  on  all  sides  from  the 
crown  of  the  root;  they  are  ovate-oblong,  acute,  stalked,  and 
more  or  less  incisely-toothed,  of  a  greyish-green  colour,  and 
covered  with  viscid  hairs;  these  leaves  perish  at  the  approach 
of  winter.  The  flowering  stem  pushes  up  from  the  root-crown 
in  spring,  ultimately  reaching  from  3  to  4  ft.  in  height,  and  as  it 
grows  becoming  branched,  and  furnished  with  alternate  sessile 
leaves,  which  are  stem-clasping,  oblong,  unequally-lobed,  clothed 
with  glandular  clammy  hairs,  and  of  a  dull  grey-green,  the  whole 
plant  having  a  powerful  nauseous  odour.  The  flowers  are  shortly- 
stalked,  the  lower  ones  growing  in  the  fork  of  the  branches, 
the  upper  ones  sessile  in  one-sided  leafy  spikes  which  are  rolled 
back  at  the  top  before  flowering,  the  leaves  becoming  smaller 
upwards  and  taking  the  place  of  bracts.  The  flowers  have  an 
urn-shaped  calyx  which  persists  around  the  fruit  and  is  strongly 
veined,  with  five  stiff,  broad,  almost  prickly  lobes;  these, 
when  the  soft  matter  is  removed  by  maceration,  form  very  elegant 
specimens  when  associated  with  leaves  prepared  in  a  similar 
way.  The  corollas  are  obliquely  funnel-shaped,  of  a  dirty 
yellow  or  buff,  marked  with  a  close  reticulation  of  purple  veins. 
The  capsule  opens  transversely  by  a  convex  lid  and  contains 
numerous  seeds.  Both  the  leaves  and  the  seeds  are  employed 
in  pharmacy.  The  Mahommedan  doctors  of  India  are 
accustomed  to  prescribe  the  seeds.  Henbane  yields  a  poisonous 
alkaloid,  hyoscyamine,  which  is  stated  to  have  properties  almost 
identical  with  those  of  atropine,  from  which  it  differs  in  being 
more  soluble  in  water.  It  is  usually  obtained  in  an  amorphous, 
scarcely  ever  in  a  crystalline  state.  Its  properties  have  been 
investigated  in  Germany  by  T.  Husemann,  Schroff,  Hohn,  &c. 
Hohn  finds  its  chemical  composition  expressed  by  CigHjs^Oa. 
(Compare  Hellmann,  Beitrage  zur  Kennlnis  der  physiolog. 
Wirkung  des  Hyoscyamins,  &c.,  Jena,  1874.)  In  small  and 
repeated  doses  henbane  has  been  found  to  have  a  tranquillizing 
effect  upon  persons  affected  by  severe  nervous  irritability. 
In  poisonous  doses  it  causes  loss  of  speech,  distortion  and 
paralysis.  In  the  form  of  extract  or  tincture  it  is  a  valuable 
remedy  in  the  hands  of  a  medical  man,  either  as  an  anodyne, 
a  hypnotic  or  a  sedative.  The  extract  of  henbane  is  rich  in 
nitrate  of  potassium  and  other  inorganic  salts.  The  smoking 
of  the  seeds  and  capsules  of  henbane  is  noted  in  books  as  a 
somewhat  dangerous  remedy  adopted  by  country  people  for 
toothache.  Accidental  poisoning  from  henbane  occasionally 
occurs,  owing  sometimes  to  the  apparent  edibility  and  whole- 
someness  of  the  root. 

See  Bentley  and  Trumen,  Medicinal  Plants,  194  (1880). 

HENCHMAN,  originally,  probably,  one  who  attended  on  a 
horse,  a  grqom,  and  hence,  like  groom  (q.v.),  a  title  of  a  sub- 
ordinate official  in  royal  or  noble  households.  The  first  part 
of  the  word  is  the  O.  Eng.  hengest,  a  horse,  a  word  which  occurs  in 
many  Teutonic  languages,  cf .  Ger.  and  Dutch  hengst.  The  word 
appears  in  the  name,  Hengest,  of  the  Saxon  chieftain  (see 
HENGEST  AND  HORSA)  and  still  survives  in  English  in  place  and 
other  names  beginning  with  Hingst-  or  Hinx-.  Henchmen, 
pages  of  honour  or  squires,  rode  or  walked  at  the  side  of  their 
master  in  processions  and  the  like,  and  appear  in  the  English 
royal  household  from  the  I4th  century  till  Elizabeth  abolished 
the  royal  henchmen,  known  also  as  the  "  children  of  honour." 
The  word  was  obsolete  in  English  from  the  middle  of  the  I7th 
century,  and  seems  to  have  been  revived  through  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  who  took  the  word  and  its  derivation,  according  to  the 
New  English  Dictionary,  from  Edward  Burt's  Letters  from  a 
Gentleman  in  the  North  of  Scotland,  together  with  its  erroneous 
derivation  from  "  haunch."  The  word  is,  in  this  sense,  used  as 
synonymous  with  "  gillie,"  the  faithful  personal  follower  of  a 
Highland  chieftain,  the  man  who  stands  at  his  master's  "  haunch," 
ready  for  any  emergency.  It  is  this  sense  that  usually  survives 
in  modern  usage  of  the  word,  where  it  is  often  used  of  an  out-and- 
out  adherent  or  partisan,  ready  to  do  anything. 


HENDERSON,  ALEXANDER  (1583-1646),  Scottish  ecclesi- 
astic, was  born  in  1583  at  Criech,  Fifeshire.  He  graduated  at 
the  university  of  St  Andrews  in  1603,  and  in  1610  was  appointed 
professor  of  rhetoric  and  philosophy  and  questor  of  the  faculty 
of  arts.  Shortly  after  this  he  was  presented  to  the  living  of 
Leuchars.  As  Henderson  was  forced  upon  his  parish  by  Arch- 
bishop George  Gladstanes,  and  was  known  to  sympathize  with 
episcopacy,  his  settlement  was  at  first  extremely  unpopular; 
but  he  subsequently  changed  his  views  and  became  a  Presby- 
terian in  doctrine  and  church  government,  and  one  of  the  most 
esteemed  ministers  in  Scotland.  He  early  made  his  mark  as  a 
church  leader,  and  took  an  active  part  in  petitioning  against  the 
"  five  acts  "  and  later  against  the  introduction  of  a  service-book 
and  canons  drawn  up  on  the  model  of  the  English  prayer-book. 
On  the  ist  of  March  1638  the  public  signing  of  the  "  National 
Covenant  "  began  in  Greyfriars  Church,  Edinburgh.  Henderson 
was  mainly  responsible  for  the  final  form  of  this  document, 
which  consisted  of  (i)  the  "  king's  confession  "  drawn  up  in 
1581  by  John  Craig,  (2)  a  recital  of  the  acts  of  parliament 
against  "  superstitious  and  papistical  rites,"  and  (3)  an  elaborate 
oath  to  maintain  the  true  reformed  religion.  Owing  to  the  skill 
shown  on  this  occasion  he  seems  to  have  been  applied  to  when 
any  manifesto  of  unusual  ability  was  required.  In  July  of  the 
same  year  he  proceeded  to  the  north  to  debate  on  the  "  Covenant " 
with  the  famous  Aberdeen  doctors;  but  he  was  not  well  received 
by  them.  "  The  voyd  church  was  made  fast,  and  the  keys 
keeped  by  the  magistrate,"  says  Baillie.  Henderson's  next 
public  opportunity  was  in  the  famous  Assembly  which  met  in 
Glasgow  on  the  2  ist  of  November  1 638.  He  was  chosen  moderator 
by  acclamation,  being,  as  Baillie  says,  "  incomparablie  the  ablest 
man  of  us  all  for  all  things."  James  Hamilton,  3rd  marquess 
of  Hamilton,  was  the  king's  commissioner;  and  when  the 
Assembly  insisted  on  proceeding  with  the  trial  of  the  bishops, 
he  formally  dissolved  the  meeting  under  pain  of  treason.  Acting 
on  the  constitutional  principle  that  the  king's  right  to  convene 
did  not  interfere  with  the  church's  independent  right  to  hold 
assemblies,  they  sat  till  the  2Oth  of  December,  deposed  all  the 
Scottish  bishops,  excommunicated  a  number  of  them,  repealed 
all  acts  favouring  episcopacy,  and  reconstituted  the  Scottish 
Kirk  on  thorough  Presbyterian  principles.  During  the  sitting  of 
this  Assembly  it  was  carried  by  a  majority  of  seventy-five  votes 
that  Henderson  should  be  transferred  to  Edinburgh.  He  had 
been  at  Leuchars  for  about  twenty-three  years,  and  was  extremely 
reluctant  to  leave  it. 

While  Scotland  and  England  were  preparing  for  the  "  First 
Bishops'  War,"  Henderson  drew  up  two  papers,  entitled  respec- 
tively The  Remonstrance  of  the  Nobility  and  Instructions  for 
Defensive  Arms.  The  first  of  these  documents  he  published 
himself;  the  second  was  published  against  his  wish  by  John 
Corbet  (1603-1641),  a  deposed  minister.  The  "  First  Bishops' 
War  "  did  not  last  long.  At  the  Pacification  of  Birks  the  king 
virtually  granted  all  the  demands  of  the  Scots.  In  the  negotia- 
tions for  peace  Henderson  was  one  of  the  Scottish  commissioners, 
and  made  a  very  favourable  impression  on  the  king.  In  1640 
Henderson  was  elected  by  the  town  council  rector  of  Edinburgh 
University — an  office  to  which  he  was  annually  re-elected  till 
his  death.  The  Pacification  of  Birks  had  been  wrung  from  the 
king;  and  the  Scots,  seeing  that  he  was  preparing  for  the 
"  Second  Bishops'  War,"  took  the  initiative,  and  pressed  into 
England  so  vigorously  that  Charles  had  again  to  yield  everything. 
The  maturing  of  the  treaty  of  peace  took  a  considerable  time, 
and  Henderson  was  again  active  in  the  negotiations,  first  at 
Ripon  (October  ist)  and  afterwards  in  London.  While  he  was 
in  London  he  had  a  personal  interview  with  the  king,  with  the 
view  of  obtaining  assistance  for  the  Scottish  universities  from 
the  money  formerly  applied  to  the  support  of  the  bishops. 
On  Henderson's  return  to  Edinburgh  in  July  1641  the  Assembly 
was  sitting  at  St  Andrews.  To  suit  the  convenience  of  the 
parliament,  however,  it  removed  to  Edinburgh;  Henderson 
was  elected  moderator  of  the  Edinburgh  meeting.  In  this 
Assembly  he  proposed  that  "  a  confession  of  faith,  a  catechism, 
a  directory  for  all  the  parts  of  the  public  worship,  and  a  platform 


HENDERSON,  E.— HENDERSON,  G.  F.  R. 


267 


of  government,  wherein  possibly  England  and  we  might  agree," 
should  be  drawn  up.  This  was  unanimously  approved  of,  and 
the  laborious  undertaking  was  left  in  Henderson's  hands;  but 
the  "  notable  motion  "  did  not  lead  to  any  immediate  results. 
During  Charles's  second  state-visit  to  Scotland,  in  the  autumn 
of  1641,  Henderson  acted  as  his  chaplain,  and  managed  to  get 
the  funds,  formerly  belonging  to  the  bishopric  of  Edinburgh, 
applied  to  the  metropolitan  university.  In  1642  Henderson, 
whose  policy  was  to  keep  Scotland  neutral  in  the  war  which  had 
now  broken  out  between  the  king  and  the  parliament,  was 
engaged  in  corresponding  with  England  on  ecclesiastical  topics; 
and,  shortly  afterwards,  he  was  sent  to  Oxford  to  mediate 
between  the  king  and  his  parliament;  but  his  mission  proved 
a  failure. 

A  memorable  meeting  of  the  General  Assembly  was  held  in 
August  1643.  Henderson  was  elected  moderator  for  the  third 
time.  He  presented  a  draft  of  the  famous  "  Solemn  League  and 
Covenant,"  which  was  received  with  great  enthusiasm.  Unlike 
the  "  National  Covenant  "  of  1638,  which  applied  to  Scotland 
only,  this  document  was  common  to  the  two  kingdoms. 
Henderson,  Baillie,  Rutherford  and  others  were  sent  up  to 
London  to  represent  Scotland  in  the  Assembly  at  Westminster. 
The  "  Solemn  League  and  Covenant,"  which  pledged  both 
countries  to  the  extirpation  of  prelacy,  leaving  further  decision 
as  to  church  government  to  be  decided  by  the  "  example  of  the 
best  reformed  churches,  "after  undergoing  some  slight  alterations, 
passed  the  two  Houses  of  Parliament  and  the  Westminster 
Assembly,  and  thus  became  law  for  the  two  kingdoms.  By 
means  of  it  Henderson  has  had  considerable  influence  on  the 
history  of  Great  Britain.  As  Scottish  commissioner  to  the 
Westminster  Assembly,  he  was  in  England  from  August  1643  till 
August  1646;  his  principal  work  was  the  drafting  of  the  directory 
for  public  worship.  Early  in  1643  Henderson  was  sent  to 
Uxbridge  to  aid  the  commissioners  of  the  two  parliaments  in 
negotiating  with  the  king;  but  nothing  came  of  the  conference. 
In  1646  the  king  joined  the  Scottish  army;  and,  after  retiring 
with  them  to  Newcastle,  he  sent  for  Henderson,  and  discussed 
with  him  the  two  systems  of  church  government  in  a  number  of 
papers.  Meanwhile  Henderson  was  failing  in  health.  He  sailed 
to  Scotland,  and  eight  days  after  his  arrival  died,  on  the  igth 
of  August  1646.  He  was  buried  in  Greyfriars  churchyard, 
Edinburgh ;  and  his  death  was  the  occasion  of  national  mourning 
in  Scotland.  On  the  7th  of  August  Baillie  had  written  that  he 
had  heard  that  Henderson  was  dying  "  most  of  heartbreak."  A 
document  was  published  in  London  purporting  to  be  a  "Declara- 
tion of  Mr  Alexander  Henderson  made  upon  his  Death-bed  "; 
and,  although  this  paper  was  disowned,  denounced  and  shown  to 
be  false  in  the  General  Assembly  of  August  1648,  the  document 
was  used  by  Clarendon  as  giving  the  impression  that  Henderson 
had  recanted.  Its  foundation  was  probably  certain  expressions 
lamenting  Scottish  interference  in  English  affairs. 

Henderson  is  one  of  the  greatest  men  in  the  history  of  Scotland 
and,  next  to  Knox,  is  certainly  the  most  famous  of  Scottish 
ecclesiastics.  He  had  great  political  genius;  and  his  statesman- 
ship was  so  influential  that  "  he  was,"  as  Masson  well  observes, 
"  a  cabinet  minister  without  office."  He  has  made  a  deep  mark 
on  the  history,  not  only  of  Scotland,  but  of  England;  and  the 
existing  Presbyterian  churches  in  Scotland  are  largely  indebted 
to  him  for  the  forms  of  their  dogmas  and  their  ecclesiastical 
organization.  He  is  thus  justly  considered  the  second  founder  of 
the  Reformed  Church  in  Scotland. 

See  M'Crie's  Life  of  Alexander  Henderson  (1846) ;  Alton's  Life  and 
Times  of  Alexander  Henderson  (1836);  The  Letters  and  Journals  of 
Robert  Baillie  (1841-1842)  (an  exceedingly  valuable  work,  from  an 
historical  point  of  view);  J.  H.  Burton's  History  of  Scotland;  D. 
Masson's  Life  of  Drummond  of  Hawthornden;  and,  above  all, 
Masson's  Life  of  Milton;  Andrew  Lang,  Hist,  of  Scotland  (1907), 
vol.  iii.  Henderson's  own  works  are  chiefly  contributions  to  current 
controversies,  speeches  and  sermons.  (T.  Gl. ;  D.  MN.) 

HENDERSON,  EBENEZER  (1784-1858),  a  Scottish  divine,  was 
born  at  the  Linn  near  Dunfermline  on  the  i7th  of  November 
1784,  and  died  at  Mortlake  on  the  i7th  of  May  1858.  He  was  the 
youngest  son  of  an  agricultural  labourer,  and  after  three  years' 


schooling  spent  some  time  at  watchmaking  and  as  a  shoemaker's 
apprentice.  In  1803  he  joined  Robert  Haldane's  theological 
seminary,  and  in  1805  was  selected  to  accompany  the  Rev.  John 
Paterson  to  India;  but  as  the  East  India  Company  would  not 
allow  British  vessels  to  convey  missionaries  to  India,  Henderson 
and  his  colleague  went  to  Denmark  to  await  the  chance  of  a 
passage  to  Serampur,  then  a  Danish  port.  Being  unexpectedly 
delayed,  and  having  begun  to  preach  in  Copenhagen,  they 
ultimately  decided  to  settle  in  Denmark,  and  in  1806  Henderson 
became  pastor  at  Elsinore.  From  this  time  till  about  1817  he 
was  engaged  in  encouraging  the  distribution  of  Bibles  in  the 
Scandinavian  countries,  and  in  the  course  of  his  labours  he 
visited  Sweden  and  Lapland  (1807-1808),  Iceland  (1814-1815) 
and  the  mainland  of  Denmark  and  part  of  Germany  (1816). 
During  most  of  this  time  he  was  an  agent  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society.  On  the  6th  of  October  181 1  he  formed  the 
first  Congregational  church  in  Sweden.  In  1818,  after  a  visit  to 
England,  he  travelled  in  company  with  Paterson  through  Russia 
as  far  south  as  Tiflis,  but,  instead  of  settling  as  was  proposed  at 
Astrakhan,  he  retraced  his  steps,  having  resigned  his  connexion 
with  the  Bible  Society  owing  to  his  disapproval  of  a  translation 
of  the  Scriptures  which  had  been  made  in  Turkish.  In  1822  h'e 
was  invited  by  Prince  Alexander  (Galitzin)  to  assist  the  Russian 
Bible  Society  in  translating  the  Scriptures  into  various  languages 
spoken  in  the  Russian  empire.  After  twenty  years  of  foreign 
labour  Henderson  returned  to  England ,  and  in  1 8  2  5  was  appointed 
tutor  of  the  Mission  College,  Gosport.  In  1830  he  succeeded  Dr 
William  Harrison  as  theological  lecturer  and  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  in  Highbury  Congregational  College.  In  1850,  on  the 
amalgamation  of  the  colleges  of  Homerton,  Coward  and  Highbury, 
he  retired  on  a  pension.  In  1852-1853  he  was  pastor  of  Sheen 
Vale  chapel  at  Mortlake.  His  last  work  was  a  translation  of  the 
book  of  Ezekiel.  Henderson  was  a  man  of  great  linguistic  attain- 
ment. He  made  himself  more  or  less  acquainted,  not  only  with  the 
ordinary  languages  of  scholarly  accomplishment  and  the  various 
members  of  the  Scandinavian  group,  but  also  with  Hebrew, 
Syriac,  Ethiopic,  Russian,  Arabic,  Tatar,  Persian,  Turkish, 
Armenian,  Manchu,  Mongolian  and  Coptic.  He  organized  the 
first  Bible  Society  in  Denmark  (1814),  and  paved  the  way  for 
several  others.  In  1817  he  was  nominated  by  the  Scandinavian 
Literary  Society  a  corresponding  member;  and  in  1840  he  was 
made  D.D.  by  the  university  of  Copenhagen.  He  was  honorary 
secretary  for  life  of  the  Religious  Tract  Society,  and  one  of  the 
first  promoters  of  the  British  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel  among  the  Jews.  The  records  of  his  travels  in  Iceland 
(1818)  were  valuable  contributions  to  our  knowledge  of  that 
island.  His  other  principal  works  are:  Iceland,  or  the  Journal 
of  a  Residence  in  that  Island  (2  vols.,  1818);  Biblical  Researches 
and  Travels  in  Russia  (1826);  Elements  of  Biblical  Criticism  and 
Interpretation  (1830);  The  Vaudois,  a  Tour  of  the  Valleys  of 
Piedmont  (1845). 

See  Memoirs  of  Ebenezer  Henderson,  by  Thulia  S.  Henderson  (his 
daughter)  (London,  1859) ;  Congregational  Year  Book  (1859). 

HENDERSON,  GEORGE  FRANCIS  ROBERT  (1854-1903), 
British  soldier  and  military  writer,  was  born  in  Jersey  in  1854. 
Educated  at  Leeds  Grammar  School,  of  which  his  father,  after- 
wards Dean  of  Carlisle,  was  headmaster,  he  was  early  attracted 
to  the  study  of  history,  and  obtained  a  scholarship  at  St  John's 
College,  Oxford.  But  he  soon  left  the  University  for  Sandhurst, 
whence  he  obtained  his  first  commission  in  1878.  One  year 
later,  after  a  few  months'  service  in  India,  he  was  promoted 
lieutenant  and  returned  to  England,  and  in  1882  he  went  on 
active  service  with  his  regiment,  the  York  and  Lancaster  (6sth/ 
84th)  to  Egypt .  He  was  present  at  Tell-el-Mahuta  and  Kassassin, 
and  at  Tell-el-Kebir  was  the  first  man  of  his  regiment  to  enter  the 
enemy's  works.  His  conduct  attracted  the  notice  of  Sir  Garnet 
(afterwards  Lord)  Wolseley,  and  he  received  the  sth  class  of  the 
Medjidieh  order.  His  name  was,  further,  noted  for  a  brevet- 
majority,  which  he  did  not  receive  till  he  became  captain  in 
1886.  During  these  years  he  had  been  quietly  studying  military 
art  and  history  at  Gibraltar,  in  Bermuda  and  in  Nova  Scotia, 
in  spite  of  the  difficulties  of  research,  and  in  1889  appeared 


268 


HENDERSON,  J.—HENGEST  AND  HORSA 


(anonymously)  his  first  work,  The  Campaign  of  Fredericksburg. 
In  the  same  year  he  became  Instructor  in  Tactics,  Military  Law 
and  Administration  at  Sandhurst.  From  this  post  he  proceeded 
as  Professor  of  Military  Art  and  History  to  the  Staff  College 
(1892-1899),  and  there  exercised  a  profound  influence  on  the 
younger  generation  of  officers.  His  study  on  Spicheren  had  been 
begun  some  years  before,  and  in  1898  appeared,  as  the  result  of 
eight  years'  work,  his  masterpiece,  Stonewall  Jackson  and  the 
American  Civil  War.  In  the  South  African  War  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Henderson  served  with  distinction  on  the  staff  of  Lord 
Roberts  as  Director  of  Intelligence.  But  overwork  and  malaria 
broke  his  health,  and  he  had  to  return  home,  being  eventually 
selected  to  write  the  official  history  of  the  war.  But  failing 
health  obliged  him  to  go  to  Egypt,  where  he  died  at  Assuan  on 
the  5th  of  March  1903.  He  had  completed  the  portion  of  the 
history  of  the  South  African  War  dealing  with  the  events  up  to  the 
commencement  of  hostilities,  amounting  to  about  a  volume,  but 
the  War  Office  decided  to  suppress  this,  and  the  work  was  begun 
de  now  and  carried  out  by  Sir  F.  Maurice. 

Various  lectures  and  papers  by  Henderson  were  collected  and 
published  in  1905  by  Captain  Malcolm,  D.S.O.,  under  the  title 
The  Science  of  War;  to  this  collection  a  memoir  was  contributed  by 
Lord  Roberts.  See  also  Journal  of  the  Royal  United  Service 
Institution,  vol.  xlvii.  No.  302. 

HENDERSON,  JOHN  (1747-1785),  English  actor,  of  Scottish 
descent,  was  born  in  London.  He  made  his  first  appearance 
on  the  stage  at  Bath  on  the  6th  of  October  1772  as  Hamlet. 
His  success  in  this  and  other  Shakespearian  parts  led  to  his 
being  called  the  "  Bath  Roscius."  He  had  great  difficulty  in 
getting  a  London  engagement,  but  finally  appeared  at  the 
Haymarket  in  1777  as  Shylock,  and  his  success  was  a  source  of 
considerable  profit  to  Colman,  the  manager.  Sheridan  then 
engaged  him  to  play  at  Drury  Lane,  where  he  remained  for  two 
years.  When  the  companies  joined  forces  he  went  to  Covent 
Garden,  appearing  as  Richard  III,  in  1778,  and  creating  original 
parts  in  many  of  the  plays  of  Cumberland,  Shirley,  Jephson 
and  others.  His  last  appearance  was  in  1785  as  Horatius  in 
The  Roman  Father,  and  he  died  on  the  25th  of  November  of 
that  year  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  Garrick  was 
very  jealous  of  Henderson,  and  the  latter's  power  of  mimicry 
separated  him  also  from  Colman,  but  he  was  always  gratefully 
remembered  by  Mrs.  Siddons  and  others  of  his  profession  whom 
he  had  encouraged.  He  was  a  close  friend  of  Gainsborough, 
who  painted  his  portrait,  as  did  also  Stewart  and  Romney. 
He  was  co-author  of  Sheridan  and  Henderson's  Practical  Method 
of  Reading  and  Writing  English  Poetry. 

HENDERSON,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Henderson  county, 
Kentucky,  U.S.A.,  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Ohio  river,  about 
142  m.  W.S.W!  of  Louisville.  Pop.  (1890),  8835;  (1900),  10,272, 
of  whom  4029  were  negroes;  (1910  census)  11,452.  It  is 
served  by  the  Illinois  Central,  the  Louisville  &  Nashville,  and 
the  Louisville,  Henderson  &  St.  Louis  railways,  and  has  direct 
communication  by  steamboat  with  Louisville,  Evansville,  Cairo, 
Memphis  and  New  Orleans.  Henderson  is  built  on  the  high 
bank  of  the  river,  above  the  flood  level;  the  river  is  spanned 
here  by  a  fine  steel  bridge,  designed  by  George  W.  G.  Ferris 
(1859-1896),  the  designer  of  the  Ferris  Wheel.  The  city  has  a 
public  park  of  80  acres  and  a  Carnegie  library.  It  is  situated 
in  the  midst  of  a  region  whose  soil  is  said  to  be  the  best  in  the 
world  for  the  raising  of  dark,  heavy-fibred  tobacco,  and  is  well 
adapted  also  for  the  growing  of  fruit,  wheat  and  Indian  corn. 
Bituminous  coal  is  obtained  from  the  surrounding  country. 
Immense  quantities  of  stemmed  tobacco  are  shipped  from  here, 
and  the  city  is  an  important  market  for  Indian  corn.  The 
manufactures  of  the  city  include  cotton  and  woollen  goods, 
hominy,  meal,  flour,  tobacco  and  cigars,  carriages,  baskets, 
chairs  and  other  furniture,  bricks,  ice,  whisky  and  beer;  the 
value  of  the  city's  factory  products  in  1905  was  $1,365,120. 
•The  municipality  owns  and  operates  its  water  works,  gas  plant 
and  electric-lighting  plant.  Henderson,  named  in  honour  of 
Richard  Henderson  (1734-1785),  was  settled  as  early  as  1784, 
was  first  known  as  Red  Banks,  was  laid  out  as  a  town  by  Hender- 
son's company  in  1797,  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1810,  and 


was  first  chartered  as  a  city  in  1854.  The  city  boundary  lines 
were  extended  in  1905  by  the  annexation  of  Audubon  and 
Edgewood.  Henderson  was  for  some  time  the  home  of  John 
James  Audubon,  the  ornithologist. 

HENDIADYS,  the  name  adopted  from  the  Gr.  tv  dia  8vo1i> 
("  one  by  means  of  two  ")  for  a  rhetorical  figure,  in  which  two 
words  connected  by  a  copulative  conjunction  are  used  of  a  single 
idea;  usually  the  figure  takes  the  form  of  two  substantives 
instead  of  a  substantive  and  adjective,  as  in  the  classical  example 
pateris  libamus  et  auro  (Virgil,  Ceorgics,  ii.  192),  "  we  pour 
libations  in  cups  and  gold  "  for  "  cups  of  gold." 

HENDON,  an  urban  district  in  the  Harrow  parliamentary 
division  of  Middlesex,  England,  on  the  river  Brent,  8  m.  N.W. 
of  St  Paul's  Cathedral,  London,  served  by  the  Midland  railway. 
Pop.  (1891),  15,843;  (1901),  22,450.  The  nucleus  of  the  township 
lies  on  high  ground  to  the  east  of  the  Edgware  road,  which  crosses 
the  Welsh  Harp  reservoir  of  Regent's  Canal,  a  favourite  fishing 
and  skating  resort.  The  church  of  St  Mary  is  mainly  Per- 
pendicular, and  contains  a  Norman  font  and  monuments  of  the 
i8th  century.  To  the  north  of  the  village,  which  has  extended 
greatly  as  a  residential  suburb  of  the  metropolis,  is  Mill  Hill, 
with  a  Roman  Catholic  Missionary  College,  opened  in  1871, 
with  branches  at  Rosendaal,  Holland  and  Brixen,  Austria,  and 
a  preparatory  school  at  Freshfield  near  Liverpool;  and  a  large 
grammar  school  founded  by  Nonconformists  in  1807.  The 
manor  belonged  at  an  early  date  to  the  abbot  of  Westminster. 

HENDRICKS,  THOMAS  ANDREWS  (1819-1885),  American 
political  leader,  vice-president  of  the  United  States  in  1885, 
was  born  near  Zanesville,  Ohio,  on  the  7th  of  September  1819. 
He  graduated  at  Hanover  College,  Hanover,  Indiana,  in  1841, 
and  began  in  1843  a  successful  career  at  the  bar.  Identifying 
himself  with  the  Democratic  party,  he  served  in  the  state  House 
of  Representatives  in  1848,  and  was  a  prominent  member  of  the 
convention  for  the  revision  of  the  state  constitution  in  1850-1851, 
a  representative  in  Congress  (1851-1855),  commissioner  of  the 
United  States  General  Land  Office  (1855-1859),  a  United  States 
senator  (1863-1869),  and  governor  of  Indiana  (1873-1877). 
From  1868  until  his  death  he  was  put  forward  for  nomination 
for  the  presidency  at  every  national  Democratic  Convention  save 
in  1872.  Both  in  1876  and  1884,  after  his  failure  to  receive  the 
nomination  for  the  presidency,  he  was  nominated  by  the  Demo- 
cratic National  Convention  for  vice-president,  his  nomination 
in  each  of  these  conventions  being  made  partly,  it  seems,  with 
the  hope  of  gaining  "greenback"  votes — Hendricks  had  opposed 
the  immediate  resumption  of  specie  payments.  In  1876,  with 
S.  J.  Tilden,  he  lost  the  disputed  election  by  the  decision 
of  the  electoral  commission,  but  he  was  elected  with  Grover 
Cleveland  in  1884.  He  died  at  Indianapolis  on  the  25th  of 
November  1885. 

HENGELO,  or  HENGELOO,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Overyssel, 
Holland,  and  a  junction  station  5  m.  by  rail  N.W.  of  Enschede. 
Pop.  (1900),  14,968.  The  castle  belonging  to  the  ancient  terri- 
torial lords  of  Hengelo  has  long  since  disappeared,  and  the  only 
interest  the  town  now  possesses  is  as  the  centre  of  the  flourishing 
industries  of  the  Twente  district.  The  manufacture  of  cotton 
in  all  its  branches  is  very  actively  carried  on,  and  there  are 
dye-works  and  breweries,  besides  the  engineering  works  of  the 
state  railway  company. 

HENGEST  and  HORSA,  the  brother  chieftains  who  led  the  first 
Saxon  bands  which  settled  in  England.  They  were  apparently 
called  in  by  the  British  king  Vortigern  (q.v.)to  defend  him  against 
the  Picts.  The  place  of  their  landing  is  said  to  have  been 
Ebbsfleet  in  Kent.  Its  date  is  not  certainly  known,  450-455 
being  given  by  the  English  authorities,  428  by  the  Welsh  (see 
KENT).  The  settlers  of  Kent  are  described  by  Bede  as  Jutes 
(q.v.),  and  there  are  traces  in  Kentish  custom  of  differences 
from  the  other  Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms.  Hengest  and  Horsa 
were  at  first  given  the  island  of  Thanet  as  a  home,  but  soon 
quarrelled  with  their  British  allies,  and  gradually  possessed 
themselves  of  what  became  the  kingdom  of  Kent.  In  455  the 
Saxon  Chronicle  records  a  battle  between  Hengest  and  Horsa 
and  Vortigern  at  a  place  called  Aegaels  threp,  in  which  Horsa 


HENGSTENBERG— HENLE 


269 


was  slain.  Thenceforward  Hengest  reigned  in  Kent,  together 
with  his  son  Aesc  (Oisc).  Both  the  Saxon  Chronicle  and  the 
Historia  Brittonum  record  three  subsequent  battles,  though 
the  two  authorities  disagree  as  to  their  issue.  There  is  no  doubt, 
however,  that  the  net  result  was  the  expulsion  of  the  Britons 
from  Kent.  According  to  the  Chronicle,  which  probably 
derived  its  information  from  a  lost  list  of  Kentish  kings,  Hengest 
died  in  488,  while  his  son  Aesc  continued  to  reign  until  512. 

Bede,  Hist.  Eccl.  (Plummet,  1896),  i.  15,  ii.  5;  Saxon  Chronicle 
(Earle  and  Plummer,  1899),  s.a.  449,  455,  457,  465,  473;  Nennius, 
Ilistoria  Brittonum  (San  Marte,  1844),  §§  31,  37,  38,  43-46,  58. 

HENGSTENBERG,  ERNST  WILHELM  (1802-1869),  German 
Lutheran  divine  and  theologian,  was  born  at  Frondenberg,  a 
Westphalian  village,  on  the  2oth  of  October  1802.  He  was 
educated  by  his  father,  who  was  a  minister  of  the  Reformed 
Church,  and  head  of  the  Frondenberg  convent  of  canonesses 
(Frauleinstift).  Entering  the  university  of  Bonn  in  1810,  he 
attended  the  lectures  of  G.  G.  Freytag  for  Oriental  languages 
and  of  F.  K.  L.  Gieseler  for  church  history,  but  his  energies  were 
principally  devoted  to  philosophy  and  philology,  and  his  earliest 
publication  was  an  edition  of  the  Arabic  Moallakat  of  Amru'l- 
Qais,  which  gained  for  him  the  prize  at  his  graduation  in  the 
philosophical  faculty.  This  was  followed  in  1824  by  a  German 
translation  of  Aristotle's  Metaphysics.  Finding  himself  without 
the  means  to  complete  his  theological  studies  under  Neander 
and  Tholuck  in  Berlin,  he  accepted  a  post  at  Basel  as  tutor  in 
Oriental  languages  to  J.  J.  Stahelin,  who  afterwards  became 
professor  at  the  university.  Then  it  was  that  he  began  to  direct 
his  attention  to  a  study  of  the  Bible,  which  led  him  to  a  conviction, 
never  afterwards  shaken,  not  only  of  the  divine  character  of 
evangelical  religion,  but  also  of  the  unapproachable  adequacy 
of  its  expression  in  the  Augsburg  Confession.  In  1824  he  joined 
the  philosophical  faculty  of  Berlin  as  a  Privatdozent,  and  in 
1825  he  became  a  licentiate  in  theology,  his  theses  being' remark- 
able  for  their  evangelical  fervour  and  for  their  emphatic  protest 
against  every  form  of  "  rationalism,"  especially  in  questions  of 
Old  Testament  criticism.  In  1826  he  became  professor  extra- 
ordinarius  in  theology;  and  in  July  1827  appeared,  under  his 
editorship,  the  Evangelische  Kirchenzeitung,  a  strictly  orthodox 
journal,  which  in  his  hands  acquired  an  almost  unique  reputation 
as  a  controversial  organ.  It  did  not,  however,  attain  to  great 
notoriety  until  in  1830  an  anonymous  article  (by  E.  L.  von 
Gerlach)  appeared,  which  openly  charged  Wilhelm  Gesenius 
and  J.  A.  L.  Wegscheider  with  infidelity  and  profanity,  and  on 
the  ground  of  these  accusations  advocated  the  interposition  of 
the  civil  power,  thus  giving  rise  to  the  prolonged  Hallische 
Sireit.  In  1828  the  first  volume  of  Hengstenberg's  Christologie 
des  Allen  Testaments  passed  through  the  press;  in  the  autumn 
of  that  year  he  became  professor  ordinarius  in  theology,  and 
in  1829  doctor  of  theology.  He  died  on  the  z8th  of  May  1869. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  his  principal  works:  Christologie  des 
Allen  Testaments  (1829-1835;  2nd  ed.,  1854-1857;  Eng.  trans,  by 
R.  Keith,  1835-1839,  also  in  Clark's  "  Foreign  Theological  Library, 
by  T.  Meyer  and  J.  Martin,  1854-1858),  a  work  of  much  learning, 
the  estimate  of  which  varies  according  to  the  hermeneutical  principles 
of  the  individual  critic;  Beitrage  zur  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament 
(1831-1839);  Eng.  trans.,  Dissertations  on  the  Genuineness  of  Daniel 
and  the  Integrity  of  Zechariah  (Edin.,  1848),  and  Dissertations 
on  tfa  Genuineness  of  the  Pentateuch  (Edin.,  1847),  in  which  the 
traditional  view  on  each  question  is  strongly  upheld,  and  much 
capital  is  made  of  the  absence  of.  harmony  among  the  negative 
critics;  Die  Bucher  Moses  und  Agypten  (1841);  Die  Geschichte 
Bileams  u.  seiner  Weissagungen  (1842;  translated  along  with  the 
Dissertations  on  Daniel  and  Zechariah) ;  Commentar  iiber  die  Psalmen 
(1842-1847;  2nd  ed.,  1849-1852;  Eng.  trans,  by  P.  Fairbairn 
and  J.  Thomson,  Edin.,  1844-1848),  which  shares  the  merits 
and  defects  of  the  Christologie;  Die  Offenbarung  Johannis  erldutert 
(1849-1851;  2nd  ed.,  1861-1862;  Eng.  trans,  by  P.  Fairbairn, 
also  in  Clark's  "Foreign  Theological  Library,"  1851-1852);  Das 
Hohe  Lied  ausgelegt  (1853);  Der  Prediger  Salomo  ausgelegt  (1859); 
Das  Evangelium  Johannis  erldutert  (1861-1863;  2nd  ed.,  1867-1871 ; 
Eng.  trans.,  1865)  and  Die  Weissagungen  des  Propheten  Ezechiel 
erlaulert  (1867-1868).  Of  minor  importance  are  De  rebus  Tyriorum 
commentatio  academica  (1832);  Ober  den  Tag  des  Herrn  (1852);  Das 
Passa,  ein  Vortrag  (1853);  and  Die  Opfer  der  heiligen  Schrift  (1859). 
Several  series  of  papers  also,  as,  for  example,  on  "  The  Retention 
of  the  Apocrypha,"  "  Freemasonry  "  (1854),  "  Duelling  "  (1856)  and 


The  Relation  between  the  Jews  and  the  Christian  Church  "  (1857; 
2nd  ed.,  1859),  which  originally  appeared  in  the  Kirchenzeitung,  were 
afterwards  printed  in  a  separate  form.  Geschichte  des  Retches  Gottes 
unter  dem  Allen  Bunde  (1869-1871),  Das  Buck  Hiob  erldutert  (1870- 
1875)  and  Vorlesungen  iiber  die  Leidensgeschichte  (1875)  were  pub- 
lished posthumously. 

See  J.  Bachmann's  Ernst  Wilhelm  Hengstenberg  (1876-1879); 
also  his  article  in  Herzog-Hauck,  Realencyklopddie  (1899),  and  the 
article  in  the  Allgemeine  deutsche  Biographie.  Also  F.  Lichtenberger, 
History  of  German  Theology  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  (1889),.  pp. 
212-217;  Philip  Schaff,  Germany;  its  Universities,  Theology  and 
Religion  (1857),  pp.  300-319. 

HENKE,  HEINRICH  PHILIPP  KONRAD  (1752-1809), 
German  theologian,  best  known  as  a  writer  on  church  history, 
was  born  at  Hehlen,  Brunswick,  on  the  3rd  of  July  1752.  He 
was  educated  at  the  gymnasium  of  Brunswick  and  the  university 
of  Helmstadt,  and  from  1778  to  1809  he  was  professor,  first  of 
philosophy,  then  of  theology,  in  that  university.  In  1803  he 
was  appointed  principal  of  the  Carolinum  in  Brunswick  as  well. 
He  died  on  the  2nd  of  May  1809.  Henke  belonged  to  the 
rationalistic  school.  His  principal  work  (Allgemeine  Geschichte 
der  christl.  Kirche,  6  vols.,  1788-1804;  2nd  ed.,  1795-1806)13 
commended  by  F.  C.  Baur  for  fullness,  accuracy  and  artistic 
composition.  His  other  works  are  Lineamenta  institulionum 
fidei  Christianae  historico-criticarum  (1783),  Opuscula  academica 
(1802)  and  two  volumes  of  Predigten.  He  was  also  editor  of 
the  Magazin  Jilr  die  Religionsphilosophie,  Exegese  und  Kirchen- 
geschichte  (1793-1802)  and  the  Archiv  fiir  die  neueste  Kirchen- 
geschichle  (1794-1799). 

His  son,  ERNST  LUDWIG  THEODOR  HENKE  (1804-1872),  after 
studying  at  the  university  of  Jena,  became  professor  extra- 
ordinarius  there  in  1833,  and  professor  ordinarius  of  Marburg 
in  1839.  He  is  known  as  the  author  of  monographs  upon 
Georg  Calixt  u.  seine  Zeit  (1853-1860),  Papst  Pius  VII.  (1860), 
Konrad  von  Marburg  (1861),  Kaspar  Peucer  u.  Nik.  Krett 
(1865),  Jak.  Friedr.  Fries  (1867),  Zur  neuern  Kirchengeschichte 
(1867). 

HENLE,  FRIEDRICH  GUSTAV  JAKOB  (1809  -  1885), 
German  pathologist  and  anatomist,  was  born  on  the  gth  of 
July  1809  at  Fiirth,  in  Franconia.  After  studying  medicine 
at  Heidelberg  and  at  Bonn,  where  he  took  his  doctor's  degree 
in  1832,  he  became  prosector  in  anatomy  to  Johannes  Mtiller  at 
Berlin.  During  the  six  years  he  spent  in  that  position  he  pub- 
lished a  large  amount  of  work,  including  three  anatomical 
monographs  on  new  species  of  animals,  and  papers  on  the 
structure  of  the  lacteal  system,  the  distribution  of  epithelium 
in  the  human  body,  the  structure  and  development  of  the  hair, 
the  formation  of  mucus  and  pus,  &c.  In  1840  he  accepted  the 
chair  of  anatomy  at  Zurich,  and  in  1844  he  was  called  to  Heidel- 
berg, where  he  taught  not  only  anatomy,  but  physiology  and 
pathology.  About  this  period  he  was  engaged  on  his  complete 
system  of  general  anatomy,  which  formed  the  sixth  volume  of 
the  new  edition  of  S.  T.  von  Sommerring's  treatise,  published 
at  Leipzig  between  1841  and  1844.  While  at  Heidelberg  he 
published  a  zoological  monograph  on  the  sharks  and  rays,  in 
conjunction  with  his  master  Miiller,  and  in  1846  his  famous 
Manual  of  Rational  Pathology  began  to  appear;  this  marked 
the  beginning  of  a  new  era  in  pathological  study,  since  in  it 
physiology  and  pathology  were  treated,  in  Henle's  own  words, 
as  "  branches  of  one  science,"  and  the  facts  of  disease  were 
systematically  considered  with  reference  to  their  physiological 
relations.  In  1852  he  moved  to  Gottingen,  whence  he  issued 
three  years  later  the  first  instalment  of  his  great  Handbook 
of  Systematic  Human  Anatomy,  the  last  volume  of  which  was  not 
published  till  1873.  This  work  was  perhaps  the  most  complete 
and  comprehensive  of  its  kind  that  had  so  far  appeared,  and 
it  was  remarkable  not  only  for  the  fullness  and  minuteness  of 
the  anatomical  descriptions,  but  also  for  the  number  and  ex- 
cellence of  the  illustrations  with  which  they  were  elucidated. 
During  the  latter  half  of  his  life  Henle's  researches  were  mainly 
histological  in  character,  his  investigations  embracing  the 
minute  anatomy  of  the  blood  vessels,  serous  membranes,  kidney, 
eye,  nails,  central  nervous  system,  &c.  He  died  at  Gottingen 
on  the  i3th  of  May  1885. 


2JO 


HENLEY,  J.— HENLEY,  W.  E. 


HENLEY,  JOHN  (1692-1759),  English  clergyman,  commonly 
known  as  "  Orator  Henley,"  was  born  on  the  3rd  of  August 
1692  at  Melton-Mowbray,  where  his  father  was  vicar.  After 
attending  the  grammar  schools  of  Melton  and  Oakham,  he 
entered  St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  while  still  an  under- 
graduate he  addressed  in  February  1712,  under  the  pseudonym 
of  Peter  de  Quir,  a  letter  to  the  Spectator  displaying  no  small  wit 
and  humour.  After  graduating  B.A.,  he  became  assistant  and 
then  headmaster  of  the  grammar  school  of  his  native  town, 
uniting  to  these  duties  those  of  assistant  curate.  His  abundant 
energy  found  still  further  expression  in  a  poem  entitled  Esther, 
Queen  of  Persia  (1714),  and  in  the  compilation  of  a  grammar 
of  ten  languages  entitled  The  Complete  Linguist  (2  vols.,  London, 
1719-1721).  He  then  decided  to  go  to  London,  where  he  obtained 
the  appointment  of  assistant  preacher  in  the  chapels  of  Ormond 
Street  and  Bloomsbury.  In  1723  he  was  presented  to  the  rectory 
of  Chelmondiston  in  Suffolk;  but  residence  being  insisted  on, 
he  resigned  both  his  appointments,  and  on  the  3rd  of  July  1726 
opened  what  he  called  an  "  oratory  "  in  Newport  Market,  which 
he  licensed  under  the  Toleration  Act.  In  1729  he  transferred 
the  scene  of  his  operations  to  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields.  Into  his 
services  he  introduced  many  peculiar  alterations:  he  drew  up 
a  "  Primitive  Liturgy,"  in  which  he  substituted  for  the  Nicene 
and  Athanasian  creeds  two  creeds  taken  from  the  Apostolical 
Constitutions;  for  his  "  Primitive  Eucharist  "  he  made  use  of 
unleavened  bread  and  mixed  wine;  he  distributed  at  the  price  of 
one  shilling  medals  of  admission  to  his  oratory,  with  the  device 
of  a  sun  rising  to  the  meridian,  with  the  motto  Ad  summa,  and 
the  viordslnveniam  viam  autfaciam  below.  But  the  most  original 
clement  in  the  services  was  Henley  himself,  who  is  described  by 
Pope  in  the  Dunciad  as 

"  Preacher  at  once  and  zany  of  his  age." 

He  possessed  some  oratorical  ability  and  adopted  a  very  theatrical 
style  of  elocution,  "  tuning  his  voice  and  balancing  his  hands  "; 
and  his  addresses  were  a  strange  medley  of  solemnity  and 
buffoonery,  of  clever  wit  and  the  wildest  absurdity,  of  able  and 
original  disquisition  and  the  worst  artifices  of  the  oratorical 
charlatan.  His  services  were  much  frequented  by  the  "  free- 
thinkers," and  he  himself  expressed- his  determination  "  to  die 
a  rational."  Besides  his  Sunday  sermons,  he  delivered  Wednes- 
day lectures  on  social  and  political  subjects;  and  he  also  pro- 
jected a  scheme  for  connecting  with  the  "  oratory  "  a  university 
on  quite  a  Utopian  plan.  For  some  time  he  edited  the  Hyp 
Doctor,  a  weekly  paper  established  in  opposition  to  the  Crafts- 
man, and  for  this  service  he  enjoyed  a  pension  of  £100  a  year 
from  Sir  Robert  Walpole.  At  first  the  orations  of  Henley  drew 
great  crowds,  but,  although  he  never  discontinued  his  services, 
his  audience  latterly  dwindled  almost  entirely  away.  He  died 
on  the  I3th  of  October  1759. 

Henley  is  the  subject  of  several  of  Hogarth's  prints.  His  life, 
professedly  written  by  A.  Welstede,  but  in  all  probability  by  himself, 
was  inserted  by  him  in  his  Oratory  Transactions.  See  J.  B.  Nichols, 
History  of  Leicestershire;  I.  Disraeli,  Calamities  of  Authors. 

HENLEY,  WILLIAM  ERNEST  (1849-1903),  British  poet, 
critic  and  editor,  was  born  on  the  23rd  of  August  1849  at  Glou- 
cester, and  was  educated  at  the  Crypt  Grammar  School  in  that 
city.  The  school  was  a  sort  of  Cinderella  sister  to  the  Cathedral 
School,  and  Henley  indicated  its  shortcomings  in  his  article 
(Pall  Mall  Magazine,  Nov.  1900)  on  T.  E.  Brown  the  poet,  who 
was  headmaster  there  for  a  brief  period.  Brown's  appointment, 
uncongenial  to  himself,  was  a  stroke  of  luck  for  Henley,  for  whom, 
as  he  said,  it  represented  a  first  acquaintance  with  a  man  of 
genius.  "  He  was  singularly  kind  to  me  at  a  moment  when  I 
needed  kindness  even  more  than  I  needed  encouragement." 
Among  other  kindnesses  Brown  did  him  the  essential  service 
of  lending  him  books.  To  the  end  Henley  was  no  classical 
scholar,  but  his  knowledge  and  love  of  literature  were  vital. 
Afflicted  with  a  physical  infirmity,  he  found  himself  in  1874,  at 
the  age  of  twenty-five,  an  inmate  of  the  hospital  at  Edinburgh. 
From  there  he  sent  to  the  Cornhill  Magazine  poems  in  irregular 
rhythms,  describing  with  poignant  force  his  experiences  in 
hospital.  Leslie  Stephen,  then  editor,  being  in  Edinburgh, 


visited  his  contributor  in  hospital  and  took  Robert  Louis  Steven- 
son, another  recruit  of  the  Cornhill,  with  him.  The  meeting 
between  Stevenson  and  Henley,  and  the  friendship  of  which  it 
was  the  beginning,  form  one  of  the  best-known  episodes  in  recent 
literature  (see  especially  Stevenson's  letter  to  Mrs  Sitwell, 
Jan.  1875,  and  Henley's  poems  "  An  Apparition  "  and  "  Envoy 
to  Charles  Baxter  ").  In  1877  Henley  went  to  London  and 
began  his  editorial  career  by  editing  London,  a  journal  of  a 
type  more  usual  in  Paris  than  London,  written  for  the  sake  of 
its  contributors  rather  than  of  the  public.  Among  other  dis- 
tinctions it  first  gave  to  the  world  The  New  Arabian  Nights  of 
Stevenson.  Henley  himself  contributed  to  his  journal  a  series 
of  verses  chiefly  in  old  French  forms.  He  had  been  writing 
poetry  since  1872,  but  (so  he  told  the  world  in  his  "  advertise- 
ment "  to  his  collected  Poems,  1898)  he  "  found  himself  about 
1877  so  utterly  unmarketable  that  he  had  to  own  himself  beaten 
in  art  and  to  addict  himself  to  journalism  for  the  next  ten  years." 
After  the  decease  of  London,  he  edited  the  Magazine  of  Art  from 
1882  to  1886.  At  the  end  of  that  period  he  came  before  the  public 
as  a  poet.  In  1887  Mr  Gleeson  White  made  for  the  popular  series 
of  Canterbury  Poets  (edited  by  Mr  William  Sharp)  a  selection 
of  poems  in  old  French  forms.  In  his  selection  Mr  Gleeson  White 
included  a  considerable  number  of  pieces  from  London,  and  only 
after  he  had  completed  the  selection  did  he  discover  that  the 
verses  were  all  by  one  hand,  that  of  Henley.  In  the  following 
year,  Mr  H.  B.  Donkin  in  his  volume  Voluntaries,  done  for  an 
East  End  hospital,  included  Henley's  unrhymed  rhythms 
quintessentializing  the  poet's  memories  of  the  old  Edinburgh 
Infirmary.  Mr  Alfred  Nutt  read  these,  and  asked  for  more; 
and  in  1888  his  firm  published  A  Book  of  Verse.  Henley  was 
by  this  time  well  known  in  a  restricted  literary  circle,  and  the 
publication  of  this  volume  determined  for  them  his  fame  as  a 
poet,  which  rapidly  outgrew  these  limits,  two  new  editions  of 
this  volume  being  called  for  within  three  years.  In  this  same 
year  (1888)  Mr  Fitzroy  Bell  started  the  Scots  Observer  in  Edin- 
burgh, with  Henley  as  literary  editor,  and  early  in  1889  Mr  Bell 
left  the  conduct  of  the  paper  to  him.  It  was  a  weekly  review 
somewhat  on  the  lines  of  the  old  Saturday  Review,  but  inspired 
in  every  paragraph  by  the  vigorous  and  combative  personality 
of  the  editor.  It  was  transferred  soon  after  to  London  as  the 
National  Observer,  and  remained  under  Henley's  editorship  until 
1893.  Though,  as  Henley  confessed,  the  paper  had  almost  as 
many  writers  as  readers,  and  its  fame  was  mainly  confined  to 
the  literary  class,  it  was  a  lively  and  not  uninfluential  feature 
of  the  literary  life  of  its  time.  Henley  had  the  editor's  great  gift 
of  discerning  promise,  and  the  "  Men  of  the  Scots  Observer,"  as 
Henley  affectionately  and  characteristically  called  his  band  of 
contributors,  in  most  instances  justified  his  insight.  The  paper 
found  utterance  for  the  growing  imperialism  of  its  day,  and 
among  other  services  to  literature  gave  to  the  world  Mr  Kipling's 
Barrack-Room  Ballads.  In  1890  Henley  published  Views  and 
Reviews,  a  volume  of  notable  criticisms,  described  by  himself 
as  "  less  a  book  than  a  mosiac  of  scraps  and  shreds  recovered 
from  the  shot  rubbish  of  some  fourteen  years  of  journalism." 
The  criticisms,  covering  a  wide  range  of  authors  (except  Heine 
and  Tolstoy,  all  English  and  French),  though  wilful  and  often 
one-sided  were  terse,  trenchant  and  picturesque,  and  remarkable 
for  insight  and  gusto.  In  1892  he  published  a  second  volume  of 
poetry,  named  after  the  first  poem,  The  Song  of  the  Sword,  but 
on  the  issue  of  the  second  edition  (1893)  re-christened  London 
Voluntaries  after  another  section.  Stevenson  wrote  that  he 
had  not  received  the  same  thrill  of  poetry  since  Mr  Meredith's 
"  J°y  °f  Earth  "  and  "  Love  in  the  Valley,"  and  he  did  not  know 
that  that  was  so  intimate  and  so  deep.  "  I  did  not  guess  you 
•were  so  great  a  magician.  These  are  new  tunes;  this  is  an 
undertone  of  the  true  Apollo.  These  are  not  verse;  they  are 
poetry."  In  1892  Henley  published  also  three  plays  written 
with  Stevenson — Beau  Austin,  Deacon  Brodie  and  Admiral 
Guinea.  In  1895  followed  Macaire,  afterwards  published  in 
a  volume  with  the  other  plays.  Deacon  Brodie  was  produced  in 
Edinburgh  in  1884  and  later  in  London.  Beerbohm  Tree  produced 
Beau  Austin  at  the  Haymarket  on  the  3rd  of  November  1890 


HENLEY-ON-THAMES— HENNA 


271 


and  Macaire  at  His  Majesty's  on  the  2nd  of  May  1901.  Admiral 
Guinea  also  achieved  stage  performance.  In  the  meantime 
Henley  was  active  in  the  magazines  and  did  notable  editorial 
work  for  the  publishers:  the  Lyra  Heroica,  1891;  A  Book  of 
English  Prose  (with  Mr  Charles  Whibley),  1894;  the  centenary 
Burns  (with  Mr  T.F.  Henderson)  in  1896-1897,  in  which  Henley's 
Essay  (published  separately  1898)  roused  considerable  con- 
troversy. In  1892  he  undertook  for  Mr  Nutt  the  general  editor- 
ship of  the  Tudor  Translations;  and  in  1897  began  for  Mr 
Heinemann  an  edition  of  Byron,  which  did  not  proceed  beyond 
one  volume  of  letters.  In  1898  he  published  a  collection  of  hjs 
Poems  in  one  volume,  with  the  autobiographical  "  advertise- 
ment "  above  quoted;  in  1899  London  Types,  Quatorzains  to 
accompany  Mr  William  Nicolson's  designs;  and  in  1900  during 
the  Boer  War,  a  patriotic  poetical  brochure,  For  England's 
Sake.  In  1901  he  published  a  second  volume  of  collected  poetry 
with  the  title  Hawthorn  and  Lavender,  uniform  with  the  volume 
of  1898.  In  1902  he  collected  his  various  articles  on  painters  and 
artists  and  published  them  as  a  companion  volume  of  Views 
and  Reviews:  Art.  These  with  "  A  Song  of  Speed  "  printed 
in  May  1903  within  two  months  of  his  death  make  up  his  tale 
of  work.  At  the  close  of  his  life  he  was  engaged  upon  his  edition 
of  the  Authorized  Version  of  the  Bible  for  his  series  of  Tudor 
Translations.  There  remained  uncollected  some  of  his  scattered 
articles  in  periodicals  and  reviews,  especially  the  series  of  literary 
articles  contributed  to  the  Pall  Mall  Magazine  from  1899  until 
his  death.  These  contain  the  most  outspoken  utterances  of  a 
critic  never  mealy-mouthed,  and  include  the  splenetic  attack  on 
the  memory  of  his  dead  friend  R.  L.  Stevenson,  which  aroused 
deep  regret  and  resentment.  In  1894  Henley  lost  his  little  six- 
year-old  daughter  Margaret;  he  had  borne  the  "  bludgeonings 
of  chance"  with  "the  unconquerable  soul"  of  which  he  boasted, 
not  unjustifiably,  in  a  well-known  poem;  but  this  blow  broke 
his  heart.  With  the  knowledge  of  this  fact,  some  of  these  out- 
bursts may  be  better  understood;  yet  we  have  the  evidence  of 
a  clear-eyed  critic  who  knew  Henley  well,  that  he  found  him 
more  generous,  more  sympathetic  at  the  close  of  his  life  than  he 
had  been  before.  He  died  on  the  nth  of  July  1903.  In  spite 
of  his  too  boisterous  mannerism  and  prejudices,  he  exercised 
by  his  originality,  independence  and  fearlessness  an  inspiring 
and  inspiriting  influence  on  the  higher  class  of  journalism.  This 
influence  he  exercised  by  word  of  mouth  as  well  as  by  his  pen, 
for  he  was  a  famous  talker,  and  figures  as  "  Burly  "  in  Stevenson's 
essay  on  Talk  and  Talkers.  As  critic  he  was  a  good  hater  and  a 
good  fighter.  His  virtue  lay  in  his  vital  and  vitalizing  love  of  good 
literature,  and  the  vivid  and  pictorial  phrases  he  found  to  give 
it  expression.  But  his  fame  must  rest  on  his  poetry.  He  excelled 
alike  in  his  delicate  experiments  in  complicated  metres,  and  the 
strong  impressionism  of  Hospital  Sketches  and  London  Volun- 
taries. The  influence  of  Heine  may  be  discerned  in  these  "  un- 
rhymed  rhythms  ";  but  he  was  perhaps  a  truer  and  more 
successful  disciple  of  Heine  in  his  snatches  of  passionate  song, 
the  best  of  which  should  retain  their  place  in  English  literature. 

See  also  references  in  Stevenson's  Letters;  Cornhill  Magazine  (1903) 
(Sidney  Low) ;  Fortnightly  Review  (August  1892)  (Arthur  Symons) ; 
and  for  bibliography,  English  Illustrated  Magazine,  vol.  xxix.  p.  548. 

(W.  P.  J.) 

HEKLEY-ON-THAMES,  a  market  town  and  municipal 
borough  in  the  Henley  parliamentary  division  of  Oxfordshire, 
England,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Thames,  the  terminus  of  a 
branch  of  the  Great  Western  railway,  by  which  it  is  35 J  m.  W. 
of  London,  while  it  is  575  m.  by  river.  Pop.  (1901)  5984.  It 
occupies  one  of  the  most  beautiful  situations  on  the  Thames, 
at  the  foot  of  the  finely  wooded  Chiltern  Hills.  The  river  is 
crossed  by  an  elegant  stone  bridge  of  five  arches,  constructed 
in  1786.  The  parish  church  (Decorated  and  Perpendicular) 
•  possesses  a  lofty  tower  of  intermingled  flint  and  stone,  attributed 
to  Cardinal  Wolsey,  but  more  probably  erected  by  Bishop 
Longland.  The  grammar  school,  founded  in  1605,  is  incorporated 
with  a  Blue  Coat  school.  Henley  is  a  favourite  summer  resort, 
and  is  celebrated  for  the  annual  Henley  Royal  Regatta,  the 
principal  gathering  of  amateur  oarsmen  in  England,  first  held 


in  1839  and  usually  taking  place  in  July.  Henley  is  governed 
by  a  mayor,  4  aldermen  and  12  councillors.  Area,  549  acres. 

Henley-on-Thames  (Hanlegang,  Henle,  Handley),  not 
mentioned  in  Domesday,  was  a  manor  or  ancient  demesne  of  the 
crown  and  was  granted  (1337)  to  John  de  Molyns,  whose  family 
held  it  for  about  250  years.  It  is  said  that  members  for  Henley 
sat  in  parliaments  of  Edward  I.  and  Edward  III.,  but  no  writs 
have  been  found.  Henry  VIII.  having  granted  the  use  of  the 
titles  "  mayor "  and  "  burgess,"  the  town  was  incorporated 
in  1570-1371  by  the  name  of  the  warden,  portreeves,  burgesses 
and  commonalty.  Henley  suffered  from  both  parties  in  the  Civil 
War.  William  III.  on  his  march  to  London  (1688)  rested  here 
and  received  a  deputation  from  the  Lords.  The  period  of 
prosperity  in  the  I7th  and  i8th  centuries  was  due  to  manu- 
factures of  glass  and  malt,  and  to  trade,  in  corn  and  wool.  The 
existing  Thursday  market  was  granted  by  a  charter  of  John 
and  the  existing  Corpus  Christi  fair  by  a  charter  of  Henry  VI. 

See  J.  S.  Burn,  History  of  Henley-on-Thames  (London,  1861). 

HENNA,  the  Persian  name  for  a  small  shrub  found  in  India, 
Persia,  the  Levant  and  along  the  African  coasts  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, where  it  is  frequently  cultivated.  It  is  the  Lawsonia 
alba  of  botanists,  and  from  the  fact  that  young  trees  are  spineless, 
while  older  ones  have  the  branchlets  hardened  into  spines,  it 
has  also  received  the  names  of  Lawsonia  inermis  and  L.  spinosa. 
It  forms  a  slender  shrubby  plant  of  from  8  to  10  ft.  high,  with 
opposite  lance-shaped  smooth  leaves,  which  are  entire  at  the 
margins,  and  bears  small  white  four-petalled  sweet-scented 
flowers  disposed  in  panicles.  Its  Egyptian  name  is  Khenna, 
its  Arabic  name  Al  Khanna,  its  Indian  name  Mendee,  while  in 
England  it  is  called  Egyptian  privet,  and  in  the  West  Indies, 
where  it  is  naturalized,  Jamaica  mignonette. 

Henna  or  Henne  is  of  ancient  repute  as  a  cosmetic.  This 
consists  of  the  leaves  of  the  Lawsonia  powdered  and  made  up 
into  a  paste;  this  is  employed  by  the  Egyptian  women,  and 
also  by  the  Mahommedan  women  in  India,  to  dye  their  finger- 
nails and  other  parts  of  their  hands  and  feet  of  an  orange-red 
colour,  which  is  considered  to  add  to  their  beauty.  The  colour 
lasts  for  three  or  four  weeks,  when  it  requires  to  be  renewed. 
It  is  moreover  used  for  dyeing  the  hair  and  beard,  and  even  the 
manes  of  horses;  and  the  same  material  is  employed  for  dyeing 
skins  and  morocco-leather  a  reddish-yellow,  but  it  contains  no 
tannin.  The  practice  of  dyeing  the  nails  was  common  amongst 
the  Egyptians,  and  not  to  conform  to  it  would  have  been  con- 
sidered indecent.  It  has  descended  from  very  remote  ages, 
as  is  proved  by  the  evidence  afforded  by  Egyptian  mummies, 
the  nails  of  which  are  most  commonly  stained  of  a  reddish  hue. 
Henna  is  also  said  to  have  been  held  in  repute  amongst  the 
Hebrews,  being  considered  to  be  the  plant  referred  to  as  camphire 
in  the  Bible  (Song  of  Solomon  i.  14,  iv.  13).  "  The  custom  of 
dyeing  the  nails  and  palms  of  the  hands  and  soles  of  the  feet  of 
an  iron-rust  colour  with  henna,"  observes  Dr  J.  Forbes  Royle, 
"  exists  throughout  the  East  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
Ganges,  as  well  as  in  northern  Africa.  In  some  parts  the  practice 
is  not  confined  to  women  and  children,  but  is  also  followed  by 
men,  especially  in  Persia.  In  dyeing  the  beard  the  hair  is  turned 
to  red  by  this  application,  which  is  then  changed  to  black  by 
a  preparation  of  indigo.  In  dyeing  the  hair  of  children,  and  the 
tails  and  manes  of  horses  and  asses,  the  process  is  allowed  to 
stop  at  the  red  colour  which  the  henna  produces."  Mahomet, 
it  is  said,  used  henna  as  a  dye  for  his  beard,  and  the  fashion  was 
adopted  by  the  caliphs.  "  The  use  of  henna,"  remarks  Lady 
Calico tt  in  her  Scripture  Herbal,  "  is  scarcely  to  be  called  a 
caprice  in  the  East.  There  is  a  quality  in  the  drug  which  gently 
restrains  perspiration  in  the  hands  and  feet,  and  produces  an 
agreeable  coolness  equally  conducive  to  health  and  comfort." 
She  further  suggests  that  if  the  Jewish  women  were  not  in  the 
habit  of  using  this  dye  before  the  time  of  Solomon,  it  might 
probably  have  been  introduced  amongst  them  by  his  wife,  the 
daughter  of  Pharaoh,  and  traces  to  this  probability  the  allusion 
to  "  camphire  "  in  the  passages  in  Canticles  above  referred  to. 

The  preparation  of  henna  consists  in  reducing  the  leaves 
and  young  twigs  to  a  fine  powder,  catechu  or  lucerne  leaves 


272 


HENNEBONT— HENRIETTA  MARIA 


in  a  pulverized  state  being  sometimes  mixed  with  them.  When 
required  for  use,  the  powder  is  made  into  a  pasty  mass  with  hot 
water,  and  is  then  spread  upon  the  part  to  be  dyed,  where  it 
is  generally  allowed  to  remain  for  one  night.  According  to  Lady 
Callcott,  the  flowers  are  often  used  by  the  Eastern  women  to  adorn 
their  hair.  The  distilled  water  from  the  flowers  is  used  as  a 
perfume. 

HENNEBONT,  a  town  of  western  France,  in  the  department 
of  Morbihan,  6m.  N.E.  of  Lorient  by  road.  Pop.  (1906)  7250. 
It  is  situated  about  10  m.  from  the  mouth  of  the  Blavet,  which 
divides  it  into  two  parts — the  Ville  Close,  the  medieval  military 
town,  and  the  Ville  Neuve  on  the  left  bank  and  the  Vieille  Ville 
on  the  right  bank.  The  Ville  Close,  surrounded  by  ramparts 
and  entered  by  a  massive  gateway  flanked  by  machicolated 
towers,  consists  of  narrow  quiet  streets  bordered  by  houses  of  the 
i6th  and  i7th  centuries.  The  Ville  Neuve,  which  lies  nearer  the 
river,  developed  during  the  lyth  century  and  later  than  the 
Ville  Close,  while  the  Vieille  Ville  is  older  than  either.  The  only 
building  of  architectural  importance  is  the  church  of  Notre-Dame 
de  Paradis  (i6th  century)  preceded  by  a  tower  with  an  orna- 
mented stone  spire.  There  are  scanty  remains  of  the  old  fortress. 
Hennebont  has  a  small  but  busy  river-port  accessible  to  vessels 
of  200  to  300  tons.  An  important  foundry  in  the  environs  of 
the  town  employs  1400  work-people  in  the  manufacture  of  tin- 
plate  for  sardine  boxes  and  other  purposes.  Boat-building, 
tanning,  distilling  and  the  manufacture  of  earthenware,  white 
lead  and  chemical  manures  are  also  carried  on.  Granite  is  worked 
in  the  neighbourhood.  Hennebont  is  famed  for  the  resistance 
which  it  made,  under  the  widow  of  Jean  de  Montfort,  when 
besieged  in  1342  by  the  armies  of  Philip  of  Valois  and  Charles  of 
Blois  during  the  War  of  the  Succession  in  Brittany  (see  BRITTANY)  . 

HENNEQUIN,  PHILIPPE  AUGUSTE  (1763-1833),  French 
painter/ was  a  pupil  of  David.  He  was  born  at  Lyons  in  1763, 
distinguished  himself  early  by  winning  the  "  Grand  Prix,"  and 
left  France  for  Italy.  The  disturbances  at  Rome,  during  the 
course  of  the  Revolution,  obliged  him  to  return  to  Paris,  where 
he  executed  the  Federation  of  the  I4th  of  July,  and  he  was 
at  work  on  a  large  design  commissioned  for  the  town-hall  of 
Lyons,  when  in  July  1704  he  was  accused  before  the  revolutionary 
tribunal  and  thrown  into  prison.  Hennequin  escaped,  only  to  be 
anew  accused  and  imprisoned  in  Paris,  and  after  running  great 
danger  of  death,  seems  to  have  devoted  himself  thenceforth 
wholly  to  his  profession.  At  Paris  he  finished  the  picture  ordered 
for  the  municipality  of  Lyons,  and  in  1801  produced  his  chief 
work,  "  Orestes  pursued  by  the  Furies  "  (Louvre,  engraved  by 
Landon,  Annales  du  Musee,  vol.  i.  p.  105).  He  was  one  of  the 
four  painters  who  competed  when  in  1802  Gros  carried  off  the 
official  prize  for  a  picture  of  the  Battle  of  Nazareth,  and  in  1808 
Napoleon  himself  ordered  Hennequin  to  illustrate  a  series  of 
scenes  from  his  German  campaigns,  and  commanded  that  his 
picture  of  the  "  Death  of  General  Salomon  "  should  be  engraved. 
After  1815  Hennequin  retired  to  Liege,  and  there,  aided  by 
subventions  from  the  Government,  carried  out  a  large  historical 
picture  of  the  "  Death  of  the  Three  Hundred  in  defence  of  Liege  "- 
a  sketch  of  which  he  himself  engraved.  In  1824  Hennequin 
settled  at  Tournay,  and  became  director  of  the  academy;  he 
exhibited  various  works  at  Lille  in  the  following  year,  and 
continued  to  produce  actively  up  to  the  day  of  his  death  in 
May  1833. 

HENNER,  JEAN  JACQUES  (1829-1905),  French  painter,  was 
born  on  the  5th  of  March  1829  at  Dornach  (Alsace).  At  first 
a  pupil  of  Drolling  and  of  Picot,  he  entered  the  Ecole  des  Beaux- 
Arts  in  1848,  and  took  the  Prix  de  Rome  with  a  painting  of 
"  Adam  and  Eve  finding  the  Body  of  Abel  "  (1858).  At  Rome 
he  was  guided  by  Flandrin,  and,  among  other  works,  painted 
four  pictures  for  the  gallery  at  Colmar.  He  first  exhibited  at 
the  Salon  in  1863  a  "  Bather  Asleep,"  and  subsequently  contri- 
buted "  Chaste  Susanna  "  (1865) ;  "  Byblis  turned  into  a  Spring  " 
(1867);  "The  Magdalene"  (1878);  "Portrait  of  M.  Hayem  " 
(1878);  "  Christ  Entombed  "  (1879);  "  Saint  Jerome  "  (1881); 
"Herodias"  (1887);  "A  Study"  (1891);  "Christ  in  His 
Shroud,"  and  a  "  Portrait  of  Carolus-Duran  "  (1896) ;  a  "  Portrait 


of  Mile  Fouquier  "  (1897) ;  "  The  Levite  of  the  Tribe  of  Ephraim  " 
(1898),  for  which  a  first-class  medal  was  awarded  to  him;  and 
"The  Dream"  (1900).  Among  other  professional  distinctions 
Henner  also  took  a  Grand  Prix  for  painting  at  the  Paris  Inter- 
national Exhibition  of  1900.  He  was  made  Knight  of  the  Legion 
of  Honour  in  1873,  Officer  in  1878  and  Commander  in  1889. 
In  1889  he  succeeded  Cabanel  in  the  Institut  de  France. 

See  E.  Ericon,  Psychologic  d'art  (Paris,  1900);  C.  Phillips,  Art 
Journal  (1888);  F.  Wedmore,  Magazine  of  Art  (1888). 

HENRIETTA  MARIA  (1600-1666),  queen  of  Charles  I.  of 
England,  born  on  the  25th  of  November  1609,  was  the  daughter 
of  Henry  IV.  of  France.  When  the  first  serious  overtures  for' 
her  hand  were  made  on  behalf  of  Charles,  prince  of  Wales, 
in  the  spring  of  1624,  she  was  little  more  than  fourteen  years  of 
age.  Her  brother,  Louis  XIII.,  only  consented  to  the  marriage 
on  the  condition  that  the  English  Roman  Catholics  were  relieved 
from  the  operation  of  the  penal  laws.  When  therefore  she  set 
out  for  her  new  home  in  June  1625,  she  had  already  pledged 
the  husband  to  whom  she  had  been  married  by  proxy  on  the 
ist  of  May  to  a  course  of  action  which  was  certain  to  bring 
unpopularity  on  him  as  well  as  upon  herself. 

That  husband  was  now  king  of  England.  The  early  years  of 
the  married  life  of  Charles  I.  were  most  unhappy.  He  soon 
found  an  excuse  for  breaking  his  promise  to  relieve  the  English 
Catholics.  His  young  wife  was  deeply  offended  by  treatment 
which  she  naturally  regarded  as  unhandsome.  The  favourite 
Buckingham  stirred  the  flames  of  his  master's  discontent. 
Charles  in  vain  strove  to  reduce  her  to  tame  submission.  After 
the  assassination  of  Buckingham  in  1628  the  barrier  between  the 
married  pair  was  broken  down,  and  the  bond  of  affection  which 
from  that  moment  united  them  was  never  loosened.  The  children 
of  the  marriage  were  Charles  II.  (b.  1630),  Mary,  princess  of 
Orange  (b.  1631),  James  II.  (b.  1633),  Elizabeth  (b.  1636), 
Henry,  duke  of  Gloucester  (b.  1640),  and  Henrietta,  duchess  of 
Orleans  (b.  1644). 

For  some  years  Henrietta  Maria's  chief  interests  lay  in  her 
young  family,  and  in  the  amusements  of  a  gay  and  brilliant 
court.  She  loved  to  be  present  at  dramatic  entertainments,  and 
her  participation  in  the  private  rehearsals  of  the  Shepherd's 
Pastoral,  written  by  her  favourite  Walter  Montague,  probably 
drew  down  upon  her  the  savage  attack  of  Prynne.  With  political 
matters  she  hardly  meddled  as  yet.  Even  her  co-religionists 
found  little  aid  from  her  till  the  summer  of  1637.  She  had  then 
recently  opened  a  diplomatic  communication  with  the  see  of 
Rome.  She  appointed  an  agent  to  reside  at  Rome,  and  a  papal 
agent,  a  Scotsman  named  George  Conn,  accredited  to  her, 
was  soon  engaged  in  effecting  conversions  amongst  the  English 
gentry  and  nobility.  Henrietta  Maria  was  well  pleased  to  become 
a  patroness  of  so  holy  a  work,  especially  as  she  was  not  asked 
to  take  any  personal  trouble  in  the  matter.  Protestant  England 
took  alarm  at  the  proceedings  of  a  queen  who  associated  herself 
so  closely  with  the  doings  of  "the  grim  wolf  with  privy  paw." 

When  the  Scottish  troubles  broke  out,  she  raised  money  from 
her  fellow-Catholics  to  support  the  king's  army  on  the  borders  in 
1639.  During  the  session  of  the  Short  Parliament  in  the  spring 
of  1640,  the  queen  urged  the  king  to  oppose  himself  to  the  House 
of  Commons  in  defence  of  the  Catholics.  When  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment met,  the  Catholics  were  believed  to  be  the  authors  and 
agents  of  every  arbitrary  scheme  which  was  supposed  to  have 
entered  into  the  plans  of  Strafford  or  Laud.  Before  the  Long 
Parliament  had  sat  for  two  months,  the  queen  was  urging  upon 
the  pope  the  duty  of  lending  money  to  enable  her  to  restore  her 
husband's  authority.  She  threw  herself  heart  and  soul  into  the 
schemes  for  rescuing  Strafford  and  coercing  the  parliament. 
The  army  plot,  the  scheme  for  using  Scotland  against  England, 
and  the  attempt  upon  the  five  members  were  the  fruits  of  her 
political  activity. 

In  the  next  year  the  queen  effected  her  passage  to  the  Continent. 
In  February  1643  she  landed  at  Burlington  Quay,  placed  herself 
at  the  head  of  a  force  of  loyalists,  and  marched  through  England 
to  join  the  king  near  Oxford.  After  little  more  than  a  year's 
residence  there,  on  the  3rd  of  April  1644,  she  left  her  husband, 


HENRY— HENRY  II. 


273 


to  see  his  face  no  more.  Henrietta  Maria  found  a  refuge  in 
France.  Richelieu  was  dead,  and  Anne  of  Austria  was  com- 
passionate. As  long  as  her  husband  was  alive  the  queen  never 
ceased  to  encourage  him  to  resistance. 

During  her  exile  in  France  she  had  much  to  suffer.  Her 
husband's  execution  in  1649  was  a  terrible  blow.  She  brought 
up  her  youngest  child  Henrietta  in  her  own  faith,  but  her  efforts 
to  induce  her  youngest  son,  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  to  take  the 
same  course  only  produced  discomfort  in  the  exiled  family.  The 
story  of  her  marriage  with  her  attached  servant  Lord  Jermyn 
needs  more  confirmation  than  it  has  yet  received  to  be  accepted, 
but  all  the  information  which  has  reached  us  of  her  relations  with 
her  children  points  to  the  estrangement  which  had  grown  up 
between  them.  When  after  the  Restoration  she  returned  to 
England,  she  found,  that  she  had  no  place  in  the  new  world. 
She  received  from  parliament  a  grant  of  £30,000  a  year  in  com- 
pensation for  the  loss  of  her  dower-lands,  and  the  king  added 
a  similar  sum  as  a  pension  from  himself.  In  January  1661  she 
returned  to  France  to  be  present  at  the  marriage  of  her  daughter 
Henrietta  to  the  duke  of  Orleans.  In  July  1662  she  set  out  again 
for  England,  and  took  up  her  residence  once  more  at  Somerset 
House.  Her  health  failed  her,  and  on  the  24th  of  June  1665,  she 
departed  in  search  of  bhe  clearer  air  of  her  native  country.  She 
died  on  the  3ist  of  August  1666,  at  Colombes,  not  far  from  Paris. 

See  I.  A.  Taylor,  The  Life  of  Queen  Henrietta  Maria  (1905). 

HENRY  (Fr.  Henri;  Span.  Enrique;  Ger.  Heinrich;  Mid. 
H.  Ger.  Heinrich  and  Heimrich;  O.H.G.  Haimi-  or  Heimirih, 
i.e.  "  prince,  or  chief  of  the  house,"  from  O.H.G.  heim,  the  Eng. 
home,  and  rih,  Goth,  reiks;  compare  Lat.  rex  "  king  " — "  rich," 
therefore  "  mighty,"  and  so  "  a  ruler."  Compare  Sans,  rddsh 
"  to  shine  forth,  rule,  &c. "  and  mod.  raj  "  rule  "  and  raja, 
"king"),  the  name  of  many  European  sovereigns,  the  more 
important  of  whom  are  noticed  below  in  the  following  order: 
(i)  emperors  and  German  kings;  (2)  kings  of  England;  (3) 
other  kings  in  the  alphabetical  order  of  their  states;  (4)  other 
reigning  princes  in  the  same  order;  (5)  non-reigning  princes; 
(6)  bishops,  nobles,  chroniclers,  &c. 

HENRY  I.  (c.  876-936),  surnamed  the  "  Fowler,"  German  king, 
son  of  Otto  the  Illustrious,  duke  of  Saxony,  grew  to  manhood 
amid  the  disorders  which  witnessed  to  the  decay  of  the  Carolingian 
empire,  and  in  early  life  shared  in  various  campaigns  for  the 
defence  of  Saxony.  He  married  Hatburg,  a  daughter  of  Irwin, 
count  of  Merseburg,  but  as  she  had  taken  the  veil  on  the  death 
of  a  former  husband  this  union  was  declared  illegal  by  the  church , 
and  in  909  he  married  Matilda,  daughter  of  a  Saxon  count  named 
Thiederich,  and  a  reputed  descendant  of  the  hero  Widukind. 
On  his  father's  death  in  912  he  became  duke  of  Saxony,  which  he 
ruled  with  considerable  success,  defending  it  from  the  attacks 
of  the  Slavs  and  resisting  the  claims  of  the  German  king  Conrad  I. 
(sec  SAXONY).  He  afterwards  won  the  esteem  of  Conrad  to  such 
an  extent  that  in  918  the  king  advised  the  nobles  to  make  the 
Saxon  duke  his  successor.  After  Conrad's  death  the  Franks 
and  the  Saxons  met  at  Fritzlar  in  May  919  and  chose  Henry  as 
German  king,  after  which  the  new  king  refused  to  allow  his  election 
to  be  sanctioned  by  the  church.  His  authority,  save  in  Saxony, 
was  merely  nominal;  but  by  negotiation  rather  than  by  warfare 
he  secured  a  recognition  of  his  sovereignty  from  the  Bavarians 
and  the  Swabians.  A  struggle  soon  took  place  between  Henry 
and  Charles  III.,  the  Simple,  king  of  France,  for  the  possession 
of  Lorraine.  In  921  Charles  recognized  Henry  as  king  of  the  East 
Franks,  and  when  in  923  the  French  king  was  taken  prisoner 
by  Herbert,  count  of  Vermandois,  Lorraine  came  under  Henry's 
authority,  and  Giselbert,  who  married  his  daughter  Gerberga, 
was  recognized  as  duke.  Turning  his  attention  to  the  east,  Henry 
reduced  various  Slavonic  tribes  to  subjection,  took  Brennibor, 
the  modern  Brandenburg,  from  the  Hevelli,  and  secured  both 
banks  of  the  Elbe  for  Saxony.  In  923  he  had  bought  a  truce  for 
ten  years  with  the  Hungarians,  by  a  promise  of  tribute,  but  on 
its  expiration  he  gained  a  great  victory  over  these  formidable 
foes  in  March  933.  The  Danes  were  defeated,  and  territory  as  far 
as  the  Eider  secured  for  Germany;  and  the  king  sought  further 
to  extend  his  influence  by  entering  into  relations  with  the  kings 


of  England,  France  and  Burgundy.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
contemplating  a  journey  to  Rome,  when  he  died  at  Memleben  on 
the  2nd  of  July  936,  and  was  buried  at  Quedlinburg.  By  his  first 
wife,  Hatburg,  he  left  a  son,  Thankmar,  who  was  excluded  from 
the  succession  as  illegitimate;  and  by  Matilda  he  left  three  sons, 
the  eldest  of  whom,  Otto  (afterwards  the  emperor  Otto  the  Great), 
succeeded  him,  and  two  daughters.  Henry  was  a  successful 
ruler,  probably  because  he  was  careful  to  undertake  only  such 
enterprises  as  he  was  able  to  carry  through.  Laying  more  stress 
on  his  position  as  duke  of  Saxony  than  king  of  Germany,  he 
conferred  great  benefits  on  his  duchy.  The  founder  of  her  town 
life  and  the  creator  of  her  army,  he  ruled  in  harmony  with  her 
nobles  and  secured  her  frontiers  from  attack.  The  story  that  he 
received  the  surname  of  "  Fowler  "  because  the  nobles,  sent  to 
inform  him  of  his  election  to  the  throne,  found  him  engaged  in 
laying  snares  for  the  birds,  appears  to  be  mythical. 

See  Widukind  of  Corvei,  Res  gestae  Saxonicae,  edited  by  G. 
Waitz  in  the  Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.  Scriptores,  Band 
iii.  (Hanover  and  Berlin,  1826  seq.);  "  Die  Urkunde  des  deutschen 
Konigs  Heinrichs  I.,"  edited  by  T.  von  Sickel  in  the  Monumenta 
Germaniae  historica.  Diplomata  (Hanover,  1879) ;  W.  von  Giese- 
brecht,  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Kaiserzeit,  Bande  i.,  ii.  (Leipzig, 
1881);  G.  Waitz,  Jahrbilcher  des  deutschen  Reichs  unter  Konig 
Heinrich  I.  (Leipzig,  1885);  and  F.  Loher,  Die  deutsche  Politik 
Konig  Heinrich  I.  (Munich,  1857). 

HENRY  II.  (973-1024),  surnamed  the  "  Saint, "  Roman 
emperor,  son  of  Henry  II.,  the  Quarrelsome,  duke  of  Bavaria, 
and  Gisela,  daughter  of  Conrad,  king  of  Burgundy,  or  Aries 
(d.  993),  and  great-grandson  of  the  German  king  Henry  I.,  the 
Fowler,  was  born  on  the  6th  of  May  973.  When  his  father  was 
driven  from  his  duchy  in  976  it  was  intended  that  Henry  should 
take  holy  orders,  and  he  received  the  earlier  part  of  a  good 
education  at  Hildesheim.  This  idea,  however,  was  abandoned 
when  his  father  was  restored  to  Bavaria  in  985;  but  young 
Henry,  whose  education  was  completed  at  Regensburg,  retained 
a  lively  interest  in  ecclesiastical  affairs.  He  became  duke  of 
Bavaria  on  his  father's  death  in  995,  and  appears  to  have 
governed  his  duchy  quietly  and  successfully  for  seven  years. 
He  showed  a  special  regard  for  monastic  reform  and  church 
government,  accompanied  his  kinsman,  the  emperor  Otto  III., 
on  two  occasions  to  Italy,  and  about  1001  married  Kunigunde 
(d.  1037),  daughter  of  Siegfried,  count  of  Luxemburg.  When 
Otto  III.  died  childless  in  1002,  Henry  sought  to  secur;  the 
German  throne,  and  seizing  the  imperial  insignia  made  an 
arrangement  with  Otto  I.,  duke  of  Carinthia.  There  was  con- 
siderable opposition  to  his  claim;  but  one  rival,  Ekkard  I., 
margrave  of  Meissen,  was  murdered,  and,  hurrying  to  Mainz, 
Henry  was  chosen  German  king  by  the  Franks  and  Bavarians 
on  the  7th  of  June  1002,  and  subsequently  crowned  by  Willigis, 
archbishop  of  Mainz,  who  had  been  largely  instrumental  in 
securing  his  election.  Having  ravaged  the  lands  of  another  rival, 
Hermann  II.,  duke  of  Swabia,  Henry  purchased  the  allegiance 
of  the  Thuringians  and  the  Saxons;  and  when  shortly  afterwards 
the  nobles  of  Lorraine  did  homage  and  Hermann  of  Swabia 
submitted,  he  was  generally  recognized  as  king.  Danger  soon 
arose  from  Boleslaus  I.,  the  Great,  king  of  Poland,  who  had 
extended  his  authority  over  Meissen  andLusatia,  seized  Bohemia, 
and  allied  himself  with  some  discontented  German  nobles, 
including  the  king's  brother,  Bruno,  bishop  of  Augsburg.  Henry 
easily  crushed  his  domestic  foes;  but  the  incipient  war  with 
Boleslaus  was  abandoned  in  favour  of  an  expedition  into  Italy, 
where  Arduin,  margrave  of  Ivrea,  had  been  elected  king.  Cross- 
ing the  Alps  Henry  met  with  no  resistance  from  Arduin,  and  in 
May  1004  he  was  chosen  and  crowned  king  of  the  Lombards 
at  Pavia;  but  a  tumult  caused  by  the  presence  of  the  Germans 
soon  arose  in  the  city,  and  having  received  the  homage  of  several 
cities  of  Lombardy  the  king  returned  to  Germany.  He  then 
freed  Bohemia  from  the  rule  of  the  Poles,  led  an  expedition  into 
Friesland,  and  was  successful  in  compelling  Boleslaus  to  sue 
for  peace  in  1005.  A  struggle  with  Baldwin  IV.,  count  of 
Flanders,  in  1006  and  1007  was  followed  by  trouble  with  the 
king's  brothers-in-law,  Dietrich  and  Adalbero  of  Luxemburg, 
who  had  seized  respectively  the  bishopric  of  Metz  and  the 


274 


HENRY  III. 


archbishopric  of  Trier  (Treves) .  Henry  sought  to  dislodge  them, 
but  aided  by  their  elder  brother  Henry,  who  had  been  made 
duke  of  Bavaria  in  1004,  they  held  their  own  in  a  desultory 
warfare  in  Lorraine.  In  1009,  however,  the  eldest  of  the  three 
brothers  was  deprived  of  Bavaria,  while  Adalbero  had  in  the 
previous  year  given  up  his  claim  to  Trier,  but  Dietrich  retained 
the  bishopric  of  Metz.  The  Polish  war  had  been  renewed  in 
1007,  but  it  was  not  until  1010  that  the  king  was  able  to  take 
a  personal  part  in  these  campaigns.  Meeting  with  indifferent 
success,  he  made  peace  with  Boleslaus  early  in  1013,  when  the 
duke  retained  Lusatia,  but  did  homage  to  Henry  at  Merseburg. 

In  1013  the  king  made  a  second  journey  to  Italy  where  two 
popes  were  contending  for  the  papal  chair,  and  meeting  with 
no  opposition  was  received  with  great  honour  at  Rome.  Having 
recognized  Benedict  VIII.  as  the  rightful  pope,  he  was  crowned 
emperor  on  the  I4th  of  February  1014,  and  soon  returned  to 
Germany  laden  with  treasures  from  Italian  cities.  But  the 
struggle  with  the  Poles  now  broke  out  afresh,  and  in  1015  and 
1017  the  king,  having  obtained  assistance  from  the  heathen 
Liutici,  led  formidable  armies  against  Boleslaus.  During  the 
campaign  of  1017  he  had  as  an  ally  the  grand  duke  of  Russia, 
but  his  troops  suffered  considerable  loss,  and  on  the  3oth  of 
January  1018  he  made  peace  at  Bautzen  with  Boleslaus,  who 
again  retained  Lusatia.  As  early  as  1006  Henry  had  concluded 
a  succession  treaty  with  his  uncle  Rudolph  III.,  the  childless 
king  of  Burgundy,  or  Aries;  but  when  Rudolph  desired  to 
abdicate  in  1016  Henry's  efforts  to  secure  possession  of  the 
territory  were  foiled  by  the  resistance  of  the  nobles.  In  1020 
the  emperor  was  visited  at  Bamberg  by  Pope  Benedict,  in 
response  to  whose  entreaty  for  assistance  against  the  Greeks  of 
southern  Italy  he  crossed  the  Alps  in  1021  for  the  third  and  last 
time.  With  the  aid  of  the  Normans  he  captured  many  fortresses 
and  seriously  crippled  the  power  of  the  Greeks,  but  was  compelled 
by  the  ravages  of  pestilence  among  his  troops  to  return  to 
Germany  in  1022.  It  was  probably  about  this  time  that  Henry 
gave  Benedict  the  diploma  which  ratified  the  gifts  made  by  his 
predecessors'  to  the  papacy.  Spending  his  concluding  years 
in  disputes  over  church  reform  he  died  on  the  i3th  of  July  1024 
at  Grona  near  Gottingen,  and  was  buried  at  Bamberg,  where 
he  had  founded  and  richly  endowed  a  bishopric. 

Henry  was  an  enthusiast  for  church  reform,  and  under  the 
influence  of  his  friend  Odilo,  abbot  of  Cluny,  sought  to  further 
the  principles  of  the  Cluniacs,  and  seconded  the  efforts  of  Benedict 
VIII.  to  prevent  the  marriage  of  the  clergy  and  the  sale  of 
spiritual  dignities.  He  was  energetic  and  capable,  but  except 
in  his  relations  with  the  church  was  not  a  strong  ruler.  But 
though  devoted  to  the  church  and  a  strict  observer  of  religious 
rites,  he  was  by  no  means  the  slave  of  the  clergy.  He  appointed 
bishops  without  the  formality  of  an  election,  and  attacked 
clerical  privileges  although  he  made  clerics  the  representatives 
of  the  imperial  power.  He  held  numerous  diets  and  issued 
frequent  ordinances  for  peace,  but  feuds  among  the  nobles  were 
common,  and  the  frontiers  of  the  empire  were  insecure.  Henry, 
who  was  the  last  emperor  of  the  Saxon  house,  was  the  first  to 
use  the  title  "  King  of  the  Romans.  "  He  died  childless,  and  a 
tradition  of  the  i2th  century  says  he  and  his  wife  took  vows 
of  chastity.  He  was  canonized  in  1146  by  Pope  Eugenius  III. 

See  Adalbold  of  Utrecht,  Vita  Heinrici  II.,  Thietmar  of  Merse- 
burg, Chronicon,  both  in  the  Monumenta  Germaniae  historica. 
Scriptures,  Bande  iii.  and  iv.  (Hanover  and  Berlin,  1826  seq.) ;  W.  von 
Giesebrecht,  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Kaiserzeit  (Leipzig,  1881-1890) ; 
S.  Hirsch,  continued  by  R.  Usinger,  H.  Pabst  and  H.  Bresslau, 
Jahrbucher  des  deutschen  Reichs  unter  Kaiser  Heinrich  II.  (Leipzig, 
1874);  A.  Cohn,  Kaiser  Heinrich  II.  (Halle,  1867);  H.  Zeissberg, 
Die  Kriege  Kaiser  Heinrichs  II.  mil  Boleslaw  I.  von  Polen  (Vienna, 
1868);  and  G.  Matthaei,  Die  Klosterpolitik  Kaiser  Heinrichs  II. 
(Gottingen,  1877). 

HENRY  III.  (1017-1056),  surnamed  the  "Black,"  Roman 
emperor,  only  son  of  the  emperor  Conrad  II.,  and  Gisela,  widow 
of  Ernest  I.,  duke  of  Swabia,  was  born  on  the  28th  of  October 
1017,  designated  as  his  father's  successor  in  1026,  and  crowned 
German  king  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  by  Pilgrim,  archbishop  of 
Cologne,  on  the  I4th  of  April  1028.  In  1027  he  was  appointed 


duke  of  Bavaria,  and  his  early  years  were  mainly  spent  in  this 
country,  where  he  received  an  excellent  education  under  the 
care  of  Bruno,  bishop  of  Augsburg  and,  afterwards,  of  Egilbert, 
bishop  of  Freising.  He  soon  began  to  take  part  in  the  business 
of  the  empire.  In  1032  he  took  part  in  a  campaign  in  Burgundy; 
in  1033  led  an  expedition  against  Ulalrich,  prince  of  the 
Bohemians;  and  in  June  1036  was  married  at  Nijmwegen  to 
Gunhilda,  afterwards  called  Kunigunde,  daughter  of  Canute, 
king  of  Denmark  and  England.  In  1038  he  followed  his  father 
to  Italy,  and  in  the  same  year  the  emperor  formally  handed 
over  to  him  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy,  or  Aries,  and  appointed 
him  duke  of  Swabia.  In  spite  of  the  honours  which  Conrad 
heaped  upon  Henry  the  relations  between  father  and  son  were 
not  uniformly  friendly,  as  Henry  disapproved  of  the  emperor's 
harsh  treatment  of  some  of  his  allies  and  adherents.  When 
Conrad  died  in  June  1039,  Henry  became  sole  ruler  of  the 
empire,  and  his  authority  was  at  once  recognized  in  all  parts 
of  his  dominions.  Three  of  the  duchies  were  under  his  direct 
rule,  no  rival  appeared  to  contest  his  claim,  and  the  outlying 
parts  of  the  empire,  as  well  as  Germany,  were  practically  free 
from  disorder.  This  peaceful  state  of  affairs  was,  however, 
soon  broken  by  the  ambition  of  Bretislaus,  prince  of  the 
Bohemians,  who  revived  the  idea  of  an  independent  Slavonic 
state,  and  conquered  various  Polish  towns.  Henry  took  up  arms, 
and  having  suffered  two  defeats  in  1040  renewed  the  struggle 
with  a  stronger  force  in  the  following  year,  when  he  compelled 
Bretislaus  to  sue  for  peace  and  to  do  homage  for  Bohemia  at 
Regensburg.  In  1042  he  received  the  homage  of  the  Burgundians 
and  his  attention  was  then  turned  to  the  Hungarians,  who  had 
driven  out  their  king  Peter,  and  set  up  in  his  stead  one  Aba 
Samuel,  or  Ovo,  who  attacked  the  eastern  border  of  Bavaria. 

In  1043  and  the  two  following  years  Henry  crushed  the 
Hungarians,  restored  Peter,  and  brought  Hungary  completely 
under  the  power  of  the  German  king.  In  1038  Queen  Kuni- 
gunde had  died  in  Italy,  and  in  1043  the  king  was  married  at 
Ingelheim  to  Agnes,  daughter  of  William  V.,  duke  of  Guienne, 
a  union  which  drew  him  much  nearer  to  the  reforming  party  in 
the  church.  In  1044  Gothelon  (Gozelo),  duke  of  Lorraine,  died, 
and  some  disturbance  arose  over  Henry's  refusal  to  grant  the 
whole  of  the  duchy  to  his  son  Godfrey,  called  the  Bearded. 
Godfrey  took  up  arms,  but  after  a  short  imprisonment  was 
released  and  confirmed  in  the  possession  of  Upper  Lorraine  in 
1046  which,  however,  he  failed  to  secure.  About  this  time 
Henry  was  invited  to  Italy  where  three  popes  were  contending 
for  power,  and  crossing  the  Alps  with  a  large  army  he  marched 
to  Rome.  Councils  held  at  Sutri  and  at  Rome  having  declared 
the  popes  deposed,  the  king  secured  the  election  of  Suidger, 
bishop  of  Bamberg,  who  took  the  name  of  Clement  II.,  and  by 
this  pontiff  Henry  was  crowned  as  emperor  on  the  25th  of 
December  1046.  He  was  immediately  recognized  by  the  Romans 
as  Patricius,  an  office  which  carried  with  it  at  this  time  the 
right  to  appoint  the  pope.  Supreme  in  church  and  state  alike, 
ruler  of  Germany,  Italy  and  Burgundy,  overlord  of  Hungary 
and  Bohemia,  Henry  occupied  a  commanding  position,  and 
this  time  may  be  regarded  as  marking  the  apogee  of  the  power 
of  the  Roman  empire  of  the  Germans.  The  emperor  assisted 
Pope  Clement  in  his  efforts  to  banish  simony.  He  made  a 
victorious  progress  in  southern  Italy,  where  he  restored  Pandulph 
IV.  to  the  principality  of  Capua,  and  asserted  his  authority 
over  the  Normans  in  Apulia  and  Aversa.  Returning  to  Germany 
in  1047  he  appointed  two  popes,  Damasus  II.  and  Leo  IX., 
in  quick  succession,  and  turned  to  face  a  threatening  combination 
in  the  west  of  the  empire,  where  Godfrey  of  Lorraine  was  again 
in  revolt,  and  with  the  help  of  Baldwin  V.,  count  of  Flanders 
and  Dirk  IV.,  count  of  Holland,  who  had  previously  caused 
trouble  to  Henry,  was  ravaging  the  lands  of  the  emperor's 
representatives  in  Lorraine.  Assisted  by  the  kings  of  England 
and  Denmark,  Henry  succeeded  with  some  difficulty  in  bringing 
the  rebels  to  submission  in  1050.  Godfrey  was  deposed;  but 
Baldwin  soon  found  an  opportunity  for  a  further  revolt,  which 
an  expedition  undertaken  by  the  emperor  in  1054  was  unable 
to  crush. 


HENRY  IV. 


275 


Meanwhile  a  reaction  against  German  influence  had  taken 
place  in  Hungary.  King  Peter  had  been  driven  out  in  1046 
and  his  place  taken  by  Andreas  I.  Inroads  into  Bavaria  followed, 
and  in  1051  and  1052  Henry  led  his  forces  against  the  Hungarians, 
and  after  the  pope  had  vainly  attempted  to  mediate,  peace  was 
made  in  1053.  It  was  quickly  broken,  however,  and  the  emperor, 
occupied  elsewhere,  soon  lost  most  of  his  authority  in  the  east; 
although  in  1054  he  made  peace  between  Brestislav  of  Bohemia 
and  Casimir  I.,  duke  of  the  Poles.  Henry  had  not  lost  sight  of 
affairs  in  Italy  during  these  years,  and  had  received  several 
visits  from  the  pope,  whose  aim  was  to  bring  southern  Italy 
under  his  own  dominion.  Henry  had  sent  military  assistance 
to  Leo,  and  had  handed  over  to  him  the  government  of  the 
principality  of  Benevento  in  return  for  the  bishopric  of  Bamberg. 
But  the  pope's  defeat  by  the  Normans  was  followed  by  his  death. 
Henry  then  nominated  Gebhard,  bishop  of  Eichstadt,  who  took 
the  name  of  Victor  II.,  to  the  vacant  chair,  and  promised  his 
assistance  to  the  reluctant  candidate.  Jn  1055  the  emperor 
went  a  second  time  to  Italy,  where  his  authority  was  threatened 
by  Godfrey  of  Lorraine,  who  had  married  Beatrice,  widow  of 
Boniface  III.,  margrave  of  Tuscany,  and  was  ruling  her  vast 
estates.  Godfrey  fled,  however,  on  the  appearance  of  Henry, 
who  only  remained  a  short  time  in  Italy,  during  which  he  granted 
the  duchy  of  Spoleto  to  Pope  Victor,  and  negotiated  for  an 
attack  upon  the  Normans.  Before  the  journey  to  Italy,  Henry 
had  found  it  necessary  to  depose  Conrad  III.,  duke  of  Bavaria, 
and  to  suppress  a  rising  in  southern  -Germany.  During  his 
absence  Conrad  formed  an  alliance  with  Welf ,  duke  of  Carinthia, 
and  Gebhard  III.,  bishop  of  Regensburg.  A  conspiracy  to  depose 
the  emperor,  support  for  which  was  found  in  Lorraine,  was 
quickly  discovered,  and  Henry,  leaving  Victor  as  his  repre- 
sentative in  Italy,  returned  in  1055  to  Germany  to  receive  the 
submission  of  his  foes.  In  1056,  the  emperor  was  visited  by 
the  pope;  and  on  the  sth  of  October  in  the  same  year  he  died 
at  Bodfeld  and  was  buried  at  Spires.  Henry  was  a  pious  and 
peace-loving  prince,  who  favoured  church  reform,  sought  earnestly 
to  suppress  private  warfare,  and  alone  among  the  early  emperors 
is  said  to  have  been  innocent  of  simony.  Although  under  his 
rule  Germany  enjoyed  considerable  tranquillity,  and  a  period 
of  wealth  and  progress  set  in  for  the  towns,  yet  his  secular  and 
ecclesiastical  policy  showed  signs  of  weakness.  Unable,  or 
unwilling,  seriously  to  curb  the  increasing  power  of  the  church, 
he  alienated  the  sympathies  of  the  nobles  as  a  class,  and  by 
allowing  the  southern  duchies  to  pass  into  other  hands  restored 
a  power  which  true  to  its  traditions  was  not  always  friendly 
to  the  royal  house.  Henry  was  a  patron  of  learning,  a  founder 
of  schools,  and  built  or  completed  cathedrals  at  Spires,  Worms 
and  Mainz. 

The  chief  original  authorities  for  the  life  and  reign  of  Henry 
III.  are  the  Chronicon  of  Herimann  of  Reichenau,  the  Annales 
Sangallenses  majores,  the  Annales  Hildesheimenses ,  all  in  the 
Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.  Scriptores  (Hanover  and  Berlin, 
1826  fol.).  The  best  modern  authorities  are  W.  von  Giesebrecht, 
Geschichte  der  deutschen  Kaiserzeit,  Band  ii.  (Leipzig,  1888) ;  M. 
Perlbach,  "  Die  Kriege  Heinrichs  III.  gegen  Bohmen,"  in  the 
Forschungen  zur  deutschen  Geschichte,  Band  x.  (Gottingen,  1862— 
1886);  E.  Steindorff,  Jahrbucher  des  deutschen  Reichs  unter  Heinrich 
III.  (Leipzig,  1874-1881);  and  F.  Steinhoff,  Das  Konigthum  und 
Kaiserthum  Heinrichs  III.  (Gottingen,  1865). 

HENRY  IV.  (1050-1106),  Roman  emperor,  son  of  the  emperor 
Henry  III.  and  Agnes,  daughter  of  William  V.,  duke  of  Guienne, 
was  born  on  the  nth  of  November  1050,  chosen  German  king 
at  Tribur  in  1053,  and  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  on  the  I7th 
of  July  1054.  In  1055  he  was  appointed  duke  of  Bavaria, 
and  on  his  father's  death  in  October  1056  inherited  the  kingdoms 
of  Germany,  Italy  and  Burgundy.  These  territories  were 
governed  in  his  name  by  his  mother,  who  was  unable  to  repress 
the  internal  disorder  or  to  take  adequate  measures  for  their 
defence.  Some  opposition  was  soon  aroused,  and  in  1062  Anno, 
archbishop  of  Cologne,  and  others  planned  to  seize  the  person 
of  the  young  king  and  to  deprive  Agnes  of  power.  This  plot 
met  with  complete  success.  Henry,  who  was  at  Kaiserwerth, 
was  persuaded  to  board  a  boat  lying  in  the  Rhine;  it  was 


immediately  unmoored  and  the  king  sprang  into  the  stream,  but 
was  rescued  by  one  of  the  conspirators  and  carried  to  Cologne. 
Agnes  made  no  serious  effort  to  regain  her  control,  and  the 
chief  authority  was  exercised  for  a  time  by  Anno;  but  his  rule 
proved  unpopular,  and  he  was  soon  compelled  to  share  his  power 
with  Adalbert,  archbishop  of  Bremen.  The  education  and 
training  of  Henry  were  supervised  by  Anno,  who  was  called  his 
magister,  while  Adalbert  was  styled  pair  onus;  but  Anno  was 
disliked  by  Henry,  and  during  his  absence  in  Italy  the  chief 
power  passed  into  the  hands  of  Adalbert.  Henry's  education 
seems  to  have  been  neglected,  and  his  wilful  and  headstrong 
nature  was  developed  by  the  conditions  under  which  his  early 
years  were  passed.  In  March  1065  he  was  declared  of  age,  and 
in  the  following  year  a  powerful  coalition  of  ecclesiastical  and 
lay  nobles  brought  about  the  banishment  of  Adalbert  from  court 
and  the  return  of  Anno  to  power.  In  1066  Henry  was  persuaded 
to  marry  Bertha,  daughter  of  Otto,  count  of  Savoy,  to  whom  he 
had  been  betrothed  since  1055.  For  some  time  he  regarded 
his  wife  with  strong  dislike  and  sought  in  vain  for  a  divorce, 
but  after  she  had  borne  him  a  son  in  1071  she  gained  his  affections, 
and  became  his  most  trusted  friend  and  companion. 

In  1069  the  king  took  the  reins  of  government  into  his  own 
hands.  He  recalled  Adalbert  to  court;  led  expeditions  against 
the  Liutici,  and  against  Dedo  or  Dedi  II.,  margrave  of  a  district 
east  of  Saxony;  and  soon  afterwards  quarrelled  with  Rudolph, 
duke  of  Swabia,  and  Berthold,  duke  of  Carinthia.  Much  more 
serious  was  Henry's  struggle  with  Otto  of  Nordheim,  duke  of 
Bavaria.  This  prince,  who  occupied  an  influential  position  in 
Germany,  was  accused  in  1070  by  a  certain  Egino  of  being 
privy  to  a  plot  to  murder  the  king.  It  was  decided  that  a  trial 
by  battle  should  take  place  at  Goslar,  but  when  the  demand 
of  Otto  for  a  safe  conduct  for  himself  and  his  followers,  to  and 
from  the  place  of  meeting,  was  refused,  he  declined  to  appear. 
He  was  thereupon  declared  deposed  in  Bavaria,  and  his  Saxon 
estates  were  plundered.  He  obtained  sufficient  support,  however, 
to  carry  on  a  struggle  with  the  king  in  Saxony  and  Thuringia 
until  1071,  when  he  submitted  at  Halberstadt.  Henry  aroused 
the  hostility  of  the  Thuringians  by  supporting  Siegfried,  arch- 
bishop of  Mainz,  in  his  efforts  to  exact  tithes  from  them;  but 
still  more  formidable  was  the  enmity  of  the  Saxons,  who  had 
several  causes  of  complaint  against  the  king.  He  was  the  son 
of  one  enemy,  Henry  III.,  and  the  friend  of  another,  Adalbert 
of  Bremen.  He  had  ordered  a  restoration  of  all  crown  lands 
in  Saxony  and  had  built  forts  among  this  people,  while  the 
country  was  ravaged  to  supply  the  needs  of  his  courtiers,  and 
its  duke  Magnus  was  a  prisoner  in  his  hands.  All  classes  were 
united  against  him,  and  when  the  struggle  broke  out  in  1073 
the  Thuringians  joined  the  Saxons;  and  the  war,  which  lasted 
with  slight  intermissions  until  1088,  exercised  a  most  potent 
influence  upon  Henry's  fortunes  elsewhere  (see  SAXONY). 

Henry  soon  found  himself  confronted  by  an  abler  and  more 
stubborn  antagonist  than  either  Thuringian  or  Saxon.  In  1073 
Hildebrand  became  pope  as  Gregory  VII.  Two  years  later 
this  great  ecclesiastic  issued  his  memorable  prohibition  of  lay 
investiture,  and  the  blow  then  struck  at  the  secular  power  by 
the  papacy  threatened  seriously  to  undermine  the  imperial 
authority.  Spurred  on  by  his  advisers,  Henry  did  not  refuse  the 
challenge.  Threatened  with  the  papal  ban,  he  summoned  a 
synod  of  German  bishops  which  met  at  Worms  in  January  1076 
and  declared  Gregory  deposed;  and  he  wrote  his  famous  letter 
to  the  pope,  in  which  he  referred  to  him  as  "  not  pope,  but  false 
monk."  The  king  was  at  once  excommunicated.  His  adherents 
gradually  fell  away,  the  Saxons  were  again  in  arms,  and  Otto  of 
Nordheim  succeeded  in  uniting  the  malcontents  of  north  and 
south  Germany.  In  October  1076  an  important  diet  met  at 
Tribur,  and  after  discussing  the  deposition  of  the  king,  decided 
that  he  should  be  judged  by  an  assembly  to  be  held  at  Augsburg 
in  the  following  February  under  the  presidency  of  the  pope.  This 
union  of  the  temporal  and  spiritual  forces  was  too  strong  for  the 
king,  and  he  decided  to  submit. 

Crossing  the  Alps,  Henry  appeared  in  January  1077  as  a 
penitent  before  the  castle  of  Canossa,  where  Gregory  had  taken 


276 


HENRY  IV. 


refuge.  The  story  of  this  famous  occurrence,  which  represents 
the  king  asstandingin  the  courtyard  of  thecastle  for  three  days  in 
the  snow,  clad  as  a  penitent,  and  entreating  to  be  admitted  to  the 
pope's  presence,  is  now  regarded  as  mythical  in  its  details;  but 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  king  visited  the  castle  at  intervals,  and 
prayed  for  admission  for  three  days  until  the  28th  of  January, 
when  he  was  received  by  Gregory  and  absolved,  after  promising 
to  submit  to  the  pope's  authority  and  to  secure  for  him  a  safe 
journey  to  Germany.  No  historical  incident  has  more  profoundly 
impressed  the  imagination  of  the  Western  world.  It  marked  the 
highest  point  reached  by  papal  authority,  and  presents  a  vivid 
picture  of  the  awe  inspired  during  the  middle  ages  by  the  super- 
natural powers  supposed  to  be  wielded  by  the  church. 

Scorned  by  his  Lombard  allies,  Henry  left  Italy  to  find  that  in 
his  absence  Rudolph,  duke  of  Swabia,  had  been  chosen  German 
king;  and  although  Gregory  had  taken  no  part  in  this  election, 
Henry  sought  to  prevent  the  pope's  journey  to  Germany,  and 
regaining  courage,  tried  to  recover  his  former  position.  Supported 
by  most  of  the  German  bishops  and  by  the  Lombards,  now 
reconciled  to  him,  and  recognized  in  Burgundy,  Bavaria  and 
Franconia,  Henry  (who  at  this  time  is  referred  to  by  Bruno,  the 
author  of  De  hello  Saxonico,  as  exrex)  appeared  stronger  than  his 
rival  Rudolph;  but  the  ensuing  war  was  waged  with  varying 
success.  He  was  beaten  at  Mellrichstadt  in  1078,  and  at 
Flarchheim  in  1080,  but  these  defeats  were  due  rather  to  the 
fierce  hostility  of  the  Saxons,  and  the  military  skill  of  Otto  of 
Nordheim,  than  to  any  general  sympathy  with  Rudolph. 
Gregory's  attitude  remained  neutral,  in  spite  of  appeals  from 
both  sides,  until  March  1080,  when  he  again  excommunicated 
Henry,  but  without  any  serious  effect  on  the  fortunes  of  the  king. 
At  Henry's  initiative,  Gregory  was  declared  deposed  on  three 
occasions,  and  an  anti-pope  was  elected  in  the  person  of  Wibert, 
archbishop  of  Ravenna,  who  took  the  name  of  Clement  III. 

The  death  of  Rudolph  in  October  1080,  and  a  consequent  lull  in 
the  war,  enabled  the  king  to  go  to  Italy  early  in  1081.  He  found 
considerable  support  in  Lombardy;  placed  Matilda,  marchioness 
of  Tuscany,  the  faithful  friend  of  Gregory,  under  the  imperial 
ban;  took  the  Lombard  crown  at  Pavia;  and  secured  the 
recognition  of  Clement  by  a  council.  Marching  to  Rome,  he 
undertook  the  siege  of  the  city,  but  was  soon  compelled  to  retire 
to  Tuscany,  where  he  granted  privileges  to  various  cities,  and 
obtained  monetary  assistance  from  a  new  ally,  the  eastern 
emperor,  Alexius  I.  A  second  and  equally  unsuccessful  attack 
on  Rome  was  followed  by  a  war  of  devastation  in  northern  Italy 
with  the  adherents  of  Matilda;  and  towards  the  end  of  1082  the 
king  made  a  third  attack  on  Rome.  After  a  siege  of  seven  months 
the  Leonine  city  fell  into  his  hands.  A  treaty  was  concluded 
with  the  Romans,  who  agreed  that  the  quarrel  between  king  and 
pope  should  be  decided  by  a  synod,  and  secretly  bound  them- 
selves to  induce  Gregory  to  crown  Henry  as  emperor,  or  to  choose 
another  pope.  Gregory,  however,  shut  up  in  the  castle  of  St 
Angelo,  would  hear  of  no  compromise;  the  synod  was  a  failure, 
as  Henry  prevented  the  attendance  of  many  of  the  pope's 
supporters;  and  the  king,  in  pursuance  of  his  treaty  with 
Alexius,  marched  against  the  Normans.  The  Romans  soon  fell 
away  from  their  allegiance  to  the  pope;  and,  recalled  to  the  city, 
Henry  entered  Rome  in  March  1084,  after  which  Gregory  was 
declared  deposed  and  Clement  was  recognized  by  the  Romans. 
On  the  3ist  of  March  1084  Henry  was  crowned  emperor  by 
Clement,  and  received  the  patrician  authority.  His  next  step 
was  to  attack  the  fortresses  still  in  the  hands  of  Gregory.  The 
pope  was  saved  by  the  advance  of  Robert  Guiscard,  duke  of 
Apulia,  with  a  large  force,  which  compelled  Henry  to  return 
to  Germany. 

Meanwhile  the  German  rebels  had  chosen  a  fresh  anti-king, 
Hermann,  count  of  Luxemburg,  whom  Henry's  supporters  had 
already  driven  to  his  last  line  of  defence  in  Saxony.  During  the 
campaign  of  1086  Henry  was  defeated  near  Wurzburg,  but  in 
1088  Hermann  abandoned  the  struggle  and  the  emperor  was 
generally  recognized  in  Saxony,  to  which  country  he  showed 
considerable  clemency.  Although  Henry's  power  was  in  the 
ascendent,  a  few  powerful  nobles  adhered  to  the  cause  of  Gregory's 


successor,  Urban  II.  Among  them  was  Welf,  son  of  Welf  I.,  the 
deposed  duke  of  Bavaria,  whose  marriage  with  Matilda  of 
Tuscany  rendered  him  too  formidable  to  be  neglected.  The 
emperor  accordingly  returned  to  Italy  in  1090,  where  Mantua 
and  Milan  were  taken,  and  Pope  Clement  was  restored  to  Rome. 
Henry's  communications  with  Germany  were,  however,threatened 
by  a  league  of  the  Lombard  cities,  and  his  anxieties  were  soon 
augmented  by  domestic  troubles. 

Henry's  first  wife  had  died  in  1087,  and  in  1089  he  had  married 
a  Russian  princess,  Praxedis,  afterwards  called  Adelaide.  Her 
conduct  soon  aroused  his  suspicions,  and  his  own  eldest  son, 
Conrad,  who  had  been  crowned  German  king  in  1087,  was  thought 
to  be  a  partner  in  her  guilt.  Escaping  from  prison,  Adelaide  fled 
to  Henry's  enemies  and  brought  grave  charges  against  her 
husband;  while  the  papal  party  induced  Conrad  to  desert  his 
father  and  to  be  crowned  king  of  Italy  at  Monza  in  1093. 
Crushed  by  this  blow,  Henry  remained  almost  helpless  and 
inactive  in  northern  Italy  for  five  years,  until  1097,  when  having 
lost  every  shred  of  authority  in  that  country,  he  returned  to 
Germany,  where  his  position  was  stronger  than  ever.  Welf  had 
submitted, had  forsaken  the  cause  of  Matilda  and  had  been  restored 
to  Bavaria,  and  in  1098  the  diet  assembled  at  Mainz  declared 
Conrad  deposed,  and  chose  the  emperor's  second  son,  Henry, 
afterwards  the  emperor  Henry  V.,  as  German  king.  The  crusade 
of  1096  had  freed  Germany  from  many  turbulent  spirits,  and  the 
emperor,  meeting  with  some  success  in  his  efforts  to  restore  order, 
could  afford  to  ignore  his  repeated  excommunication.  A  success- 
ful campaign  in  Flanders  was  followed  in  1 103  by  a  diet  at  Mainz, 
where  serious  efforts  were  made  to  restore  peace,  and  Henry 
himself  promised  to  go  on  crusade.  But  this  plan  was  shattered 
by  the  revolt  of  the  younger  Henry  in  1104,  who,  encouraged  by 
the  adherents  of  the  pope,  declared  he  owed  no  allegiance  to  an 
excommunicated  father.  Saxony  and  Thuringia  were  soon  in 
arms,  the  bishops  held  mainly  to  the  younger  Henry,  while  the 
emperor  was  supported  by  the  towns.  A  desultory  warfare  was 
unfavourable,  however,  to  the  emperor,  who,  deceived  by  false 
promises,  became  a  prisoner  in  the  hands  of  his  son  in  1 105.  The 
diet  met  at  Mainz  inDecember,when  he  was  compelled  to  abdicate; 
but  contrary  to  the  conditions,  he  was  detained  at  Ingelheim  and 
denied  his  freedom.  Escaping  to  Cologne,  he  found  considerable 
support  in  the  lower  Rhineland;  he  entered  into  negotiations  with 
England,  France  and  Denmark,  and  was  engaged  in  collecting  an 
army  when  he  died  at  Liege  on  the  7th  of  August  1 106.  His  body 
was  buried  by  the  bishop  of  Liege  with  suitable  ceremony,  but  by 
command  of  the  papal  legate  it  was  unearthed,  taken  to  Spires, 
and  placed  in  an  unconsecrated  chapel.  After  being  released  from 
the  sentence  of  excommunication  the  remains  were  buried  in 
the  cathedral  of  Spires  in  August  mi. 

Henry  IV.  was  very  licentious  and  in  his  early  years  was 
careless  and  self-willed,  but  better  qualities  were  developed  in 
his  later  life.  He  displayed  much  diplomatic  ability,  and  his 
abasement  at  Canossa  may  fairly  be  regarded  as  a  move  of  policy 
to  weaken  the  pope's  position  at  the  cost  of  a  personal  humiliation 
to  himself.  He  was  always  regarded  as  a  friend  of  the  lower 
orders,  was  capable  of  generosity  and  gratitude,  and  showed 
considerable  military  skill.  Unfortunate  in  the  time  in  which 
he  lived,  and  in  the  troubles  with  which  he  had  to  contend,  he 
holds  an  honourable  position  in  history  as  a  monarch  who  resisted 
the  excessive  pretensions  both  of  the  papacy  and  of  the  ambitious 
feudal  lords  of  Germany. 

The  authorities  for  the  life  and  reign  of  Henry  are  Lambert  of 
Hersfeld,  Annales;  Bernold  of  Reichenau,  Chronicon;  Ekkehard  of 
Aura,  Chronicon;  and  Bruno,  De  hello  Saxonico,  which  gives  several 
of  the  more  important  letters  that  passed  between  Henry  and 
Gregory  VII.  These  are  all  found  in  the  Monumenta  Germaniae 
histories..  Scriptores,  Bande  v.  and  vi.  (Hanover  and  Berlin,  1826- 
1892).  There  is  an  anonymous  Vita  Heinrici  IV.,  edited  by  W. 
Wattenbach  (Hanover,  1876).  The  best  modern  authorities  are: 
G.  Meyer  von  Knonau,  Jahrbucher  des  deutschen  Reiches  unter 
Heinrich  IV.  (Leipzig,  1890);  H.  Floto,  Kaiser  Heinrich  IV.  und 
sein  Zeitalter  (Stuttgart,  1855);  E.  Kilian,  Itinerar  Kaiser  Heinrichs 
IV.  (Karlsruhe,  1886);  K.  W.  Nitzsch,  "  Das  deutsche  Reich  und 
Heinrich  IV.,"  in  the  Historische  Zeitschrift,  Band  xlv.  (Munich, 
1859);  H.  Ulmann,  Zum  VerstdnJniss  der  sachsischen  Erhebung 
gegen  Heinrich  IV.  (Hanover,  1886),  W.  von  Giesebrecht,  Geschichte 


HENRY  V. 


277 


der  deutschen  Kaiserzeit  (Leipzig,  1881-1890);  B.  Gebhardt,  Hand- 
buch  der  deutschen  Geschichle  (Berlin,  1901).  For  a  list  of  other 
works,  especially  those  on  the  relations  between  Henry  and  Gregory, 
see  Dahlmann-Waitz,  Quellenkunde  der  deutschen  Geschichte  (Got- 
tingen,  1894).  (A.  W.  H.*) 

HENRY  V.  (1081-1125),  Roman  emperor,  son  of  the  emperor 
Henry  IV.,  was  born  on  the  8th  of  January  1081,  and  after 
the  revolt  and  deposition  of  his  elder  brother,  the  German  king 
Conrad  (d.  noi),  was  chosen  as  his  successor  in  1098.  He 
promised  to  take  no  part  in  the  business  of  the  Empire  during 
his  fathei's  lifetime,  and  was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  on 
the  6th  of  January  1099.  In  spite  of  his  oath  Henry  was  induced 
by  his  father's  enemies  to  revolt  in  1 104,  and  some  of  the  princes 
did  homage  to  him  at  Mainz  in  January  1106.  In  August  of  the 
same  year  the  elder  Henry  died,  when  his  son  became  sole  ruler 
of  the  Empire.  Order  was  soon  restored  in  Germany,  the  citizens 
of  Cologne  were  punished  by  a  fine,  and  an  expedition  against 
Robert  II.,  count  of  Flanders,  brought  this  rebel  to  his  knees. 
In  1107  a  campaign,  which  was  only  partially  successful,  was 
undertaken  to  restore  Bofiwoj  II.  to  the  dukedom  of  Bohemia, 
and  in  the  year  following  the  king  led  his  forces  into  Hungary, 
where  he  failed  to  take  Pressburg.  In  1109  he  was  unable  to 
compel  the  Poles  to  renew  their  accustomed  tribute,  but  in 
i  no  he  succeeded  in  securing  the  dukedom  of  Bohemia  for 
Ladislaus  I. 

The  main  interest  of  Henry's  reign  centres  in  the  controversy 
over  lay  investiture,  which  had  caused  a  serious  dispute  during 
the  previous  reign.  The  papal  party  who  had  supported  Henry 
in  his  resistance  to  his  father  hoped  he  would  assent  to  the 
decrees  of  the  pope,  which  had  been  renewed  by  Paschal  II.  at 
the  synod  of  Guastalla  in  1106.  The  king,  however,  continued 
to  invest  the  bishops,  but  wished  the  pope  to  hold  a  council  in 
Germany  to  settle  the  question.  Paschal  after  some  hesitation 
preferred  France  to  Germany,  and,  after  holding  a  council  at 
Troyes,  renewed  his  prohibition  of  lay  investiture.  The  matter 
slumbered  until  mo,  when,  negotiations  between  king  and  pope 
having  failed,  Paschal  renewed  his  decrees  and  Henry  went  to 
Italy  with  a  large  army.  The  strength  of  his  forces  helped  him  to 
secure  general  recognition  in  Lombardy ,  and  at  Sutri  he  concluded 
an  arrangement  with  Paschal  by  which  he  renounced  the  right 
of  investiture  in  return  for  a  promise  of  coronation,  and  the 
restoration  to  the  Empire  of  all  lands  given  by  kings,  or  emperors, 
to  the  German  church  since  the  time  of  Charlemagne.  It  was  a 
treaty  impossible  to  execute,  and  Henry,  whose  consent  to  it 
is  said  to  have  been  conditional  on  its  acceptance  by  the  princes 
and  bishops  of  Germany,  probably  foresaw  that  it  would  occasion 
a  breach  between  the  German  clergy  and  the  pope.  Having 
entered  Rome  and  sworn  the  usual  oaths,  the  king  presented 
himself  at  St  Peter's  on  the  i2th  of  February  nn  for  his 
coronation  and  the  ratification  of  the  treaty.  The  words  com- 
manding the  clergy  to  restore  the  fiefs  of  the  crown  to  Henry 
were  read  amid  a  tumult  of  indignation,  whereupon  the  pope 
refused  to  crown  the  king,  who  in  return  declined  to  hand  over 
his  renunciation  of  the  right  of  investiture.  Paschal  was  seized 
by  Henry's  soldiers  and,  in  the  general  disorder  into  which  the 
city  was  thrown,  an  attempt  to  liberate  the  pontiff  was  thwarted 
in  a  struggle  during  which  the  king  himself  was  wounded.  Henry 
then  left  the  city  carrying  the  pope  with  him;  and  Paschal's  failure 
to  obtain  assistance  drew  from  him  a  confirmation  of  the  king's 
right  of  investiture  and  a  promise  to  crown  him  emperor.  The 
coronation  ceremony  accordingly  took  place  on  the  i$th  of 
April  nn,  after  which  the  emperor  returned  to  Germany, 
where  he  sought  to  strengthen  his  power  by  granting  privileges 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  region  of  the  upper  Rhine. 

In  1 1 12  Lothair,  duke  of  Saxony,  rose  in  arms  against  Henry, 
but  was  easily  quelled.  In  1113,  however, a  quarrel  over  the 
succession  to  the  counties  of  Weimar  and  Orlamiinde  gave 
occasion  for  a  fresh  outbreak  on  the  part  of  Lothair,  whose  troops 
were  defeated  at  Warnstadt,  after  which  the  duke  was  pardoned. 
Having  been  married  at  Mainz  on  the  yth  of  January  1114  to 
Matilda,  or  Maud,  daughter  of  Henry  I.,  king  of  England,  the 
emperor  was  confronted  with  a  further  rising,  initiated  by  the 


citizens  of  Cologne,  who  were  soon  joined  by  the  Saxons  and 
others.  Henry  failed  to  take  Cologne,  his  forces  were  defeated 
at  Welfesholz  on  the  nth  of  February  1115,  and  complications 
in  Italy  compelled  him  to  leave  Germany  to  the  care  of  Frederick 
II.  of  Hohenstaufen,  duke  of  Swabia,  and  his  brother  Conrad, 
afterwards  the  German  king  Conrad  III.  After  the  departure 
of  Henry  from  Rome  in  nn  a  council  had  declared  the  privilege 
of  lay  investiture,  which  had  been  extorted  from  Paschal,  to 
be  invalid,  and  Guido,  archbishop  of  Vienne,  excommunicated 
the  emperor  and  called  upon  the  pope  to  ratify  this  sentence. 
Paschal,  however,  refused  to  take  so  extreme  a  step;  and  the 
quarrel  entered  upon  a  new  stage  in  1 1 1 5  when  Matilda,  daughter 
and  heiress  of  Boniface,  margrave  of  Tuscany,  died  leaving  her 
vast  estates  to  the  papacy.  Crossing  the  Alps  in  1116  Henry 
won  the  support  of  town  and  noble  by  privileges  to  the  one  and 
presents  to  the  other,  took  possession  of  Matilda's  lands,  and  was 
gladly  received  in  Rome.  By  this  time  Paschal  had  withdrawn 
his  consent  to  lay  investiture  and  the  excommunication  had  been 
published  in  Rome;  but  the  pope  was  compelled  to  fly  from  the 
city.  Some  of  the  cardinals  withstood  the  emperor,  but  by 
means  of  bribes  he  broke  down  the  opposition,  and  was  crowned 
a  second  time  by  Burdinas,  archbishop  of  Braga.  Meanwhile 
the  defeat  at  Welfesholz  had  given  heart  to  Henry's  enemies; 
many  of  his  supporters,  especially  among  the  bishops,  fell  away; 
the  excommunication  was  published  at  Cologne,  and  the  pope, 
with  the  assistance  of  the  Normans,  began  to  make  war.  In 
January  1118  Paschal  died  and  was  succeeded  by  Gelasius  II. 
The  emperor  immediately  returned  from  northern  Italy  to  Rome. 
But  as  the  new  pope  escaped  from  the  city,  Henry,  despairing 
of  making  a  treaty,  secured  the  election  of  an  antipope  who  took 
the  name  of  Gregory  VIII.,  and  who  was  left  in  possession  of 
Rome  when  the  emperor  returned  across  the  Alps  in  1118. 
The  opposition  in  Germany  was  gradually  crushed  and  a  general 
peace  declared  at  Tribur,  while  the  desire  for  a  settlement  of 
the  investiture  dispute  was  growing.  Negotiations,  begun  at 
Wurzburg,  were  continued  at  Worms,  where  the  new  pope, 
Calixtus  II.,  was  represented  by  Caidinal  Lambert,  bishop  of 
Ostia.  In  the  concordat  of  Worms,  signed  in  September  1122,. 
Henry  renounced  the  right  of  investiture  with  ring  and  crozier, 
recognized  the  freedom  of  election  of  the  clergy  and  promised 
to  restore  all  church  property.  The  pope  agreed  to  allow  elections 
to  take  place  in  presence  of  the  imperial  envoys,  and  the  investi- 
ture with  the  sceptre  to  be  granted  by  the  emperor  as  a  symbol 
that  the  estates  of  the  church  were  held  under  the  crown.  Henry, 
who  had  been  solemnly  excommunicated  at  Reims  by  Calixtus 
in  October  1119,  was  received  again  into  the  communion  of  the 
church,  after  he  had  abandoned  his  nominee,  Gregory,  to  defeat 
and  banishment.  The  emperor's  concluding  years  were  occupied 
with  a  campaign  in  Holland,  and  with  a  quarrel  over  the  succes- 
sion to  the  margraviate  of  Meissen,  two  disputes  in  which  his 
enemies  were  aided  by  Lothair  of  Saxony.  In  1124  he  led  an 
expedition  against  King  Louis  VI.  of  France,  turned  his  arms 
against  the  citizens  of  Worms,  and  on  the  23rd  of  May  1125 
died  at  Utrecht  and  was  buried  at  Spires.  Having  no  children, 
he  left  his  possessions  to  his  nephew,  Frederick  II.  of  Hohen- 
staufen, duke  of  Swabia,  and  on  his  death  the  line  of  Franconian, 
or  Salian,  emperors  became  extinct. 

The  character  of  Henry  is  unattractive.  His  love  of  power 
was  inordinate;  he  was  wanting  in  generosity,  and  he  did  not 
shrink  from  treachery  in  pursuing  his  ends. 

The  chief  authority  for  the  life  and  reign  of  Henry  V.  is  Ekkehard 
of  Aura,  Chronicon,  edited  by  G.  Waitz  in  the  Monumenta 
Germaniae  hisiorica.  Scriptores,  Band  vi.  (Hanover  and  Berlin, 
1826-1892).  See  also  W.  von  Giesebrecht,  Geschichte  der  deutschen 
Kaiserzeit,  Band  iii.  (Leipzig,  1881-1890);  L.  von  Ranke,  Welt- 
geschichte,  pt.  vii.  (Leipzig,  1886);  M.  Manitius,  Deutsche  Geschichte 
(Stuttgart,  1889);  G.  Meyer  von  Knonau,  Jahrbucher  des  deutschen 
Reiches  unter  Heinrich  IV.  und  Heinrich  V.  (Leipzig,  1890);  E. 
Gervais,  Politische  Geschichte  Deutschlands  unter  der  Regierung  der 
Kaiser  Heinrich  V.  und  Lothar  III.  (Leipzig,  1841-1842) ;  G.  Peiser, 
Der  deutsche  Investiturstreit  unter  Kaiser  Heinrich  V.  (Berlin,  1883); 
C.  Stutzer,  "  Zur  Kritik  der  Investiturverhandlungen  im  Jahre 
1119,"  in  the  Forschungen  zur  deutschen  Geschichte,  Band  xviii. 
(Gottingen,  1862-1886);  T.  von  Sickel  and  H.  Bresslau,  "Die 


278 


HENRY  VI.-VII. 


kaiserliche  Ausfertigung  des  Wormser  Konkordats,"  in  the  Mitthei- 
lungen  des  Instituts  fiir  osterreichische  Geschichtsforschung  (Innsbruck, 
1880);  B.  Gebhardt,  Handbuch  der  deutschen  Geschichte,  Band  i. 
(Berlin,  1901),  and  E.  Bernheim,  Zur  Geschichte  des  Wormser 
Konkordats  (Gottingen,  1878). 

HENRY  VI.  (1165-1197),  Roman  emperor,'son  of  the  emperor 
Frederick  I.  and  Beatrix,  daughter  of  Renaud  III.,  count  of 
upper  Burgundy,  was  born  at  Nijmwegen,  and  educated  under 
the  care  of  Conrad  of  Querfurt,  afterwards  bishop  of  Hildesheim 
and  Wiirzburg.  Chosen  German  king,  or  king  of  the  Romans, 
at  Bamberg  in  June  1169,  he  was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle 
on  the  isth  of  August  1169,  invested  with  lands  in  Germany 
in  1179,  and  at  Whitsuntide  1184  his  knighthood  was  celebrated 
in  the  most  magnificent  manner  at  Mainz.  Frederick  was  anxious 
to  associate  his  son  with  himself  in  the  government  of  the  empire, 
and  when  he  left  Germany  in  1184  Henry  remained  behind  as 
regent,  while  his  father  sought  to  procure  his  coronation  from 
Pope  Lucius  III.  The  pope  was  hesitating  when  he  heard  that 
the  emperor  had  arranged  a  marriage  between  Henry  and 
Constance,  daughter  of  the  late  king  of  Sicily,  Roger  I.,  and  aunt 
and  heiress  of  the  reigning  king,  William  II.;  and  this  step, 
which  threatened  to  unite  Sicily  with  Germany,  decided  him  to 
refuse  the  proposal.  This  marriage  took  place  at  Milan  on  the 
27th  of  January  1186,  and  soon  afterwards  Henry  was  crowned 
king  of  Italy.  The  claim  of  Henry  and  his  wife  on  Sicily  was 
recognized  by  the  barons  of  that  kingdom;  and  having  been 
recognized  by  the  pope  as  Roman  emperor  elect,  Henry  returned 
to  Germany,  and  was  again  appointed  regent  when  Frederick 
set  out  on  crusade  in  May  1 189.  His  attempts  to  bring  peace  to 
Germany  were  interrupted  by  the  return  of  Henry  the  Lion, 
duke  of  Saxony,  in  October  1189,  and  a  campaign  against  him 
was  followed  by  a  peace  made  at  Fulda  in  July  1190. 

Henry's  desire  to  make  this  peace  was  due  to  the  death  of 
William  of  Sicily,  which  was  soon  followed  by  that  of  the  emperor 
Frederick.  Germany  and  Italy  alike  seemed  to  need  the  king's 
presence,  but  for  him,  like  all  the  Hohenstaufen,  Italy  had  the 
greater  charm,  and  having  obtained  a  promise  of  his  coronation 
from  Pope  Clement  III.  he  crossed  the  Alps  in  the  winter  of 
1 190.  He  purchased  the  support  of  the  cities  of  northern  Italy, 
but  on  reaching  Rome  he  found  Clement  was  dead  and  his 
successor,  Celestine  III.,  disinclined  to  carry  out  the  engagement 
of  his  predecessor.  The  strength  of  the  German  army  and  a 
treaty  made  between  the  king  and  the  Romans  induced  him, 
however,  to  crown  Henry  as  emperor  on  the  I4th  of  April  1191. 
The  aid  of  the  Romans  had  been  purchased  by  the  king's  promise 
to  place  in  their  possession  the  city  of  Tusculum,  which  they  had 
attacked  in  vain  for  three  years.  After  the  ceremony  the 
emperor  fulfilled  this  contract,  when  the  city  was  destroyed  and 
many  of  the  inhabitants  massacred.  Meanwhile  a  party  in  Sicily 
had  chosen  Tancred,  an  illegitimate  son  of  Roger,  son  of  King 
Roger  II.,  as  their  king,  and  he  had  already  won  considerable 
authority  and  was  favoured  by  the  pope.  Leaving  Rome  Henry 
met  with  no  resistance  until  he  reached  Naples,  which  he  was 
unable  to  take,  as  the  ravages  of  fever  and  threatening  news 
from  Germany,  where  his  death  was  reported,  compelled  him  to 
raise  the  siege.  In  December  1191  he  returned  to  Germany. 
Disorder  was  general  and  a  variety  of  reasons  induced  both  the 
Welfs  and  their  earlier  opponents  to  join  in  a  general  league 
against  the  emperor.  Vacancies  in  various  bishoprics  added  to 
the  confusion,  and  Henry's  enemies  gained  in  numbers  and 
strength  when  it  was  suspected  that  he  was  implicated  in  the 
murder  of  Albert,  bishop  of  Li6ge.  Henry  acted  energetically 
in  fighting  this  formidable  combination,  but  his  salvation  came 
from  the  captivity  of  Richard  I.,  king  of  England,  and  the  skill 
with  which  he  used  this  event  to  make  peace  with  his  foes;  and, 
when  Henry  the  Lion  came  to  terms  in  March  1194,  order  was 
restored  to  Germany. 

In  the  following  May,  Henry  made  his  second  expedition  to 
Italy,  where  Pope  Celestine  had  definitely  espoused  the  cause  of 
Tancred.  The  ransom  received  from  Richard  enabled  him  to 
equip  a  large  army,  and  aided  by  a  fleet  fitted  out  by  Genoa  and 
Pisa  he  soon  secured  a  complete  mastery  over  the  Italian  main- 


land. When  he  reached  Sicily  he  found  Tancred  dead,  and, 
meeting  with  very  little  resistance,  he  entered  Palermo,  where 
he  was  crowned  king  on  Christmas  day  1194.  A  stay  of  a  few 
months'  duration  enabled  Henry_to  settle  the  affairs  of  the 
kingdom;  and  leaving  his  wife,  Constance,  as  regent,  and 
appointing  many  Germans  to  positions  of  influence,  he  returned 
to  Germany  in  June  1195. 

Having  established  his  position  in  Germany  and  Italy,  Henry 
began  to  cherish  ideas  of  universal  empire.  Richard  of  England 
had  already  owned  his  supremacy,  and  declaring  he  would 
compel  the  king  of  France  to  do  the  same  Henry  sought  to  stir 
up  strife  between  France  and  England.  Nor  did  the  Spanish 
kingdoms  escape  his  notice.  Tunis  and  Tripoli  were  claimed, 
and  when  the  eastern  emperor,  Isaac  Angelus,  asked  his  help, 
he  demanded  in  return  the  cession  of  the  Balkan  peninsula. 
The  kings  of  Cyprus  and  Armenia  asked  for  investiture  at  his 
hands;  and  in  general  Henry,  in  the  words  of  a  Byzantine 
chronicler,  put  forward  his  demands  as  "  the  lord  of  all  lords, 
the  king  of  all  kings."  To  complete  this  scheme  two  steps  were 
necessary,  a  reconciliation  with  the  pope  and  the  recognition  of 
his  young  son,  Frederick,  as  his  successor  in  the  Empire.  The 
first  was  easily  accomplished;  the  second  was  more  difficult. 
After  attempting  to  suppress  the  renewed  disorder  in  Germany, 
Henry  met  the  princes  at  Worms  in  December  1195  and  put  his 
proposal  before  them.  In  spite  of  promises  they  disliked  the 
suggestion  as  tending  to  draw  them  into  Sicilian  troubles,  and 
avoided  the  emperor's  displeasure  by  postponing  their  answer. 
By  threats  or  negotiations,  however,  Henry  won  the  consent  of 
about  fifty  princes;  but  though  the  diet  which  met  at  Wiirzburg 
in  April  1196  agreed  to  the  scheme,  the  vigorous  opposition  of 
Adolph,  archbishop  of  Cologne,  and  others  rendered  it  inopera- 
tive. In  June  1196  Henry  went  again  to  Italy,  sought  vainly 
to  restore  order  in  the  north,  and  tried  to  persuade  the  pope  to 
crown  his  son  who  had  been  chosen  king  of  the  Romans  at 
Frankfort.  Celestine,  who  had  many  causes  of  complaint  against 
the  emperor  and  his  vassals,  refused.  The  emperor  then  went 
to  the  south,  where  the  oppression  of  his  German  officials  had 
caused  an  insurrection,  which  was  put  down  with  terrible  cruelty. 
At  Messina  on  the  28th  of  September  1197  Henry  died  from 
a  cold  caught  whilst  hunting,  and  was  buried  at  Palermo. 
He  was  a  man  of  small  frame  and  delicate  constitution,  but 
possessed  considerable  mental  gifts  and  was  skilled  in  knightly 
exercises.  His  ambition  was  immense,  and  to  attain  his 
ends  he  often  resorted  deliberately  to  cruelty  and  treachery. 
His  chief  recreation  was  hunting,  and  he  also  found  pleasure 
in  the  society  of  the  Minnesingers  and  in  writing  poems, 
which  appear  in  F.  H.  von  der  Hagen's  Minnesinger  (Leipzig, 
1838).  He  left  an  only  son  Frederick,  afterwards  the  emperor 
Frederick  II. 

The  chief  authorities  for  the  life  and  reign  of  Henry  VI.  are  Otto  of 
Freising,  Chronicon,  continued  by  Otto  of  St.  Blasius;  Godfrey  of 
Viterbo,  Gesta  Friderici  I.  and  Gesta  Heinrici  VI.;  Giselbert  of 
Mons,  Chronicon  Hanoniense,  all  of  which  appear  in  the  Monu- 
menta  Germaniae  historica.  Scriptores,  Bande  xx.,  xxi.,  xxii. 
(Hanover  and  Berlin,  1826-1892),  and  the  various  annals  of  the  time. 

The  best  modern  authorities  are:  W.  von  Giesebrecht,  Geschichte 
der  deutschen  Kaiserzeit,  Band  iv.  (Brunswick,  1877);  T.  Toeche, 
Kaiser  Heinrich  VI.  (Leipzig,  1867);  H.  Bloch,  Forschungen  zur 
Politik  Kaiser  Heinrichs  VI.  (Berlin,  1892),  and  K.  A.  Kneller, 
Des  Richard  Lowenherz  deutsche  Gefangenschaft  (Freiburg,  1893). 

HENRY  VII.  (c.  1269-1313),  Roman  emperor,  son  of  Henry 
III.,  count  of  Luxemburg,  was  knighted  by  Philip  IV.,  king  of 
France,  and  passed  his  early  days  under  French  influences, 
while  the  French  language  was  his  mother-tongue.  His  father 
was  killed  in  battle  in  1 288,  and  Henry  ruled  his  tiny  inheritance 
with  justice  and  prudence,  but  came  into  collision  with  the 
citizens  of  Trier  over  a  question  of  tolls.  In  1292  he  married 
Margaret  (d.  1311),  daughter  of  John  I.,  duke  of  Brabant,  and 
after  the  death  of  the  German  king,  Albert  I.,  he  was  elected  to 
the  vacant  throne  on  the  27th  of  November  1308.  Recognized 
at  once  by  the  German  princes  and  by  Pope  Clement  V.,  the  aspira- 
tions of  the  new  king  turned  to  Italy,  where  he  hoped  by  restoring 
the  imperial  authority  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  conquest  of 


HENRY  VII.— HENRY  RASPE 


279 


the  Holy  Land.     Meanwhile  he  strove  to  secure  his  position  in 
Germany.    The   Rhenish   archbishops   were   pacified   by   the 
restoration  of  the  Rhine  tolls,  negotiations  were  begun  with 
Philip  IV.,  king  of  France,  and  with  Robert,  king  of  Naples, 
and  the  Habsburgs  were  confirmed  in  their  possessions.    At 
this  time  Bohemia  was  ruled  by  Henry  V.,  duke  of  Carinthia, 
but  the  terrible  disorder  which  prevailed  induced  some  of  the 
Bohemians  to  offer  the  crown,  together  with  the  hand  of  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  the  late  king  Wenceslas  II.,  to  John,  the  son  of  the 
German  king.     Henry  accepted  the  offer,  and  in  August  1310 
John  was  invested  with  Bohemia  and  his  marriage  was  cele- 
brated.    Before    John's    coronation   at   Prague,    however,   in 
February  1311,  Henry  had  crossed  the  Alps.     His  hopes  of  re- 
uniting Germany  and  Italy  and  of  restoring  the  empire  of  the 
Hohenstaufen  were  flattered  by  an  appeal  from  the  Ghibellines 
to  come  to  their  assistance,  and  by  the  fact  that  many  Italians, 
sharing  the  sentiments  expressed  by  Dante  in  his  De  Monarchia, 
looked  eagerly  for  a  restoration  of  the  imperial  authority.     In 
October  1310  he  reached  Turin  where,  on  receiving  the  homage 
of  the  Lombard  cities,  he  declared  that  he  favoured  neither 
Guelphs  nor  Ghibellines,  but  only  sought  to  impose  peace. 
Having  entered  Milan  he  placed  the  Lombard  crown  upon  his 
head  on  the  6th  of  January  1311.     But  trouble  soon  showed 
itself.     His  poverty  compelled  him  to  exact  money  from  the 
citizens;  the  peaceful  professions  of  the  Guelphs  were  insincere, 
and  Robert,  king  of  Naples,  watched  his  progress  with  suspicion. 
Florence  was  fortified  against  him,  and  the  mutual  hatred  of 
Guelph  and  Ghibelline  was  easily  renewed.     Risings  took  place 
in  various  places  and,   after  the  capture  of  Brescia,  Henry 
marched  to  Rome  only  to  find  the  city  in  the  hands  of  the  Guelphs 
and  the  troops  of  King  Robert.     Some  street  fighting  ensued, 
and  the  king,  unable  to  obtain  possession  of  St  Peter's,  was 
crowned  emperor  on  the  2pth  of  June  1312  in  the  church  of  St 
John  Lateran  by  some  cardinals  who  declared  they  only  acted 
under  compulsion.     Failing  to  subdue  Florence,  the  emperor 
from  his  headquarters  at  Pisa  prepared  to  attack  Robert  of 
Naples,  for  which  purpose  he  had  allied  himself  with  Frederick 
III.,  king  of  Sicily.     But  Clement,  anxious  to  protect  Robert, 
threatened  Henry  with  excommunication.      Undeterred  by  the 
threat  the  emperor  collected  fresh  forces,  made  an  alliance  with 
the  Venetians,  and  set  out  for  Naples.     On  the  march  he  was, 
however,  taken  ill,  and  died  at  Buonconvento  near  Siena  on  the 
24th  of  August  1313,  and  was  buried  at  Pisa.     His  death  was 
attributed,  probably  without  reason,  to  poison  given  him  by  a 
Dominican  friar  in  the  sacramental  wine.     Henry  is  described 
by  his  contemporary  Albertino  Mussato,  in  the  Historia  Augusta 
as  a  handsome  man,  of  well-proportioned  figure,  with  reddish 
hair  and  arched  eyebrows,  but  disfigured  by  a  squint.     He  adds, 
among  other  details,  that  he  was  slow  and  laconic  in  his  speech, 
magnanimous   and   devout,   but   impatient   of   any   compacts 
with  his  subjects,  loathing  the  mention  of  the  Guelph  and 
Ghibelline  factions,  and  insisting  on  the  absolute  authority 
of  the  Empire  over  all  (cuncta  absolute  complectem  Imperio). 
He  was,  however,  a  lover  of  justice,  and  as  a  knight  both  bold 
and  skilful.     He  was  hailed  by  Dante  as  the  deliverer  of  Italy, 
and  in  the  Paradiso  the  poet  reserved  for  him  a  place  marked 
by  a  crown. 

The  contemporary  documents  for  the  life  and  reign  of  Henry  VII. 
are  very  numerous.     Many  of  them  are  found  in  the  Rerum  Itali- 
carum  scriptores,  edited  by  L.  A.   Muratori   (Milan,    1723-1751) 
others  in   Fontes  rerum  Germanicarum,  edited  by  J.   F.   Bohmer 
(Stuttgart,  1843-1868),  and  in  Die  Geschichtsschreiber  der  deutschen 
Vorzeit,  Bande  79  and  80  (Leipzig,  1884).     The  following  modern 
works    may    also    be    consulted:    Ada    Henrici    VII.    imperatoris 
Romanorum,  edited  by  G.   Donniges  (Berlin,   1839);  F.   Bonaini 
Ada  Henrici    VII.   Romanorum  imperatoris   (Florence,    1877);  T 
Lindner,   Deutsche  Geschichte  unter  den  Habsburgern  und  Luxem- 
burgern  (Stuttgart,  1888-1893);  J.  Heidemann,  "Die  Konigswah 
Heinrichs   von    Luxemburg,"    in    the    Forschungen    zur   deutschen 
Geschichte,    Band    xi.    (Gottingen,    1862-1886);    B.   Thomas,    Zur 
Konigswahl  des  Graf  en  Heinrich  von  Luxemburg  (Strassburg,  1875) 
D.   Konig,  Kritische  Erorterungen  zu  einigen  italienischen  Quellen 
fur  die  Geschichte  des  Romerzuges  Konigs  Heinrich  VII.  (Gottingen 
1874);  K.  Wenck,   Clemens   V.  und  Heinrich   VII.   (Halle,   1882) 
F.  W.   Barthold,   Der  Romerzug  Konig  Heinrichs  von  Liitzelburg 


Konigsberg,  1830-1831);  R.  Pohlmann,  Der  Romerzug  Kiinig 
'leinnchs  VII.  und  die  Politik  der  Curie  (Nuremberg,  1875);  W. 
Donniges,  Kritik  der  Quellen  fur  die  Geschichle  Heinrichs  VII.  des 

Luxemburgers  (Berlin,   1841),  and  G.  Sommerfeldt,  Die  Romfahrt 

Kaiser  Heinrichs  VII.  (Konigsberg,  1888). 

HENRY  VII.  (1211-1242),  German  king,  son  of  the  emperor 
Frederick  II.  and  his  first  wife  Constance,  daughter  of  Alphonso 
[I.,  king  of  Aragon,  was  crowned  king  of  Sicily  in  1212  and  made 
duke  of  Swabia  in  1216.     Pope  Innocent  III.  had  favoured  his 
coronation  as  king  of  Sicily  in  the  hope  that  the  union  of  this 
.sland  with  the  Empire  would  be  dissolved,  and  had  obtained  a 
jromise  from  Frederick  to  this  effect.     In  spite  of  this,  however, 
Henry  was  chosen  king  of  the  Romans,  or  German  king,  at 
Frankfort  in  April  1220,  and  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  on  the 
3th  of  May  1222  by  his  guardian  Engelbert,  archbishop  of  Cologne. 
He  appears  to  have  spent  most  of  his  youth  in  Germany,  and 
on  the  1 8th  of  November  1225  was  married  at  Nuremberg  to 
Margaret  (d.  1267),  daughter  of  Leopold  VI.,  duke  of  Austria. 
Henry's  marriage  was  the  occasion  of  some  difference  of  opinion, 
as  Engelbert  wished  him  to  marry  an  English  princess,  and  the 
name  of  a  Bohemian  princess  was  also  mentioned  in  this  con- 
nexion, but  Frederick  insisted  upon  the  union  with  Margaret. 
The  murder  of  Engelbert  in  1225  was  followed  by  an  increase  of 
disorder  in  Germany  in  which  Henry  soon  began  to  participate, 
and  in  1227  he  took  part  in  a  quarrel  which  had  arisen  on  the 
death  of  Henry  V.,  the  childless  count  palatine  of  the  Rhine. 
About  this  time  the  relations  between  Frederick  and  his  son 
began  to  be  somewhat  strained.     The  emperor  had  favoured  the 
Austrian  marriage  because  Margaret's  brother,  Duke  Frederick 
II.,  was  childless;  but  Henry  took  up  a  hostile  attitude  towards 
his  brother-in-law    and    wished    to    put    away    his   wife    and 
marry  Agnes,  daughter  of  Wenceslaus  I.,  king  of  Bohemia. 
Other  causes  of  trouble  probably  existed,  for  in  1231  Henry  not 
only  refused  to  appear  at  the  diet  at  Ravenna,  but  opposed 
the  privileges  granted  by  Frederick  to  the  princes  at  Worms.    In 
1 23 2,  "however,  he  submitted  to  his  father,  promising  to  adopt 
the  emperor's  policy  and  to  obey  his  commands.     He  did  not 
long  keep  his  word  and  was  soon  engaged  in  thwarting  Frederick's 
wishes  in  several  directions,  until  in  1233  he  took  the  decisive 
step  of  issuing  a  manifesto  to  the  princes,  and  the  following  year 
raised  the  standard  of  revolt  at  Boppard.     He  obtained  very 
little  support  in  Germany,  however,  while  the  suspicion  that  he 
favoured  heresy  deprived  him  of  encouragement  from  the  pope. 
On  the  other  hand,  he  succeeded  in  forming  an  alliance  with  the 
Lombards  in  December  1234,  but  his  few  supporters  fell  away 
when  the  emperor  reached  Germany  in  1235,  and,  after  a  vain 
attack  on  Worms,  Henry  submitted  and  was  kept  for  some  time 
as  a  prisoner  in  Germany,  though  his  formal  deposition  as  German 
king  was  not  considered  necessary,  as  he  had  broken  the  oath 
taken  in  1232.     He  was  soon  removed  to  San  Felice  in  Apulia, 
and  afterwards  to  Martirano  in  Calabria,  where  he  died,  prob- 
ably by  his  own  hand,  on  the  I2th  of  February  1242,  and  was 
buried  at  Cosenza.     He  left  two  sons,  Frederick  and  Henry, 
both  of  whom  died  in  Italy  about  1251. 

See  J.  Rohden,  Der  Sturz  Heinrichs  VII.  (Gottingen,  1883)  ;  F.  W. 
Schirrmacher,  Die  letzten  Hohenstaufen  (Gottingen,  1871),  and  E. 
Winkelmann,  Kaiser  Friedrich  II.  (Leipzig,  1889). 

HENRY  RASPE  (c.  1202-1247),  German  king  and  landgrave 
of  Thuringia,  was  the  second  surviving  son  of  Hermann  L, 
landgrave  of  Thuringia,  and  Sophia,  daughter  of  Otto  L,  duke  of 
Bavaria.  When  his  brother  the  landgrave  Louis  IV.  died  in 
Italy  in  September  1227,  Henry  seized  the  government  of 
Thuringia  and  expelled  his  brother's  widow,  St  Elizabeth  of 
Hungary,  and  her  son  Hermann.  With  some  trouble  Henry 
made  good  his  position,  although  his  nephew  Hermann  II.  was 
nominally  the  landgrave,  and  was  declared  of  age  in  1237. 
Henry,  who  governed  with  a  zealous  regard  for  his  own  interests, 
remained  loyal  to  the  emperor  Frederick  II.  during  his  quarrel 
with  the  Lombards  and  the  revolt  of  his  son  Henry.  In  1236 
he  accompanied  the  emperor  on  a  campaign  against  Frederick 
II.,  duke  of  Austria,  and  took  part  in  the  election  of  his  son 
Conrad  as  German  king  at  Vienna  in  1 237.  He  appears,  however, 
to  have  become  somewhat  estranged  from  Frederick  after  this 


280 


HENRY— HENRY  I. 


expedition,  for  he  did  not  appear  at  the  diet  of  Verona  in  1238; 
and  it  is  not  improbable  that  he  disliked  the  betrothal  of  his 
nephew  Hermann  to  the  emperor's  daughter  Margaret.  At 
all  events,  when  the  projected  marriage  had  been  broken  off 
the  landgrave  publicly  showed  his  loyalty  to  the  emperor  in 
1239  in  opposition  to  a  plan  formed  by  various  princes  to  elect 
an  anti-king.  Henry,  whose  attitude  at  this  time  was  very 
important  to  Frederick,  was  probably  kept  loyal  by  the  in- 
fluence which  his  brother  Conrad,  grand-master  of  the  Teutonic 
Order,  exercised  over  him,  for  after  the  death  of  this  brother 
in  1241  Henry's  loyalty  again  wavered,  and  he  was  himself 
mentioned  as  a  possible  anti-king.  Frederick's  visit  to  Germany 
in  1242  was  successful  in  preventing  this  step  for  a  time,  and  in 
May  of  that  year  the  landgrave  was  appointed  administrator  of 
Germany  for  King  Conrad;  and  by  the  death  of  his  nephew 
in  this  year  he  became  the  nominal,  as  well  as  the  actual,  ruler 
of  Thuringia.  Again  he  contemplated  deserting  the  cause  of 
Frederick,  and  in  April  1246  Pope  Innocent  IV.  wrote  to  the 
German  princes  advising  them  to  choose  Henry  as  their  king 
in  place  of  Frederick  who  had  just  been  declared  deposed.  Acting 
on  these  instructions,  Henry  was  elected  at  Veitshochheim  on 
the  22nd  of  May  1246,  and  owing  to  the  part  played  by  the 
spiritual  princes  in  this  election  was  called  the  Pfa/enkonig,  or 
parsons'  king.  Collecting  an  army,  he  defeated  King  Conrad 
near  Frankfort  on  the  sth  of  August  1246,  and  then,  after  holding 
a  diet  at  Nuremberg,  undertook  the  siege  of  Ulm.  But  he  was 
soon  compelled  to  give  up  this  enterprise,  and  returning  to 
Thuringia  died  at  the  Wartburg  on  the  I7th  of  February  1247. 
Henry  married  Gertrude,  sister  of  Frederick  II.,  duke  of  Austria, 
but  left  no  children,  and  on  his  death  the  male  line  of  his  family 
became  extinct. 

See  F.  Reuss,  Die  Wahl  Heinrich  Raspes  (Ludenschcid,  1878); 
A.  Rubesamen,  Landgraf  Heinrich  Raspe  von  Thuringen  (Halle, 
1885);  F.  W.  Schirrmacner,  Die  letzten  Hohenstaufen  (Gottingen, 
1871);  E.  Winkelrnann,  Kaiser  Friedrich  II.  (Leipzig,  1889),  and 
T.  Knochenhauer,  Geschichte  Thiiringens  ztir  Zeit  des  ersten  'Land- 
grafenhauses  (Gotha,  1871). 

HENRY  (c.  1174-1216),  emperor  of  Romania,  or  Constan- 
tinople, was  a  younger  son  of  Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders  and 
Hainaut  (d.  1195).  Having  joined  the  Fourth  Crusade  about  1201, 
he  distinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of  Constantinople  in  1204 
and  elsewhere,  and  soon  became  prominent  among  the  princes 
of  the  new  Latin  empire  of  Constantinople.  When  his  brother, 
the  emperor  Baldwin  I.,  was  captured  at  the  battle  of  Adrianople 
in  April  1205,  Henry  was  chosen  regent  of  the  empire,  succeeding 
to  the  throne  when  the  news  of  Baldwin's  death  arrived.  He 
was  crowned  on  the  2oth  of  August  1205.  Henry  was  a  wise 
ruler,  whose  reign  was  largely  passed  in  successful  struggles 
with  the  Bulgarians  and  with  his  rival,  Theodore  Lascaris  I., 
emperor  of  Nicaea.  Henry  appears  to  have  been  brave  but  not 
cruel,  and  tolerant  but  not  weak;  possessing  "  the  superior 
courage  to  oppose,  in  a  superstitious  age,  the  pride  and  avarice 
of  the  clergy."  The  emperor  died,  poisoned,  it  is  said,  by  his 
Greek  wife,  on  the  nth  of  June  1216. 

See  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  vol.  vi.  (ed. 
J.  B.  Bury,  1898). 

HENRY  I.  (1068-1135),  king  of  England,  nicknamed  Beau- 
clerk,  the  fourth  and  youngest  son  of  William  I.  by  his  queen 
Matilda  of  Flanders,  was  born  in  1068  on  English  soil.  Of  his 
life  before  1086,  when  he  was  solemnly  knighted  by  his  father 
at  Westminster,  we  know  little.  He  was  his  mother's  favourite, 
and  she  bequeathed  to  him  her  English  estates,  which,  however, 
he  was  not  permitted  to  hold  in  his  father's  lifetime.  Henry 
received  a  good  education,  of  which  in  later  life  he  was  proud; 
he  is  credited  with  the  saying  that  an  unlettered  king  is  only  a 
crowned  ass.  His  attainments  included  Latin,  which  he  could 
both  read  and  write;  he  knew  something  of  the  English  laws 
and  language,  and  it  may  have  been  from  an  interest  in  natural 
history  that  he  collected,  during  his  reign,  the  Woodstock 
menagerie  which  was  the  admiration  of  his  subjects.  But 
from  1087  his  life  was  one  of  action  and  vicissitudes  which  left 
him  little  leisure.  Receiving,  under  the  Conqueror's  last  dis- 
positions, a  legacy  of  five  thousand  pounds  of  silver,  but  no  land, 


he  traded  upon  the  pecuniary  needs  of  Duke  Robert  of  Normandy, 
from  whom  he  purchased,  for  the  small  sum  of  £3000,  the 
district  of  the  Cotentin.  He  negotiated  with  Rufus  to  obtain 
the  possession  of  their  mother's  inheritance,  but  only  incurred 
thereby  the  suspicions  of  the  duke,  who  threw  him  into  prison. 
In  1090  the  prince  vindicated  his  loyalty  by  suppressing,  on 
Robert's  behalf,  a  revolt  of  the  citizens  of  Rouen  which  Rufus 
had  fomented.  But  when  his  elder  brothers  were  reconciled 
in  the  next  year  they  combined  to  evict  Henry  from  the 
Cotentin.  He  dissembled  his  resentment  for  a  time,  and  lived 
for  nearly  two  years  in  the  French  Vexin  in  great  poverty.  He 
then  accepted  from  the  citizens  of  Domfront  an  invitation  to 
defend  them  against  Robert  of  Belleme;  and  subsequently, 
coming  to  an  agreement  with  Rufus,  assisted  the  king  in  making 
war  on  their  elder  brother  Robert.  When  Robert's  departure 
for  the  First  Crusade  left  Normandy  in  the  hands  of  Rufus 
(1096)  Henry  took  service  under  the  latter,  and  he  was  in 
the  royal  hunting  train  on  the  day  of  Rufus's  death  (August  2nd, 
noo).  Had  Robert  been  in  Normandy  the  claim  of  Henry  to 
the  English  crown  might  have  been  effectually  opposed.  But 
Robert  only  returned  to  the  duchy  a  month  after  Henry's 
coronation.  In  the  meantime  the  new  king,  by  issuing  his 
famous  charter,  by  recalling  Anselm,  and  by  choosing  the 
Anglo-Scottish  princess  Edith-Matilda,  daughter  of  Malcolm  III., 
king  of  the  Scots,  as  his  future  queen,  had  cemented  that  alliance 
with  the  church  and  with  the  native  English  which  was  the 
foundation  of  his  greatness.  Anselm  preached  in  his  favour, 
English  levies  marched  under  the  royal  banner  both  to  repel 
Robert's  invasion  (1101)  and  to  crush  the  revolt  of  the  Mont- 
gomeries  headed  by  Robert  of  Belleme  (1102).  The  alliance 
of  crown  and  church  was  subsequently  imperilled  by  the  question 
of  Investitures  (1103-1106).  Henry  was  sharply  criticized  for 
his  ingratitude  to  Anselm  (q.v.),  in  spite  of  the  marked  respect 
which  he  showed  to  the  archbishop.  At  this  juncture  a  sentence 
of  excommunication  would  have  been  a  dangerous  blow  to  Henry's 
power  in  England.  But  the  king's  diplomatic  skill  enabled  him 
to  satisfy  the  church  without  surrendering  any  rights  of  conse- 
quence (1106);  and  he  skilfully  threw  the  blame  of  his  previous 
conduct  upon  his  counsellor,  Robert  of  Meulan.  Although  the 
Peterborough  Chronicle  accuses  Henry  of  oppression  in  his 
early  years,  the  nation  soon  learned  to  regard  him  with  respect. 
William  of  Malmesbury,  about  1125,  already  treats  Tinchebrai 
(1106)  as  an  English  victory  and  the  revenge  for  Hastings. 
Henry  was  disliked  but  feared  by  the  baronage,  towards  whom 
he  showed  gross  bad  faith  in  his  disregard  of  his  coronation 
promises.  In  mo  he  banished  the  more  conspicuous  mal- 
contents, and  from  that  date  was  safe  against  the  plots  of  his 
English  feudatories. 

With  Normandy  he  had  more  trouble,  and  the  military  skill 
which  he  had  displayed  at  Tinchebrai  was  more  than  once  put 
to  the  test  against  Norman  rebels.  His  Norman,  like  his  English 
administration,  was  popular  with  the  non-feudal  classes,  but 
doubtless  oppressive  towards  the  barons.  The  latter  had 
abandoned  the  cause  of  Duke  Robert,  who  remained  a  prisoner 
in  England  till  his  death  (1134);  but  they  embraced  that  of 
Robert's  son  William  the  Clito,  whom  Henry  in  a  fit  of  generosity 
had  allowed  to  go  free  after  Tinchebrai.  The  Norman  con- 
spiracies of  iii2,  1118,  and  1123-24  were  all  formed  in  the 
Clito's  interest.  Both  France  and  Anjou  supported  this  pre- 
tender's cause  from  time  to  time;  he  was  always  a  thorn  in 
Henry's  side  till  his  untimely  death  at  Alost  (1128),  but  more 
especially  after  the  catastrophe  of  the  White  Ship  (1120)  deprived 
the  king  of  his  only  lawful  son.  But  Henry  emerged  from  these 
complications  with  enhanced  prestige.  His  campaigns  had 
been  uneventful,  his  chief  victory  (Bremule,  1119)  was  little 
more  than  a  skirmish.  But  he  had  held  his  own  as  a  general, 
and  as  a  diplomatist  he  had  shown  surpassing  skill.  The  chief 
triumphs  of  his  foreign  policy  were  the  marriage  of  his  daughter 
Matilda  to  the  emperor  Henry  V.  (1114)  which  saved  Normandy 
in  1124;  the  detachment  of  the  pope,  Calixtus  II.,  from  the 
side  of  France  and  the  Clito  (1119),  and  the  Angevin  marriages 
which  he  arranged  for  his  son  William  Aetheling  (1119)  and  for 


HENRY  II. 


281 


the  widowed  empress  Matilda  (1129)  after  her  brother's  death. 
This  latter  match,  though  unpopular  in  England  and  Normandy, 
was  a  fatal  blow  to  the  designs  of  Louis  VI.,  and  prepared  the 
way  for  the  expansion  of  English  power  beyond  the  Loire. 
After  1124  the  disaffection  of  Normandy  was  crushed.  The 
severity  with  which  Henry  treated  the  last  rebels  was  regarded 
as  a  blot  upon  his  fame;  but  the  only  case  of  merely  vindictive 
punishment  was  that  of  the  poet  Luke  de  la  Barre,  who  was 
sentenced  to  lose  his  eyes  for  a  lampoon  upon  the  king,  and  only 
escaped  the  sentence  by  committing  suicide. 

Henry's  English  government  was  severe  and  grasping;  but 
he  "  kept  good  peace  "  and  honourably  distinguished  himself 
among  contemporary  statesmen  in  an  age  when  administrative 
reform  was  in  the  air.  He  spent  more  time  in  Normandy  than 
in  England.  But  he  showed  admirable  judgment  in  his  choice 
of  subordinates;  Robert  of  Meulan,  who  died  in  1118,  and 
Roger  of  Salisbury,  who  survived  his  master,  were  statesmen 
of  no  common  order;  and  Henry  was  free  from  the  mania  of 
attending  in  person  to  every  detail,  which  was  the  besetting 
sin  of  medieval  sovereigns.  As  a  legislator  Henry  was  con- 
servative. He  issued  few  ordinances;  the  unofficial  compilation 
known  as  the  Leges  Henrici  shows  that,  like  the  Conqueror, 
he  made  it  his  ideal  to  maintain  the  "  law  of  Edward."  His 
itinerant  justices  were  not  altogether  a  novelty  in  England  or 
Normandy.  It  is  characteristic  of  the  man  that  the  exchequer 
should  be  the  chief  institution  created  in  his  reign.  The  eulogies 
of  the  last  Peterborough  Chronicle  on  his  government  were 
written  after  the  anarchy  of  Stephen's  reign  had  invested  his 
predecessor's  "  good  peace  "  with  the  glamour  of  a  golden  age. 
Henry  was  respected  and  not  tyrannous.  He  showed  a  lofty 
indifference  to  criticism  such  as  that  of  Eadmer  in  the  Historic*, 
novorum,  which  was  published  early  in  the  reign.  He  showed, 
on  some  occasions,  great  deference  to  the  opinions  of  the  magnates. 
But  dark  stories,  some  certainly  unfounded,  were  told  of  his 
prison-houses.  Men  thought  him  more  cruel  and  more  despotic 
than  he  actually  was. 

Henry  was  twice  married.  After  the  death  of  his  first  wife, 
Matilda  (1080-1118),  he  took  to  wife  Adelaide,  daughter  of 
Godfrey,  count  of  Louvain  (1121),  in  the  hope  of  male  issue. 
But  the  marriage  proved  childless,  and  the  empress  Matilda 
was  designated  as  her  father's  successor,  the  English  baronage 
being  compelled  to  do  her  homage  both  in  1126,  and  again, 
after  the  Angevin  marriage,  in  1131.  He  had  many  illegitimate 
sons  and  daughters  by  various  mistresses.  Of  these  bastards  the 
most  important  is  Robert,  earl  of  Gloucester,  upon  whom  fell  the 
main  burden  of  defending  Matilda's  title  against  Stephen. 

Henry  died  near  Gisors  on  the  ist  of  December,  1135,  in  the 
thirty-sixth  year  of  his  reign,  and  was  buried  in  the  abbey  of 
Reading  which  he  himself  had  founded. 

ORIGINAL  AUTHORITIES. — The  Peterborough  Chronicle(ed.P\ummer, 
Oxford,  1882-1889);  Florence  of  Worcester  and  his  first  continuator 
(ed.  B.  Thorpe,  1848-1849);  Eadmer,  Historia  novorum  (ed.  Rule, 
Rolls  Series,  1884);  William  of  Malmesbury,  Gesta  regum  and 
Historia  novella  (ed.  Stubbs,  Rolls  Series,  1887-1889);  Henry  of 
Huntingdon,  Historia  Anglorum  (ed.  Arnold,  Rolls  Series,  1879); 
Simeon  of  Durham  (ed.  Arnold,  Rolls  Series,  1882-1885);  Orderic 
Vitalis,  Historia  eccles'iastica  (ed.  le  PreVost,  Paris,  1838-1855); 
Robert  of  Torigni,  Chronica  (ed.  Hewlett,  Rolls  Series,  1889),  and 
Continuatio  Willelmi  Gemmeticensis  (ed.  Duchesne,  Hist.  Norman- 
norum  scriptores,  pp.  215-317,  Paris,  1619).  See  also  the  Pipe  Roll 
of  31  H.  I.  (ed.  Hunter,  Record  Commission,  1833) ;  the  documents  in 
W.  Stubbs's  Select  Chapters  (Oxford,  1895);  the  Leges  Henrici  in 
Liebermann's  Gesetze  der  Angel-Sachsen  (Halle,  1898,  &c.) ;  and  the 
same  author's  monograph,  Leges  Henrici  (Halle,  1901);  the  treaties, 
&c.,  in  the  Record  Commission  edition  of  Thomas  Rymer's  Foedera, 
vol.  i.  (1816). 

MODERN  AUTHORITIES. — E.  A.  Freeman,  History  of  the  Norman 
Conquest,  vol.  v. ;  J.  M.  Lappenberg,  History  of  England  under  the 
Norman  Kings  (tr.  Thorpe,  Oxford,  1857);  Kate  Norgate,  England 
under  the  Angevin  Kings,  vol.  i.  (1887);  Sir  James  Ramsay,  Founda- 
tions of  England,  vol.  ii. ;  W.  Stubbs,  Constitutional  History,  vol.  i. ; 
H.  W.  C.  Davis,  England  under  the  Normans  and  Angevins;  Hunt 
and  Poole,  Political  History  of  England,  vol.  ii.  (H.  W.  C.  D.) 

HENRY  II.  (1133-1189),  king  of  England,  son  of  Geoffrey 
Plantagenet,  count  of  Anjou,  by  Matilda,  daughter  of  Henry 
I.,  was  born  at  Le  Mans  on  the  25th  of  March  1133.  He  was 


brought  to  England  during  his  mother's  conflict  with  Stephen 
(1142),  and  was  placed  under  the  charge  of  a  tutor  at  Bristol. 
He  returned  to  Normandy  in  1 146.  He  next  appeared  on  English 
soil  in  1149  '  when  he  came  to  court  the  help  of  Scotland  and  the 
English  baronage  against  King  Stephen.  The  second  visit  was  of 
short  duration.  In  1150  he  was  invested  with  Normandy  by  his 
father,  whose  death  in  the  next  year  made  him  also  count  of 
Anjou.  In  1152  by  a  marriage  with  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine,  the 
divorced  wife  of  the  French  king  Louis  VII.,  he  acquired 
Poitou,  Guienne  and  Gascony;  but  in  doing  so  incurred  the 
ill-will  of  his  suzerain  from  which  he  suffered  not  a  little  in  the 
future.  Lastly  in  1153  he  was  able,  through  the  aid  of  the 
Church  and  his  mother's  partisans,  to  extort  from  Stephen  the 
recognition  of  his  claim  to  the  English  succession;  and  this 
claim  was  asserted  without  opposition  immediately  after  Stephen's 
death  (25th  of  Octobef  1154).  Matilda  retired  into  seclusion, 
although  she  possessed,  until  her  death  (1167),  great  influence 
with  her  son. 

The  first  years  of  the  reign  were  largely  spent  in  restoring  the 
public  peace  and  recovering  for  the  crown  the  lands  and  pre- 
rogatives which  Stephen  had  bartered  away.  Amongst  the 
older  partisans  of  the  Angevin  house  the  most  influential  were 
Archbishop  Theobald,  whose  good  will  guaranteed  to  Henry 
the  support  of  the  Church,  and  Nigel,  bishop  of  Ely,  who  presided 
at  the  exchequer.  But  Thomas  Becket,  archdeacon  of  Canter- 
bury, a  younger  statesman  whom  Theobald  had  discovered 
and  promoted,  soon  became  all-powerful.  Becket  lent  himself 
entirely  to  his  master's  ambitions,  which  at  this  time  centred 
round  schemes  of  territorial  aggrandizement.  In  1155  Henry 
asked  and  obtained  from  Adrian  IV.  a  licence  to  invade  Ireland, 
which  the  king  contemplated  bestowing  upon  his  brother, 
William  of  Anjou.  This  plan  was  dropped;  but  Malcolm  of 
Scotland  was  forced  to  restore  the  northern  counties  which  had 
been  ceded  to  David;  North  Wales  was  invaded  in  1157;  and 
in  1159  Henry  made  an  attempt,  which  was  foiled  by  the  inter- 
vention of  Louis  VII.,  to  assert  his  wife's  claims  upon  Toulouse. 
After  vainly  invoking  the  aid  of  the  emperor  Frederick  I.,  the 
young  king  came  to  terms  with  Louis  (1160),  whose  daughter 
was  betrothed  to  Henry's  namesake  and  heir.  The  peace  proved 
unstable,  and  there  was  desultory  skirmishing  in  1161.  The 
following  year  was  chiefly  spent  in  reforming  the  government  of 
the  continental  provinces.  In  1163  Henry  returned  to  England, 
and  almost  immediately  embarked  on  that  quarrel  with  the 
Church  which  is  the  keynote  to  the  middle  period  of  the  reign. 

Henry  had  good  cause  to  complain  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts, 
and  had  only  awaited  a  convenient  season  to  correct  abuses 
which  were  admitted  by  all  reasonable  men.  But  he  allowed 
the  question  to  be  complicated  by  personal  issues.  He  was 
bitterly  disappointed  that  Becket,  on  whom  he  bestowed  the 
primacy,  left  vacant  by  the  death  of  Theobald  (1162),  at  once 
became  the  champion  of  clerical  privilege;  he  and  the  archbishop 
were  no  longer  on  speaking  terms  when  the  Constitutions  of 
Clarendon  came  up  for  debate.  The  king's  demands  were  not 
intrinsically  irreconcilable  with  the  canon  law,  and  the  papacy 
would  probably  have  allowed  them  to  take  effect  sub  silentio, 
if  Becket  (q.ii.)  had  not  been  goaded  to  extremity  by  persecution 
in  the  forms  of  law.  After  Becket's  flight  (1164),  the  king  put 
himself  still  further  in  the  wrong  by  impounding  the  revenues 
of  Canterbury  and  banishing  at  one  stroke  a  number  of  the 
archbishop's  friends  and  connexions.  He  showed,  however, 
considerable  dexterity  in  playing  off  the  emperor  against 
Alexander  III.  and  Louis  VII.,  and  contrived  for  five  years, 
partly  by  these  means,  partly  by  insincere  negotiations  with 
Becket,  to  stave  off  a  papal  interdict  upon  his  dominions.  When, 
in  July  1170,  he  was  forced  by  Alexander's  threats  to  make 
terms  with  Becket,  the  king  contrived  that  not  a  word  should 
be  said  of  the  Constitutions.  He  undoubtedly  hoped  that  in 
this  matter  he  would  have  his  way  when  Becket  should  be  more 
in  England  and  within  his  grasp.  For  the  murder  of  Becket 
(Dec.  29,  1170)  the  king  cannot  be  held  responsible,  though  the 

1  For  a  supposed  visit  in  1 147,  see  J.  H.  Round  in  English  Historical 
Review,  v.  747. 


282 


HENRY  III. 


deed  was  suggested  by  his  impatient  words.  It  was  a  misfortune 
to  the  royal  cause;  and  Henry  was  compelled  to  purchase  the 
papal  absolution  by  a  complete  surrender  on  the  question  of 
criminous  clerks  (1172).  When  he  heard  of  the  murder  he  was 
panic-stricken;  and  his  expedition  to  Ireland  (1171),  although  so 
momentous  for  the  future,  was  originally  a  mere  pretext  for 
placing  himself  beyond  the  reach  of  Alexander's  censures. 

Becket's  fate,  though  it  supplied  an  excuse,  was  certainly  not 
the  real  cause  of  the  troubles  with  his  sons  which  disturbed  the 
king's  later  years  (1173-1189).  But  Henry's  misfortunes  were 
largely  of  his  own  making.  Queen  Eleanor,  whom  he  alienated 
by  his  faithlessness,  stirred  up  her  sons  to  rebellion;  and  they 
had  grievances  enough  to  be  easily  persuaded.  Henry  was  an 
affectionate  but  a  suspicious  and  close-handed  father.  The 
titles  which  he  bestowed  on  them  carried  little  power,  and  served 
chiefly  to  denote  the  shares  of  the  paternal  inheritance  which 
were  to  be  theirs  after  his  death.  The  excessive  favour  which 
he  showed  to  John,  his  youngest-born,  was  another  cause  of 
heart-burning;  and  Louis,  the  old  enemy,  did  his  utmost  to 
foment  all  discords.  It  must,  however,  be  remembered  in 
Henry's  favour,  that  the  supporters  of  the  princes,  both  in 
England  and  in  the  foreign  provinces,  were  animated  by  resent- 
ment against  the  soundest  features  of  the  king's  administration; 
and  that,  in  the  rebellion  of  1173,  he  received  from  the  English 
commons  such  hearty  support  that  any  further  attempt  to 
raise  a  rebellion  in  England  was  considered  hopeless.  Henry, 
like  his  grandfather,  gained  in  popularity  with  every  year  of  his 
reign.  In  1183  the  death  of  Prince  Henry,  the  heir-apparent, 
while  engaged  in  a  war  against  his  brother  Richard  and  their 
father,  secured  a  short  interval  of  peace.  But  in  1184  Geoffrey 
of  Brittany  and  John  combined  with  their  father's  leave  to  make 
war  upon  Richard,  now  the  heir-apparent.  After  Geoffrey's 
death  (1186)  the  feud  between  John  and  Richard  drove  the 
latter  into  an  alliance  with  Philip  Augustus  of  France.  The 
ill-success  of  the  old  king  in  this  war  aggravated  the  disease  from 
which  he  was  suffering;  and  his  heart  was  broken  by  the  dis- 
covery that  John,  for  whose  sake  he  had  alienated  Richard,  was 
in  secret  league  with  the  victorious  allies.  Henry  died  at  Chinon 
on  the  6th  of  July  1189,  and  was  buried  at  Fontevraud.  By 
Eleanor  of  Aquitaine  the  king  had  five  sons  and  three  daughters. 
His  eldest  son,  William,  died  young;  his  other  sons,  Henry, 
v  Richard,  Geoffrey  and  John,  are  all  mentioned  above.  His 
daughters  were:  Matilda  (1156-1189),  who  became  the  wife  of 
Henry  the  Lion,  duke  of  Saxony;  Eleanor  (1162-1214),  who 
married  Alphonso  III.,  king  of  Castile;  and  Joanna,  who,  after 
the  death  of  William  of  Sicily  in  1189,  became  the  wife  of  Ray- 
mund  VI.,  count  of  Toulouse,  having  previously  accompanied 
her  brother,  Richard,  to  Palestine.  He  had  also  three  illegiti- 
mate sons:  Geoffrey,  archbishop  of  York;  Morgan;  and 
William  Longsword,  earl  of  Salisbury. 

Henry's  power  impressed  the  imagination  of  his  contem- 
poraries, who  credited  him  with  aiming  at  the  conquest  of  France 
and  the  acquisition  of  the  imperial  title.  But  his  ambitions 
of  conquest  were  comparatively  moderate  in  !his  later 
years.  He  attempted  to  secure  Maurienne  and  Savoy  for  John 
by  a  marriage-alliance,  for  which  a  treaty  was  signed  in  1173. 
But  the  project  failed  through  the  death  of  the  intended  bride; 
nor  did  the  marriage  of  his  third  daughter,  the  princess  Joanna 
(i  165-1 199),  with  William  II.,  king  of  Sicily  (1177)  lead  to  English 
intervention  in  Italian  politics.  Henry  once  declined  an  offer 
of  the  Empire,  made  by  the  opponents  of  Frederick  Barbarossa; 
and  he  steadily  supported  the  young  Philip  Augustus  against 
the  intrigues  of  French  feudatories.  The  conquest  of  Ireland 
was  carried  out  independently  of  his  assistance,  and  perhaps 
against  his  wishes.  He  asserted  his  suzerainty  over  Scotland 
by  the  treaty  of  Falaise  (1175),  but  not  so  stringently  as  to  pro- 
voke Scottish  hostility.  This  moderation  was  partly  due  to  the 
embarrassments  produced  by  the  ecclesiastical  question  and 
the  rebellions  of  the  princes.  But  Henry,  despite  a  violent  and 
capricious  temper,  had  a  strong  taste  for  the  work  of  a  legislator 
and  administrator.  He  devoted  infinite  pains  and  thought  to 
the  reform  of  government  both  in  England  and  Normandy. 


The  legislation  of  his  reign  was  probably  in  great  part  of  his  own 
contriving.  His  supervision  of  the  law  courts  was  close  and 
jealous;  he  transacted  a  great  amount  of  judicial  business  in 
his  own  person,  even  after  he  had  formed  a  high  court  of  justice 
which  might  sit  without  his  personal  presence.  To  these 
activities  he  devoted  his  scanty  intervals  of  leisure.  His  govern- 
ment was  stern;  he  over-rode  the  privileges  of  the  baronage 
without  regard  to  precedent;  he  persisted  in  keeping  large 
districts  under  the  arbitrary  and  vexatious  jurisdiction  of  the 
forest-courts.  But  it  is  the  general  opinion  of  historians  that 
he  had  a  high  sense  of  his  responsibilities  and  a  strong  love  of 
justice;  despite  the  looseness  of  his  personal  morals,  he  com- 
manded the  affection  and  respect  of  Gilbert  Foliot  and  Hugh  of 
Lincoln,  the  most  upright  of  the  English  bishops. 

ORIGINAL  AUTHORITIES. — Henry's  laws  are  printed  in  W.  Stubb's 
Select  Charters  (Oxford,  1895).  The  chief  chroniclers  of  his  reign  are 
William  of  Newburgh,  Ralph  de  Diceto,  the  so-called  Benedict  of 
Peterborough,  Roger  of  Hoveden,  Robert  de  Torigni  (or  de  Monte), 
Jordan  Fantosme,  Giraldus  Cambrensis,  Gervase  of  Canterbury; 
all  printed  in  the  Rolls  Series.  The  biographies  and  letters  contained 
in  the  7  vols.  of  Materials  for  the  History  of  Thomas  Becket  (ed.  J.  C. 
Robertson,  Rolls  Series,  1875-1885)  are  valuable  for  the  early  and 
middle  part  of  the  reign.  For  Irish  affairs  the  Song  of  Dermot  (ed. 
Orpen,  Oxford,  1892),  for  the  rebellions  of  the  princes  the  metrical 
Histoire  de  Guillaume  le  Marechal  (ed.  Paul  Meyer,  3  vols.,  Paris, 
1891,  &c.)  are  of  importance.  Henry's  legal  and  administrative 
reforms  are  illustrated  by  the  Tractatus  de  legibus  attributed  to 
Ranulph  Glanville,  his  chief  justiciar  (ed.  G.  Phillips,  Berlin,  1828); 
by  the  Dialogus  de  scaccario  of  Richard  fitz  Nigel  (Oxford,  1902) ; 
the  Pipe  Rotts,  printed  by  1.  Hunter  for  the  Record  Commission 
(1844)  and  by  the  Pipe-Roll  Society  (London,  1884,  &c.)  supply 
valuable  details.  The  works  of  John  of  Salisbury  (ed.  Giles,  1848), 
Peter  of  Blois  (ed.  Migne),  Walter  Map  (Camden  Society,  1841, 
1850)  and  the  letters  of  Gilbert  Foliot  (ed.  J.  A.  Giles,  Oxford,  1845) 
are  useful  for  the  social  and  Church  history  of  the  reign. 

MODERN  AUTHORITIES. — R.  W.  Eyton,  Itinerary  of  Henry  II. 
(London,  1878);  W.  Stubbs,  Constitutional  History,  vol.  i.  (Oxford, 
1893),  Lectures  on  Medieval  and  Modern  History  (Oxford,  1886)  and 
Early  Plantagenets  (London,  1876);  the  same  author's  introduction 
to  the  Rolls  editions  of  "  Benedict,"  Gervase,  Diceto,  Hoveden; 
Mrs  J.  R.  Green,  Henry  II.  (London,  1888);  Miss  K.  Norgate, 
England  under  the  Angevin  Kings  (2  vols.,  London,  1887);  Sir  J.  H. 
Ramsay's  The  Angtvin  Empire  (London,  1893);  H.  W.  C.  Davis's 
England  under  the  Normans  and  Angevins  (London,  1905);  Sir  F. 
Pollock  and  F.  W.  Maitland,  History  of  English  Law  (2  vols.,  Cam- 
bridge, 1898) ;  and  F.  Hardegen,  Imperialpolitik  Konig  Heinrichs  II. 
von  England  (Heidelberg,  1905).  (H.  W.  C.  D.) 

HENRY  III.  (1207-1272),  king  of  England,  was  the  eldest  son 
of  King  John  by  Isabella  of  Angouleme.  Born  on  the  ist  of 
October  1207,  the  prince  was  but  nine  years  old  at  the  time  of 
his  father's  death.  The  greater  part  of  eastern  England  being 
in  the  hands  of  the  French  pretender,  Prince  Louis,  afterwards 
King  Louis  VIII.,  and  the  rebel  barons,  Henry  was  crowned  by 
his  supporters  at  Gloucester,  the  western  capital.  John  had 
committed  his  son  to  the  protection  of  the  Holy  See;  and  a 
share  in  the  government  was  accordingly  allowed  to  the  papal 
legates,  Gualo  and  Pandulf,  both  during  the  civil  war  and  for 
some  time  afterwards.  But  the  title  of  regent  was  given  by  the 
loyal  barons  to  William  Marshal,  the  aged  earl  of  Pembroke; 
and  Peter  des  Roches,  the  Poitevin  bishop  of  Winchester, 
received  the  charge  of  the  king's  person.  The  cause  of  the 
young  Henry  was  fully  vindicated  by  the  close  of  the  year  1217. 
Defeated  both  by  land  and  sea,  the  French  prince  renounced  his 
pretensions  and  evacuated  England,  leaving  the  regency  to  deal 
with  the  more  difficult  questions  raised  by  the  lawless  insolence 
of  the  royal  partisans.  Henry  remained  a  passive  spectator  of 
the  measures  by  which  William  Marshal  (d.  1219),  and  his 
successor,  the  justiciar  Hubert  de  Burgh,  asserted  the  royal 
prerogative  against  native  barons  and  foreign  mercenaries. 
In  1223  Honorius  III.  declared  the  king  of  age,  but  this  was  a 
mere  formality,  intended  to  justify  the  resumption  of  the  royal 
castles  and  demesnes  which  had  passed  into  private  hands  during 
the  commotions  of  the  civil  war. 

The  personal  rule  of  Henry  III.  began  in  1227,  when  he  was 
again  proclaimed  of  age.  Even  then  he  remained  for  some  time 
under  the  influence  of  Hubert  de  Burgh,  whose  chief  rival,  Peter 
des  Roches,  found  it  expedient  to  quit  the  kingdom  for  four 
years.  But  Henry  was  ambitions  to  recover  the  continental 


HENRY  IV. 


283 


possessions  which  his  father  had  lost.  Against  the  wishes  of 
the  justiciar  he  planned  and  carried  out  an  expedition,  to  the 
west  of  France  (1230);  when  it  failed  he  laid  the  blame  upon 
his  minister.  Other  differences  arose  soon  afterwards.  Hubert 
was  accused,  with  some  reason,  of  enriching  himself  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  crown,  and  of  encouraging  popular  riots  against  the 
alien  clerks  for  whom  the  papacy  was  providing  at  the  expense 
of  the  English  Church.  He  was  disgraced  in  1232;  and  power 
passed  for  a  time  into  the  hands  of  Peter  des  Roches,  who  filled 
the  administration  with  Poitevins.  So  began  the  period  of 
misrule  by  which  Henry  III.  is  chiefly  remembered  in  history. 
The  Poitevins  fell  in  1234;  they  were  removed  at  the  demand 
of  the  barons  and  the  primate  Edmund  Rich,  who  held  them 
responsible  for  the  tragic  fate  of  the  rebellious  Richard  Marshal. 
But  the  king  replaced  them  with  a  new  clique  of  servile  and 
rapacious  favourites.  Disregarding  the  wishes  of  the  Great 
Council,  and  excluding  all  the  more  important  of  the  barons  and 
bishops  from  office,  he  acted  as  his  own  chief  minister  and  never 
condescended  to  justify  his  policy  except  when  he  stood  in  need 
of  subsidies.  When  these  were  refused,  he  extorted  aids  from 
the  towns,  the  Jews  or  the  clergy,  the  three  most  defenceless 
interests  in  the  kingdom.  Always  in  pecuniary  straits  through 
his  extravagance,  he  pursued  a  foreign  policy  which  would  have 
been  expensive  under  the  most  careful  management.  He 
hoped  not  only  to  regain  the  French  possessions  but  to  establish 
members  of  his  own  family  as  sovereigns  in  Italy  and  the  Empire. 
These  plans  were  artfully  fostered  by  the  Savoyard  kinsmen 
of  Eleanor,  daughter  of  Raymond  Berenger,  count  of  Provence, 
whom  he  married  at  Canterbury  in  January  1236,  and  by  his 
half-brothers,  the  sons  of  Queen  Isabella  and  Hugo,  count  of  la 
Marche.  These  favourites,  not  content  with  pushing  their 
fortunes  in  the  English  court,  encouraged  the  king  in  the  wildest 
designs.  In  1242  he  led  an  expedition  to  Gascony  which  ter- 
minated disastrously  with  the  defeat  of  Taillebourg;  and 
hostilities  with  France  were  intermittently  continued  for  seven- 
teen years.  The  Savoyards  encouraged  his  natural  tendency  to 
support  the  Papacy  against  the  Empire;  at  an  early  date  in  the 
period  of  misrule  he  entered  into  a  close  alliance  with  Rome, 
which  resulted  in  heavy  taxation  of  the  clergy  and  gave  great 
umbrage  to  the  barons.  A  cardinal-legate  was  sent  to  England 
at  Henry's  request,  and  during  four  years  (1237-1241)  admini- 
stered the  English  Church  in  a  manner  equally  profitable  to  the 
king  and  to  the  pope.  After  the  recall  of  the  legate  Otho  the 
alliance  was  less  open  and  less  cordial.  Still  the  pope  continued 
to  share  the  spoils  of  the  English  clergy  with  the  king,  and  the 
king  to  enforce  the  demands  of  Roman  tax-collectors. 

Circumstances  favoured  Henry's  schemes.  Archbishop 
Edmund  Rich  was  timid  and  inexperienced;  his  successor, 
Boniface  of  Savoy,  was  a  kinsman  of  the  queen;  Grosseteste, 
the  most  eminent  of  the  bishops,  died  in  1253,  when  he  was  on 
the  point  of  becoming  a,  popular  hero.  Among  the  lay  barons, 
the  first  place  naturally  belonged  to  Richard  of  Cornwall  who, 
as  the  king's  brother,  was  unwilling  to  take  any  steps  which 
might  impair  the  royal  prerogative;  while  Simon  de  Montfort, 
earl  of  Leicester,  the  ablest  man  of  his  order,  was  regarded  with 
suspicion  as  a  foreigner,  and  linked  to  Henry's  cause  by  his 
marriage  with  the  princess  Eleanor.  Although  the  Great  Council 
repeatedly  protested  against  the  king's  misrule  and  extravagance, 
their  remonstrances  came  to  nothing  for  want  of  leaders  and  a 
clear-cut  policy.  But  between  1248  and  1252  Henry  alienated 
Montfort  from  his  cause  by  taking  the  side  of  the  Gascons, 
whom  the  earl  had  provoked  to  rebellion  through  his  rigorous 
administration  of  their  duchy.  A  little  later,  when  Montfort 
was  committed  to  opposition,  Henry  foolishly  accepted  from 
Innocent  IV.  the  crown  of  Sicily  for  his  second  son  Edmund 
Crouchback  (1255).  Sicily  was  to  be  conquered  from  the 
Hohenstaufen  at  the  expense  of  England;  and  Henry  pledged 
his  credit  to  the  papacy  for  enormous  subsidies,  although  years 
of  comparative  inactivity  had  already  overwhelmed  him  with 
debts.  On  the  publication  of  the  ill-considered  bargain  the 
baronage  at  length  took  vigorous  action.  They  forced  upon  the 
king  the  Provisions  of  Oxford  (1258),  which  placed  the  govern- 


ment in  the  hands  of  a  feudal  oligarchy;  they  reduced  expendi- 
ture, expelled  the  alien  favourites  from  the  kingdom,  and 
insisted  upon  a  final  renunciation  of  the  French  claims.  The 
king  submitted  for  the  moment,  but  at  the  first  opportunity 
endeavoured  to  cancel  his  concessions.  He  obtained  a  papal 
absolution  from  his  promises;  and  he  tricked  the  opposition 
into  accepting  the  arbitration  of  the  French  king,  Louis  IX., 
whose  verdict  was  a  foregone  conclusion.  But  Henry  was 
incapable  of  protecting  with  the  strong  hand  the  rights  which 
he  had  recovered  by  his  double-dealing.  Ignominiously  defeated 
by  Montfort  at  Lewes  (1264)  he  fell  into  the  position  of  a 
cipher,  equally  despised  by  his  opponents  and  supporters.  He 
acquiesced  in  the  earl's  dictatorship;  left  to  his  eldest  son, 
Edward,  the  difficult  task  of  reorganizing  the  royal  party; 
marched  with  the  Montfortians  to  Evesham;  and  narrowly 
escaped  sharing  the  fate  of  his  gaoler.  After  Evesham  he  is 
hardly  mentioned  by  the  chroniclers.  The  compromise  with 
the  surviving  rebels  was  arranged  by  his  son  in  concert  with 
Richard  of  Cornwall  and  the  legate  Ottobuono;  the  statute 
of  Marlborough  (1267),  which  purchased  a  lasting  peace  by 
judicious  concessions,  was  similarly  arranged  between  Edward 
and  the  earl  of  Gloucester.  Edward  was  king  in  all  but  name 
for  some  years  before  the  death  of  his  father,  by  whom  he  was 
alternately  suspected  and  adored. 

Henry  had  in  him  some  of  the  elements  of  a  fine  character. 
His  mind  was  cultivated;  he  was  a  discriminating  patron  of 
literature,  and  Westminster  Abbey  is  an  abiding  memorial  of 
his  artistic  taste.  His  personal  morality  was  irreproachable, 
except  that  he  inherited  the  Plantagenet  taste  for  crooked 
courses  and  dissimulation  in  political  affairs;  even  in  this 
respect  the  king's  reputation  has  suffered  unduly  at  the  hands 
of  Matthew  Paris,  whose  literary  skill  is  only  equalled  by  his 
malice.  The  ambitions  which  Henry  cherished,  if  extravagant, 
were  never  sordid;  his  patriotism,  though  seldom  attested  by 
practical  measures,  was  tEoroughly  sincere.  Some  of  his  worst 
actions  as  a  politician  were  due  to  a  sincere,  though  exaggerated, 
gratitude  for  the  support  which  the  Papacy  had  given  him  during 
his  minority.  But  he  had  neither  the  training  nor  the  temper 
of  a  statesman.  His  dreams  of  autocracy  at  home  and  far- 
reaching  dominion  abroad  were  anachronisms  in  a  century  of 
constitutional  ideas  and  national  differentiation.  Above  all  he 
earned  the  contempt  of  Englishmen  and  foreigners  alike  by 
the  instability  of  his  purpose.  Matthew  Paris  said  that  he  had 
a  heart  of  wax;  Dante  relegated  him  to  the  limbo  of  ineffectual 
souls;  and  later  generations  have  endorsed  these  scathing 
judgments. 

Henry  died  at  Westminster  on  the  i6th  of  November  1272; 
his  widow,  Eleanor,  took  the  veil  in  1276  and  died  at  Amesbury 
on  the  25th  of  June  1291.  Their  children  were:  the  future  king 
Edward  I.;  Edmund,  earl  of  Lancaster;  Margaret  (1240-1275), 
the  wife  of  Alexander  III.,  king  of  Scotland;  Beatrice;  and 
Katherine. 

ORIGINAL  AUTHORITIES. — Roger  of  Wendover,  Flares  historiarum 
(ed.  H.  O.  Coxe,  4  vols.,  1841-1844) ;  and  Matthew  of  Paris,  Chronica 
majora  (cd.  H.  R.  Luard,  Rolls  Series,  7  vols.,  1872-1883)  are  the 
chief  narrative  sources.  See  also  the  Annales  monastici  (ed.  H.  R. 
Luard,  Rolls  Series,  5  vols.,  1864-1869);  the  collection  of  Royal  and 
other  Historical  Letters  edited  by  W.  Shirley  (Rolls  Series,  2  vols., 
1862-1866) ;  the  Close  and  Patent  Rolls  edited  for  the  Record  Com- 
mission and  the  Master  of  the  Rolls;  the  Epistolae  Roberti  Grosse- 
teste (ed.  H.  R.  Luard,  Rolls  Series,  1861);  the  Monumenta  Francis- 
cana,  vol.  i.  (ed.  J.  S.  Brewer,  Rolls  Series,  1858);  the  documents 
in  the  new  Foedera,  vol.  i.  (Record  Commission,  1816). 

MODERN  WORKS. — G.  J.  Turner's  article  on  the  king's  minority  in 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Historical  Society,  New  Series,  vol.  xyiii. ; 
Dom  Gasquet  s  Henry  III.  and  the  Church  (1905) ;  the  lives  of  Simon 
de  Montfort  by  G.  W.  Prothero  (1871),  R.  Pauli  (Eng.  ed.,  1876) 
and  C.  B6mont  (Paris,  1884);  W.  Stubbs's  Constitutional  History 
of  England,  vol.  ii.  (1887) ;  R.  Pauli's  Geschichte  von  England,  vol.  iii. 
(Hamburg,  1853) ;  T.  F.  Tout  in  the  Political  History  of  England, 
vol.  iii.  (1905),  and  H.  W.  C.  Davis  in  England  under  the  Normans  and 
Angevins  (1905).  (H.  W.  C.  D.) 

HENRY  IV.  (1367-1413),  king  of  England,  son  of  John  of 
Gaunt,  by  Blanche,  daughter  of  Henry,  duke  of  Lancaster,  was 
born  on  the  3rd  of  April  1367,  at  Bolingbroke  in  Lincolnshire. 
As  early  as  1377  he  is  styled  earl  of  Derby,  and  in  1380  he  married 


284 


HENRY  V. 


Mary  de  Bohun  (d.  1394)  one  of  the  co-heiresses  of  the  last  earl 
of  Hereford.  In  1387  he  supported  his  uncle  Thomas,  duke  of 
Gloucester,  in  his  armed  opposition  to  Richard  II.  and  his 
favourites.  Afterwards,  probably  through  his  father's  influence, 
he  changed  sides.  He  was  already  distinguished  for  his  knightly 
prowess,  and  for  some  years  devoted  himself  to  adventure. 
He  thought  of  going  on  the  crusade  to  Barbary;  but  instead,  in 
July  1390,  went  to  serve  with  the  Teutonic  knights  in  Lithuania. 
He  came  home  in  the  following  spring,  but  next  year  went 
again  to  Prussia,  whence  he  journeyed  by  way  of  Venice  to 
Cyprus  and  Jerusalem.  After  his  return  to  England  he  sided 
with  his  father  and  the  king  against  Gloucester,  and  in  1397 
was  made  duke  of  Hereford.  In  January  1398  he  quarrelled 
with  the  duke  of  Norfolk,  who  charged  him  with  treason.  The 
dispute  was  to  have  been  decided  in  the  lists  at  Coventry  in 
September;  but  at  the  last  moment  Richard  intervened  and 
banished  them  both. 

When  John  of  Gaunt  died  in  February  1399  Richard,  contrary 
to  his  promise,  confiscated  the  estates  of  Lancaster.  Henry 
then  felt  himself  free,  and  made  friends  with  the  exiled  Arundels. 
Early  in  July,  whilst  Richard  was  absent  in  Ireland,  he  landed 
at  Ravenspur  in  Yorkshire.  He  was  at  once  joined  by  the 
Percies;  and  Richard,  abandoned  by  his  friends,  surrendered 
at  Flint  on  the  igth  of  August.  In  the  parliament,  which 
assembled  on  the  3oth  of  September,  Richard  was  forced  to 
abdicate.  Henry  then  made  his  claim  as  coming  by  right  line 
of  blood  from  King  Henry  III.,  and  through  his  right  to  recover 
the  realm  which  was  in  point  to  be  undone  for  default  of  govern- 
ance and  good  law.  Parliament  formally  accepted  him,  and  thus 
Henry  became  king,  "  not  so  much  by  title  of  blood  as  by  popular 
election"  (Capgrave).  The  new  dynasty  had  consequently  a 
constitutional  basis.  With  this  Henry's  own  political  sympathies 
well  accorded.  But  though  the  revolution  of  1399  was  popular 
in  form,  its  success  was  due  to  an  oligarchical  faction.  From 
the  start  Henry  was  embarrassed  by  the  power  and  pretensions 
of  the  Percies.  Nor  was  his  hereditary  title  so  good  as  that  of  the 
Mortimers.  To  domestic  troubles  was  added  the  complication 
of  disputes  with  Scotland  and  France.  The  first  danger  came 
from  the  friends  of  Richard,  who  plotted  prematurely,  and  were 
crushed  in  January  1400.  During  the  summer  of  1400  Henry 
made  a  not  over-successful  expedition  to  Scotland.  The  French 
court  would  not  accept  his  overtures,  and  it  was  only  in  the 
summer  of  1401  that  a  truce  was  patched  up  by  the  restoration 
of  Richard's  child-queen,  Isabella  of  Valois.  Meantime  a  more 
serious  trouble  had  arisen  through  the  outbreak  of  the  Welsh 
revolt  under  Owen  Glendower  (q.v.).  In  1400  and  again  in  each 
of  the  two  following  autumns  Henry  invaded  Wales  in  vain. 
The  success  of  the  Percies  over  the  Scots  at  Homildon  Hill 
(Sept.  1402)  was  no  advantage.  Henry  Percy  (Hotspur)  and 
his  father,  the  earl  of  Northumberland,  thought  their  services 
ill-requited,  and  finally  made  common  cause  with  the  partisans 
of  Mortimer  and  the  Welsh.  The  plot  was  frustrated  by  Hotspur's 
defeat  at  Shrewsbury  (2ist  of  July  1403);  and  Northumberland 
for  the  time  submitted.  Henry  had,  however,  no  one  on  whom 
he  could  rely  outside  his  own  family,  except  Archbishop  Arundel. 
The  Welsh  were  unsubdued;  the  French  were  plundering  the 
southern  coast;  Northumberland  was  fomenting  trouble  in  the 
north.  The  crisis  came  in  1405.  A  plot  to  carry  off  the  young 
Mortimers  was  defeated;  but  Mowbray,  the  earl  marshal,  who 
had  been  privy  to  it,  raised  a  rebellion  in  the  north  supported 
by  Archbishop  Scrope  of  York.  Mowbray  an,d  Scrope  were 
taken  and  beheaded;  Northumberland  escaped  into  Scotland. 
For  the  execution  of  the  archbishop  Henry  was  personally 
responsible,  and  he  could  never  free  himself  from  its  odium. 
Popular  belief  regarded  his  subsequent  illness  as  a  judgment  for 
his  impiety.  Apart  from  ill-health  and  unpopularity  Henry  had 
succeeded  —  relations  with  Scotland  were  secured  by  the 
capture  of  James,  the  heir  to  the  crown;  Northumberland  was  at 
last  crushed  at  Bramham  Moor  (Feb.  1408) ;  and  a  little  later  the 
Welsh  revolt  was  mastered. 

Henry,  stricken  with  sore  disease,  was  unable  to  reap  the 
advantage.  His  necessities  had  all  along  enabled  the  Commons 


to  extort  concessions  in  parliament,  until  in  1406  he  was  forced 
to  nominate  a  council  and  govern  by  its  advice.  However,  with 
Archbishop  Arundel  as  his  chancellor,  Henry  still  controlled 
the  government.  But  in  January  1410  Arundel  had  to  give  way 
to  the  king's  half-brother,  Thomas  Beaufort.  Beaufort  and  his 
brother  Henry,  bishop  of  Winchester,  were  opposed  to  Arundel 
and  supported  by  the  prince  of  Wales.  For  two  years  the  real 
government  rested  with  the  prince  and  the  council.  Under 
the  prince's  influence  the  English  intervened  in  France  in  1411 
on  the  side  of  Burgundy.  In  this,  and  in  some  matters  of  home 
politics,  the  king  disagreed  with  his  ministers.  There  is  good 
reason  to  suppose  that  the  Beauforts  had  gone  so  far  as  to  con- 
template a  forced  abdication  on  the  score  of  the  king's  ill-health. 
However,  in  November  1411  Henry  showed  that  he  was  still 
capable  of  vigorous  action  by  discharging  the  prince  and  his  sup- 
porters. Arundel  again  became  chancellor,  and  the  king's 
second  son,  Thomas,  took  his  brother's  place.  The  change  was 
further  marked  by  the  sending  of  an  expedition  to  France  in 
support  of  Orleans.  But  Henry's  health  was  failing  steadily. 
On  the  2oth  of  March  1413,  whilst  praying  in  Westminster 
Abbey  he  was  seized  with  a  fainting  fit,  and  died  that  same 
evening  in  the  Jerusalem  Chamber.  At  the  time  he  was  believed 
to  have  been  a  leper,  but  as  it  would  appear  without  sufficient 
reason. 

As  a  young  man  Henry  had  been  chivalrous  and  adventurous, 
and  in  politics  anxious  for  good  government  and  justice.  As 
king  the  loss  and  failure  of  friends  made  him  cautious,  suspicious 
and  cruel.  The  persecution  of  the  Lollards,  which  began  with 
the  burning  statute  of  1401,  may  be  accounted  for  by  Henry's 
own  orthodoxy,  or  by  the  influence  of  Archbishop  Arundel,  his 
one  faithful  friend.  But  that  political  Lollardry  was  strong  is 
shown  by  the  proposal  in  the  parliament  of  1410  for  a  wholesale 
confiscation  of  ecclesiastical  property.  Henry's  faults  may  be 
excused  by  his  difficulties.  Throughout  he  was  practical  and 
steadfast,  and  he  deserved  credit  for  maintaining  his  principles 
as  a  constitutional  ruler.  So  after  all  his  troubles  he  founded 
his  dynasty  firmly,  and  passed  on  the  crown  to  his  son  with  a 
better  title.  He  is  buried  under  a  fine  tomb  at  Canterbury. 

By  Mary  Bohun  Henry  had  four  sons:  his  successor  Henry  V., 
Thomas,  duke  of  Clarence,  John,  duke  of  Bedford,  and  Humphrey, 
duke  of  Gloucester;  and  two  daughters,  Blanche,  who  married 
Louis  III.,  elector  palatine  of  the  Rhine,  and  Philippa,  who 
married  Eric  XIII.,  king  of  Sweden.  Henry's  second  wife  was 
Joan,  or  Joanna,  (c.  1370-1437),  daughter  of  Charles  the  Bad, 
king  of  Navarre,  and  widow  of  John  IV.  or  V.,  duke  of  Brittany, 
who  survived  until  July  1437.  By  her  he  had  no  children. 

The  chief  contemporary  authorities  are  the  Annales  Henrici  Quarti 
and  T.  Walsingham's  Historia  Anglicar.a  (Rolls  Series),  Adam  of 
Usk's  Chronicle  and  the  various  Chronicles  of  London.  The  life  by 
John  Capgrave  (De  illuslribus  Henricis)  is  of  little  value.  Some 
personal  matter  is  contained  in  Wardrobe  Accounts  of  Henry,  Earl  of 
Derby  (Camden  Soc.).  For  documents  consult  T.  Rymer's  Foedera; 
Sir  N.  H.  Nicolas,  Proceedings  and  Ordinances  of  the  Privy  Council; 
Sir  H.  Ellis,  Original  Letters  illustrative  of  English  History  (London, 
1825-1846);  Rolls  of  Parliament;  Royal  and  Historical  Letters, 
Henry  IV.  (Rolls  Series)  and  the  Calendars  of  Patent  Rolls.  Of 
modern  authorities  the  foremost  is  J.  H.  Wylie's  minute  and  learned 
Hist,  of  England  under  Henry  IV.  (4  vols.,  London,  1884-1898). 
See  also  W.  Stubbs,  Constitutional  History;  Sir  J.  Ramsay,  Lancaster 
and  York  (2  vols.,  Oxford,  1892),  and  C.  W.  C.  Oman,  The  Political 
History  of  England,  vol.  iv.  (C.  L.  K.) 

HENRY  V.  (1387-1422),  king  of  England,  son  of  Henry  IV. 
by  Mary  de  Bohun,  was  born  at  Monmouth,  in  August  1387. 
On  his  father's  exile  in  1398  Richard  II.  took  the  boy  into  his 
own  charge,  and  treated  him  kindly.  Next  year  the  Lancastrian 
revolution  forced  Henry  into  precocious  prominence  as  heir  to 
the  throne.  From  October  1400  the  administration  of  Wales 
was  conducted  in  his  name;  less  than  three  years  later  he  was 
in  actual  command  of  the  English  forces  and  fought  against 
the  Percies  at  Shrewsbury.  The  Welsh  revolt  absorbed  his 
energies  till  1408.  Then  through  the  king's  ill-health  he  began 
to  take  a  wider  share  in  politics.  From  January  1410,  helped  by 
his  uncles  Henry  and  Thomas  Beaufort,  he  had  practical  control 
of  the  government.  Both  in  foreign  and  domestic  policy  he 


HENRY  VI. 


285 


differed  from  the  king,  who  in  November  1411  discharged  the 
prince  from  the  council.  The  quarrel  of  father  and  son  was 
political  only,  though  it  is  probable  that  the  Beauforts  had 
discussed  the  abdication  of  Henry  IV.,  and  their  opponents 
certainly  endeavoured  to  defame  the  prince.  It  may  be  that  to 
political  enmity  the  tradition  of  Henry's  riotous  youth,  immortal- 
ized by  Shakespeare,  is  partly  due.  To  that  tradition  Henry's 
strenuous  life  in  war  and  politics  is  a  sufficient  general  contradic- 
tion. The  most  famous  incident,  his  quarrel  with  the  chief- 
justice,  has  no  contemporary  authority  and  was  first  related  by 
Sir  Thomas  Elyot  in  1 5.3 1 .  The  story  of  Falstaff  originated  partly 
in  Henry's  early  friendship  for  Oldcastle  (q.v.).  That  friendship, 
and  the  prince's  political  opposition  to  Archbishop  Arundel, 
perhaps  encouraged  Lollard  hopes.  If  so,  their  disappointment 
may  account  for  the  statements  of  ecclesiastical  writers,  like 
Walsingham,  that  Henry  on  becoming  king  was  changed  suddenly 
into  a  new  man. 

Henry  succeeded  his  father  on  the  2oth  of  March  1413.  With 
no  past  to  embarrass  him,  and  with  no  dangerous  rivals,  his 
practical  experience  had  full  scope.  He  had  to  deal  with  three 
main  problems — the  restoration  of  domestic  peace,  the  healing 
of  schism  in  the  Church  and  the  recovery  of  English  prestige  in 
Europe.  Henry  grasped  them  all  together,  and  gradually  built 
upon  them  a  yet  wider  policy.  From  the  first  he  made  it  clear 
that  he  would  rule  England  as  the  head  of  a  united  nation, 
and  that  past  differences  were  to  be  forgotten.  Richard  II. 
was  honourably  reinterred;  the  young  Mortimer  was  taken 
into  favour;  the  heirs  of  those  who  had  suffered  in  the  last  reign 
were  restored  gradually  to  their  titles  and  estates.  With  Old- 
castle  Henry  used  his  personal  influence  in  vain,  and  the  gravest 
domestic  danger  was  Lollard  discontent.  But  the  king's  firmness 
nipped  the  movement  in  the  bud  (Jan.  1414),  and  made  his  own 
position  as  ruler  secure.  Save  for  the  abortive  Scrope  and 
Cambridge  plot  in  favour  of  Mortimer  in  July  1415,  the  rest  of 
his  reign  was  free  from  serious  trouble  at  home.  Henry  could 
now  turn  his  attention  to  foreign  affairs.  A  writer  of  the  next 
generation  was  the  first  to  allege  that  Henry  was  encouraged 
by  ecclesiastical  statesmen  to  enter  on  the  French  war  as  a  means 
of  diverting  attention  from  home  troubles.  For  this  story  there 
is  no  foundation.  The  restoration  of  domestic  peace  was  the 
king's  first  care,  and  until  it  was  assured  he  could  not  embark 
on  any  wider  enterprise  abroad.  Nor  was  that  enterprise  one  of 
idle  conquest.  Old  commercial  disputes  and  the  support  which 
the  French  had  lent  to  Glendower  gave  a  sufficient  excuse  for 
war,  whilst  the  disordered  state  of  France  afforded  no  security 
for  peace.  Henry  may  have  regarded  the  assertion  of  his  own 
claims  as  part  of  his  kingly  duty,  but  in  any  case  a  permanent 
settlement  of  the  national  quarrel  was  essential  to  the  success 
of  his  world  policy.  The  campaign  of  1415,  with  its  brilliant 
conclusion  at  Agincourt  (October  25),  was  only  the  first  step. 
Two  years  of  patient  preparation  followed.  The  command  of  the 
sea  was  secured  by  driving  the  Genoese  allies  of  the  French  out 
of  the  Channel.  A  successful  diplomacy  detached  the  emperor 
Sigismund  from  France,  and  by  the  Treaty  of  Canterbury  paved 
the  way  to  end  the  schism  in  the  Church.  So  in  1417  the  war 
was  renewed  on  a  larger  scale.  Lower  Normandy  was  quickly 
conquered,  Rouen  cut  off  from  Paris  and  besieged.  The  French 
were  paralysed  by  the  disputes  of  Burgundians  and  Armagnacs. 
Henry  skilfully  played  them  off  one  against  the  other,  without 
relaxing  his  warlike  energy.  In  January  1419  Rouen  fell.  By 
August  the  English  were  outside  the  wallsof  Paris.  Theintrigues 
of  the  French  parties  culminated  in  the  assassination  of  John 
of  Burgundy  by  the  dauphin's  partisans  at  Montereau  (Septem- 
ber 10,  1419).  Philip,  the  new  duke,  and  the  French  court 
threw  themselves  into  Henry's  arms.  After  six  months'  negotia- 
tion Henry  was  by  the  Treaty  of  Troyes  recognized  as  heir  and 
regent  of  France,  and  on  the  and  of  June  1420  married  Catherine, 
the  king's  daughter.  He  was  now  at  the  height  of  his  power. 
His  eventual  success  in  France  seemed  certain.  He  shared  with 
Sigismund  the  credit  of  having  ended  the  Great  Schism  by  obtain- 
ing the  election  of  Pope  Martin  V.  All  the  states  of  western 
Europe  were  being  brought  within  the  web  of  his  diplomacy. 


The  headship  of  Christendom  was  in  his  grasp,  and  schemes  for 
a  new  crusade  began  to  take  shape.  He  actually  sent  an  envoy 
to  collect  information  in  the  East;  but  his  plans  were  cut  short 
by  death.  A  visit  to  England  in  1421  was  interrupted  by  the 
defeat  of  Clarence  at  Bauge.  The  hardships  of  the  longer  winter 
siege  of  Meaux  broke  down  his  health,  and  he  died  at  Bois  de 
Vincennes  on  the  3ist  of  August  1422. 

Henry's  last  words  were  a  wish  that  he  might  live  to  rebuild  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem.  They  are  significant.  His  ideal  was  founded 
consciously  on  the  models  of  Arthur  and  Godfrey  as  national 
king  and  leader  of  Christendom.  So  he  is  the  typical  medieval 
hero.  For  that  very  reason  his  schemes  were  doomed  to  end  in 
disaster,  since  the  time  was  come  for  a  new  departure.  Yet  he 
was  not  reactionary.  His  policy  was  constructive:  a  firm 
central  government  supported  by  parliament;  church  reform  on 
conservative  lines;  commercial  development;  and  the  mainten- 
ance of  national  prestige.  His  aims  in  some  respects  anticipated 
those  of  his  Tudor  successors,  but  he  would  have  accomplished 
them  on  medieval  lines  as  a  constitutional  ruler.  His  success  was 
due  to  the  power  of  his  personality.  He  could  train  able  lieu- 
tenants, but  at  his  death  there  was  no  one  who  could  take  his 
place  as  leader.  War,  diplomacy  and  civil  administration  were 
all  dependent  on  his  guidance.  His  dazzling  achievements  as  a 
general  have  obscured  his  more  sober  qualities  as  a  ruler,  and 
even  the  sound  strategy,  with  which  he  aimed  to  be  master  of  the 
narrow  seas.  If  he  was  not  the  founder  of  theEnglish  navy  he  was 
one  of  the  first  to  realize  its  true  importance.  Henry  had  so  high 
a  sense  of  his  own  rights  that  he  was  merciless  to  disloyalty. 
But  he  was  scrupulous  of  the  rights  of  others,  and  it  was  his  eager 
desire  to  further  the  cause  of  justice  that  impressed  his  French 
contemporaries.  He  has  been  charged  with  cruelty  as  a  religious 
persecutor;  but  in  fact  he  had  as  prince  opposed  the  harsh 
policy  of  Archbishop  Arundel,  and  as  king  sanctioned  a  more 
moderate  course.  Lollard  executions  during  his  reign  had  more 
often  a  political  than  a  religious  reason.  To  be  just  with  sternness 
was  in  his  eyes  a  duty.  So  in  his  warfare,  though  he  kept  strict 
discipline  and  allowed  no  wanton  violence,  he  treated  severely  all 
who  had  in  his  opinion  transgressed.  In  his  personal  conduct 
he  was  chaste,  temperate  and  sincerely  pious.  He  delighted  in 
sport  and  all  manly  exercises.  At  the  same  time  he  was  cultured, 
with  a  taste  for  literature,  art  and  music.  Henry  lies  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey.  His  tomb  was  stripped  of  its  splendid 
adornment  during  the  Reformation.  The  shield,  helmet  and 
saddle,  which  formed  part  of  the  original  funeral  equipment, 
still  hang  above  it. 

Of  original  authorities  the  best  on  the  English  side  is  the  Gesta 
Henrici  Quinti  (down  to  1416),  printed  anonymously  for  the  English 
Historical  Society,  but  probably  written  by  Thomas  Elmham,  one 
of  Henry's  chaplains.  Two  lives  edited  by  Thomas  Hearne  under 
the  names  of  Elmham  and  Titus  Livius  Forojuliensis  come  from  a 
common  source;  the  longer,  which  Hearne  ascribed  incorrectly  to 
Elmham,  is  perhaps  the  original  work  of  Livius,  who  was  an  Italian 
in  the  service  of  Humphrey  of  Gloucester,  and  wrote  about  1440. 
Other  authorities  are  the  Chronicles  of  Walsingham  and  Otterbourne, 
the  English  Chronicle  or  Brut,  and  the  various  London  Chronicles. 
On  the  French  side  the  most  valuable  are  Chronicles  of  Monstrelet 
and  St  Re'my  (both  Burgundian)  and  the  Chronique  du  religieux  de 
S.  Denys  (the  official  view  of  the  French  court).  For  documents  and 
modern  authorities  see  under  HENRY  IV.  SeeajsoSirN.  H.  Nicolas, 
Hist,  of  the  Battle  of  Agincourt  and  the  Expedition  of  1415  (London, 
1833) ;  C.  L.  Kingsford,  Henry  V.,  the  Typical  Medieval  Hero  (New 
York,  1901),  where  a  fuller  bibliography  will  be  found.  (C.  L.  K.) 

HENRY  VI.  (1421-1471),  king  of  England,  son  of  Henry  V.  and 
Catherine  of  Valois,  was  born  at  Windsor  on  the  6th  of  December 
1421.  He  became  king  of  England  on  the  ist  of  September  1422, 
and  a  few  weeks  later,  on  the  death  of  his  grandfather  Charles  VI., 
was  proclaimed  king  of  France  also.  Henry  V.  had  directed  that 
Richard  Beauchamp,  earl  of  Warwick  (q.v.),  should  be  his  son's 
preceptor;  Warwick  took  up  his  charge  in  1428;  he  trained  his 
pupil  to  be  a  good  man  and  refined  gentleman,  but  he  could  not 
teach  him  kingship.  As  early  as  1423  the  baby  king  was  made  to 
appear  at  public  functions  and  take  his  place  in  parliament. 
He  was  knighted  by  his  uncle  Bedford  at  Leicester  in  May  1426, 
and  on  the  6th  of  November  1429  was  crowned  at  Westminster. 


286 


HENRY  VII. 


Early  in  the  next  year  he  was  taken  over  to  France,  and  after 
long  delay  crowned  in  Paris  on  the  i6th  of  December  1431.  His 
return  to  London  on  the  I4th  of  February  1432  was  celebrated 
with  a  great  pageant  devised  by  Lydgate. 

During  these  early  years  Bedford  ruled  France  wisely  and  at 
first  with  success,  but  he  could  not  prevent  the  mischief  which 
Humphrey  of  Gloucester  (q.v.)  caused  both  at  home  and  abroad. 
Even  in  France  the  English  lost  ground  steadily  after  the  victory 
of  Joan  of  Arc  before  Orleans  in  1429.  The  climax  came  with  the 
death  of  Bedford,  and  defection  of  Philip  of  Burgundy  in  1435. 
This  closed  the  first  phase  of  Henry's  reign.  There  followed 
fifteen  years  of  vain  struggle  in  France,  and  growing  disorder  at 
home.  The  determining  factor  in  politics  was  the  conduct  of  the 
war.  Cardinal  Beaufort,  and  after  him  Suffolk,  sought  by  work- 
ing for  peace  to  secure  at  least  Guienne  and  Normandy. 
Gloucester  courted  popularity  by  opposing  them  throughout; 
with  him  was  Richard  of  York,  who  stood  next  in  succession  to 
the  crown.  Beaufort  controlled  the  council,  and  it  was  under  his 
guidance  that  the  king  began  to  take  part  in  the  government. 
Thus  it  was  natural  that  as  Henry  grew  to  manhood  he  seconded 
heartily  the  peace  policy.  That  policy  was  wise,  but  national  pride 
made  it  unpopular  and  difficult.  Henry  himself  had  not  the 
strength  or  knowledge  to  direct  it,  and  was  unfortunate  in  his 
advisers.  The  cardinal  was  old,  his  nephews  John  and  Edmund 
Beaufort  were  incompetent,  Suffolk,  though  a  man  of  noble  char- 
acter, was  tactless.  Suffolk,  however,  achieved  a  great  success 
by  negotiating  the  marriage  of  Henry  to  Margaret  of  Anjou  (q.v.) 
in  1445.  Humphrey  of  Gloucester  and  Cardinal  Beaufort  both 
died  early  in  1447.  Suffolk  was  now  all-powerful  in  the  favour  of 
the  king  and  queen.  But  his  home  administration  was  unpopular, 
whilst  the  incapacity  of  Edmund  Beaufort  ended  in  the  loss  of  all 
Normandy  and  Guienne.  Suffolk's  fall  in  1450  left  Richard  of 
York  the  foremost  man  in  England.  Henry's  reign  then  entered 
on  its  last  phase  of  dynastic  struggle.  Cade's  rebellion  suggested 
first  that  popular  discontent  might  result  in  a  change  of  rulers. 
But  York,  as  heir  to  the  throne,  could  abide  his  time.  The  situa- 
tion was  altered  by  the  mental  derangement  of  the  king,  and  the 
birth  of  his  son  in  1453.  York  after  a  struggle  secured  the 
protectorship,  and  for  the  next  year  ruled  England.  Then  Henry 
was  restored  to  sanity,  and  the  queen  and  Edmund  Beaufort, 
now  Duke  of  Somerset,  to  power.  Open  war  followed,  with  the 
defeat  and  death  of  Somerset  at  St  Albans  on  the  22nd  of  May 
1455.  Nevertheless  a  hollow  peace  was  patched  up,  which  con- 
tinued during  four  years  with  lack  of  all  governance.  In  1459  war 
broke  out  again.  On  the  loth  of  July  1460  Henry  was  taken 
prisoner  at  Northampton,  and  forced  to  acknowledge  York  as 
heir,  to  the  exclusion  of  his  own  son.  Richard  of  York's  death  at 
Wakefield  (Dec.  29,  1460),  and  the  queen's  victory  at  St 
Albans  (Feb.  17,  14^1),  brought  Henry  his  freedom  and  no 
more.  Edward  of  York  had  himself  proclaimed  king,  and  by  his 
decisive  victory  at  Towton  on  the  2gth  of  March,  put  an  end  to 
Henry's  reign.  For  over  three  years  Henry  was  a  fugitive  in 
Scotland.  He  returned  to  take  part  in  an  abortive  rising  in  1464. 
A  year  later  he  was  captured  in  the  north,  and  brought  a  prisoner 
to  the  Tower.  For  six  months  in  1470-1471  he  emerged  to  hold 
a  shadowy  kirfgship  as  Warwick's  puppet.  Edward's  final 
victory  at  Tewkesbury  was  followed  by  Henry's  death  on  the  2ist 
of  May  1471,  certainly  by  violence,  perhaps  at  the  hands  of 
Richard  of  Gloucester. 

Henry  was  the  most  hapless  of  monarchs.  He  was  so  honest 
and  well-meaning  that  he  might  have  made  a  good  ruler  in  quiet 
times.  But  he  was  crushed  by  the  burden  of  his  inheritance. 
He  had  not  the  genius  to  find  a  way  out  of  the  French  entangle- 
ment or  the  skill  to  steer  a  constitutional  monarchy  between 
rival  factions.  So  the  system  and  policy  which  were  the  creations 
of  Henry  IV.  and  Henry  V.  led  under  Henry  VI.  to  the  ruin  of 
their  dynasty.  Henry's  very  virtues  added  to  his  difficulties. 
He  was  so  trusting  that  any  one  could  influence  him,  so  faithful 
that  he  would  not  give  up  a  minister  who  had  become  impossible. 
Thus  even  in  the  middle  period  he  had  no  real  control  of  the 
government.  In  his  latter  years  he  was  mentally  too  weak  for 
independent  action.  At  his  best  he  was  a  "  good  and  gentle 


creature,"  but  too  kindly  and  generous  to  rule  others.  Religious 
observances  and  study  were  his  chief  occupations.  His  piety 
was  genuine;  simple  and  pure,  he  was  shocked  at  any  suggestion 
of  impropriety,  but  his  rebuke  was  only  "  Fie,  for  shame !  forsooth 
ye  are  to  blame."  For  education  he  was  really  zealous.  Even 
as  a  boy  he  was  concerned  for  the  upbringing  of  his  half-brothers, 
his  mother's  children  by  Owen  Tudor.  Later,  the  planning  of 
his  great  foundations  at  Eton  and  King's  College,  Cambridge, 
was  the  one  thing  which  absorbed  his  interest.  To  both  he  was 
more  than  a  royal  founder,  and  the  credit  of  the  whole  scheme 
belongs  to  him.  The  charter  for  Eton  was  granted  on  the  nth 
of  October  1440,  and  that  for  King's  College  in  the  following 
February.  Henry  himself  laid  the  foundation-stones  of  both 
buildings.  He  frequently  visited  Cambridge  to  superintend  the 
progress  of  the  work.  When  at  Windsor  he  loved  to  send  for  the 
boys  from  his  school  and  give  them  good  advice. 

Henry's  only  son  was  Edward,  prince  of  Wales  (1453-1471), 
who,  having  snared  the  many  journeys  and  varying  fortunes  of 
his  mother,  Margaret,  was  killed  after  the  battle  of  Tewkesbury 
(May  4,  1471)  by  some  noblemen  in  attendance  on  Edward  IV. 

There  is  a  life  of  Henry  by  his  chaplain  John  Blakman  (printed  at 
the  end  of  Hearne's  edition  of  Otterbourne) ;  but  it  is  concerned 
only  with  his  piety  and  patience  in  adversity.  English  chronicles 
for  the  reign  are  scanty ;  the  best  are  the  Chronicles  of  London  (ed. 
C.  L.  Kingsford),  with  the  analogous  Gregory's  Chronicle  (ed.  J. 
Gairdner  for  Camden  Soc.)  and  Chronicle  of  London  (ed.  Sir  H.  N. 
Nicolas).  The  Paston  Letters,  with  James  Gairdner's  valuable 
Introductions,  are  indispensable.  Other  useful  authorities  are 
Joseph  Stevenson's  Letters  and  Papers  illustrative  of  the  Wars  of  the 
English  in  France  during  the  Reign  of  Henry  VI. ;  and  Correspondence 
of  T.  Bekynton  (both  in  "  Rolls  ' '  series) .  For  the  French  war  the  chief 
sources  are  the  Chronicles  of  Monstrelet,  D'Escouchy  and  T.  Basin. 
For  other  documents  and  modern  authorities  see  under  HENRY  IV. 
For  Henry's  foundations  see  Sir  H.  C.  Maxwell-Lyte,  History  of  Eton 
College  (London,  1899),  and  J.  B.  Mullinger,  History  of  the  University 
of  Cambridge  (London,  1888).  (C.  L.  K.) 

HENRY  VII.  (1457-1509),  king  of  England,  was  the  first 
of  the  Tudor  dynasty.  His  claim  to  the  throne  was  through 
his  mother  from  John  of  Gaunt  and  Catherine  Swynford,  whose 
issue  born  before  their  marriage  had  been  legitimated  by 
parliament.  This,  of  course,  was  only  a  Lancastrian  claim, 
never  valid,  even  as  such,  till  the  direct  male  line  of  John  of 
Gaunt  had  become  extinct.  By  his  father  the  genealogists 
traced  his  pedigree  to  Cadwallader,  but  this  only  endeared  him 
to  the  Welsh  when  he  had  actually  become  king.  His  grand- 
father, Owen  Tudor,  however,  had  married  Catherine,  the  widow 
of  Henry  V.  and  daughter  to  Charles  VI.  of  France.  Their 
son  Edmund,  being  half  brother  of  Henry  VI.,  was  created  by 
that  king  earl  of  Richmond,  and  having  married  Margaret 
Beaufort,  only  daughter  of  John,  duke  of  Somerset,  died  more 
than  two  months  before  their  only  child,  Henry,  was  born  in 
Pembroke  Castle  in  January  1457.  The  fatherless  child  had 
sore  trials.  Edward  IV.  won  the  crown  when  he  was  four  years 
old,  and  while  Wales  partly  held  out  against  the  conqueror, 
he  was  carried  for  safety  from  one  castle  to  another.  Then 
for  a  time  he  was  made  a  prisoner;  but  ultimately  he  was  taken 
abroad  by  his  uncle  Jasper,  who  found  refuge  in  Brittany.  At 
one  time  the  duke  of  Brittany  was  nearly  induced  to  surrender 
him  to  Edward  IV.;  but  he  remained  safe  in  the  duchy  till 
the  cruelties  of  Richard  III.  drove  more  and  more  Englishmen 
abroad  to  join  him.  An  invasion  of  England  was  planned  in 
1483  in  concert  with  the  duke  of  Buckingham's  rising;  but 
stormy  weather  at  sea  and  an  inundation  in  the  Severn  defeated 
the  two  movements.  A  second  expedition,  two  years  later, 
aided  this  time  by  France,  was  more  successful.  Henry  landed 
at  Milford  Haven  among  his  Welsh  allies  and  defeated  Richard 
at  the  battle  of  Bosworth  (August  22,  1485).  He  was  crowned 
at  Westminster  on  the  3oth  of  October  following.  Then,  in 
fulfilment  of  pledges  by  which  he  had  procured  the  adhesion 
of  many  Yorkist  supporters,  he  was  married  at  Westminster  to 
Elizabeth  (1465-1503),  eldest  daughter  and  heiress  of  Edward  IV. 
(Jan.  18,  1486),  whose  two  brothers  had  both  been  murdered  by 
Richard  III.  Thus  the  Red  and  White  Roses  were  united  and 
the  pretexts  for  civil  war  done  away  with. 

Nevertheless, Henry's  reign  was  much  disturbed  by  a  succession 


HENRY  VIII. 


287 


of  Yorkist  conspiracies  and  pretenders.  Of  the  two  most  not- 
able impostors,  the  first,  Lambert  Simnel,  personated  the  earl 
of  Warwick,  son  of  the  duke  of  Clarence,  a  youth  of  seventeen 
whom  Henry  had  at  his  accession  taken  care  to  imprison  in  the 
Tower.  Simnel,  who  was  but  a  boy,  was  taken  over  to  Ireland 
to  perform  his  part,  and  the  farce  was  wonderfully  successful. 
He  was  crowned  as  Edward  VI.  in  Christchurch  Cathedral, 
Dublin,  and  received  the  allegiance  of  every  one — bishops, 
nobles  and  judges,  alike  with  others.  From  Ireland,  accom- 
panied by  some  bands  of  German  mercenaries  procured  for  him 
in  the  Low  Countries,  he  invaded  England;  but  the  rising  was 
put  down  at  Stoke  near  Newark  in  Nottinghamshire,  and, 
Simnel  being  captured,  the  king  made  him  a  menial  of  his 
kitchen. 

This  movement  had  been  greatly  assisted  by  Margaret,  duchess 
dowager  of  Burgundy,  sister  of  Edward  IV.,  who  could  not 
endure  to  see  the  House  of  York  supplanted  by  that  of  Tudor. 
The  second  pretender,  Perkin  Warbeck,  was  also  much  indebted 
to  her  support;  but  he  seems  to  have  entered  on  his  career 
at  first  without  it.  And  his  story,  which  was  more  prolonged, 
had  to  do  with  the  attitude  of  many  countries  towards  England. 
Anxious  as  Henry  was  to  avoid  being  involved  in  foreign  wars, 
it  was  not  many  years  before  he  was  committed  to  a  war  with 
France,  partly  by  his  desire  of  an  alliance  with  Spain,  and  partly 
by  the  indignation  of  his  own  subjects  at  the  way  in  which  the 
French  were  undermining  the  independence  of  Brittany.  Henry 
gave  Brittany  defensive  aid;  but  after  the  duchess  Anne  had 
married  Charles  VIII.  of  France,  he  felt  bound  to  fulfil  his 
obligations  to  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain,  and  also  to  the 
German  king  Maximilian,  by  an  invasion  of  France  in  1492. 
His  allies,  however,  were  not  equally  scrupulous  or  equally 
able  to  fulfil  their  obligations  to  him;  and  after  besieging 
Boulogne  for  some  little  time,  he  received  very  advantageous 
offers  from  the  French  king  and  made  peace  with  him. 

Now  Perkin  Warbeck  had  first  appeared  in  Ireland  in  1491, 
and  had  somehow  been  persuaded  there  to  personate  Richard, 
duke  of  York,  the  younger  of  the  two  princes  murdered  in  the 
Tower,  pretending  that  he  had  escaped,  though  his  brother 
had  been  killed.  Charles  VIII.,  then  expecting  war  with  England, 
called  him  to  France,  recognized  his  pretensions  and  gave  him 
a  retinue;  but  after  the  peace  he  dismissed  him.  Then 
Margaret  of  Burgundy  received  him  as  her  nephew,  and  Maxi- 
milian, now  estranged  from  Henry,  recognized  him  as  king  of 
England.  With  a  fleet  given  him  by  Maximilian  he  attempted 
to  land  at  Deal,  but  sailed  away  to  Ireland  and,  not  succeeding 
very  well  there  either,  sailed  farther  to  Scotland,  where  James  IV. 
received  him  with  open  arms,  married  him  to  an  earl's  daughter 
and  made  a  brief  and  futile  invasion  of  England  along  with  him. 
But  in  1497  ne  thought  best  to  dismiss  him,  and  Perkin,  after 
attempting  something  again  in  Ireland,  landed  in  Cornwall 
with  a  small  body  of  men. 

Already  Cornwall  had  risen  in  insurrection  that  year,  not 
liking  the  taxation  imposed  for  the  purpose  of  repelling  the 
Scotch  invasion.  A  host  of  the  country  people,  led  first  by  a 
blacksmith,  but  afterwards  by  a  nobleman,  marched  up  towards 
London  and  were  only  defeated  at  Blackheath.  But  the  Cornish- 
men  were  quite  ready  for  another  revolt,  and  indeed  had  invited 
Perkin  to  their  shores.  He  had  little  fight  in  him,  however, 
and  after  a  futile  siege  of  Exeter  and  an  advance  to  Taunton 
he  stole  away  and  took  sanctuary  at  Beaulieu  in  Hampshire. 
But,  being  assured  of  his  life,  he  surrendered,  was  brought  to 
London,  and  was  only  executed  two  years  later,  when,  being 
imprisoned  near  the  earl  of  Warwick  in  the  Tower,  he  inveigled 
that  simple-minded  youth  into  a  project  of  escape.  For  this 
Warwick,  too,  was  tried,  condemned  and  executed — no  doubt 
to  deliver  Henry  from  repeated  conspiracies  in  his  favour. 

Henry  had  by  this  time  several  children,  of  whom  the  eldest, 
Arthur,  had  been  proposed  in  infancy  for  a  bridegroom  to 
Catherine,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  of  Aragon.  The  match  had 
always  been  kept  in  view,  but  its  completion  depended  greatly 
on  the  assurance  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  could  feel  of  Henry's 
secure  position  upon  the  throne.  At  last  Catherine  was  brought 


to  England  and  was  married  to  Prince  Arthur  at  St  Paul's  on 
the  i4th  of  November  1501.  The  lad  was  just  over  fifteen  and 
the  co-habitation  of  the  couple  was  wisely  delayed;  but  he 
died  on  the  2nd  of  April  following.  Another  match  was  presently 
proposed  for  Catherine  with  the  king's  second  son,  Henry,  which 
only  took  effect  when  the  latter  had  become  king  himself.  Mean- 
while Henry's  eldest  daughter  Margaret  was  married  to  James  IV. 
of  Scotland — a  match  distinctly  intended  to  promote  inter- 
national peace,  and  make  possible  that  ultimate  union  which 
actually  resulted  from  it.  The  espousals  had  taken  place  at 
Richmond  in  1502,  and  the  marriage  was  celebrated  in  Scotland 
the  year  after.  In  the  interval  between  these  two  events  Henry 
lost  his  queen,  who  died  on  the  nth  of  February  1503,  and 
during  the  remainder  of  his  reign  he  made  proposals  in  various 
quarters  for  a  second  marriage — proposals  in  which  political 
objects  were  always  the  chief  consideration;  but  none  of  them 
led  to  any  result.  In  his  latter  years  he  became  unpopular  from 
the  extortions  practised  by  his  two  instruments,  Empson  and 
Dudley,  under  the  authority  of  antiquated  statutes.  From 
the  beginning  of  his  reign  he  had  been  accumulating  money, 
mainly  for  his  own  security  against  intrigues  and  conspiracies, 
and  avarice  had  grown  upon  him  with  success.  He  died  in  April 
1509,  undoubtedly  the  richest  prince  in  Christendom.  He  was 
not  a  niggard,  however,  in  his  expenditure.  Before  his  death 
he  had  finished  the  hospital  of  the  Savoy  and  made  provision  for 
the  magnificent  chapel  at  Westminster  which  bears  his  name. 
His  money-getting  was  but  part  of  his  statesmanship,  and  for 
his  statesmanship  his  country  owes  him  not  a  little  gratitude. 
He  not  only  terminated  a  disastrous  civil  war  and  brought 
under  control  the  spirit  of  ancient  feudalism,  but  with  a  clear 
survey  of  the  conditions  of  foreign  powers  he  secured  England  in 
almost  uninterrupted  peace  while  he  developed  her  commerce, 
strengthened  her  slender  navy  and  built,  apparently  for  the  first 
time,  a  naval  dock  at  Portsmouth. 

In  addition  to  his  sons  Arthur  and  Henry,  Henry  VII.  had 
several  daughters,  one  of  whom,  Margaret,  married  James  IV., 
king  of  Scotland,  and  another,'Mary,  became  the  wife  of  Louis  XII. 
of  France,  and  afterwards  of  Charles  Brandon,  duke  of  Suffolk. 

The  popular  view  of  Henry  VII. 's  reign  has  always  been  derived 
from  Bacon's  History  of  that  king.  This  has  been  edited  by  J.  R. 
Lumby  (Cambridge,  1881).  But  during  the  last  half  century  large 
accessions  to  our  knowledge  have  been  made  from  foreign  and 
domestic  archives,  and  the  sources  of  Bacon's  work  have  been  more 
critically  examined.  For  a  complete  account  of  those  sources  the 
reader  may  be  referred  to  W.  Busch's  England  under  the  Tudors, 
published  in  German  in  1892  and  in  an  English  translation  in 
1895.  Some  further  information  of  a  special  kind  will  be  found  in 
M.  Oppenheim's  Naval  Accounts  and  Inventories,  published  by 
the  Navy  Records  Society  in  1896.  See  also  J.  Gairdner's  Henry 
VII.  (1889).  (J.  GA.) 

HENRY  VIII.  (1491-1547),  king  of  England  and  Ireland,  the 
third  child  and  second  son  of  Henry  VII.  and  Elizabeth  of 
York,  was  born  on  the  28th  of  June  1491  and,  like  all  the  Tudor 
sovereigns  except  Henry  VII.,  at  Greenwich.  His  two  brothers, 
Prince  Arthur  and  Edmund,  duke  of  Somerset,  and  two  of 
his  sisters  predeceased  their  father;  Henry  was  the  only  son, 
and  Margaret,  afterwards  queen  of  Scotland,  and  Mary,  after- 
wards queen  of  France  and  duchess  of  Suffolk,  were  the  only 
daughters  who  survived.  Henry  is  said,  on  authority  which 
has  not  been  traced  farther  back  than  Paolo  Sarpi,  to  have 
been  destined  for  the  church;  but  the  story  is  probably  a  mere 
surmise  from  his  theological  accomplishments,  and  from  his 
earliest  years  high  secular  posts  such  as  the  viceroyalty  of  Ireland 
were  conferred  upon  the  child.  He  was  the  first  English  monarch 
to  be  educated  under  the  influence  of  the  Renaissance,  and  his 
tutors  included  the  poet  Skelton;  he  became  an  accomplished 
scholar,  linguist,  musician  and  athlete,  and  when  by  the  death 
of  his  brother  Arthur  in  1502  and  of  his  father  on  the  22nd  of 
April  1509  Henry  VIII.  succeeded  to  the  throne,  his  accession 
was  hailed  with  universal  acclamation. 

He  had  been  betrothed  to  his  brother's  widow  Catherine  of 
Aragon,  and  in  spite  of  the  protest  which  he  had  been  made  to 
register  against  the  marriage,  and  of  the  doubts  expressed  by 
Julius  II.  and  Archbishop  Warham  as  to  its  validity,  it  was 


288 


HENRY  VIII. 


completed  in  the  first  few  months  of  his  reign.  This  step  was 
largely  due  to  the  pressure  brought  to  bear  by  Catherine's  father 
Ferdinand  upon  Henry's  council;  he  regarded  England  as  a 
tool  in  his  hands  and  Catherine  as  his  resident  ambassador. 
The  young  king  himself  at  first  took  little  interest  in  politics, 
and  for  two  years  affairs  were  managed  by  the  pacific  Richard 
Fox  (q.v.)  and  Warham.  Then  Wolsey  became  supreme, 
while  Henry  was  immersed  in  the  pursuit  of  sport  and  other 
amusements.  He  took,  however,  the  keenest  interest  from  the 
first  in  learning  and  in  the  navy,  and  his  inborn  pride  easily 
led  him  to  support  Wolsey's  and  Ferdinand's  war-like  designs 
on  France.  He  followed  an  English  army  across  the  Channel 
in  1513,  and  personally  took  part  in  the  successful  sieges  of 
Therouanne  and  Tournay  and  the  battle  of  Guinegate  which 
led  to  the  peace  of  1514.  Ferdinand,  however,  deserted  the 
English  alliance,  and  amid  the  consequent  irritation  against 
everything  Spanish,  there  was  talk  of  a  divorce  between  Henry 
and  Catherine  (1514),  whose  issue  had  hitherto  been  attended 
with  fatal  misfortune.  But  the  renewed  antagonism  between 
England  and  France  which  followed  the  accession  of  Francis  I. 
(1515)  led  to  a  rapprochement  with  Ferdinand;  the  birth  of 
the  lady  Mary  (1516)  held  out  hopes  of  the  male  issue  which 
Henry  so  much  desired ;  and  the  question  of  a  divorce  was 
postponed.  Ferdinand  died  in  that  year  (1516)  and  the  emperor 
Maximilian  in  1519.  Their  grandson  Charles  V.  succeeded  them 
both  in  all  their  realms  and  dignities  in  spite  of  Henry's  hardly 
serious  candidature  for  the  empire;  and  a  lifelong  rivalry  broke 
out  between  him  and  Francis  I.  Wolsey  used  this  antagonism 
to  make  England  arbiter  between  them;  and  both  monarchs 
sought  England's  favour  in  1520,  Francis  at  the  Field  of  Cloth 
of  Gold  and  Charles  V.  more  quietly  in  Kent.  At  the  conference 
of  Calais  in  1521  English  influence  reached  its  zenith;  but  the 
alliance  with  Charles  destroyed  the  balance  on  which  that 
influence  depended.  Francis  was  overweighted,  and  his  defeat 
at  Pa  via  in  1525  made  the  emperor  supreme.  Feeble  efforts 
to  challenge  his  power  in  Italy  provoked  the  sack  of  Rome  in 
1527;  and  the  peace  of  Cambrai  in  1529  was  made  without 
any  reference  to  Wolsey  or  England's  interests. 

Meanwhile  Henry  had  been  developing  a  serious  interest  in 
politics,  and  he  could  brook  no  superior  in  whatever  sphere 
he  wished  to  shine.  He  began  to  adopt  a  more  critical  attitude 
towards  Wolsey's  policy,  foreign  and  domestic;  and  to  give 
ear  to  the  murmurs  against  the  cardinal  and  his  ecclesiastical 
rule.  Parliament  had  been  kept  at  arm's  length  since  1515  lest 
it  should  attack  the  church;  but  Wolsey's  expensive  foreign 
policy  rendered  recourse  to  parliamentary  subsidies  indispensable. 
When  it  met  in  1523  it  refused  Wolsey's  demands,  and  forced 
loans  were  the  result  which  increased  the  cardinal's  unpopularity. 
Nor  did  success  abroad  now  blunt  the  edge  of  domestic  discontent. 
His  fate,  however,  was  sealed  by  his  failure  to  obtain  a  divorce 
for  Henry  from  the  papal  court.  The  king's  hopes  of  male 
issue  had  been  disappointed,  and  by  1526  it  was  fairly  certain 
that  Henry  could  have  no  male  heir  to  the  throne  while  Catherine 
remained  his  wife.  There  was  Mary,  but  no  queen  regnant  had 
yet  ruled  in  England;  Margaret  Beaufort  had  been  passed  over 
in  favour  of  her  son  in  1485,  and  there  was  a  popular  impression 
that  women  were  excluded  from  the  throne.  No  candidate 
living  could  have  secured  the  succession  without  a  recurrence  of 
civil  war.  Moreover  the  unexampled  fatality  which  had  attended 
Henry's  issue  revived  the  theological  scruples  which  had  always 
existed  about  the  marriage;,  and  the  breach  with  Charles  V. 
in  1527  provoked  a  renewal  of  the  design  of  1514.  All  these 
considerations  were  magnified  by  Henry's  passion  for  Anne 
Boleyn,  though  she  certainly  was  not  the  sole  or  the  main  cause 
of  the  divorce.  That  the  succession  was  the  main  point  is  proved 
by  the  fact  that  Henry's  efforts  were  all  directed  to  securing  a 
wife  and  not  a  mistress.  Wolsey  persuaded  him  that  the 
necessary  divorce  could  be  obtained  from  Rome,  as  it  had  been 
in  the  case  of  Louis  XII.  of  France  and  Margaret  of  Scotland. 
For  a  time  Clement  VII.  was  inclined  to  concede  the  demand, 
and  Campeggio  in  1528  was  given  ample  powers.  But  the 
prospect  of  French  success  in  Italy  which  had  encouraged  the 


pope  proved  delusive,  and  in  1529  he  had  to  submit  to  the  yoke 
of  Charles  V.  This  involved  a  rejection  of  Henry's  suit,  not 
because  Charles  cared  anything  for  his  aunt,  but  because  a 
divorce  would  mean  disinheriting  Charles's  cousin  Mary,  and 
perhaps  the  eventual  succession  of  the  son  of  a  French  princess 
to  the  English  throne. 

Wolsey  fell  when  Campeggio  was  recalled,  and  his  fall  involved 
the  triumph  of  the  anti-ecclesiastical  party  in  England.  Lay- 
men who  had  resented  their  exclusion  from  power  were  now 
promoted  to  offices  such  as  those  of  lord  chancellor  and  lord 
privy  seal  which  they  had  rarely  held  before;  and  parliament 
was  encouraged  to  propound  lay  grievances  against  the  church. 
On  the  support  of  the  laity  Henry  relied  to  abolish  papal  jurisdic- 
tion and  reduce  clerical  privilege  and  property  in  England; 
and  by  a  close  alliance  with  Francis  I.  he  insured  himself  against 
the  enmity  of  Charles  V.  But  it  was  only  gradually  that  the 
breach  was  completed  with  Rome.  Henry  had  defended  the 
papacy  against  Luther  in  1521  and  had  received  in  return  the 
title  "  defender  of  the  faith."  He  never  liked  Protestantism, 
and  he  was  prepared  for  peace  with  Rome  on  his  own  terms. 
Those  terms  were  impossible  of  acceptance  by  a  pope  in  Clement 
VII. 's  position;  but  before  Clement  had  made  up  his  mind 
to  reject  them,  Henry  had  discovered  that  the  papacy  was  hardly 
worth  conciliating.  His  eyes  were  opened  to  the  extent  of  his 
own  power  as  the  exponent  of  national  antipathy  to  papal 
jurisdiction  and  ecclesiastical  privilege;  and  his  appetite  for 
power  grew.  With  Cromwell's  help  he  secured  parliamentary 
support,  and  its  usefulness  led  him  to  extend  parliamentary  re- 
presentation to  Wales  and  Calais,  to  defend  the  privileges 
of  Parliament,  and  to  yield  rather  than  forfeit  its  con- 
fidence. He  had  little  difficulty  in  securing  the  Acts  of  Annates, 
Appeals  and  Supremacy  which  completed  the  separation  from 
Rome,  or  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries  which,  by  transferring 
enormous  wealth  from  the  church  to  the  crown,  really,  in  Cecil's 
opinion,  ensured  the  reformation. 

The  abolition  of  the  papal  jurisdiction  removed  all  obstacles 
to  the  divorce  from  Catherine  and  to  the  legalization  of  Henry's 
marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn  (1533).  But  the  recognition  of  the 
royal  supremacy  could  only  be  enforced  at  the  cost  of  the  heads 
of  Sir  Thomas  More,  Bishop  Fisher  and  a  number  of  monks 
and  others  among  whom  the  Carthusians  signalized  themselves 
by  their  devotion  (1535-1536).  Anne  Boleyn  fared  no  better 
than  the  Catholic  martyrs;  she  failed  to  produce  a  male  heir 
to  the  throne,  and  her  conduct  afforded  a  jury  of  peers,  over 
which  her  uncle,  the  duke  of  Norfolk,  presided,  sufficient  excuse 
for  condemning  her  to  death  on  a  charge  of  adultery  (1536). 
Henry  then  married  Jane  Seymour,  who  was  obnoxious  to  no 
one,  gave  birth  to  Edward  VI.,  and  then  died  (1537).  The 
dissolution  of  the  monasteries  had  meanwhile  evoked  a  popular 
protest  in  the  north,  and  it  was  only  by  skilful  and  unscrupulous 
diplomacy  that  Henry  was  enabled  to  suppress  so  easily  the 
Pilgrimage  of  Grace.  Foreign  intervention  was  avoided  through 
the  renewal  of  war  between  Francis  and  Charles;  and  the 
insurgents  were  hampered  by  having  no  rival  candidate  for  the 
throne  and  no  means  of  securing  the  execution  of  their 
programme. 

Nevertheless  their  rising  warned  Henry  against  further 
doctrinal  change.  He  had  authorized  the  English  Bible  and 
some  approach  towards  Protestant  doctrine  in  the  Ten  Articles. 
He  also  considered  the  possibility  of  a  political  and  theological 
alliance  with  the  Lutheran  princes  of  Germany.  But  in  1538 
he  definitely  rejected  their  theological  terms,  while  in  1530-1540 
they  rejected  his  political  proposals.  By  the  statute  of  Six 
Articles  (1539)  he  took  his  stand  on  Catholic  doctrine;  and 
when  the  Lutherans  had  rejected  his  alliance,  and  Cromwell's 
nominee,  Anne  of  Cleves,  had  proved  both  distasteful  on  personal 
grounds  and  unnecessary  because  Charles  and  Francis  were  not 
really  projecting  a  Catholic  crusade  against  England,  Anne  was 
divorced  and  Cromwell  beheaded.  The  new  queen  Catherine 
Howard  represented  the  triumph  of  the  reactionary  party  under 
Gardiner  and  Norfolk;  but  there  was  no  idea  of  returning  to  the 
papal  obedience,  and  even  Catholic  orthodoxy  as  represented 


HENRY  VIII. 


289 


by  the  Six  Articles  was  only  enforced  by  spasmodic  outbursts 
of  persecution  and  vain  attempts  to  get  rid  of  Cranmer. 

The  secular  importance  of  Henry's  activity  has  been  somewhat 
obscured  by  his  achievements  in  the  sphere  of  ecclesiastical 
politics;  but  no  small  part  of  his  energies  was  devoted  to  the 
task  of  expanding  the  royal  authority  at  the  expense  of  temporal 
competitors.  Feudalism  was  not  yet  dead,  and  in  the  north  and 
west  there  were  medieval  franchises  in  which  the  royal  writ  and 
common  law  hardly  ran  at  all.  Wales  and  its  marches  were 
brought  into  legal  union  with  the  rest  of  England  by  the  statutes 
of  Wales  (1534-1536);  and  after  the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace  the 
Council  of  the  North  was  set  up  to  bring  into  subjection  the 
extensive  jurisdictions  of  the  northern  earls.  Neither  they  nor 
the  lesser  chiefs  who  flourished  on  the  lack  of  common  law  and 
order  could  be  reduced  by  ordinary  methods,  and  the  Councils  of 
Wales  and  of  the  North  were  given  summary  powers  derived 
from  the  Roman  civil  law  similiar  to  those  exercised  by  the  Star 
Chamber  at  Westminster  and  the  court  of  Castle  Chamber  at 
Dublin.  Ireland  had  been  left  by  Wolsey  to  wallow  in  its  own 
disorder;  but  disorder  was  anathema  to  Henry's  mind,  and  in 
1535  Sir  William  Skeffington  was  sent  to  apply  English  methods 
and  artillery  to  the  government  of  Ireland.  Sir  Anthony  St 
Leger  continued  his  policy  from  1540;  Henry,  instead  of  being 
merely  lord  of  Ireland  dependent  on  the  pope,  was  made  by  an 
Irish  act  of  parliament  king,  and  supreme  head  of  the  Irish 
church.  Conciliation  was  also  tried  with  some  success;  planta- 
tion schemes  were  rejected  in  favour  of  an  attempt  to  Anglicize 
the  Irish;  their  chieftains  were  created  earls  and  endowed  with 
monastic  lands;  and  so  peaceful  was  Ireland  in  1542  that  the 
lord-deputy  could  send  Irish  kernes  and  gallowglasses  to  fight 
against  the  Scots. 

Henry,  however,  seems  to  have  believed  as  much  in  the 
coercion  of  Scotland  as  in  the  conciliation  of  Ireland.  Margaret 
Tudor's  marriage  had  not  reconciled  the  realms;  and  as  soon 
as  James  V.  became  a  possible  pawn  in  the  hands  of  Charles  V., 
Henry  bethought  himself  of  his  old  claims  to  suzerainty  over 
Scotland.  At  first  he  was  willing  to  subordinate  them  to  an 
attempt  to  win  over  Scotland  to  his  anti-papal  policy,  and  he 
made  various  efforts  to  bring  about  an  interview  with  his  nephew. 
But  James  V.  was  held  aloof  by  Beaton  and  two  French 
marriages;  and  France  was  alarmed  by  Henry's  growing 
friendliness  with  Charles  V.,  who  was  mollified  by  his  cousin 
Mary's  restoration  to  her  place  in  the  succession  to  the  throne. 
In  1542  James  madly  sent  a  Scottish  army  to  ruin  at  Solway 
Moss;  his  death  a  few  weeks  later  left  the  Scottish  throne  to 
his  infant  daughter  Mary  Stuart,  and  Henry  set  to  work  to 
secure  her  hand  for  his  son  Edward  and  the  recognition  of  his 
own  suzerainty.  A  treaty  was  signed  with  the  Scottish  estates; 
but  it  was  torn  up  a  few  months  later  under  the  influence  of 
Beaton  and  the  queen-dowager  Mary  of  Guise,  and  Hertford  was 
sent  in  1 544  to  punish  this  breach  of  promise  by  sacking  Edin- 
burgh. 

Perhaps  to  prevent  French  intervention  in  Scotland  Henry 
joined  Charles  V.  in  invading  France,  and  captured  Boulogne 
(Sept.  1 544).  But  Charles  left  his  ally  in  the  lurch  and  concluded 
the  peace  of  Cr6py  that  same  month;  and  in  1545  Henry  had  to 
face  alone  a  French  invasion  of  the  Isle  of  Wight.  This  attack 
proved  abortive,  and  peace  between  England  and  France  was 
made  in  1546.  Charles  V.'s  desertion  inclined  Henry  to  listen 
to  the  proposals  of  the  threatened  Lutheran  princes,  and  the 
last  two  years  of  his  reign  were  marked  by  a  renewed  tendency 
to  advance  in  a  Protestant  direction.  Catherine  Howard  had 
been  brought  to  the  block  (1542)  on  charges  in  which  there  was 
probably  a  good  deal  of  truth,  and  her  successor,  Catherine  Parr, 
was  a  patroness  of  the  new  learning.  An  act  of  1545  dissolved 
chantries,  colleges  and  other  religious  foundations;  and  in  the 
autumn  of  1546  the  Spanish  ambassador  was  anticipating  further 
anti-erclc  'istical  measures.  Gardiner  had  almost  been  sent 
to  the  Tower,  and  Norfolk  and  Surrey  were  condemned  to  death, 
while  Cranmer  asserted  that  it  was  Henry's  intention  to  convert 
the  mass  into  a  communion  service.  An  opportunist  to  the  last, 
he  would  readily  have  sacrificed  any  theological  convictions  he 
xn:  10 


may  have  had  in  the  interests  of  national  uniformity.  He  died 
on  the  28th  of  January  1547,  and  was  buried  in  St  George's 
Chapel,  Windsor. 

The  atrocity  of  many  of  Henry's  acts,  the  novelty  and  success 
of  his  religious  policy,  the  apparent  despotism  of  his  methods, 
or  all  combined,  have  made  it  difficult  to  estimate  calmly  the 
importance  of  Henry's  work  or  the  conditions  which  made  it 
possible.  Henry's  egotism  was  profound,  and  personal  motives 
underlay  his  public  action.  While  political  and  ecclesiastical 
conditions  made  the  breach  with  Rome  possible — and  in  the 
view  of  most  Englishmen  desirable — Henry  VIII.  was  led  to 
adopt  the  policy  by  private  considerations.  He  worked  for  the 
good  of  the  state  because  he  thought  his  interests  were  bound  up 
with  those  of  the  nation;  and  it  was  the  real  coincidence  of  this 
private  and  public  point  of  view  that  made  it  possible  for  so 
selfish  a  man  to  achieve  so  much  for  his  country.  The  royal 
supremacy  over  the  church  and  the  means  by  which  it  was 
enforced  were  harsh  and  violent  expedients;  but  it  was  of  the 
highest  importance  that  England  should  be  saved  from  religious 
civil  war,  and  it  could  only  be  saved  by  a  despotic  government. 
It  was  necessary  for  the  future  development  of  England  that  its 
governmental  system  should  be  centralized  and  unified,  that  the 
authority  of  the  monarchy  should  be  more  firmly  extended  over 
Wales  and  the  western  and  northern  borders,  and  that  the  still 
existing  feudal  franchises  should  be  crushed;  and  these  objects 
were  worth  the  price  paid  in  the  methods  of  the  Star  Chamber 
and  of  the  Councils  of  the  North  and  of  Wales.  Henry's  work 
on  the  navy  requires  no  apology;  without  it  Elizabeth's  victory 
over  the  Spanish  Armada,  the  liberation  of  the  Netherlands 
and  the  development  of  English  colonies  would  have  been 
impossible;  and  "of  all  others  the  year  1545  best  marks  the 
birth  of  the  English  naval  power  "  (Corbett,  Drake,  i.  59).  His 
judgment  was  more  at  fault  when  he  conquered  Boulogne  and 
sought  by  violence  to  bring  Scotland  into  union  with  England. 
But  at  least  Henry  appreciated  the  necessity  of  union  within 
the  British  Isles;  and  his  work  in  Ireland  relaid  the  foundations 
of  English  rule.  No  less  important  was  his  development  of  the 
parliamentary  system.  Representation  was  extended  to  Wales, 
Cheshire,  Berwick  and  Calais;  and  parliamentary  authority 
was  enhanced,  largely  that  it  might  deal  with  the  church,  until 
men  began  to  complain  of  this  new  parliamentary  infallibility. 
The  privileges  of  the  two  Houses  were  encouraged  and  expanded, 
and  parliament  was  led  to  exercise  ever  wider  powers.  This 
policy  was  not  due  to  any  belief  on  Henry's  part  in  parliamentary 
government,  but  to  opportunism,  to  the  circumstance  that 
parliament  was  willing  to  do  most  of  the  things  which  Henry 
desired,  while  competing  authorities,  the  church  and  the  old 
nobility,  were  not.  Nevertheless,  to  the  encouragement  given 
by  Henry  VIII.  parliament  owed  not  a  little  of  its  future  growth, 
and  to  the  aid  rendered  by  parliament  Henry  owed  his  success. 

He  has  been  described  as  a  "  despot  under  the  forms  of  law  "; 
and  it  is  apparently  true  that  he  committed  no  illegal  act.  His 
despotism  consists  not  in  any  attempt  to  rule  unconstitutionally, 
but  in  the  extraordinary  degree  to  which  he  was  able  to  use 
constitutional  means  in  the  furtherance  of  his  own  personal 
ends.  His  industry,  his  remarkable  political  insight,  his  lack  of 
scruple,  and  his  combined  strength  of  will  and  subtlety  of  intellect 
enabled  him  to  utilize  all  the  forces  which  tended  at  that  time 
towards  strong  government  throughout  western  Europe.  In 
Michelet's  words,  "  le  nouveau  Messie  est  le  roi  ";  and  the 
monarchy  alone  seemed  capable  of  guiding  the  state  through 
the  social  and  political  anarchy  which  threatened  all  nations  in 
their  transition  from  medieval  to  modern  organization.  The 
king  was  the  emblem,  the  focus  and  the  bond  of  national  unity; 
and  to  preserve  it  men  were  ready  to  put  up  with  vagaries  which 
to  other  ages  seem  intolerable.  Henry  could  thus  behead 
ministers  and  divorce  wives  with  comparative  impunity,  because 
the  individual  appeared  to  be  of  little  importance  compared 
with  the  state.  This  impunity  provoked  a  licence  which  is 
responsible  for  the  unlovely  features  of  Henry's  reign  and 
character.  The  elevation  and  the  isolation  of  his  position 
fostered  a  detachment  from  ordinary  virtues  and  compassion, 


290 


HENRY  I. 


and  he  was  a  remorseless  incarnation  of  Machiavelli's  Prince. 
He  had  an  elastic  conscience  which  was  always  at  the  beck  and 
call  of  his  desire,  and  he  cared  little  for  principle.  But  he  had  a 
passion  for  efficiency,  and  for  the  greatness  of  England  and 
himself.  His  mind,  in  spite  of  its  clinging  to  the  outward  forms 
of  the  old  faith,  was  intensely  secular;  and  he  was  as  devoid 
of  a  moral  sense  as  he  was  of  a  genuine  religious  temperament. 
His  greatness  consists  in  his  practical  aptitude,  in  his  political 
perception,  and  in  the  self-restraint  which  enabled  him  to 
confine  within  limits  tolerable  to  his  people  an  insatiable  appetite 
for  power. 

The  original  materials  for  Henry  VIII. 's  biography  are  practically 
all  incorporated  in  the  monumental  Letters  and  Papers  of  the  Reign 
of  Henry  VIII.  (21  vols.),  edited  by  Brewer  and  Gairdner  and  com- 
pleted after  fifty  years'  labour  in  1910.  A  few  further  details  may 
be  gleaned  from  such  contemporary  sources  as  Hall's  Chronicle, 
Cavendish's  Life  of  Wolsey,  W.  Thomas's  The  Pilgrim  and  others; 
and  some  additions  have  been  made  to  the  documentary  sources 
contained  in  the  Letters  and  Papers  by  recent  works,  such  as  Ehses' 
Romische  Dokumente,  and  Merriman  s  Life  and  Letters  of  Thomas 
Cromwell.  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury's  Life  and  Reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  (1649),  while  good  for  its  time,  is  based  upon  a  very  partial 
knowledge  of  the  sources  and  somewhat  antiquated  principles  of 
historical  scholarship.  Froude's  famous  portraiture  of  Henry  is 
coloured  by  the  ideas  of  hero-worship  and  history  which  the  author 
imbibed  from  Carlyle,  and  the  rival  portraits  in  Lingard,  R.  W. 
Dixon's  Church  History  and  Gasquet's  Henry  VIII.  and  the  Monas- 
teries by  strong  religious  feeling.  A  more  discriminating  estimate 
is  attempted  by  H.  A.  L.  Fisher  in  Messrs  Longmans'  Political 
History  of  England,  vol.  v.  (1906).  Of  the  numerous  paintings  of 
Henry  none  is  by  Holbein,  who,  however,  executed  the  striking 
chalk-drawing  of  Henry's  head,  now  at  Munich,  and  the  famous  but 
decaying  cartoon  at  Devonshire  House.  The  well-known  three- 
quarter  length  at  Windsor,  usually  attributed  to  Holbein,  is  by  an 
inferior  artist.  The  best  collection  of  Henry's  portraits  was  exhibited 
at  the  Burlington  Fine  Arts  Club  in  1909,  and  the  catalogue  of  that 
exhibition  contains  the  best  description  of  them;  several  are  re- 
produced in  Pollard's  Henry  VIII.  (Goupil)  (1902),  the  letterpress 
of  which  was  published  by  Longmans  in  a  cheaper  edition  (1905). 
Henry  composed  numerous  state  papers  still  extant;  his  only  book 
was  his  Assertio  septem  sacramentorum,  contra  M.  Lutherum  (1521), 
a  copy  of  which,  signed  by  Henry  himself,  is  at  Windsor.  Several 
anthems  composed  by  him  are  extant;  and  one  at  least,  0  Lord, 
the  Maker  of  all  Things,  is  still  occasionally  rendered  in  English 
cathedrals.  (A.  F.  P.) 

HENRY  I.  (1214-1217),  king  of  Castile,  son  of  Alphonso  VIII. 
of  Castile,  and  his  wife  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine,  daughter  of  Henry 
II.  of  England,  after  whom  he  was  named,  was  born  about 
1207.  He  was  killed,  while  still  a  boy,  by  the  fall  of  a  tile  from 
a  roof. 

HENRY  II.  of  Trastamara  (1369-1379),  king  of  Castile,  founder 
of  the  dynasty  known  as  "  the  new  kings,"  was  the  eldest  son  of 
Alphonso  XI.  and  of  his  mistress  Leonora  de  Guzman.  He 
was  born  in  1333.  His  father  endowed  him  with  great  lordships 
in  northern  Spain,  and  made  him  count  of  Trastamara.  After 
the  death  of  Alphonso  XI.  in  1350,  Leonora  was  murdered  to 
satisfy  the  revenge  of  the  king's  neglected  wife.  Several  of  the 
numerous  children  she  had  borne  to  Alphonso  were  slain  at 
different  times  by  Peter  the  Cruel,  the  king's  legitimate  son  and 
successor.  Henry  preserved  his  life  by  submissions  and  by 
keeping  out  of  the  king's  way.  At  last,  after  taking  part  in 
several  internal  commotions,  he  fled  to  France  in  1356.  In 
1366  he  persuaded  the  mercenary  soldiers  paid  off  by  the  kings 
of  England  and  France  to  accompany  him  on  an  expedition  to 
upset  Peter,  who  was  driven  out.  The  Black  Prince  having 
intervened  on  behalf  of  Peter,  Henry  was  defeated  at  Najera 
(3rd  of  April  1367)  and  had  again  to  flee  to  Aragon.  When  the 
Black  Prince  was  told  that  "  the  Bastard  "  had  neither  been 
slain  nor  taken,  he  said  that  nothing  had  been  done.  And  so  it 
turned  out;  for,  when  the  Black  Prince  had  left  Spain,  Henry 
came  back  with  a  body  of  French  soldiers  of  fortune  under  du 
Guesclin,  and  drove  his  brother  into  the  castle  of  Montiel  in  La 
Mancha.  Peter  was  tempted  out  by  du  Guesclin,  and  the  half 
brothers  met  in  the  Frenchman's  tent.  They  rushed  at  one 
another,  and  Peter,  the  stronger  man,  threw  Henry  down,  and  fell 
on  him.  One  of  Henry's  pages  seized  the  king  by  the  leg  and 
threw  him  on  his  back.  Henry  then  pulled  up  Peter's  hauberk 
and  stabbed  him  mortally  in  the  stomach,  on  the  23rd  of  March 


1369.  He  reigned  for  ten  years,  with  some  success  both  in 
pacifying  the  kingdom  and  in  war  with  Portugal.  But  as  his 
title  was  disputed  he  was  compelled  to  purchase  support  by  vast 
grants  to  the  nobles  and  concessions  to  the  cities,  by  which  he 
gained  the  title  of  El  de  las  Mercedes — he  of  the  largesse.  Henry 
was  a  strong  ally  of  the  French  king  in  his  wars  with  the  English, 
who  supported  the  claims  of  Peter's  natural  daughters.  He 
died  on  the  3oth  of  May  1379. 

HENRY  III.  (1390-1406)  king  of  Castile,  called  El  Doliente, 
the  Sufferer,  was  the  son  of  John  I.  of  Castile  and  Leon,  and  of 
his  wife  Beatrice,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  of  Portugal.  He  was 
born  in  1379.  The  period  of  minority  was  exceptionally  anarchi- 
cal, even  for  Castile,  but  as  the  cities,  always  the  best  supporters 
of  the  royal  authority,  were  growing  in  strength,  Henry  was  able 
to  reduce  his  kingdom  to  obedience,  and,  when  he  took  the 
government  into  his  own  hands  after  1393,  to  compel  his  nobles 
with  comparative  ease  to  surrender  the  crown  lands  they  had 
seized.  The  meeting  of  the  Cortes  summoned  by  him  at  Madrid 
in  1394  marked  a  great  epoch  in  the  establishment  of  a  practically 
despotic  royal  authority,  based  on  the  consent  of  the  commons, 
who  looked  to  the  crown  to  protect  them  against  the  excesses 
of  the  nobles.  Henry  strengthened  his  position  still  further 
by  his  marriage  with  Catherine,  daughter  of  John  of  Gaunt  and 
of  Constance,  elder  daughter  of  Peter  the  Cruel  and  Maria  de 
Padilla.  This  union  combined  the  rival  claims  of  the  descendants 
of  Peter  and  of  Henry  of  Trastamara.  The  king's  bodily  weak- 
ness limited  his  real  capacity,  and  his  early  death  on  the  25th 
of  December  1406  cut  short  the  promise  of  his  reign. 

HENRY  IV.  (1453-1474),  kingof  Castile,  surnamed  the  Impotent, 
or  the  Spendthrift,  was  the  son  of  John  II.  of  Castile  and  Leon, 
and  of  his  wife,  Mary,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  I.  of  Aragon  and 
Sicily.  He  was  born  at  Valladolid  on  the  6th  of  January  1425. 
The  surnames  given  to  this  king  by  his  subjects  are  of  much  more 
than  usual  accuracy.  His  personal  character  was  one  of  mere 
weakness,  bodily  and  mental.  Henry  was  an  undutiful  son,  and 
his  reign  was  one  long  period  of  confusion,  marked  by  incidents 
of  the  most  ignominious  kind.  He  divorced  his  first  wife  Blanche 
of  Navarre  in  1453  on  the  ground  of  "  mutual  impotence." 
Yet  in  1468  he  married  Joan  of  Portugal,  and  when  she  bore  a 
daughter,  first  repudiated  her  as  adulterine,  and  then  claimed 
her  for  his  own.  In  1468  he  was  solemnly  deposed  in  favour 
of  his  brother  Alphonso,  on  whose  death  in  the  same  year  his 
authority  was  again  recognized.  The  last  years  of  his  life  were 
spent  in  vain  endeavours,  first  to  force  his  half-sister  Isabella, 
afterwards  queen,  to  marry  his  favourite,  the  Master  of  Santiago, 
and  then  to  exclude  her  from  the  throne.  Henry  died  at  Madrid 
on  the  1 2th  of  December  1474. 

HENRY  I.  (1008-1060),  kingof  France,  son  of  King  Robert  and 
his  queen,  Constance  of  Aquitaine,  and  grandson  of  Hugh  Capet, 
came  to  the  throne  upon  the  death  of  his  father  in  1031,  although 
in  1027  he  had  been  anointed  king  at  Reims  and  associated 
in  the  government  with  his  father.  His  mother,  who  favoured 
her  younger  son  Robert,  and  had  retired  from  court  upon 
Henry's  coronation,  formed  a  powerful  league  against  him,  and 
he  was  forced  to  take  refuge  with  Robert  II.,  duke  of  Normandy. 
In  the  civil  war  which  resulted,  Henry  was  able  to  break  up  the 
league  of  his  opponents  in  1032.  Constance  died  in  1034,  and 
the  rebel  brother  Robert  was  given  the  duchy  of  Burgundy, 
thus  founding  that  great  collateral  line  which  was  to  rival  the 
kings  of  France  for  three  centuries.  Henry  atoned  for  this  by 
a  reign  marked  by  unceasing  struggle  against  the  great  barons. 
From  1033  to  1043  he  was  involved  in  a  life  and  death  contest 
with  those  nobles  whose  territory  adjoined  the  royal  domains, 
especially  with  the  great  house  of  Blois,  whose  count,  Odo  II., 
had  been  the  centre  of  the  league  of  Constance,  and  with  the 
counts  of  Champagne.  Henry's  success  in  these  wars  was  largely 
due  to  the  help  given  him  by  Robert  of  Normandy,  but  upon  the 
accession  of  Robert's  son  William  (the  Conqueror),  Normandy 
itself  became  the  chief  danger.  From  1047  to  the  year  of  his 
death,  Henry  was  almost  constantly  at  war  with  William,  who 
held  his  own  against  the  king's  formidable  leagues  and  beat 
back  two  royal  invasions,  in  1055  and  1058.  Henry's  reign 


HENRY  II.— HENRY  III. 


291 


marks  the  height  of  feudalism.  The  Normans  were  independent 
of  him,  with  their  frontier  barely  25  m.  west  of  Paris;  to  the 
south  his  authority  was  really  bounded  by  the  Loire;  in  the  east 
the  count  of  Champagne  was  little  more  than  nominally  his 
subject,  and  the  duchy  of  Burgundy  was  almost  entirely  cut  off 
from  the  king.  Yet  Henry  maintained  the  independence  of  the 
clergy  against  the  pope  Leo  IX.,  and  claimed  Lorraine  from  the 
emperor  Henry  III.  In  an  interview  at  Ivois,  he  reproached 
the  emperor  with  the  violation  of  promises,  and  Henry  III. 
challenged  him  to  a  single  combat.  According  to  the  German 
chronicle — which  French  historians  doubt—the  king  of  France 
declined  the  combat  and  fled  from  Ivois  during  the  night.  In 
1059  he  had  his  eldest  son  Philip  crowned  as  joint  king,  and  died 
the  following  year.  Henry's  first  wife  was  Maud,  niece  of  the 
emperor  Henry  III.,  whom  he  married  in  1043.  She  died  child- 
less in  1044.  Historians  have  sometimes  confused  her  with 
Maud  (or  Matilda), the  emperor  Conrad  II. 's  daughter,  to  whom 
Henry  was  affianced  in  1033,  but  who  died  before  the  marriage. 
In  1051  Henry  married  the  Russian  princess  Anne,  daughter  of 
Yaroslav  I.,  grand  duke  of  Kiev.  She  bore  him  two  sons,  Philip, 
his  successor,  and  Hugh  the  great,  count  of  Vermandois. 

See  the  Historiae  of  Rudolph  Glaber,  edited  by  M.  Prou  (Paris, 
1886);  F.  Sochn6e,  Catalogue  des  actes  d'Henri  I"  (1907);  de  Caiz 
de  Saint  Aymour,  Anne  de  Russie,  reine  de  France  (1896) ;  E.  Lavisse, 
Histoire  de  France,  tome  ii.  (1901),  and  the  article  on  Henry  I.  in 
La  Grande  Encyclopedie  by  M.  Prou. 

HENRY  II.  (1519-1559),  king  of  France,  the  second  son  of 
Francis  I.   and  Claude,  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1547.     When 
only  seven  years  old  he  was  sent  by  his  father,  with  his  brother 
the  dauphin  Francis,  as  a  hostage  to  Spain  in  1526,  whence  they 
returned  after  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  Cambrai  in  1530. 
Henry  was  too  young  to  have  carried  away  any  abiding  impres- 
sions, yet  throughout  his  life  his  character,  dress  and  bearing 
were  far  more  Spanish  than  French.     In  1 533  his  father  married 
him  to  Catherine  de'  Medici,  from  which  match,  as  he  said, 
Francis  hoped  to  gain  great  advantage,  even  though  it  might 
be  somewhat  of  a  misalliance.     In  1536  Henry,  hitherto  duke  of 
Orleans,   became  dauphin  by  the  death  of  his  elder  brother 
Francis.     From  that  time  he  was  under  the  influence  of   two 
personages,  who  dominated  him  completely  for  the  remainder 
of  his  life — Diane  de  Poitiers,  his  mistress,  and  Anne  de  Mont- 
morency,  his  mentor.     Moreover,  his  younger  brother,  Charles 
of  Orleans,  who  was  of  a  more  sprightly  temperament,  was  his 
father's  favourite;  and  the  rivalry  of  Diane  and  the  duchesse 
d'Etampes  helped  to  make  still  wider  the  breach  between  the 
king  and  the  dauphin.     Henry  supported  the  constable  Mont- 
morency  when  he  was  disgraced  in   1541;  protested  against 
the  treaty  of  Crepy  in  1544;  and  at  the  end  of  the  reign  held 
himself  completely  aloof.     His  accession  in  1547  gave  rise  to  a 
veritable  revolution  at  the  court.     Diane,  Montmorency  and  the 
Guises  were  all-powerful,  and  dismissed  Cardinal  de  Tournon, 
de  Longueval,  the  duchesse  d'fitampes  and  all  the  late  king's 
friends  and  officials.  At  that  time  Henry  was  twenty-eight  years 
old.     He  was  a  robust  man,  and  inherited  his  father's  love  of 
violent  exercise;  but  his  character  was  weak  and  his  intelligence 
mediocre,  and  he  had  none  of  the  superficial  and  brilliant  gifts 
of  Francis  I.     He  was  cold,  haughty,  melancholy  and  dull. 
He  was  a  bigoted  Catholic,  and  showed  to  the  Protestants  even 
less  mercy  than  his  father.     During  his  reign  the  royal  authority 
became  more  severe  and  more  absolute  than  ever.     Resistance  to 
the  financial  extortions  of  the  government  was  cruelly  chastised, 
and  the  "  Chambre  Ardente  "  was  instituted  against  the  Re- 
formers.    Abroad,  the  struggle  was  continued  against  Charles  V. 
and  Philip  II.,  which  ended  in  the  much-discussed  treaty  of 
Cateau-Cambresis.     Some  weeks  afterwards  high  feast  was  held 
on  the  occasion  of  the  double  marriage  of  the  king's  daughter 
Elizabeth  with  the  king  of  Spain,  and  of  his  sister  Margaret 
with  the  duke  of  Savoy.     On  the  3oth  of  June  1559,  when 
tilting  with  the  count  of  Montgomery,  Henry  was  wounded  in 
the  temple  by  a  lance.     In  spite  of  the  attentions  of  Ambroise 
Pare  he  died  on  the  loth  of  July.     By  his  wife  Catherine  de' 
Medici  he  had  seven  children  living:  Elizabeth,  queen  of  Spain; 


Claude,  duchess  of  Lorraine;  Francis  (II.),  Charles  (IX.)  and 
Henry  (III.),  all  of  whom  came  to  the  throne;  Marguerite, 
who  became  queen  of  Navarre  in  1572;  and  Francis,  duke  of 
Alenfon  and  afterwards  of  Anjou,  who  died  in  1584. 

The  bulk  of  the  documents  for  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  are  un- 
published, and  are  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Paris.  Of  the 
published  documents,  see  especially  the  correspondence  of  Catherine 
de'  Medici  (ed.  by  de  la  Ferri&re,  Paris,  1880),  of  Diane  de  Poitiers 
(ed.  by  Guiffrey,  Paris,  1866),  of  Antoine  de  Bourbon  and  Jeanne 
d'Albret  (ed.  by  Rochambeau,  Paris,  1877),  of  Odet  de  Sclve, 
ambassador  to  England  (ed.  by  Lefevre-Pontalis,  Paris,  1888)  and 
of  Dominique  du  Gabre,  ambassador  to  Venice  (ed.  by  Vitalis,  Paris, 
1903);  Ribier,  Lettres  el  memoires  d'estat  (Paris,  1666);  Relations 
des  ambassadeurs  jieniliens,  &c.  Of  the  contemporary  memoirs  and 
histories,  see  Brant6me  (ed.  by  Lalanne,  Paris,  1864-1882),  Francois 
de  Lorraine  (ed.  by  Michaud  and  Poujoulat,  Paris,  1839),  Montluc 
(ed.  by  de  Ruble,  Paris,  1864),  F.  de  Boyvin  du  Villars  (Michaud 
and  Poujoulat),  F.  de  Rabutin  (Pantheon  litteraire,  Paris,  1836). 
See  also  de  Thou,  Historic,  sui  temporis  .  .  .  (London,  1733); 
Decrue,  Anne  de  Montmorency  (Pans,  1889);  H.  Forneron,  Les 
Dues  de  Guise  et  leur  epoque,  vol.  i.  (Paris,  1877) ;  and  H.  Lemonnier, 
"  La  France  sous  Henri  II  "  (Paris,  1904),  in  the  Histoire  de  France, 
by  E.  Lavisse,  which  contains  a  fuller  bibliography  of  the  subject. 

HENRY  III.  ( 1 5 5 i-i  589) ,  king  of  France,  third  son  of  Henry  II. 
and  Catherine  de'  Medici,  was  born  at  Fontainebleau  on  the 

th  of  September  1551,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  France 
on  the  death  of  his  brother  Charles  IX.  in  1574.  In  his  youth, 
as  duke  of  Anjou,  he  was  warmly  attached  to  the  Huguenot 
opinions,  as  we  learn  from  his  sister  Marguerite  de  Valois;  but 
his  unstable  character  soon  gave  way  before  his  mother's  will, 
and  both  Henry  and  Marguerite  remained  choice  ornaments 
of  the  Catholic  Church.  Henry  won,  under  the  direction  of 
Marshal  de  Tavannes,  two  brilliant  victories  at  Jarnac  and 
Moncontour  ( 1 569) .  He  was  the  favourite  son  of  his  mother,  and 
took  part  with  her  in  organizing  the  massacre  of  St  Bartholomew.^ 
In  1573  Catherine  procured  his  election  to  the  throne  of  PolandT 
Passionately  enamoured  of  the  princess  of  Conde,  he  set  out 
reluctantly  to  Warsaw,  but,  on  the  death  of  his  brother  Charles 
IX.  in  1574,  he  escaped  from  his  Polish  subjects,  who  endeavoured 
to  retain  him  by  force,  came  back  to  France  and  assumed  the 
crown.  He  returned  to  a  wretched  kingdom,  torn  with  civil 
war.  In  spite  of  his  good  intentions,  he  was  incapable  of  govern- 
ing, and  abandoned  the  power  to  his  mother  and  his  favourites. 
Yet  he  was  no  dullard.  He  was  a  man  of  keen  intelligence  and 
cultivated  mind,  and  deserves  as  much  as  Francis  I.  the  title  of 
patron  of  letters  and  art.  But  his  incurable  indolence  and  love 
of  pleasure  prevented  him  from  taking  any  active  part  in  affairs. 
Surrounded  by  his  mignons,  he  scandalized  the  people  by  his 
effeminate  manners.  He  dressed  himself  in  women's  clothes, 
made  a  collection  of  little  dogs  and  hid  in  the  cellars  when  it 
thundered.  The  disgust  aroused  by  the  vices  and  effeminacy 
of  the  king  increased  the  popularity  of  Henry  of  Guise.  After 
the  "  day  of  the  barricades  "  (the  i2th  of  May  1588),  the  king, 
perceiving  that  his  influence  was  lost,  resolved  to  rid  himself 
of  Guise  by  assassination;  and  on  the  23rd  of  December  1588 
his  faithful  bodyguard,  the  "  forty-five,"  carried  out  his  design 
at  the  chiteau  of  Blois.  But  the  fanatical  preachers  of  the  League 
clamoured  furiously  for  vengeance,  and  on  the  ist  of  August  1589, 
while  Henry  III.  was  investing  Paris  with  Henry  of  Navarre, 
Jacques  Clement,  a  Dominican  friar,  was  introduced  into  his 
presence  on  false  letters  of  recommendation,  and  plunged  a 
knife  into  the  lower  part  of  his  body.  He  died  a  few  hours 
afterwards  with  great  fortitude.  By  his  wife  Louise  of  Lorraine, 
daughter  of  the  count  of  Vaudemont,  he  had  no  children,  and  on 
his  deathbed  he  recognized  Henry  of  Navarre  as  his  successor. 

See  the  memoirs  and  chronicles  of  1'Estoile,  Villeroy,  Ph.  Hurault 
de  Cheverny,  Brantdme,  Marguerite  de  Valois,  la  Huguerye,  du 
Plessis-Mornay,  &c.;  Archives  curieuses  of  Cimber  and  Danjou, 
vols.  x.  and  xi.;  Memoires  de  la  Ligue  (new  ed.,  Amsterdam,  1758); 
the  histories  of  T.  A.  d'Aubignd  and  J.  A.  de  Thou;  Correspondence 
of  Catherine  de'  Medici  and  of  Henry  IV.  (in  the  Collection  de  docu- 
ments inedits),  and  of  the  Venetian  ambassadors,  &c. ;  P.  Matthieu, 
Histoire  de  France,  vol.  i.  (1631);  Scipion  Dupleix,  Histoire  de  Henri 
III  (1633);  Robiquet,  Paris  et  la  Ligue  (1886);  and  J.  H.  Manejol, 
"  La  ReTorme  et  la  Ligue,"  in  the  Histoire  de  France,  by  E.  Lavisse 
(Paris,  1904),  which  contains  a  more  complete  bibliography. 


292 


HENRY  IV. 


HENRY  IV.  (1553-1610),  king  of  France,  the  son  of  Antoine 
de  Bourbon,  duke  of  Vendome,  head  of  the  younger  branch  of 
the  Bourbons,  descendant  of  Robert  of  Clermont,  sixth  son  of 
St  Louis  and  of  Jeanne  d'Albret,  queen  of  Navarre,  was  born 
at  Pau  (Basses  Pyrenees)  on  the  i4th  of  December  1553.  He 
was  educated  as  a  Protestant,  and  in  1557  was  sent  to  the  court 
at  Amiens.  In  1561  hi  entered  the  College  de  Navarre  at  Paris, 
returning  in  1565  to  Beam.  During  the  third  war  of  religion 
in  France  (1568-1570)  he  was  taken  by  his  mother  to  Gaspard 
de  Coligny,  leader  of  the  Protestant  forces  since  the  death  of 
Louis  I.,  prince  of  Conde,  at  Jarnac,  and  distinguished  himself 
at  the  battle  of  Arnay-le-Duc  in  Burgundy  in  1569.  On  the  9th 
of  June  1572,  Jeanne  d'Albret  died  and  Henry  became  king  of 
Navarre,  marrying  Margaret  of  Valois,  sister  of  Charles  IX.  of 
France,  on  the  i8th  of  August  of  that  year.  He  escaped  the 
massacre  of  St  Bartholomew  on  the  24th  of  August  by  a  feigned 
abjuration.  On  the  2nd  of  February  1576,  after  several  vain 
attempts,  he  escaped  from  the  court,  joined  the  combined  forces 
of  Protestants  and  of  opponents  of  the  king,  and  obtained  by 
the  treaty  of  Beaulieu  (1576)  the  government  of  Guienne.  In 
1577  he  secured  the  treaty  of  Bergerac,  which  foreshadowed 
the  edict  of  Nantes.  As  a  result  of  quarrels  with  his  unworthy 
wife,  and  the  unwelcome  intervention  of  Henry  III.,  he  undertook 
the  seventh  war  of  religion,  known  as  the  "  war  of  the  lovers  " 
(des  amoureux),  seized  Cahors  on  the  5th  of  May  1580,  and  signed 
the  treaty  of  Fleix  on  the  26th  of  November  1580.  On  the  loth 
ot  June  1584  the  death  of  Monsieur,  the  duke  of  Anjou,  brother 
of  King  Henry  III.,  made  Henry  of  Navarre  heir  presumptive 
to  the  throne  of  France.  Excluded  from  it  by  the  treaty  of 
Nemours  (1585)  he  began  the  "  war  of  the  three  Henrys  "  by  a 
campaign  in  Guienne  (1586)  and  defeated  Anne,  due  de  Joyeuse, 
at  Coutras  on  the  zoth  of  October  1587.  Then  Henry  III., 
driven  from  Paris  by  the  League  on  account  of  his  murder  of  the 
duke  of  Guise  at  Blois  ( 1 588) ,  sought  the  aid  of  the  king  of  Navarre 
to  win  back  his  capital,  recognizing  him  as  his  heir.  The  assassi- 
nation of  Henry  III.  on  the  ist  of  August  1589  left  Henry  king 
of  France;  but  he  had  to  struggle  for  ten  more  years  against  the 
League  and  against  Spain  before  he  won  his  kingdom.  The 
main  events  in  that  long  struggle  were  the  victory  of  Arques 
over  Charles,  duke  of  Mayenne,  on  the  28th  of  September  1589; 
of  Ivry,  on  the  i4th  of  March  1590;  the  siege  of  Paris  (1590); 
of  Rouen  (1592) ;  the  meeting  of  the  Estates  of  the  League  (1593), 
which  the  Satire  Menippee  turned  to  ridicule;  and  finally  the 
conversion  of  Henry  IV.  to  Catholicism  in  July  1593 — an  act  of 
political  wisdom,  since  it  brought  about  the  collapse  of  all 
opposition.  Paris  gave  in  to  him  on  the  '22nd  of  March  1594 
and  province  by  province  yielded  to  arms  or  negotiations; 
while  the  victory  of  Fontaine-Franc.aise  (1595)  and  the  capture 
of  Amiens  forced  Philip  II.  of  Spain  to  sign  the  peace  of  Vervins 
on  the  2nd  of  May  1598.  On  the  i3th  of  April  of  that  year 
Henry  IV.  had  promulgated  the  Edict  of  Nantes. 

Then  Henry  set  to  work  to  pacify  and  restore  prosperity 
to  his  kingdom.  Convinced  by  the  experience  of  the  wars  that 
France  needed  an  energetic  central  power,  he  pushed  at  times 
his  royal  prerogatives  to  excess,  raising  taxes  in  spite  of  the 
Estates,  interfering  in  the  administration  of  the  towns,  reforming 
their  constitutions,  and  holding  himself  free  to  reject  the  advice 
of  the  notables  if  he  consulted  them.  Aided  by  his  faithful 
friend  Maximilien  de  Bethune,  baron  de  Rosny  and  due  de 
Sully  (q.v.),  he  reformed  the  finances,  repressed  abuses,  suppressed 
useless  offices,  extinguished  the  formidable  debt  and  realized 
a  reserve  of  eighteen  milb'ons.  To  alleviate  the  distress  of  the 
people  he  undertook  to  develop  both  agriculture  and  industry: 
planting  colonies  of  Dutch  and  Flemish  settlers  to  drain  the 
marshes  of  Saintonge,  issuing  prohibitive  measures  against  the 
importation  of  foreign  goods  (i  597),  introducing  the  silk  industry, 
encouraging  the  manufacture  of  cloth,  of  glass-ware,  of  tapestries 
(Gobelins), and  under  the  direction  of  Sully — named  grand-voyer 
de  France — improving  and  increasing  the  routes  for  commerce. 
A  complete  system  of  canals  was  planned,  that  of  Briare  partly 
dug.  New  capitulations  were  concluded  with  the  sultan  Ahmed 
I.  (1604)  and  treaties  of  commerce  with  England  (1606),  with 


Spain  and  Holland.  Attempts  were  made  in  1604  and  1608  to 
colonize  Canada  (see  CHAMPLAIN,  SAMUEL  DE).  The  army  was 
reorganized,  its  pay  raised  and  assured,  a  school  of  cadets  formed 
to  supply  it  with  officers,  artillery  constituted  and  strongholds 
on  the  frontier  fortified.  While  lacking  the  artistic  tastes  of  the 
Valois,  Henry  beautified  Paris,  building  the  great  gallery  of  the 
Louvre,  finishing  the  Tuileries,  building  the  Pont  Neuf,  the 
H6tel-de-Ville  and  the  Place  Royale. 

The  foreign  policy  of  Henry  IV.  was  directed  against  the 
Habsburgs.  Without  declaring  war,  he  did  all  possible  harm 
to  them  by  alliances  and  diplomacy.  In  Italy  he  gained  the 
grand  duke  of  Tuscany — marrying  his  niece  Marie  de'  Medici 
in  1600 — the  duke  of  Mantua,  the  republic  of  Venice  and  Pope 
Paul  V.  The  duke  of  Savoy,  who  had  held  back  from  the  treaty 
of  Vervins  in  1598,  signed  tbe  treaty  of  Lyons  in  1601;  in  ex- 
change for  the  marquisate  of  Saluzzo,  France  acquired  Bresse, 
Bugey,  Valromey  and  the  bailliage  of  Gex.  In  the  Low  Countries, 
Henry  sent  subsidies  to  the  Dutch  in  their  struggle  against 
Spain.  He  concluded  alliances  with  the  Protestant  princes  in 
Germany,  with  the  duke  of  Lorraine,  the  Swiss  cantons  (treaty 
of  Soleure,  1602)  and  with  Sweden. 

The  opening  on  the  25th  of  March  1609  of  the  question  of  the 
succession  of  John  William  the  Good,  duke  of  Cleves,  of  Jiilich 
and  of  Berg,  led  Henry,  in  spite  of  his  own  hesitations  and  those 
of  his  German  allies,  to  declare  war  on  the  emperor  Rudolph  II. 
But  he  was  assassinated  by  Ravaillac  (?.:'.)  on  the  I4th  of  May 
1 6 10,  upon  the  eve  of  his  great  enterprise,  leaving  hisjwlicy  to 
be  followed  up  later  by  Richelieu.  Sully  in  his  Economies 
royales  attributes  to  his  master  the  "  great  design  "  of  constitut- 
ing, after  having  defeated  Austria,  a  vast  European  confedera- 
tion of  fifteen  states — a  "  Christian  Republic  " — directed  by  a 
general  council  of  sixty  deputies  reappointed  every  three  years. 
But  this  "  design  "  has  been  attributed  rather  to  the  imagination 
of  Sully  himself  than  to  the  more  practical  policy  of  the  king. 

No  figure  in  France  has  been  more  popular  than  that  of 
"  Henry  the  Great."  He  was  affable  to  the  point  of  familiarity, 
quick-witted  like  a  true  Gascon,  good-hearted,  indulgent,  yet 
skilled  in  reading  the  character  of  those  around  him,  and  he 
could  at  times  show  himself  severe  and  unyielding.  His  courage 
amounted  almost  to  recklessness.  He  was  a  better  soldier  than 
strategist.  Although  at  bottom  authoritative  he  surrounded 
himself  with  admirable  advisers  (Sully,  Sillery,  Villeroy,  Jeannin) 
and  profited  from  their  co-operation.  His  love  affairs,  un- 
doubtedly too  numerous  (notably  with  Gabrielle  d'Estrees  and 
Henriette  d'Entragues),  if  they  injure  his  personal  reputation, 
had  no  bad  effect  on  his  policy  as  king,  in  which  he  was  guided 
only  by  an  exalted  ideal  of  his  royal  office,  and  by  a  sympathy 
for  the  common  people,  his  reputation  for  which  has  perhaps 
been  exaggerated  somewhat  in  popular  tradition  by  the  circum- 
stances of  his  reign. 

Henry  IV.  had  no  children  by  his  first  wife,  Margaret  of 
Valois.  By  Marie  de'  Medici  he  had  Louis,  later  Louis  XIII.; 
Gaston,  duke  of  Orleans;  Elizabeth,  who  married  Philip  IV.  of 
Spain;  Christine,  duchess  of  Savoy;  and  Henrietta,  wife  of 
Charles  I.  of  England.  Among  his  bastards  the  most  famous 
were  the  children  of  Gabrielle  d'Estrees — Caesar,  duke  of 
Vend&me,  Alexander  of  Vend&me,  and  Catherine  Henriette, 
duchess  of  Elbeuf. 

Several  portraits  of  Henry  are  preserved  at  Paris,  in  the 
Bibliotheque  Nationale  (cf .  Bouchot,  Portraits  au crayon,  p.  189), 
at  the  Louvre  (by  Probus,  bust  by  Barthelemy  Prieur)  at 
Versailles,  Geneva  (Henry  at  the  age  of  fifteen),  at  Hampton 
Court,  at  Munich  and  at  Florence. 

The  works  dealing  with  Henry  IV.  and  his  reign  are  too  numerous 
to  be  enumerated  here.  For  sources,  see  the  Recueil  des  lettres 
missives  de  Henri  IV,  published  from  1839  to  1853  by  B.  de  Xivrey, 
in  the  Collection  de  documents  inedits  relatifs  a  I'histoire  de  France, 
and  the  various  researches  of  Galitzin,  Bautiot,  Ha'phen,  Dussieux 
and  others.  Besides  their  historic  interest,  the  letters  written 
personally  by  Henry,  whether  love  notes  or  letters  of  state,  reveal  a 
charming  writer.  Mention  should  be  made  of  Auguste  Poirson's 
.Histoire  du  regne  de  Henri  IV  (2nd  ed..  4  vpls.,  Paris,  1862-1867) 
and  of  J.  H.  Mari6jol's  volume  (vi.)  in  the  Histoire  de  France,  edited 
by  Ernest  Lavisse  (Paris,  1905),  where  main  sources  and  literature 


HENRY  I.— HENRY  THE  PROUD 


293 


arc  given  with  each  chapter.  A  Revue  Henri  IV  has  been  founded 
at  Paris  (1905).  Finally,  a  complete  survey  of  the  sources  for  the 
period  1494-1610  is  given  by  Henri  Hauser  in  vol.  vii.  of  Sources  de 
Ihistoire  de  France  (Paris,  1906)  in  continuation  of  A.  Molinier's 
collection  of  the  sources  for  French  history  during  the  middle 
ages. 

HENRY  I.  (c.  1210-1274),  surnamed  le  Gros,  king  of  Navarre 
and  count  of  Champagne,  was  the  youngest  son  of  Theobald  I. 
king  of  Navarre  by  Margaret  of  Foix,  and  succeeded  his  eldest 
brother  Theobald  III.  as  king  of  Navarre  and  count  of  Champagne 
in  December  1270.  His  proclamation  at  Pamplona,  however, 
did  not  take  place  till  March  of  the  following  year,  and  his 
coronation  was  delayed  until  May  1273.  After  a  brief  reign, 
characterized,  it  is  said,  by  dignity  and  talent,  he  died  in  July 
1274,  suffocated,  according  to  the  generally  received  accounts,  by 
his  own  fat.  In  him  the  male  line  of  the  counts  of  Champagne 
and  kings  of  Navarre,  became  extinct.  He  married  in  1269 
Blanche,  daughter  of  Robert,  count  of  Artois,  and  niece  of  King 
Louis  IX.  and  was  succeeded  by  his  only  legitimate  child,  Jeanne 
or  Joanna,  by  whose  marriage  to  Philip  IV.  afterwards  king  of 
France  in  1284,  the  crown  of  Navarre  became  united  to  that  of 
France. 

HENRY  II.  (1503-1555),  titular  king  of  Navarre,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Jean  d'Albret  (d.  1516)  by  his  wife  Catherine  de 
Foix,  sister  and  heiress  of  Francis  Phoebus,  king  of  Navarre, 
and  was  born  at  Sanquesa  in  April  1503.  When  Catherine  died 
in  exile  in  1517  Henry  succeeded  her  in  her  claim  on  Navarre, 
which  was  disputed  by  Ferdinand  I.  king  of  Spain;  and  under 
the  protection  of  Francis  I.  of  France  he  assumed  the  title  of 
king.  After  ineffectual  conferences  at  Noyon  in  1516  and  at 
Montpellier  in  1 5 1 8,  an  active  effort  was  made  in  1 5  2 1  to  establish 
him  in  the  de  facto  sovereignty;  but  the  French  troops  which 
had  seized  the  country  were  ultimately  expelled  by  the  Spaniards. 
In  1525  Henry  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Pa  via,  but 
he  contrived  to  escape,  and  in  1526  married  Margaret,  the  sister 
of  Francis  I.  and  widow  of  Charles,  duke  of  Alencon.  By  her 
he  was  the  father  of  Jeanne  d'Albret  (d.  1572),  and  was  conse- 
quently the  grandfather  of  Henry  IV.  of  France.  Henry,  who 
had  some  sympathy  with  the  Huguenots,  died  at  Pau  on  the 
25th  of  May  1555. 

HENRY  I.  (1512-1580),  king  of  Portugal,  third  son  of  Emanuel 
the  Fortunate,  was  born  in  Lisbon,  on  the  3ist  of  January  1512. 
He  was  destined  for  the  church,  and  in  1532  was  raised  to  the 
archiepiscopal  see  of  Braga.  In  1542  he  received  the  cardinal's 
hat,  and  in  1578  when  he  was  called  to  succeed  his  grandnephew 
Sebastian  on  the  throne,  he  held  the  archbishoprics  of  Lisbon 
and  Coimbra  as  well  as  that  of  Braga,  in  addition  to  the  wealthy 
abbacy  of  Alcobazar.  As  an  ecclesiastic  he  was  pious,  pure, 
simple  in  his  mode  of  life,  charitable,  and  a  learned  and  liberal 
patron  of  letters;  but  as  a  sovereign  he  proved  weak,  timid 
and  incapable.  On  his  death  in  1580,  after  a  brief  reign  of 
seventeen  months,  the  male  line  of  the  royal  family  which  traced 
its  descent  from  Henry,  first  count  6f  Portugal  (c.  noo),  came 
to  an  end;  and  all  attempts  to  fix  the  succession  during  his 
lifetime  having  ignominiously  failed,  Portugal  became  an  easy 
prey  to  Philip  II.  of  Spain. 

HENRY  II.  (1489-1568),  duke  of  Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, 
was  a  son  of  Duke  Henry  I. ,  and  was  born  on  the  loth  of  November 
1489.  He  began  to  reign  in  1514,  but  his  brother  William 
objected  to  the  indivisibility  of  the  duchy  which  had  been 
decreed  by  the  elder  Henry,  and  it  was  only  in  1535,  after  an  im- 
prisonment of  eleven  years,  that  William  recognized  his  brother's 
title.  Sharing  in  an  attack  on  John,  bishop  of  Hildesheim, 
Henry  was  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Soltau  in  June  1519,  but 
afterwards  he  was  more  successful,  and  when  peace  was  made 
received  some  lands  from  the  bishop.  In  1525  he  assisted 
Philip,  landgrave  of  Hesse,  to  crush  the  rising  of  the  peasants 
in  north  Germany,  and  in  1528  took  help  to  Charles  V.  in  Italy, 
where  he  narrowly  escaped  capture.  As  a  pronounced  opponent 
of  the  reformed  doctrines,  he  joined  the  Catholic  princes  in 
concerting  measures  for  defence  at  Dessau  and  elsewhere,  but 
on  the  other  hand  promised  Philip  of  Hesse  to  aid  him  in  restoring 
his  own  brother-in-law  Ulrich,  duke  of  Wiirttemberg,  to  his 


duchy.  However  he  gave  no  assistance  when  this  enterprise 
was  undertaken  in  1534,  and  subsequently  the  hostility  between 
Philip  and  himself  was  very  marked.  Henry  was  attacked 
by  Luther  with  unmeasured  violence  in  a  writing  Wider  Hans 
Worst ;  but  more  serious  was  his  isolation  in  north  Germany. 
The  duke  soon  came  into  collision  with  the  Protestant  towns  of 
Goslar  and  Brunswick,  against  the  former  of  which  a  sentence 
of  restitution  had  been  pronounced  by  the  imperial  court  of 
justice  (Reichskammergerichf).  To  conciliate  the  Protestants 
Charles  V.  had  suspended  the  execution  of  this  sentence,  a 
proceeding  which  Henry  declared  was  ultra  vires.  The  league 
of  Schmalkalden,  led  by  Philip  of  Hesse  and  John  Frederick, 
elector  of  Saxony,  then  took  up  arms  to  defend  the  towns;  and 
in  1542  Brunswick  was  overrun  and  the  duke  forced  to  flee.  In 
September  1545  he  made  an  attempt  to  regain  his  duchy,  but 
was  taken  prisoner  by  Philip,  and  only  released  after  the  victory 
of  Charles  V.  at  Miihlberg  in  April  1 547.  Returning  to  Brunswick , 
where  he  was  very  unpopular,  he  soon  quarrelled  with  his  subjects 
both  on  political  and  religious  questions,  while  his  duchy  was 
ravaged  by  Albert  Alcibiades,  prince  of  Bayreuth.  Henry  was 
among  the  princes  who  banded  themselves  together  to  crush 
Albert,  and  after  the  death  of  Maurice,  elector  of  Saxony,  at 
Sievershausen  in  July  1553,  he  took  command  of  the  allied  troops 
and  defeated  Albert  in  two  engagements.  In  his  later  years 
he  became  more  tolerant,  and  was  reconciled  with  his  Protestant 
subjects.  He  died  at  Wolfenbuttel  on  the  nth  of  June  1568. 
The  duke  was  twice  married,  firstly  in  1515  to  Maria  (d.  1541), 
sister  of  Ulrich  of  Wiirttemberg,  and  secondly  in  1556  to  Sophia 
(d.  1575)  daughter  of  Sigismund  I.,  king  of  Poland.  He  attained 
some  notoriety  through  his  romantic  attachment  to  Eva  von 
Trott,  whom  he  represented  as  dead  and  afterwards  kept  con- 
cealed at  Staufenburg.  Henry  was  succeeded  by  his  only 
surviving  son,  Julius  (1528-1589). 

See  F.  Koldewey,  Heinz  von  Wolfenbuttel  (Halle,  1883);  and 
F.  Bruns,  Die  Vertreibung  Herzog  Heinrichs  von  Braunschweig  durch 
den  Schmalkaldischen  Bund  (Marburg,  1889). 

HENRY  (c.  1108-1139),  surnamed  the  "Proud,"  duke  of 
Saxony  and  Bavaria,  second  son  of  Henry  the  Black,  duke 
of  Bavaria,  and  Wulfhild,  daughter  of  Magnus  Billung,  duke  of 
Saxony,  was  a  member  of  the  Welf  family.  His  father  and 
mother  both  died  in  1126,  and  as  his  elder  brother  Conrad  had 
entered  the  church,  Henry  became  duke  of  Bavaria  and  shared 
the  family  possessions  in  Saxony,  Bavaria  and  Swabia  with  his 
younger  brother,  Welf.  At  Whitsuntide  1127  he  was  married 
to  Gertrude,  the  only  child  of  the  German  king,  Lothair  the 
Saxon,  and  at  once  took  part  in  the  warfare  between  the  king 
and  the  Hohenstaufen  brothers,  Frederick  II.,  duke  of  Swabia, 
and  Conrad,  afterwards  the  German  king  Conrad  III.  While 
engaged  in  this  struggle  Henry  was  also  occupied  in  suppressing 
a  rising  in  Bavaria,  led  by  Frederick,  count  of  Bogen,  during 
which  both  duke  and  count  sought  to  establish  their  own  candi- 
dates in  the  bishopric  of  Regensburg.  After  a  war  of  devastation, 
Frederick  submitted  in  1133,  and  two  years  later  the  Hohen- 
staufen brothers  made  their  peace  with  Lothair.  In  1136 
Henry  accompanied  his  father-in-law  to  Italy,  and  taking 
command  of  one  division  of  the  German  army  marched  into 
southern  Italy,  devastating  the  land  as  he  went.  It  was  probably 
about  this  time  that  he  was  invested  with  the  margraviate  of 
Tuscany  and  the  lands  of  Matilda,  the  late  margravine.  Having 
distinguished  himself  by  his  military  genius  during  this  campaign 
Henry  left  Italy  with  the  German  troops,  and  was  appointed 
by  the  emperor  as  his  successor  in  the  dukedom  of  Saxony. 
When  Lothair  died  in  December  1137  Henry's  wealth  and  position 
made  him  a  formidable  candidate  for  the  German  throne;  but 
the  same  qualities  which  earned  for  him  the  surname  of  "  Proud," 
aroused  the  jealousy  of  the  princes,  and  so  prevented  his  election. 
The  new  king,  Conrad  III.,  demanded  the  imperial  insignia 
which  were  in  Henry's  possession,  and  the  duke  in  return  asked 
for  his  investiture  with  the  Saxon  duchy.  But  Conrad,  who 
feared  his  power,  refused  to  assent  to  this  on  the  pretext  that 
it  was  unlawful  for  two  duchies  to  be  in  one  hand.  Attempts 
at  a  settlement  failed,  and  in  July  1138  the  duke  was  placed 


294 


HENRY  THE  LION 


under  the  ban,  and  Saxony  was  given  to  Albert  the  Bear,  after- 
wards margrave  of  Brandenburg.  War  broke  out  in  Saxony 
and  Bavaria,  but  was  cut  short  by  Henry's  sudden  death  at 
Quedlinburg  on  the  2oth  of  October  1139.  He  was  buried  at 
Kb'nigslutter.  Henry  was  a  man  of  great  ability,  and  his  early 
death  alone  prevented  him  from  playing  an  important  part  in 
German  history.  Conrad  the  Priest,  the  author  of  the  Rolands- 
lied,  was  in  Henry's  service,  and  probably  wrote  this  poem 
at  the  request  of  the  duchess,  Gertrude. 

See  S.  Riezler,  Geschichte  Bayerns,  Band  i.  (Gotha,  1878);  W. 
Bernhardi,  Lothar  von  Supplinburg  (Leipzig,  1879);  W.  von  Giese- 
brecht,  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Kaiserzeit,  Band  iv.  (Brunswick, 
1877). 

HENRY  (1120-1195),  surnamed  the  "  Lion,"  duke  of  Saxony 
and  Bavaria,  only  son  of  Henry  the  Proud,  duke  of  Saxony  and 
Bavaria,  and  Gertrude,  daughter  of  the  emperor  Lothair  the 
Saxon,  was  born  at  Ravensburg,  and  was  a  member  of  the  family 
of  Welf.  In  1138  the  German  king  Conrad  III.  had  sought  to 
deprive  Henry  the  Proud  of  his  duchies,  and  when  the  duke  died 
in  the  following  year  the  interests  of  his  young  son  were 
maintained  in  Saxony  by  his  mother,  and  his  grandmother 
Richenza,  widow  of  Lothair,  and  in  Bavaria  by  his  uncle,  Count 
Welf  VI.  This  struggle  ended  in  May  1142  when  Henry  was 
invested  as  duke  of  Saxony  at  Frankfort,  and  Bavaria  was  given 
to  Henry  II.,  Jasomirgott,  margrave  of  Austria,  who  married 
his  mother  Gertrude.  In  1147  he  married  dementia,  daughter 
of  Conrad,  duke  of  Zahringen  (d.  1152),  and  began  to  take  an 
active  part  in  administering  his  dukedom  and  extending  its 
area.  He  engaged  in  a  successful  expedition  against  the  Abo- 
trites,  or  Obotrites,  in  1147,  and  won  a  considerable  tract  of  land 
beyond  the  Elbe,  in  which  were  re-established  the  bishoprics  of 
Mecklenburg,1  Oldenburg2  and  Ratzeburg.  Hartwig,  arch- 
bishop of  Bremen,  wished  these  sees  to  be  under  his  authority, 
but  Henry  contested  this  claim,  and  won  the  right  to  invest 
these  bishops  himself,  a  privilege  afterwards  confirmed  by  the 
emperor  Frederick  I.  Henry,  meanwhile,  had  not  forgotten 
Bavaria.  In  1147  he  made  a  formal  claim  on  this  duchy,  and 
in  1151  sought  to  take  possession,  but  failing  to  obtain  the  aid 
of  his  uncle  Welf,  did  not  effect  his  purpose.  The  situation  was 
changed  in  his  favour  when  Frederick  I.,  who  was  anxious  to 
count  the  duke  among  his  supporters,  succeeded  Conrad  as 
German  king  in  February  1152.  Frederick  was  unable  at  first  to 
persuade  Henry  Jasomirgott  to  abandon  Bavaria,  but  in  June 
1154  he  recognized  the  claim  of  Henry  the  Lion,  who  accom- 
panied him  on  his  first  Italian  campaign  and  distinguished 
himself  in  suppressing  a  rising  at  Rome,  Henry's  formal  in- 
vestiture as  duke  of  Bavaria  taking  place  in  September  1156 
on  the  emperor's  return  to  Germany.  Henry  soon  returned  to 
Saxony,  where  he  found  full  scope  for  his  untiring  energy. 
Adolph  II.,  count  of  Holstein,  was  compelled  to  cede  Ltibeck 
to  him  in  1158;  campaigns  in  1163  and  1164  beat 'down  further 
resistance  of  the  Abotrites;  and  Saxon  garrisons  were  estab- 
lished in  the  conquered  lands.  The  duke  was  aided  in  this  work 
by  the  alliance  of  Valdemar  I.,  king  of  Denmark,  and,  it  is  said, 
by  engines  of  war  brought  from  Italy.  During  these  years  he 
had  also  helped  Frederick  I.  in  his  expedition  of  1157  against 
the  Poles,  and  in  July  1159  had  gone  to  his  assistance  in  Italy, 
where  he  remained  for  about  two  years. 

The  vigorous  measures  taken  by  Henry  to  increase  his  power 
aroused  considerable  opposition.  In  1 166  a  coalition  was  formed 
against  him  at  Merseburg  under  the  leadership  of  Albert  the  Bear, 
margrave  of  Brandenburg,  and  Archbishop  Hartwig.  Neither 
side  met  with  much  success  in  the  desultory  warfare  that  ensued, 
and  Frederick  made  peace  between  the  combatants  at  Wiirzburg 
in  June  1168.  Having  obtained  a  divorce  from  his  first  wife  in 
1162,  Henry  was  married  at  Minden  in  February  1168  to  Matilda 
(1156-1189),  daughter  of  Henry  II.,  king  of  England,  and  was 
soon  afterwards  sent  by  the  emperor  Frederick  I.  on  an  embassy 
to  the  kings  of  England  and  France.  A  war  with  Valdemar  of 
Denmark,  caused  by  a  quarrel  over  the  booty  obtained  from 

1The  see  was  transferred  to  Schwerin  by  Henry  in  1167. 
J  Transferred  to  Lubeck  in  1163. 


the  conquest  of  Rugen,  engaged  Henry's  activity  until  June 
1171,  when,  in  pursuance  of  a  treaty  which  restored  peace, 
Henry's  daughter,  Gertrude,  married  the  Danish  prince,  Canute. 
Henry,  whose  position  was  now  very  strong,  made  a  pilgrimage 
to  Jerusalem  in  1172,  was  received  with  great  respect  by  the 
eastern  emperor  Manuel  Comnenus  at  Constantinople,  and 
returned  to  Saxony  in  1173. 

A  variety  of  reasons  were  leading  to  a  rupture  in  the  har- 
monious relations  between  Frederick  and  Henry,  whose  increasing 
power  could  not  escape  the  emperor's  notice,  and  who  showed 
little  inclination  to  sacrifice  his  interests  in  Germany  in  order 
to  help  the  imperial  cause  in  Italy.  He  was  not  pleased  when 
he  heard  that  his  uncle,  Welf,  had  bequeathed  his  Italian  and 
Swabian  lands  to  the  emperor,  and  the  crisis  came  after 
Frederick's  check  before  Alessandria  in  1175.  The  emperor 
appealed  personally  to  Henry  for  help  in  February,  or  March 
1176,  but  Henry  made  no  move  in  response,  and  his  defection 
contributed  in  some  measure  to  the  emperor's  defeat  at  Legnano. 
The  peace  of  Venice  provided  for  the  restoration  of  Ulalrich 
to  his  see  of  Halberstadt.  Henry,  however,  refused  to  give  up 
the  lands  which  he  had  seized  belonging  to  the  bishopric,  and 
this  conduct  provoked  a  war  in  which  Ulalrich  was  soon  joined 
by  Philip,  archbishop  of  Cologne.  No  attack  on  Henry  appears 
to  have  been  contemplated  by  Frederick  to  whom  both  parties 
carried  their  complaints,  and  a  day  was  fixed  for  the  settlement 
of  the  dispute  at  Worms.  But  neither  then,  nor  on  two  further 
occasions,  did  Henry  appear  to  answer  the  charges  preferred 
against  him;  accordingly  in  January  1180  he  was  placed  under 
the  imperial  ban  at  Wiirzburg,  and  was  declared  deprived  of 
all  his  lands. 

Meanwhile  the  war  with  Ulalrich  continued,  but  after  his 
victory  at  Weissensee  Henry's  allies  began  to  fall  away,  and  his 
cause  to  decline.  When  Frederick  took  the  field  in  June  1181 
the  struggle  was  soon  over.  Henry  sought  for  peace,  and  the 
conditions  were  settled  at  Erfurt  in  November  1181,  when  he 
was  granted  the  counties  of  Liinebiirg  and  Brunswick,  but  was 
banished  under  oath  not  to  return  without  the  emperor's  per- 
mission. In  July  1182  he  went  to  his  father-in-law's  court  in 
Normandy,  and  afterwards  to  England,  returning  to  Germany 
with  Frederick's  permission  in  1 185.  He  was  soon  regarded  once 
more  as  a  menace  to  the  peace  of  Germany,  and  of  the  three 
alternatives  presented  to  him  by  the  emperor  in  1188  h'e  rejected 
the  idea  of  making  a  formal  renunciation  of  his  claim,  or  of 
participating  in  the  crusade,  and  chose  exile,  going  again  to 
England  in  1189.  In  October  of  the  same  year,  however,  he 
returned  to  Saxony,  excusing  himself  by  asserting  that  his  lands 
had  not  been  defended  according  to  the  emperor's  promise. 
He  found  many  allies,  took  Lubeck,  and  soon  almost  the  whole 
of  Saxony  was  in  his  power.  King  Henry  VI.  was  obliged  to 
take  the  field  against  him,  after  which  the  duke's  cause  declined, 
and  in  July  1190  a  peace  was  arranged  at  Fulda,  by  which  he 
retained  Brunswick  and  Liineburg,  received  half  the  revenues  of 
Lubeck,  and  gave  two  of  his  sons  as  hostages.  Still  hoping  to 
regain  his  former  position,  he  took  advantage  of  a  league  against 
Henry  VI.  in  1193  to  engage  in  a  further  revolt;  but  the  cap- 
tivity of  his  brother-in-law  Richard  I.,  king  of  England,  led  to  a 
reconciliation.  Henry  passed  his  later  years  mainly  at  his 
castle  of  Brunswick,  where  he  died  on  the  6th  of  August  1195, 
and  was  buried  in  the  church  of  St  Blasius  which  he  had  founded 
in  the  town.  He  had  by  his  first  wife  a  son  and  a  daughter,  and 
by  his  second  wife  five  sons  and  a  daughter.  One  of  his  sons 
was  Otto,  afterwards  the  emperor  Otto  IV.,  and  another  was 
Henry  (d.  1227)  count  palatine  of  the  Rhine. 

Henry  was  a  man  of  great  ambition,  and  won  his  surname  of 
"  Lion  "  by  his  personal  bravery.  His  influence  on  the  fortunes 
of  Saxony  and  northern  Germany  was  very  considerable.  He 
planted  Flemish  and  Dutch  settlers  in  the  land  between  the  Elbe 
and  the  Oder,  fostered  the  growth  and  trade  of  Lubeck,  and  in 
other  ways  encouraged  trade  and  agriculture.  He  sought  to 
spread  Christianity  by  introducing  the  Cistercians,  founding 
bishoprics,  and  building  churches  and  monasteries.  In  1874  a 
colossal  statue  was  erected  to  his  memory  at  Brunswick. 


HENRY  OF  BATTENBERG— HENRY  STUART 


295 


The  authorities  for  the  life  of  Henry  the  Lion  are  those  dealing 
with  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Frederick  I.,  and  the  early  years  of 
his  son  King  Henry  VI.  The  chief  modern  works  are  H.  Prutz, 
'Heinrich  der  Lowe  (Leipzig,  1865);  M.  Philippson,  Geschichle 
Heinrichs  des  Lowen  (Leipzig,  1867);  and  L.  Weiland,  Das  sdchsische 
Herzogthum  unter  Lothar  und  Heinrich  dent  Lowen  (Greifswald,  1866). 

HENRY,  PRINCE  OF  BATTENBERG  (1858-1896),  was  the  third 
son  of  Prince  Alexander  of  Hesse  and  his  morganatic  wife,  the 
beautiful  Countess  Julia  von  Hauke,  to  whom  was  granted  in 
1858  the  title  of  princess  of  Battenberg,  which  her  children 
inherited.  He  was  born  at  Milan  on  the  sth  of  October  1858, 
was  educated  with  a  special  view  to  military  service,  and  in  due 
time  became  a  lieutenant  in  the  first  regiment  of  Rhenish 
hussars.  By  their  relationship  to  the  grand  dukes  of  Hesse  the 
princes  of  Battenberg  were  brought  into  close  contact  with  the 
English  court,  and  Prince  Henry  paid  several  visits  to  England, 
where  he  soon  became  popular  both  in  public  and  in  private 
circles.  It  therefore  created  but  little  surprise  when,  towards 
the  close  of  1884,  it  was  announced  that  Queen  Victoria  had 
sanctioned  his  engagement  to  the  Princess  Beatrice.  The 
wedding  took  place  at  Whippingham  on  the  23rd  of  July  1885, 
and  after  the  honeymoon  the  prince  and  princess  settled  down 
to  a  quiet  home  life  with  the  queen,  being  seldom  absent  from 
the  court,  and  accompanying  her  majesty  in  her  annual  visits 
to  the  continent.  Three  sons  and  a  daughter  were  the  issue 
of  the  marriage.  On  the  3ist  of  July  1885  a  bill  to  naturalize 
Prince  Henry  was  passed  by  the  House  of  Lords,  and  he  received 
the  title  of  royal  highness.  He  was  made  a  Knight  of  the  Garter 
and  a  member  of  the  Privy  Council,  and  also  appointed  a  colonel 
in  the  army,  and  afterwards  captain-general  and  governor  of  the 
Isle  of  Wight  and  governor  of  Carisbrooke  Castle.  He  adapted 
himself  very  readily  to  English  country  life,  for  he  was  an  excellent 
shot  and  an  enthusiastic  yachtsman.  Coming  of  a  martial  race, 
the  prince  would  gladly  have  embraced  an  active  military  career, 
and  when  the  Ashanti  expedition  was  organized  in  November 
1895  he  volunteered  to  join  it.  But  when  the  expedition  reached 
Prahsu,  about  30  m.  from  Kumasi,  he  was  struck  down  by  fever, 
and  being  promptly  conveyed  back  to  the  coast,  was  placed 
on  board  H.M.S.  "  Blonde."  On  the  i;th  of  January  he  seemed 
to  recover  slightly,  but  a  relapse  occurred  on  the  igth,  and  he 
died  on  the  evening  of  the  2oth  off  the  coast  of  Sierra  Leone. 

HENRY  FITZ  HENRY  (1155-1183),  second  son  of  Henry  II., 
king  of  England,  by  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine,  became  heir  to  the 
throne  on  the  death  of  his  brother  William  (1156),  and  at  the 
age  of  five  was  married  to  Marguerite,  the  infant  daughter  of 
Louis  VII.  In  1170  he  was  crowned  at  Westminster  by  Roger 
of  York.  The  protests  of  Becket  against  this  usurpation  of 
the  rights  of  Canterbury  were  the  ultimate  cause  of  the  primate's 
murder.  The  young  king  soon  quarrelled  with  his  father,  who 
allowed  him  no  power  and  a  wholly  inadequate  revenue,  and 
headed  the  great  baronial  revolt  of  1173.  He  was  assisted  by  his 
father-in-law,  to  whose  court  he  had  repaired;  but,  failing 
to  shake  the  old  king's  power  either  in  Normandy  or  England, 
made  peace  in  1174.  Despite  the  generous  terms  which  he 
received,  he  continued  to  intrigue  with  Louis  VII:,  and  was 
in  consequence  jealously  watched  by  his  father.  In  1182  he 
and  his  younger  brother  Geoffrey  took  up  arms,  on  the  side  of 
the  Poitevin  rebels,  against  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion;  apparently 
from  resentment  at  the  favour  which  Henry  II.  had  shown  to 
Richard  in  giving  him  the  government  of  Poitou  while  they 
were  virtually  landless.  Henry  II.  took  the  field  in  aid  of 
Richard;  but  the  young  king  and  Geoffrey  had  no  scruples 
about  withstanding  their  father,  and  continued  to  aid  the 
Aquitanian  rising  until  the  young  king  fell  ill  of  a  fever  which 
proved  fatal  to  him  (June  n,  1183).  His  death  was  bitterly 
regretted  by  his  father  and  by  all  who  had  known  him.  Though 
of  a  fickle  and  treacherous  nature,  he  had  all  the  personal  fascina- 
tion of  his  family,  and  is  extolled  by  his  contemporaries  as  a 
mirror  of  chivalry.  His  train  was  full  of  knights  who  served 
him  without  pay  for  the  honour  of  being  associated  with  his 
exploits  in  the  tilting-lists  and  in  war. 

The  original  authorities  for  Henry's  life  are  Robert  de  Torigni, 
Chronica;  Giraldus  Cambrensis,  De  instructione  principum,   Guil- 


laume  le  Marechal  (ed.  P.  Meyer,  Paris,  1891,  &c.);  Benedict,  Gesta 
Henrici,  William  of  Newburgh.  See  also  Kate  Norgate,  England 
under  the  Angevin  Kings  (1887) ;  Sir  James  Ramsay,  Angevin  Empire 
(1903);  and  C.  E.  Hodgson,  Jung  Heinrich,  Konig  von  England 
(Jena,  1906). 

HENRY,  or  in  full,  HENRY  BENEDICT  MARIA  CLEMENT 
STUART  (1725-1807),  usually  known  as  Cardinal  York,  the 
last  prince  of  the  royal  house  of  Stuart,  was  the  younger  son 
of  James  Stuart,  and  was  born  in  the  Palazzo  Muti  at  Rome 
on  the  6th  of  March  1725.  He  was  created  duke  of  York  by  his 
father  soon  after  his  birth,  and  by  this  title  he  was  always 
alluded  to  by  Jacobite  adherents  of  his  house.  British  visitors 
to  Rome  speak  of  him  as  a  merry  high-spirited  boy  with  martial 
instincts;  nevertheless,  he  grew  up  studious,  peace-loving  and 
serious.  In  order  to  be  of  assistance  to  his  brother  Charles, 
who  was  then  campaigning  in  Scotland,  Henry  was  despatched 
in  the  summer  of  1745  to  France,  where  he  was  placed  in  nominal 
command  of  French  troops  at  Dunkirk,  with  which  the  marquis 
d'Argenson  had  some  vague  idea  of  invading  England.  Seven 
months  after  Charles's  return  from  Scotland  Henry  secretly 
departed  to  Rome  and,  with  the  full  approval  of  his  father, 
but  to  the  intense  disgust  of  his  brother,  was  created  a  cardinal 
deacon  under  the  title  of  the  cardinal  of  York  by  Pope  Benedict 
XIV.  on  the  3rd  of  July  1747.  In  the  following  year  he  was 
ordained  priest,  and  nominated  arch-priest  of  the  Vatican 
Basilica.  In  1759  he  was  consecrated  archbishop  of  Corinth 
inpattibus,  and  in  1761  bishop  of  Frascati  (the  ancient  Tus- 
culum)  in  the  Alban  Hills  near  Rome.  Six  years  later  he  was 
appointed  vice-chancellor  of  the  Holy  See.  Henry  Stuart 
likewise  held  sinecure  benefices  in  France,  Spain  and  Spanish 
America,  so  that  he  became  one  of  the  wealthiest  churchmen  of 
the  period,  his  annual  revenue  being  said  to  amount  to  £30,000 
sterling.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  James  Stuart  (whose 
affairs  he  had  managed  during  the  last  five  years  of  his  life), 
Henry  nlade  persistent  attempts  to  induce  Pope  Clement  XIII. 
to  acknowledge  his  brother  Charles  as  legitimate  king  of  Great 
Britain,  but  his  efforts  were  defeated,  chiefly  through  the  adverse 
influence  of  Cardinal  Alessandro  Albani,  who  was  bitterly 
opposed  to  the  Stuart  cause.  On  Charles's  death  in  1788  Henry 
issued  a  manifesto  asserting  his  hereditary  right  to  the  British 
crown,  and  likewise  struck  a  medal,  commemorative  of  the  event, 
with  the  legend  "  Hen.  IX.  Mag.  Brit.  Fr.  et  Hib.  Rex.  Fid. 
Def .  Card.  Ep.  Tusc: "  (Henry  the  Ninth  of  Great  Britain,  France 
and  Ireland,  King,  Defender  of  the  Faith,  Cardinal,  Bishop  of 
Frascati).  In  February  1798,  at  the  approach  of  the  invading 
French  forces,  Henry  was  forced  to  fly  from  Frascati  to  Naples, 
whence  at  the  close  of  the  same  year  he  sailed  to  Messina.  From 
Messina  he  proceeded  by  sea  in  order  to  be  present  at  the  ex- 
pected conclave  at  Venice,  where  he  arrived  in  the  spring  of 
1799,  aged,  ill  and  almost  penniless.  His  sad  plight  was  now 
made  known  by  Cardinal  Stefano  Borgia  to  Sir  John  Coxe 
Hippisley  (d.  1825),  who  had  formerly  acted  semi-officially  on 
behalf  of  the  British  government  at  the  court  of  Pius  VI.  Sir 
John  Hippisley  appealed  to  George  III.,  who  "on  the  warm 
recommendation  of  Prince  Augustus  Frederick,  duke  of  Sussex, 
gave  orders  for  the  annual  payment  of  a  pension  of  £4000  to  the 
last  of  the  Royal  Stuarts.  Henry  received  the  proffered  assist- 
ance gratefully,  and  in  return  for  the  king's  kindness  subsequently 
left  by  his  will  certain  British  crown  jewels  in  his  possession  to 
the  prince  regent.  In  1800  Henry  was  able  to  return  to  Rome, 
and  in  1803,  being  now  senior  cardinal  bishop,  he  became  ipso 
facto  dean  of  the  Sacred  College  and  bishop  of  Ostia  and  Velletri. 
He  died  at  Frascati  on  the  I3th  of  July  1807,  and  was  buried  in 
the  Grolte  Vaticane  of  St  Peter's  in  an  urn  bearing  the  title 
of  "Henry  IX.";  he  is  also  commemorated  in  Canova's  well- 
known  monument  to  the  Royal  Stuarts  (see  JAMES).  The 
Stuart  archives,  once  the  property  of  Cardinal  York,  were 
subsequently  presented  by  Pope  Pius  VII.  to  the  prince 
regent,  who  placed  them  in  the  royal  library  at  Windsor 
Castle. 

See  B.  W.  Kelly,  Life  of  Cardinal  York;  H.  M.  Vaughan,  Last  of 
the  Royal  Stuarts;  and  A.  Shield,  Henry  Stuart,  Cardinal  of  York, 
and  his  Times  (1908).  (H.  M.  V.) 


296 


HENRY  OF  PORTUGAL 


HENRY  OF  PORTUGAL,  surnamed  the  "  Navigator  "  (1394- 
1460),  duke  of  Viseu,  governor  of  the  Algarve,  was  born  at  Oporto 
on  the  4th  of  March  1394.  He  wag  the  third  (or,  counting 
children  who  died  in  infancy,  the  fifth)  son  of  John  (Joao)  I., 
the  founder  of  the  Aviz  dynasty,  under  whom  Portugal,  victorious 
against  Castile  and  against  the  Moors  of  Morocco,  began  to  take 
a  prominent  place  among  European  nations;  his  mother  was 
Philippa,  daughter  of  John  of  Gaunt.  When  Ceuta,  the  "  African 
Gibraltar,"  was  taken  in  1415,  Prince  Henry  performed  the  most 
distinguished  service  of  any  Portuguese  leader,  and  received 
knighthood;  he  was  now  created  duke  of  Viseu  and  lord  of 
Covilham,  and  about  the  same  time  began  his  explorations, 
which,  however,  limited  in  their  original  conception,  certainly 
developed  into  a  search  for  a  better  knowledge  of  the  western 
ocean  and  for  a  sea-way  along  the  unknown  coast  of  Africa  to 
the  supposed  western  Nile  (our  Senegal),  to  the  rich  negro  lands 
beyond  the  Sahara  desert,  to  the  half-true,  half-fabled  realm 
of  Prester  John,  and  so  ultimately  to  the  Indies. 

Disregarding  the  traditions  which  assign  1412  or  even  1410 
as  the  commencement  of  these  explorations,  it  appears  that  in 
1415,  the  year  of  Ceuta,  the  prince  sent  out  one  John  de  Trasto 
on  a  voyage  which  brought  the  Portuguese  to  Grand  Canary. 
There  was  no  discovery  here,  for  the  whole  Canarian  archipelago 
was  now  pretty  well  known  to  French  and  Spanish  mariners, 
especially  since  the  conquest  of  1402-06  by  French  adventurers 
under  Castilian  overlordship ;  but  in  1418  Henry's  captain, 
Joao  Goncalvez  Zarco  rediscovered  Porto  Santo,  and  in  1420 
Madeira,  the  chief  members  of  an  island  group  which  had 
originally  been  discovered  (probably  by  Genoese  pioneers) 
before  1351  or  perhaps  even  before  1339,  but  had  rather  faded 
from  Christian  knowledge  since.  The  story  of  the  rediscovery 
of  Madeira  by  the  Englishman  Robert  Machim  or  Machin, 
elooing  from  Bristol  with  his  lady-love,  Anne  d'Arfet,  in  the  reign 
of  Edward  III.  (about  1370),  has  been  the  subject  of  much  con- 
troversy; in  any  case  it  does  not  affect  the  original  Italian 
discovery,  nor  the  first  sighting  of  Porto  Santo  by  Zarco,  who, 
while  exploring  the  west  African  mainland  coast,  was  driven  by 
storms  to  this  island.  In  1424-1425  Prince  Henry  attempted 
to  purchase  the  Canaries,  and  began  the  colonization  of  the 
Madeira  group,  both  in  Madeira  itself  and  in  Porto  Santo; 
to  aid  this  latter  movement  he  procured  the  famous  charters  of 
1430  and  1433  from  the  Portuguese  crown.  In  1427,  again, 
with  the  co-operation  of  his  father  King  John,  he  seems  to  have 
sent  out  the  royal  pilot  Diogo  de  Sevill,  followed  in  1431  by 
Goncalo  Velho  Cabral,  to  explore  the  Azores,  first  mentioned 
and  depicted  in  a  Spanish  treatise  of  1345  (the  Conos$imiento 
de  lodos  los  Reynos)  and  in  an  Italian  map  of  1351  (the  Laurentian 
Portolano,  also  the  first  cartographical  work  to  give  us  the 
Madeiras  with  modern  names),  but  probably  almost  unvisited 
from  that  time  to  the  advent  of  Sevill.  This  rediscovery  of  the 
far  western  archipelago,  and  the  expeditions  which,  even  within 
Prince  Henry's  life  (as  in  1452)  pushed  still  deeper  into  the 
Atlantic,  seem  to  show  that  the  infante  was  not  entirely  forgetful 
of  the  possibility  of  such  a  western  route  to  Asia  as  Columbus 
attempted  in  1492,  only  to  find  America  across  his  path.  Mean- 
time, in  1418,  Henry  had  gone  in  person  to  relieve  Ceuta  from  an 
attack  of  Morocco  and  Granada  Mussulmans;  had  accomplished 
his  task,  and  had  planned,  though  he  did  not  carry  out,  a  seizure 
of  Gibraltar.  About  this  time,  moreover,  it  is  probable  that  he 
had  begun  to  gather  information  from  the  Moors  with  regard  to 
the  coast  of  "  Guinea  "  and  the  interior  of  Africa.  In  1419, 
after  his  return  to  Portugal,  he  was  created  governor  of  the 
"  kingdom  "  of  Algarve,  the  southernmost  province  of  Portugal; 
and  his  connexion  now  appears  to  have  begun  with  what  after- 
wards became  known  as  the  "  Infante's  Town  "  ( Villa  do  If  ante) 
at  Sagres,  close  to  Cape  St  Vincent;  where,  before  1438,  a 
Tercena  Nabal  or  naval  arsenal  grew  up;  where,  from  1438, 
after  the  Tangier  expedition,  the  prince  certainly  resided  for 
a  great  part  of  his  later  life;  and  where  he  died  in  1460. 

In  1433  died  King  John,  exhorting  his  son  not  to  abandon 
those  schemes  which  were  now,  in  the  long-continued  failure 
to  round  Cape  Bojador,  ridiculed  by  many  as  costly  absurdities; 


and  in  1434  one  of  the  prince's  ships,  commanded  by  Gil  Eannes, 
at  length  doubled  the  cape.  In.  143  5  Affonso  Goncalvez  Baldaya, 
the  prince's  cup-bearer,  passed  fifty  leagues  beyond;  and  before- 
the  close  of  1436  the  Portuguese  had  almost  reached  Cape  Blanco. 
Plans  of  further  conquest  in  Morocco,  resulting  in  1437  in  the 
disastrous  attack  upon  Tangier,  and  followed  in  1438  by  the  death 
of  King  Edward  (Duarte)  and  the  domestic  troubles  of  the 
earlier  minority  of  Affonso  V.,  now  interrupted  Atlantic  and 
African  exploration  down  to  1441,  except  only  in  the  Azores. 
Here  rediscovery  and  colonization  both  progressed,  as  is  shown 
by  the  royal  licence  of  the  2nd  of  July  1439,  to  people  "  the  seven 
islands  "  of  the  group  then  known.  In  1441  exploration  began 
again  in  earnest  with  the  venture  of  Antam  Goncalvez,  who 
brought  to  Portugal  the  first  slaves  and  gold-dust  from  the 
Guinea  coasts  beyond  Bojador;  while  Nuno  Tristam  in  the  same 
year  pushed  on  to  Cape  Blanco.  These  successes  produced  a  great 
effect;  the  cause  of  discovery,  now  connected  with  boundless 
hopes  of  profit,  became  popular;  and  many  volunteers,  especially 
merchants  and  seamen  from  Lisbon  and  Lagos,  came  forward. 
In  1442  Nuno  Tristam  reached  the  Bay  or  Bight  of  Arguim, 
where  the  infante  erected  a  fort  in  1448,  and  where  for  years  the 
Portuguese  carried  on  vigorous  slave-raiding.  Meantime  the 
prince,  who  had  now,  in  1443,  been  created  by  Henry  VI.  a 
knight  of  the  Garter  of  England,  proceeded  with  his  Sagres 
buildings,  especially  the  palace,  church  and  observatory  (the 
first  in  Portugal)  which  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  "  Infante's 
Town,"  and  which  were  certainly  commenced  soon  after  the 
Tangier  fiasco  (1437),  if  not  earlier.  In  1444-1446  there  was  an 
immense  burst  of  maritime  and  exploring  activity;  more  than 
30  ships  sailed  with  Henry's  licence  to  Guinea;  and  several  of 
their  commanders  achieved  notable  success.  Thus  Diniz  Diaz, 
Nuno  Tristam,  and  others  reached  the  Senegal  in  1445;  Diaz 
rounded  Cape  Verde  in  the  same  year;  and  in  1446  Alvaro 
Fernandez  pushed  on  almost  to  our  Sierra  Leone,  to  a  point 
no  leagues  beyond  Cape  Verde.  This  was  perhaps  the  most 
distant  point  reached  before  1461.  In  1444,  moreover,  the 
island  of  St  Michael  in  the  Azores  was  sighted  (May  8),  and 
in  1445  its  colonization  was  begun.  During  this  latter  year 
also  John  Fernandez  (q.ii.)  spent  seven  months  among  the  natives, 
of  the  Arguim  coast,  and  brought  back  the  first  trustworthy 
first-hand  European  account  of  the  Sahara  hinterland.  Slave- 
raiding  continued  ceaselessly;  by  1446  the  Portuguese  had  carried 
off  nearly  a  thousand  captives  from  the  newly  surveyed  coasts; 
but  between  this  time  and  the  voyages  of  Cadamosto  (q.v.) 
in  1455-1456,  the  prince  altered  his  policy,  forbade  the  kidnapping 
of  the  natives  (which  had  brought  about  fierce  reprisals,  causing 
the  death  of  Nuno  Tristam  in  1446,  and  of  other  pioneers  in  1445, 
1448,  &c.),  and  endeavoured  to  promote  their  peaceful  inter- 
course with  his  men.  In  1445-1446,  again,  Dom  Henry  renewed 
his  earlier  attempts  (which  had  failed  in  1424-1425)  to  purchase 
or  seize  the  Canaries  for  Portugal;  by  these  he  brought  his 
country  to  the  verge  of  war  with  Castile;  but  the  home  govern- 
ment refused  to  support  him,  and  the  project  was  again 
abandoned.  After  1446  our  most  voluminous  authority,  Azurara, 
records  but  little;  his  narrative  ceases  altogether  in  1448;  one 
of  the  latest  expeditions  noticed  by  him  is  that  of  a  foreigner  in 
the  prince's  service,  "  Vallarte  the  Dane,"  which  ended  in  utter 
destruction  near  the  Gambia,  after  passing  Cape  Verde  in  1448. 
after  this  the  chief  matters  worth  notice  in  Dom  Henry's  life 
are,  first,  the  progress  of  discovery  and  colonization  in  the  Azores 
— where  Terceira  was  discovered  before  1450,  perhaps  in  1445, 
and  apparently  by  a  Fleming,  called  "  Jacques  de  Bruges  " 
in  the  prince's  charter  of  the  2nd  of  March  1450  (by  this  charter 
Jacques  receives  the  captaincy  of  this  isle  as  its  intending 
colonizer) ;  secondly,  the  rapid  progress  of  civilization  in  Madeira, 
evidenced  by  its  timber  trade  to  Portugal,  by  its  sugar,  corn  and 
honey,  and  above  all  by  its  wine,  produced  from  the  Malvoisie 
or  Malmsey  grape,  introduced  from  Crete;  and  thirdly,  the 
explorations  of  Cadamosto  and  Diogo  Gomez  (q.v.).  Of  these 
the  former,  in  his  two  voyages  of  1455  and  1456,  explored  part 
of  the  courses  of  the  Senegal  and  the  Gambia,  discovered  the  Cape 
Verde  Islands  (1456),  named  and  mapped  more  carefully  than 


HENRY  OF  ALMAIN— HENRY  OF  BLOIS 


297 


before  a  considerable  section  of  the  African  littoral  beyond 
Cape  Verde,  and  gave  much  new  information  on  the  trade-routes 
of  north-west  Africa  and  on  the  native  races;  while  Gomez, 
in  his  first  important  venture  (after  1448  and  before  1458), 
though  not  accomplishing  the  full  Indian  purpose  of  his  voyage 
(he  took  a  native  interpreter  with  him  for  use  "  in  the  event  of 
reaching  India  "),  explored  and  observed  in  the  Gambia  valley 
and  along  the  adjacent  coasts  with  fully  as  much  care  and  profit. 
As  a  result  of  these  expeditions  the  infante  seems  to  have  sent 
out  in  1458  a  mission  to  convert  the  Gambia  negroes.  Gomez' 
second  voyage,  resulting  in  another  "  discovery  "  of  the  Cape 
Verde  Islands,  was  probably  in  1462,  after  the  death  of  Prince 
Henry;  it  is  likely  that  among  the  infante's  last  occupations 
were  the  necessary  measures  for  the  equipment  and  despatch 
of  this  venture,  as  well  as  of  Pedro  de  Sintra's  important  expedi- 
tion of  1461. 

The  infante's  share  in  home  politics  was  considerable,  especially 
in  the  years  of  Affonso  V.'s  minority  (1438,  &c.)  when  he  helped 
to  make  his  elder  brother  Pedro  regent,  reconciled  him  with  the 
queen-mother,  and  worked  together  with  them  both  in  a  council 
of  regency.  But  when  Dom  Pedro  rose  in  revolt  (1447),  Henry 
stood  by  the  king  and  allowed  his  brother  to  be  crushed.  In  the 
Morocco  campaigns  of  his  last  years,  especially  at  the  capture  of 
Alcazar  the  Little  (1458),  he  restored  the  military  fame  which  he 
had  founded  at  Ceuta  and  compromised  at  Tangier,  and  which 
brought  him  invitations  from  the  pope,  the  emperor  and  the 
kings  of  Castile  and  England,  to  take  command  of  their  armies. 
The  prince  was  also  grand  master  of  the  Order  of  Christ,  the 
successor  of  the  Templars  in  Portugal;  and  most  of  his  Atlantic 
and  African  expeditions  sailed  under  the  flag  of  his  order,  whose 
revenues  were  at  the  service  of  his  explorations,  in  whose  name 
he  asked  and  obtained  the  official  recognition  of  Pope  Eugenius 
IV.  for  his  work,  and  on  which  he  bestowed  many  privileges  in  the 
new-won  lands — the  tithes  of  St  Michael  in  the  Azores  and  one- 
half  of  its  sugar  revenues,  the  tithe  of  all  merchandise  from 
Guinea,  the  ecclesiastical  dues  of  Madeira,  &c.  As  "  protector  of 
Portuguese  studies,"  Dom  Henry  is  credited  with  having  founded 
a  professorship  of  theology,  and  perhaps  also  chairs  of  mathematics 
and  medicine,  in  Lisbon — where  also,  in  1431,  he  is  said  to  have 
provided  house-room  for  the  university  teachers  and  students. 
To  instruct  his  captains,  pilots  and  other  pioneers  more  fully  in 
the  art  of  navigation  and  the  making  of  maps  and  instruments  he 
procured,  says  Barros,  the  aid  of  one  Master  Jacome  from  Majorca, 
together  with  that  of  certain  Arab  and  Jewish  mathematicians. 
We  hear  also  of  one  Master  Peter,  who  inscribed  and  illuminated 
maps  for  the  infante;  the  mathematician  Pedro  Nunes  declares 
that  the  prince's  mariners  were  well  taught  and  provided  with 
instruments  and  rules  of  astronomy  and  geometry  "  which  all 
map-makers  should  know ";  Cadamosto  tells  us  that  the 
Portuguese  caravels  in  his  day  were  the  best  sailing  ships  afloat; 
while,  from  several  matters  recorded  by  Henry's  biographers,  it 
is  clear  that  he  devoted  great  attention  to  the  study  of  earlier 
charts  and  of  any  available  information  he  could  gain  upon  the 
trade-routes  of  north-west  Africa.  Thus  we  find  an  Oran 
merchant  corresponding  with  him  about  events  happening  in  the 
negro-world  of  the  Gambia  basin  in  1458.  Even  if  there,  were 
never  a  formal  "  geographical  school  "  at  Sagres,  or  elsewhere  in 
Portugal,  founded  by  Prince  Henry,  it  appears  certain  that  his 
court  was  the  centre  of  active  and  useful  geographical  study,  as 
well  as  the  source  of  the  best  practical  exploration  of  the  time. 

The  prince  died  on  the  i3th  of  November  1460,  in  his  town 
near  Cape  St  Vincent,  and  was  buried  in  the  church  of  St  Mary  in 
Lagos,  but  a  year  later  his  body  was  removed  to  the  superb 
monastery  of  Batalha.  His  great-nephew,  King  Dom  Manuel, 
had  a  statue  of  him  placed  over  the  centre  column  of  the  side 
gate  of  the  church  of  Belem.  On  the  24th  of  July  1840,  a  monu- 
ment was  erected  to  him  at  Sagres  at  the  instance  of  the  marquis 
de  Sa  da  Bandeira. 

The  glory  attaching  to  the  name  of  Prince  Henry  does  not  rest 
merely  on  the  achievements  effected  during  his  own  lifetime,  but 
on  the  subsequent  results  to  which  his  genius  and  perseverance 
had  lent  the  primary  inspiration.  To  him  the  human  race  is 


indebted,  in  large  measure,  for  the  maritime  exploration,  within 
one  century  (1420-1522),  of  more  than  half  the  globe,  and 
especially  of  the  great  waterways  from  Europe  to  Asia  both  by 
east  and  by  west.  His  own  life  only  sufficed  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  a  small  portion  of  his  task.  The  complete  opening  out  of 
the  African  or  south-east  route  to  the  Indies  needed  nearly  forty 
years  of  somewhat  intermittent  labour  after  his  death  (1460- 
1498),  and  the  prince's  share  has  often  been  forgotten  in  that  of 
pioneers  who  were  really  his  executors — Diogo  Cam,  Bartholomew 
Diaz  or  Vasco  da  Gama.  Less  directly,  other  sides  of  his  activity 
may  be  considered  as  fulfilled  by  the  Portuguese  penetration  of 
inland  Africa,  especially  of  Abyssinia,  the  land  of  the  "  Prester 
John  "  for  whom  Dom  Henry  sought,  and  even  by  the  finding  of 
a  western  route  to  Asia  through  the  discoveries  of  Columbus, 
Balboa  and  Magellan. 

See  Alguns  documentos  do  archivo  national  da  Torre  do  Tombo 
acerca  das  navegafoes  .  .  .  portuguezas  (Lisbon,  1892);  Alves, 
Dom  Henrique  o  Infante  (Oporto,  1894);  Archivo  dos  Azores  (Ponta 
Delgada,  1878-1894);  Gomes  Eannes  de  Azurara,  Chronica  do 
descobrimento  e  conquista  de  Guine,  ed.  Carreira  and  Santarem  (Paris, 
1841;  Eng.  trans,  by  Raymond  Beazley  and  Edgar  Prestage, 
Hakluyt  Society,  London,  1896-1899);  Joao  de  Barros,  Decadas  da 
Asia  (Lisbon,  1652);  Raymond  Beazley,  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator 
(London,  1895),  and  introduction  to  Azurara,  vol.  ii.,  in  Hakluyt 
Soc.  trans,  (see  above) ;  Antonio  Cordeirp,  Historia  Insultana  (Lisbon, 
I7J7);  Freire  (Candido  Lusitano),  Vida  do  Infante  D.  Henrique 
(Lisbon,  1858);  "  Diogo  Gomez,"  in  Dr  Schmeller's  Ober  Valentim 
Fernandez  Alemao,  vol.  iv.  pt.  iii.,  in  the  publications  of  the  1st 
class  of  the  Royal  Bavarian  Academy  of  Sciences  (Munich,  1845); 
R.  H.  Major,  The  Life  of  Henry  of  Portugal,  surnamed  the  Navigator 
(London,  1868);  Jules  Mees,  Henri  le  Navigateur  et  I'academie  .  .  . 
de  Sagres  (Brussels,  1901),  and  Histoire  de  la  decouverte  des  ties 
Azores  (Ghent,  1901);  Duarte  Pacheco  Pereira,  Esmeraldo  de  situ 
orbis  (Lisbon,  1892);  Sophus  Ruge,  "Prinz  Heinrich  der  See- 
fahrer,"  in  vol.  65  of  Globus,  p.  153  (Brunswick,  1894);  Gustav  de 
Veer,  Prinz  Heinrich  der  Seefahrer  (Danzig,  1863);  H.  E.  Wauwer- 
man,  Henri  le  Navigateur  et  I'academie  portugaise  de  Sagres  (Antwerp 
and  Brussels,  1890).  (C.  R.  B.) 

HENRY  OF  ALMAIN  (1235-1271),  so  called  from  his  father's 
German  connexions,  was  the  son  of  Richard,  earl  of  Cornwall  and 
king  of  the  Romans.  As  a  nephew  of  both  Henry  III.  and  Simon 
de  Montfort  he  wavered  between  the  two  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Barons'  War,  but  finally  took  the  royah'st  side  and  was  among  the 
prisoners  taken  by  Montfort  at  Lewes  (1264).  In  1268  he  took 
the  cross  with  his  cousin  Edward,  who,  however,  sent  him  back 
from  Sicily  to  pacify  the  unruly  province  of  Gascony.  Henry 
took  the  land  route  with  the  kings  of  France  and  Sicily.  While 
attending  mass  at  Viterbo  (13  March  1271)  he  was  attacked  by 
Guy  and  Simon  de  Montfort,  sons  of  Earl  Simon,  and  foully 
murdered.  This  revenge  was  the  more  outrageous  since  Henry 
had  personally  exerted  himself  on  behalf  of  the  Montforts  after 
Evesham.  The  deed  is  mentioned  by  Dante,  who  put  Guy  de 
Montfort  in  the  seventh  circle  of  hell. 

See  W.  H.  Blaauw's  The  Barons'  War  (ed.  1871);  Ch.  B<5mont's 
Simon  de  Montfort  (1884). 

HENRY  OF  BLOIS,  bishop  of  Winchester  (1101-1171),  was  the 
son  of  Stephen,  count  of  Blois,  by  Adela,  daughter  of  William  I., 
and  brother  of  King  Stephen.  He  was  educated  at  Cluny,  and 
consistently  exerted  himself  for  the  principles  of  Cluniac  reform. 
If  these  involved  high  claims  of  independence  and  power  for  the 
Church,  they  also  asserted  a  high  standard  of  devotion  and 
discipline.  Henry  was  brought  to  England  by  Henry  I.  and 
made  abbot  of  Glastonbury.  In  1129  he  was  given  the  bishopric 
of  Winchester  and  allowed  to  hold  his  abbey  in  conjunction  with 
it.  His  hopes  of  the  see  of  Canterbury  were  disappointed,  but 
he  obtained  in  1139  a  legatine  commission  which  gave  him  a 
higher  rank  than  the  primate.  In  fact  as  well  as  in  theory  he 
became  the  master  of  the  Church  in  England.  He  even  con- 
templated the  erection  of  a  new  province,  with  Winchester  as  its 
centre,  which  was  to  be  independent  of  Canterbury.  Owing  both 
to  local  and  to  general  causes  the  power  of  the  Church  in  England 
has  never  been  higher  than  in  the  reign  of  Stephen  (1135-1154). 
Henry  as  its  leader  and  a  legate  of  the  pope  was  the  real  "  lord  of 
England,"  as  the  chronicles  call  him.  Indeed,  one  of  the  ecclesi- 
astical councils  over  which  he  presided  formally  declared  that  the 
election  of  the  king  in  England  was  the  special  privilege  of  the 


HENRY  OF  GHENT— HENRY  OF  LAUSANNE 


clergy.  Stephen  owed  his  crown  to  Henry  (1135),  but  they 
quarrelled  when  Stephen  refused  to  give  Henry  the  primacy; 
and  the  bishop  took  up  the  cause  of  Roger  of  Salisbury  (1139). 
After  the  battle  of  Lincoln  (1141)  Henry  declared  for  Matilda; 
but  finding  his  advice  treated  with  contempt,  rejoined  his 
brother's  side,  and  his  successful  defence  of  Winchester  against 
the  empress  (Aug.-Sept.  1141)  was  the  turning-point  of  the  civil 
war.  The  expiration  of  bis  legatine  commission  of  1 144  deprived 
him  of  much  of  his  power.  He  spent  the  rest  of  Stephen's  reign  in 
trying  to  procure  its  renewal.  But  his  efforts  were  unsuccessful, 
though  he  made  a  personal  visit  to  Rome.  At  the  accession  of 
Henry  II.  (1154)  he  retired  from  the  world  and  spent  the  rest  of 
his  life  in  works  of  charity  and  penitence.  He  died  in  1171. 
Henry  seems  to  have  been  a  man  of  high  character,  great  courage, 
resolution  and  ability.  Like  most  great  bishops  of  his  age  he  had 
a  passion  for  architecture.  He  built,  among  other  castles,  that 
of  Farnham ;  and  he  began  the  hospital  of  St  Cross  at  Winchester. 
AUTHORITIES. — Original:  William  of  Malmesbury,  De  gestis 
regum;  the  Gesta  Stephani.  Modern:  Sir  James  Ramsay,  Founda- 
tions of  England,  vol.  ii. ;  Kate  Norgate's  Angevin  Kings; 
Kitchin's  Winchester. 

HENRY  OF  GHENT  [Henricus  a  Gandavo]  (c.  1217-1293), 
scholastic  philosopher,  known  as  "  Doctor  Solennis,"  was  born 
in  the  district  of  Mude,  near  Ghent,  and  died  at  Tournai  (or 
Paris).  He  is  said  to  have  belonged  to  an  Italian  family  named 
Bonicolli,  in  Flemish  Goethals,  but  the  question  of  his  name 
has  been  much  discussed  (see  authorities  below).  He  studied 
at  Ghent  and  then  at  Cologne  under  Albertus  Magnus.  After 
obtaining  the  degree  of  doctor  he  returned  to  Ghent,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  to  lecture  there  publicly  on  philosophy 
and  theology.  Attracted  to  Paris  by  the  fame  of  the  university, 
he  took  part  in  the  many  disputes  between  the  orders  and  the 
secular  priests,  and  warmly  defended  the  latter.  A  contemporary 
of  Aquinas,  he  opposed  several  of  the  dominant  theories  of  the 
time,  and  united  with  the  current  Aristotelian  doctrines  a  strong 
infusion  of  Platonism.  He  distinguished  between  knowledge 
of  actual  objects  and  the  divine  inspiration  by  which  we  cognize 
the  being  and  existence  of  God.  The  first  throws  no  light  upon 
the  second.  Individuals  are  constituted  not  by  the  material 
element  but  by  their  independent  existence,  i.e.  ultimately  by 
the  fact  that  they  are  created  as  separate  entities.  Universals 
must  be  distinguished  according  as  they  have  reference  to  our 
minds  or  to  the  divine  mind.  In  the  divine  intelligence  exist 
exemplars  or  types  of  the  genera  and  species  of  natural  objects. 
On  this  subject  Henry  is  far  from  clear;  but  he  defends  Plato 
against  the  current  Aristotelian  criticism,  and  endeavours  to 
show  that  the  two  views  are  in  harmony.  In  psychology,  his 
view  of  the  intimate  union  of  soul  and  body  is  remarkable. 
The  body  he  regards  as  forming  part  of  the  substance  of  the 
soul,  which  through  this  union  is  more  perfect  and  complete. 

WORKS. — Quodlibeta  theologica  (Paris,  1518;  Venice,  1608  and 
1613);  Summa  theologiae  (Paris,  1520;  Ferrara,  1646);  De  scriptori- 
bus  ecclesiasticis  (Cologne,  1580). 

AUTHORITIES. — F.  Huet's  Recherches  hist,  el  crit.  .  .  .  de  H.  de  G. 
(Paris,  1838)  has  been  superseded  by  F.  Ehrle's  monograph  in 
Archiv  fur  Lit.  u.  Kirchengeschichte  des  Mittelalters,  i.  (1885);  see 
also  A.  Wauters  and  N.  de  Pauw  in  the  Bull,  de  la  Com.  royale 
d'histoire  de  Belgique  (4th  series,  xiv.,  xv.,  xvi.,  1887-1889);  H. 
Delehaye,  Nouvelles  Recherches  sur  Henri  de  Gand  (1886) ;  C.Werner, 
Heinrich  von  Gent  als  Reprasentant  des  christlichen  Platonismus  im 
I3ten  Jahrh.  (Vienna,  1878);  A.  Stockl,  Phil.  d.  Mittelalters,  ii. 
738-758;  C.  Brdehillet  Jourdain,  La  Philosophie  de  St  Thomas 
d'Aquin  (1858),  ii.  29-46;  Alphonse  le  Roy  in  Biographic  nationale 
de  Belgique,  vii.  (Brussels,  1880);  and  article  SCHOLASTICISM. 

HENRY  OF  HUNTINGDON,  English  chronicler  of  the  i2th 
century,  was  born,  apparently,  between  the  years  1080  and  1090. 
His  father,  by  name  Nicholas,  was  a  clerk,  who  became  archdeacon 
of  Cambridge,  Hertford  and  Huntingdon,  in  the  time  of  Remigius, 
bishop  of  Lincoln  (d.  1092).  The  celibacy  of  the  clergy  was  not 
strictly  enforced  in  England  before  1102.  Hence  the  chronicler 
makes  no  secret  of  his  antecedents,  nor  did  they  interfere  with 
his  career.  At  an  early  age  Henry  entered  the  household  of 
Bishop  Robert  Bloet,  who  appointed  him,  immediately  after 
the  death  of  Nicholas  (mo),  archdeacon  of  Hertford  and 
Huntingdon.  Henry  was  on  familiar  terms  with  his  patron; 


and  also,  it  would  seem,  with  Bloet's  successor,  by  whom  he 
was  encouraged  to  undertake  the  writing  of  an  English  history 
from  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar.  This  work,  undertaken  before 
1130,  was  first  published  in  that  year;  the  author  subsequently 
published  in  succession  four  more  editions,  of  which  the  last 
ends  in  1 154  with  the  accession  of  Henry  II.  The  only  recorded 
fact  of  the  chronicler's  later  life  is  that  he  went  with  Archbishop 
Theobald  to  Rome  in  1139.  On  the  way  Henry  halted  at  Bee, 
and  there  made  the  acquaintance  of  Robert  de  Torigni,  who 
mentions  their  encounter  in  the  preface  to  his  Chronicle. 

The  Historia  Anglorum  was  first  printed  in  Savile,  Rerum  Angli- 
carum  scriptores  post  Bedam  (London,  1596).  The  first  six  books, 
excepting  the  third,  which  is  almost  entirely  taken  from  Bede,  are 
given  in  Monumenta  historica  Britannica,  vol.  i.  (ed.  H.  Petrie  and 
J.  Sharpe,  London,  1848).  The  standard  edition  is  that  of  T.  Arnold 
in  the  Rolls  Series  (London,  1879).  There  is  a  translation  by  T. 
Forester  in  Bonn's  Antiquarian  Library  (London,  1853).  The 
Historia  is  of  little  independent  value  before  1126.  Up  to  that  point 
the  author  compiles  from  Eutropius,  Aurelius  Victor,  Nennius,  Bede 
and  the  English  chronicles,  particularly  that  of  Peterborough;  in 
some  cases  he  professes  to  supplement  these  sources  from  oral 
tradition;  but  most  of  his  amplifications  are  pure  rhetoric  (see 
F.  Liebermann  in  Forschungen  zur  deutschen  Geschichte  for  1878, 
pp.  265  seq.).  Arnold  prints,  in  an  appendix,  a  minor  work  from 
Henry's  pen,  the  Epistola  ad  Walterum  de  contemptu  mundi,  which 
was  written  in  1135.  It  is  a  moralizing  tract,  but  contains  some 
interesting  anecdotes  about  contemporaries.  Henry  also  wrote 
epistles  to  Henry  I.  (on  the  succession  of  kings  and  emperors  in  the 
great  monarchies  of  the  world)  and  to  "  Warinus,  a  Briton  "  (on  the 
early  British  kings,  after  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth).  A  book,  De 
miraculis,  composed  of  extracts  from  Bede,  was  appended  along 
with  these  three  epistles  to  the  later  recensions  of  the  Historia. 
Henry  composed  eight  books  of  Latin  epigrams;  two  books  survive 
in  the  Lambeth  MS.,  No.  118.  His  value  as  a  historian,  formerly 
much  overrated,  is  discussed  at  length  by  Liebermann  and  in  T. 
Arnold's  introduction  to  the  Rolls  edition  of  the  Historia. 

(H.  W.  C.  D.) 

HENRY  OF  LAUSANNE  (variously  known  as  of  Bruys,  of 
Cluny,  of  Toulouse,  and  as  the  Deacon),  French  heresiarch  of 
the  first  half  of  the  1 2th  century.  Practically  nothing  is  known 
of  his  origin  or  early  life.  He  may  have  been  one  of  those 
hermits  who  at  that  time  swarmed  in  the  forests  of  western 
Europe,  and  particularly  in  France,  always  surrounded  by 
popular  veneration,  and  sometimes  the  founders  of  monasteries 
or  religious  orders,  such  as  those  of  Premontre  or  Fontevrault. 
If  St  Bernard's  reproach  (Ep.  241)  be  well  founded,  Henry  was 
an  apostate  monk — a  "  black  monk  "  (Benedictine)  according 
to  the  chronicler  Alberic  de  Trois  Fontaines.  The  information 
we  possess  as  to  his  degree  of  instruction  is  scarcely  more  precise 
or  less  conflicting.  When  he  arrived  at  Le  Mans  in  1101,  his 
terminus  a  quo  was  probably  Lausanne.  At  that  moment 
Hildebert,  the  bishop  of  Le  Mans,  was  absent  from  his  episcopal 
town,  and  this  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  Henry  was  granted 
permission  to  preach  (March  to  July  1101),  a  function  jealously 
guarded  by  the  regular  clergy.  Whether  by  his  prestige  as  a 
hermit  and  ascetic  or  by  his  personal  charm,  he  soon  acquired 
enormous  influence  over  the  people.  His  doctrine  at  that  date 
appears  to  have  been  very  vague;  he  seemingly  rejected  the 
invocation  of  saints  and  also  second  marriages,  and  preached 
penitence.  Women,  inflamed  by  his  words,  gave  up  their  jewels 
and  luxurious  apparel,  and  young  men  married  courtesans  in 
the  hope  of  reclaiming  them.  Henry  was  peculiarly  fitted  for 
a  popular  preacher.  In  person  he  was  tall  and  had  a  long 
beard;  his  voice  was  sonorous,  and  his  eyes  flashed  fire.  He 
went  bare-footed,  preceded  by  a  man  carrying  a  staff  surmounted 
with  an  iron  cross;  he  slept  on  the  bare  ground,  and  lived  by 
alms.  At  his  instigation  the  inhabitants  of  Le  Mans  soon  began 
to  slight  the  clergy  of  their  town  and  to  reject  all  ecclesiastical 
authority.  On  his  return  from  Rome,  Hildebert  had  a  public 
disputation  with  Henry,  in  which,  according  to  the  bishop's 
A  eta  episcoporum  Cenomannensium,  Henry  was  shown  to  be 
less  guilty  of  heresy  than  of  ignorance.  He,  however,  was  forced 
to  leave  Le  Mans,  and  went  probably  to  Poitiers  and  afterwards 
to  Bordeaux.  Later  we  find  him  in  the  diocese  of  Aries,  where 
the  archbishop  arrested  him  and  had  his  case  referred  to  the 
tribunal  of  the  pope.  In  1134  Henry  appeared  before  Pope 
Innocent  III.  at  the  council  of  Pisa,  where  he  was  compelled 


HENRY,  E.  L.— HENRY,  J. 


to  abjure  his  errors  and  was  sentenced  to  imprisonment.  It 
appears  that  St  Bernard  offered  him  an  asylum  at  Clairvaux; 
but  it  is  not  known  if  he  reached  Clairvaux,  nor  do  we  know 
when  or  in  what  circumstances  he  resumed  his  activities. 
Towards  1139,  however,  Peter  the  Venerable,  abbot  of  Cluny, 
wrote  a  treatise  called  Epistola  sen  traclatus  adversus  Petrobru- 
sianos  (Migne,  Pair.  Lai.  clxxxix.)  against  the  disciples 
of  Peter  of  Bruys  and  Henry  of  Lausanne,  whom  he  calls  Henry 
of  Bruys,  and  whom,  at  the  moment  of  writing,  he  accuses  of 
preaching,  in  all  the  dioceses  in  the  south  of  France,  errors  which 
he  had  inherited  from  Peter  of  Bruys.  According  to  Peter  the 
Venerable,  Henry's  teaching  is  summed  up  as  follows:  rejection 
of  the  doctrinal  and  disciplinary  authority  of  the  church; 
recognition  of  the  Gospel  freely  interpreted  as  the  sole  rule  of 
faith;  condemnation  of  the  baptism  of  infants,  of  the  eucharist, 
of  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  of  the  communion  of  saints,  and  of 
prayers  for  the  dead;  and  refusal  to  recognize  any  form  of 
worship  or  liturgy.  The  success  of  this  teaching  spread  very 
rapidly  in  the  south  of  France.  Speaking  of  this  region,  St 
Bernard  (Ep.  241)  says:  "  The  churches  are  without  flocks, 
the  flocks  without  priests,  the  priests  without  honour;  in  a 
word,  nothing  remains  save  Christians  without  Christ."  On 
several  occasions  St  Bernard  was  begged  to  fight  the  innovator 
on  the  scene  of  his  exploits,  and  in  1145,  at  the  instance  of  the 
legate  Alberic,  cardinal  bishop  of  Ostia,  he  set  out ,  passing  through 
the  diocese  of  Angouleme  and  Limoges,  sojourning  for  some  time 
at  Bordeaux,  and  finally  reaching  the  heretical  towns  of  Bergerac, 
Perigueux,  Sarlat,  Cahors  and  Toulouse.  At  Bernard's  approach 
Henry  quitted  Toulouse,  leaving  there  many  adherents,  both  of 
noble  and  humble  birth,  and  especially  among  the  weavers. 
But  Bernard's  eloquence  and  miracles  made  many  converts, 
and  Toulouse  and  Albi  were  quickly  restored  to  orthodoxy. 
After  inviting  Henry  to  a  disputation,  which  he  refused  to  attend, 
St  Bernard  returned  to  Clairvaux.  Soon  afterwards  the  heresi- 
arch  was  arrested,  brought  before  the  bishop  of  Toulouse,  and 
probably  imprisoned  for  life.  In  a  letter  to  the  people  of 
Toulouse,  undoubtedly  written  at  the  end  of  1146,  St  Bernard 
calls  upon  them  to  extirpate  the  last  remnants  of  the  heresy.  In 
1151,  however,  some  Henricians  still  remained  in  Languedoc,  for 
Matthew  Paris  relates  (Chron.  maj.,  at  date  1151)  that  a  young 
girl,  who  gave  herself  out  to  be  miraculously  inspired  by  the 
Virgin  Mary,  was  reputed  to  have  converted  a  great  number 
of  the  disciples  of  Henry  of  Lausanne.  It  is  impossible  to 
designate  definitely  as  Henricians  one  of  the  two  sects  discovered 
at  Cologne  and  described  by  Everwin,  provost  of  Steinfeld,  in 
his  letter  to  St  Bernard  (Migne,  Pair.  Lot.,  clxxxii.  676-680), 
or  the  heretics  of  Perigord  mentioned  by  a  certain  monk  Heribert 
(Martin  Bouquet,  Recueil  des  hisloriens  des  Gaules  el  de  la  France, 

xii-  550-551)- 

See  "  Les  Origines  de  1'he're'sie  albigeoise,"  by  Vacandard  in  the 
Revue  des  questions  historiques  (Paris,  1894,  pp.  67-83).  (P.  A.) 

HENRY,  EDWARD  LAMSON  (1841-  ),  American  genre 
painter,  was  born  in  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  on  the  I2th  of 
January  1841.  He  was  a  pupil  of  the  schools  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  Philadelphia,  and  of  Gleyre  and  Courbet 
in  Paris,  and  in  1870  was  elected  to  the  National  Academy  of 
Design,  New  York.  As  a  painter  of  colonial  and  early  American 
themes  and  incidents  of  rural  life,  he  displays  a  quaint  humour 
and  a  profound  knowledge  of  human  nature.  Among  his  best- 
known  compositions  are  some  of  early  railroad  travel,  incidents 
of  stage  coach  and  canal  boat  journeys,  rendered  with  much 
detail  on  a  minute  scale. 

HENRY,  JAMES  (1798-1876),  Irish  classical  scholar,  was  born 
in  Dublin  on  the  i3th  of  December  1798.  He  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  and  until  1845  practised  as  a  physician  in  the 
city.  In  spite  of  his  unconventionality  and  unorthodox  views 
on  religion  and  his  own  profession,  he  was  very  successful.  His 
accession  to  a  large  fortune  enabled  him  to  devote  himself 
entirely  to  the  absorbing  occupation  of  his  life — the  study  of 
Virgil.  Accompanied  by  his  wife  and  daughter,  he  visited  all 
those  parts  of  Europe  where  he  was  likely  to  find  rare  editions 
or  MSS.  of  the  poet.  He  died  near  Dublin  on  the  i4th  of  July 


299 

1876.  As  a  commentator  on  Virgil  Henry  will  always  deserve 
to  be  remembered,  notwithstanding  the  occasional  eccentricity 
of  his  notes  and  remarks.  The  first  fruits  of  his  researches  were 
published  at  Dresden  in  1853  under  the  quaint  title  Notes  of  a 
Twelve  Years'  Voyage  of  Discovery  in  the  first  six  Books  of  the 
Eneis.  These  were  embodied,  with  alterations  and  additions, 
in  the  Aeneidea,  or  Critical,  Exegetical  and  Aesthetical  Remarks 
on  the  Aeneis  (1873-1892),  of  which  only  the  notes  on  the  first 
book  were  published  during  the  author's  lifetime.  As  a  textual 
critic  Henry  was  exceedingly  conservative.  His  notes,  written 
in  a  racy  and  interesting  style,  are  especially  valuable  for  their 
wealth  of  illustration  and  references  to  the  less-known  classical 
authors.  Henry  was  also  the  author  of  several  poems,  some  of 
them  descriptive  accounts  of  his  travels,  and  of  various  pamphlets 
of  a  satirical  nature. 

See  obituary  notice  by  J.  P.  Mahaffy  in  the  Academy  of  the  I2th 
of  August  1876,  where  a  list  of  his  works,  nearly  all  of  which  were 
privately  printed,  is  given. 

HENRY,  JOSEPH  (1797-1878),  American  physicist,  was  born 
in  Albany,  N.Y.,  on  the  i7th  of  December  1797.  He  received 
his  education  at  an  ordinary  school,  and  afterwards  at  the 
Albany  Academy,  which  enjoyed  considerable  reputation  for 
the  thoroughness  of  its  classical  and  mathematical  courses. 
On  finishing  his  academic  studies  he  contemplated  adopting  the 
medical  profession,  and  prosecuted  his  studies  in  chemistry, 
anatomy  and  physiology  with  that  view.  He  occasionally 
contributed  papers  to  the  Albany  Institute,  in  the  years  1824 
and  1825,  on  chemical  and  mechanical  subjects;  and  in  the 
latter  year,  having  been  unexpectedly  appointed  assistant 
engineer  on  the  survey  of  a  route  for  a  state  road  from  the  Hudson 
river  to  Lake  Erie,  a  distance  somewhat  over  300  m.,  he  at  once 
embarked  with  zeal  and  success  in  the  new  enterprise.  This 
diversion  from  his  original  bent  gave  him  an  inclination  to  the 
career  of  civil  and  mechanical  engineering;  and  in  the  spring 
of  1826  he  was  elected  by  the  trustees  of  the  Albany  Academy 
to  the  chair  of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy  in  that 
institution.  In  the  latter  part  of  1827  he  read  before  the  Albany 
Institute  his  first  important  contribution,"  On  Some  Modifications 
of  the  Electro-Magnetic  Apparatus."  Struck  with  the  great 
improvements  then  recently  introduced  into  such  apparatus 
by  William  Sturgeon  of  Woolwich,  he  had  still  further 
extended  their  efficiency,  with  considerable  reduction  of  battery- 
power,  by  adopting  in  all  the  experimental  circuits  (where 
applicable)  the  principle  of  J.  S.  C.  Schweigger's  "  multiplier," 
that  is,  by  substituting  for  single  wire  circuits,  voluminous  coils 
(Trans.  Albany  Institute,  1827,  i,  p.  22).  In  June  1828  and  in 
March  1829  he  exhibited  before  the  institute  small  electro- 
magnets closely  and  repeatedly  wound  with  silk-covered  wire, 
which  had  a  far  greater  lifting  power  than  any  then  known. 
Henry  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  adopt  insulated  or  silk- 
covered  wire  for  the  magnetic  coil;  and  also  the  first  to  employ 
what  may  be  called  the  "  spool "  winding  for  the  limbs  of  the 
magnet.  He  was  also  the  first  to  demonstrate  experimentally 
the  difference  of  action  between  what  he  called  a  "  quantity  " 
magnet  excited  by  a  "  quantity  "  battery  of  a  single  pair,  and  an 
"  intensity  "  magnet  with  long  fine  wire  coil  excited  by  an 
"  intensity  "  battery  of  many  elements,  having  their  resistances 
suitably  proportioned.  He  pointed  out  that  the  latter  form  alone 
was  applicable  to  telegraphic  purposes.  A  detailed  account 
of  these  experiments  and  exhibitions  was  not,  however,  published 
till  1831  (Sill.Journ.,  19, p. 400).  Henry's"  quantity  "magnets 
acquired  considerable  celebrity  at  the  time,  from  their  un- 
precedented attractive  power — one  (August  1830)  lifting  750  Ib, 
another  (March  1831)  2300,  and  a  third  (1834)  3500. 

Early  in  1831  he  arranged  a  small  office- bell  to  be  tapped  by 
the  polarized  armature  of  an  "  intensity  "  magnet,  whose  coil 
was  in  continuation  of  a  mile  of  insulated  copper  wire,  suspended 
about  one  of  the  rooms  of  his  academy.  This  was  the  first 
instance  of  magnetizing  iron  at  a  distance,  or  of  a  suitable 
combination  of  magnet  and  battery  being  so  arranged  as  to  be 
capable  of  such  action.  It  was,  therefore,  the  earliest  example 
of  a  true  "  magnetic  "  telegraph,  all  preceding  experiments  to 


300 


HENRY,  M.— HENRY,  P. 


this  end  having  been  on  the  galvanometer  or  needle  principle. 
About  the  same  time  he  devised  and  constructed  the  first 
electromagnetic  engine  with  automatic  polechanger  (Sill.  Journ., 
1831,  20,  p.  340;  and  Sturgeon's  Annals  Electr.,  1839,  3,»p.  554). 
Early  in  1832  he  discovered  the  induction  of  a  current  on  itself, 
in  a  long  helical  wire,  giving  greatly  increased  intensity  of 
discharge  (Sill.  Journ.,  1832,  22,  p.  408).  In  1832  he  was  elected 
to  the  chair  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  New  Jersey  college 
at  Princeton.  In  1834  he  continued  and  extended  his  researches 
"  On  the  Influence  of  a  Spiral  Conductor  in  increasing  the 
Intensity  of  Electricity  from  a  Galvanic  Arrangement  of  a  Single 
Pair,"  a  memoir  of  which  was  read  before  the  American  Philo- 
sophical Society  on  the  5th  of  February  1835.  In  1835  he 
combined  the  short  circuit  of  his  monster  magnet  (of  1834)  with 
the  small  "  intensity  "  magnet  of  an  experimental  telegraph 
wire,  thereby  establishing  the  fact  that  very  powerful  mechanical 
effects  could  be  produced  at  a  great  distance  by  the  agency 
of  a  very  feeble  magnet  used  as  a  circuit  maker  and  breaker, 
or  as  a  "  trigger  " — the  precursor  of  later  forms  of  relay  and 
receiving  magnets.  In  1837  he  paid  his  first  visit  to  England 
and  Europe.  In  1838  he  made  important  investigations  in 
regard  to  the  conditions  and  range  of  induction  from  electrical 
currents — showing  that  induced  currents,  although  merely 
momentary,  produce  still  other  or  tertiary  currents,  and  thus  on 
through  successive  orders  of  induction,  with  alternating  signs, 
and  with  reversed  initial  and  terminal  signs.  He  also  discovered 
similar  successive  orders  of  induction  in  the  case  of  the  passage 
of  frictional  electricity  (Trans.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  6,  pp.  303-337). 
Among  many  minor  observations,  he  discovered  in  1842  the 
oscillatory  nature  of  the  electrical  discharge,  magnetizing  about 
a  thousand  needles  in  the  course  of  his  experiments  (Proc.  Am. 
Phil.  Soc.,  I,  p.  301).  He  traced  the  influence  of  induction  to  sur- 
prising distances,  magnetizing  needles  in  the  lower  story  of  a 
house  through  several  intervening  floors  by  means  of  electrical 
discharges  in  the  upper  story,  and  also  by  the  secondary  current 
in  a  wire  220  ft.  distant  from  the  wire  of  the  primary  circuit. 
The  five  numbers  of  his  Contributions  to  Electricity  and  Magnetism 
(1835-1842)  were  separately  republished  from  the  Transactions. 
In  1843  he  made  some  interesting-  original  observations  on 
"Phosphorescence"  (Proc.  Am.  Phil. Soc. ,3,  pp.38-44).  In  1844, 
by  experiments  on  the  tenacity  of  soap-bubbles,  he  showed  that 
the  molecular  cohesion  of  water  is  equal  (if  not  superior)  to  that 
of  ice,  and  hence,  generally,  that  solids  and  their  liquids  have 
practically  the  same  amount  of  cohesion  (Proc.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  4, 
pp.  56  and  84).  In  1845  he  showed,  by  means  of  a  thermo-galvano- 
meter,  that  the  solar  spots  radiate  less  heat  than  the  general 
solar  surface  (Proc.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  4,  pp.  173-176). 

In  December  1846  Henry  was  elected  secretary  and  director  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution,  then  just  established.  While  closely 
occupied  with  the  exacting  duties  of  that  office,  he  still  found  time 
to  prosecute  many  original  inquiries — as  into  the  application  of 
acoustics  to  public  buildings,  and  the  best  construction  and 
arrangement  of  lecture-rooms,  into  the  strength  of  various 
building 'materials,  &c.  Having  early  devoted  much  attention 
to  meteorology,  both  in  observing  and  in  reducing  and  discussing 
observations,  he  (among  his.first  administrative  acts)  organized 
a  large  and  widespread  corps  of  observers,  and  made  arrange- 
ments for  simultaneous  reports  by  means  of  the  electric  telegraph, 
which  was  yet  in  its  infancy  (Smithson.  Report  for  1847,  pp.  146, 
147).  He  was  the  first  to  apply  the  telegraph  to  meteorological 
research,  to  have  the  atmospheric  conditions  daily  indicated 
on  a  large  map,  to  utilize  the  generalizations  made  in  weather 
forecasts,  and  to  embrace  a  continent  under  a  single  system — 
British  America  and  Mexico  being  included  in  the  field  of  observa- 
tion. In  1852,  on  the  reorganization  of  the  American  lighthouse 
system,  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  new  board;  and 
in  1871  he  became  the  presiding  officer  of  the  establishment — 
a  position  he  continued  to  hold  during  the  rest  of  his  life.  His 
diligent  investigations  into  the  efficiency  of  various  illuminants 
in  differing  circumstances,  and  into  the  best  conditions  for 
developing  their  several  maximum  powers  of  brilliancy,  while 
greatly  improving  the  usefulness  of  the  line  of  beacons  along  the 


extensive  coast  of  the  United  States,  effected  at  the  same  time 
a  great  economy  of  administration.  His  equally  careful  experi- 
ments on  various  acoustic  instruments  also  resulted  in  giving  to 
his  country  the  most  serviceable  system  of  fog-signals  known  to 
maritime  powers.  In  the  course  of  these  varied  and  prolonged 
researches  from  1865  to  1877,  he  also  made  important  contribu- 
tions to  the  science  of  acoustics;  and  he  established  by  several 
series  of  laborious  observations,  extending  over  many  years  and 
along  a  wide  coast  range,  the  correctness  of  G.  G.  Stokes's 
hypothesis  (Report  Brit.  Assoc.,  1857,  part  ii.  27)  that  the  wind 
exerts  a  very  marked  influence  in  refracting  sound-beams. 
From  1868  Henry  continued  to  be  annually  chosen  as  president 
of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences;  and  he  was  also  president 
of  the  Philosophical  Society  of  Washington  from  the  date  of  its 
organization  in  1871.  . 

Henry  was  by  general  concession  the  foremost  of  American 
physicists.  He  was  a  man  of  varied  culture,  of  large  breadth  and 
liberality  of  views,  of  generous  impulses,  of  great  gentleness  and 
courtesy  of  manner,  combined  with  equal  firmness  of  purpose  and 
energy  of  action.  He  died  at  Washington  on  the  i3th  of  May 
1878.  (S.  F.  B.) 

HENRY,  MATTHEW  (1662-1714),  English  nonconformist 
divine,  was  born  at  Broad  Oak,  a  farm-house  on  the  confines  of 
Flintshire  and  Shropshire,  on  the  i8th  of  October  1662.  He 
was  the  son  of  Philip  Henry,  who  had,  two  months  earlier,  been 
ejected  by  the  Act  of  Uniformity.  Unlike  most  of  his  fellow- 
sufferers,  Philip  Henry  possessed  some  private  means,  and  was 
thus  enabled  to  give  a  good  education  to  his  son,  who  went  first 
to  a  school  at  Islington,  and  then  to  Gray's  Inn.  He  soon 
relinquished  his  legal  studies  for  theology,  and  in  1687  became 
minister  of  a  Presbyterian  congregation  at  Chester,  removing 
in  1712  to  Mare  Street,  Hackney.  Two  years  later  (22nd  of  June 
1714),  he  died  suddenly  of  apoplexy  at  Nantwich  while  on  a 
journey  from  Chester  to  London.  Henry's  well-known  Exposi- 
tion of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  (1708-1710)  is  a  commentary 
of  a  practical  and  devotional  rather  than  of  a  critical  kind, 
covering  the  whole  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  Gospels  and 
Acts  in  the  New.  Here  it  was  broken  off  by  the  author's  death, 
but  the  work  was  finished  by  a  number  of  ministers,  and  edited 
by  G.  Burder  and  John  Hughes  in  181 1.  Of  no  value  as  criticism, 
its  unfailing  good  sense,  its  discriminating  thought,  its  high  moral 
tone,  its  simple  piety  and  its  singular  felicity  of  practical 
application,  combine  with  the  well-sustained  flow  of  its  racy 
English  style  to  secure  for  it  the  foremost  place  among  works 
of  its  class. 

His  Miscellaneous  Writings,  including  a  Life  of  Mr  Philip 
Henry,  The  Communicant's  Companion,  Directions  for  Daily 
Communion  with  God,  A  Method  for  Prayer,  A  Scriptural  Cate- 
chism, and  numerous  sermons,  were  edited  in  1809  and  in  1830. 
See  biographies  by'  W.  Tong  (1816),  C.  Chapman  (1859),  J.  B. 
Williams  (1828,  new  ed.  1865);  and  M.  H.  Lee's  Diaries  and 
Letters  of  Philip  Henry  (1883). 

HENRY,  PATRICK  (1736-1799),  American  statesman  and 
orator,  was  born  at  Studley,  Hanover  county,  Virginia,  on  the 
29th  of  May  1736.  He  was  the  son  of  John  Henry,  a  well- 
educated  Scotsman,  among  whose  relatives  was  the  historian 
William  Robertson,  and  who  served  in  Virginia  as  county 
surveyor,  colonel  and  judge  of  a  county  court.  His  mother 
was  one  of  a  family  named  Winston,  of  Welsh  descent,  noted  for 
conversational  and  musical  talent.  At  the  age  of  ten  Patrick 
was  making  slow  progress  in  the  study  of  reading,  writing  and 
arithmetic  at  a  small  country  school,  when  his  father  became 
his  tutor  and  taught  him  Latin,  Greek  and  mathematics  for 
five  years,  but  with  limited  success.  His  school  days  being 
then  terminated,  he  was  employed  as  a  store-clerk  for  one  year. 
Within  the  seven  years  next  following  he  failed  twice  as  a  store- 
keeper and  once  as  a. farmer;  but  in  the  meantime  acquired  a 
taste  for  reading,  of  history  especially,  and  read  and  re-read  the 
history  of  Greece  and  Rome, -of  England,  and  of  her  American 
colonies.  Then,  poor  but  not  discouraged,  he  resolved  to  be 
a  lawyer,  and  after  reading  Coke  upon  Littleton  and  the  Virginia 
laws  for  a  few  weeks  only,  he  strongly  impressed  one  of  his 


HENRY,  R.— HENRY,  V. 


301 


examiners,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
four,  on  condition  that  he  spend  more  time  in  study  before 
beginning  to  practise.  He  rapidly  acquired  a  considerable 
practice,  his  fee  books  shewing  that  for  the  first  three  years  he 
charged  fees  in  1185  cases.  Then  in  1763  was  delivered  his 
speech  in  "  The  Parson's  Cause  " — a  suit  brought  by  a  clergy- 
man, Rev.  James  Maury,  in  the  Hanover  County  Court,  to 
secure  restitution  for  money  considered  by  him  to  be  due  on 
account  of  his  salary  (16,000  pounds  of  tobacco  by  law)  having 
been  paid  in  money  calculated  at  a  rate  less  than  the  current 
market  price  of  tobacco.  This  speech,  which,  according  to 
reports,  was  extremely  radical  and  denied  the  right  of  the  king 
to  disallow  acts  of  the  colonial  legislature,  made  Henry  the  idol 
of  the  common  people  of  Virginia  and  procured  for  him  an 
enormous  practice.  In  1765  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Virginia  legislature,  where  he  became  in  the  same  year  the  author 
of  the  "  Virginia  Resolutions,"  which  were  no  less  than  a  declara- 
tion of  resistance  to  the  Stamp  Act  and  an  assertion  of  the  right 
of  the  colonies  to  legislate  for  themselves  independently  of  the 
control  of  the  British  parliament,  and  gave  a  most  powerful 
impetus  to  the  movement  resulting  m  the  War  of  Independence. 
In  a  speech  urging  their  adoption  appear  the  often-quoted' 
words:  "  Tarquin  and  Caesar  had  each  his  Brutus,  Charles  the 
First  his  Cromwell,  and  George  the  Third  [here  he  was  interrupted 
by  cries  of  "  Treason  "]  and  Geotge  the  Third  may  profit  by 
their  example!  If  Ms  be  treason,  make  the  most  of  it."  Until 
1775  he  continued  to  sit  in  the  House  of  Burgesses,  as  a  leader 
during  all  that  eventful  period.  He  was  prominent  as  a  radical 
in  all  measures  in  opposition  to  the  British  government,  and  was 
a  member  of  the  first  Virginia  committee  of  correspondence. 
In  1774  and  1775  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress 
and  served  on  three  of  its  most  important  committees:  that  on 
colonial  trade  and  manufactures,  that  for  drawing  up  an  address 
to  the  king,  and  that  for  stating  the  rights  of  the  colonies.  In 

1775,  in  the  second  revolutionary  convention  of  Virginia,  Henry, 
regarding  war  as  inevitable,  presented  resolutions  for  arming  the 
Virginia    militia.     The    more    conservative  members  strongly 
opposed  them  as  premature,  whereupon  Henry  supported  them 
in  a  speech  familiar  to  the  American  school-boy  for  several 
generations  following,  closing  with  the  words,  "  Is  life  so  dear 
or  peace  so  sweet  as  to  be  purchased  at  the  price  of  chains  and. 
slavery?     Forbid  it,  Almighty  God!  I  know  not  what  course 
others  may  take,  but  as  for  me,  give  me  liberty  or  give  me 
death! "    The  resolutions  were  passed  and  their  author  was  made 
chairman  of  the  committee  for  which  they  provided.     The  chief 
command  of  the  newly  organized  army  was  also  given  to  him, 
but  previously,  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  militia,  he  had  demanded 
satisfaction  for  powder  removed  from  the  public  store  by  order 
of  Lord  Dunmore,  the  royal  governor,  with  the  result  that  £330 
was   paid   in    compensation.     But    his    military    appointment 
required  obedience  to  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety,  and  this 
body,  largely  dominated  by  Edmund  Pendleton,  so  restrained  him 
from  active  service  that  he  resigned  on  the  aStlji  of  February 

1776.  In  the  Virginia  convention  of   1776  he  favoured  the 
postponement   of   a  declaration  of  independence,  until  a  firm 
union  of  the  colonies  and  the  friendship  of  France  and  Spain  haq\. 
been  secured.     In  the  same  convention  he  served  on  the  com- 
mittee which  drafted  the  first  constitution  for  Virginia,  and  was 
elected  governor  of  the  State — to  which  office  he  was  re-elected 
in  1777  and  1778,  thus  serving  as  long  as  the  new  constitution 
allowed  any  man  to  serve  continuously.     As  governor  he  gave 
Washington  able  support  and  sent  out  the  expedition  under 
George  Rogers  Clark  (q.v.)  into  the  Illinois  country.     In  1778  he 
was  chosen  a  delegate  to  Congress,  but  declined  to  serve.     From 
1780  to  1784  and  from  1787  to  1790  he  was  again  a  member  of 
his  State  legislature;  and  from  1784  to  1786  was  again  governor. 
Until  1786  he  was  a  leading  advocate  of  a  stronger  central 
government  but  when  chosen  a  delegate  to  the  Philadelphia 
constitutional  convention  of  1787,  he  had  become  cold  in  the 
cause  and  declined  to  serve.     Moreover,  in  the  state  convention 
called  to  decide  whether  Virginia  should  ratify  the   Federal 
Constitution  he  led  the  opposition,  contending  that  the  proposed 


Constitution,  because  of  its  centralizing  character,  was  dangerous 
to  the  liberties  of  the  country.  This  change  of  attitude  is 
thought  to  have  been  due  chiefly  to  his  suspicion  of  the  North 
aroused  by  John  Jay's  proposal  to  surrender  to  Spain  for  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  years  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi.  From 
1794  until  his  death  he  declined  in  succession  the  following 
offices:  United  States  senator  (1794),  secretary  of  state  in 
Washington's  cabinet  (1795),  chief  justice  of  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court  (1795),  governor  of  Virginia  (1796),  to  which 
office  he  had  been  electe'd  by  the  Assembly,  and  envoy  to  France 
(1799).  In  1799,  however,  he  consented  to  serve  again  in  his 
State  legislature,  where  he  wished  to  combat  the  Virginia 
Resolutions;  he  never  took  his  seat,  since  he  died,  on  his  Red 
Hill  estate  in  Charlotte  county,  Virginia,  on  the  6th  of  June  of 
that  year.  Henry  was  twice  married,  first  to  Sarah  Skelton,  and 
second  to  Dorothea  Spotswood  Dandridge,  a  grand-daughter 
of  Governor  Alexander  Spotswood. 

See  Moses  Coit  Tyler,  Patrick  Henry  (Boston,  1887;  new  ed., 
1899),  and  William  Wirt  Henry  (Patrick  Henry's  grandson),  Patrick 
Henry:  Life,  Correspondence  and  Speeches  (New  York,  1890-1891); 
these  supersede  the  very  unsatisfactory  biography  by  William  Wirt, 
Sketches  of  the  Life  and  Character  of  Patrick  Henry  (Philadelphia, 
1817).  See  also  George  Morgan,  The  True  Patrick  Henry  (Phila- 
delphia, 1907).  (N.  D.  M.) 

HENRY,  ROBERT  (1718-1790),  British  historian,  was  the 
son  of  James  Henry,  a  farmer  of  Muirton,  near  Stirling.  Born 
on  the  1 8th  of  February  1718  he  was  educated  at  the  parish 
school  of  St  Ninians,  and  at  the  grammar  school  of  Stirling,  and, 
after  completing  his  course  at  Edinburgh  University,  became 
master  of  the  grammar  school  at  Annan.  In  1746  he  was 
licensed  to  preach,  and  in  1748  was  chosen  minister  of  a  Presby- 
terian-congregation at  Carlisle,  where  he  remained  until  1760, 
when  he  removed  to  a  similar  charge  at  Berwick-on-Tweed. 
In  1768  he  became  minister  of  the  New  Greyfriars'  Church, 
Edinburgh,  and  having  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from  Edin- 
burgh University  in  1771,  and  served  as  moderator  of  the 
general  assembly  of  the  church  of  Scotland  in  1774,  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  ministers  of  the  Old  Greyfriars'  Church, 
Edinburgh,  in  1776,  remaining  in  this  charge  until  his  death 
on  the  24th  of  November  1 790.  During  his  residence  in  Berwick, 
Henry  commenced  his  History  of  Great  Britain,  written  on  a  new 
plan;  but,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  consulting  the  original 
authorities,  he  did  not  make  much  progress  with  the  work  until 
his  removal  to  Edinburgh  in  1768.  The  first  five  volumes 
appeared  between  1771  and  1785,  and  the  sixth,  edited  and 
completed  by  Malcolm  Laing,  was  published  three  years  after  the 
author's  death.  A  life  of  Henry  was  prefixed  to  this  volume. 
The  History  covers  the  years  between  the  Roman  invasion  and 
the  death  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  the  "  new  plan  "  is  the  combina- 
tion of  an  account  of  the  domestic  life  and  commercial  and  social 
progress  of  the  people  with  the  narrative  of  the  political  events 
of  each  period.  The  work  was  virulently  assailed  by  Dr  Gilbert 
Stuart  (1742-1786),  who  appeared  anxious  to  damage  the  sale 
of  the  book;  but  the  injury  thus  effected  was  only  slight,  as 
Henry  received  £3300  for  the  volumes  published  during  his 
lifetime.  In  1781,  through  the  influence  of  the  earl  of  Mans- 
field, he  obtained  a  pension  of  £100  a  year  from  the  British 
government. 

The  History  of  Great  Britain  has  been  translated  into  French,  and 
has  passed  into  several  English  editions.  An  account  of  Stuart's 
attack  on  Henry  is  given  in  Isaac  D'Israeli's  Calamities  of  Authors. 

HENRY,  VICTOR  (1850-  );  French  philologist,  was  born 
at  Colmar  in  Alsace.  Having  held  appointments  at  Douai  and 
Lille,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Sanskrit  and  comparative 
grammar  in  the  university  of  Paris.  A  prolific  and  versatile 
writer,  he  is  probably  best  known  by  the  English  translations 
of  his  Precis  de  Grammaire  comparee  de  I' anglais  et  de  I'allemand 
and  Precis  .  .  .  du  Grec  et  du  Latin.  Important  works  by  him 
on  India  and  Indian  languages  are:  Manuel  pour  etudier  le 
Sanscrit  vedique  (with  A.  Bergaigne,  1890);  Elements  de  Sanscrit 
classique  (1902);  Precis  de  grammaire  Pdlie  (1904);  Les  Littera- 
tures  dt  I'Inde:  Sanscrit,  Pali,  Prdcril  (1904);  La  Magie  dans 
I'Inde  antique  (1904);  Le  Parsisme  (1903);  L'Agni^toma  (1906). 


302 


HENRY,  W.— HENSELT 


Obscure  languages  (such  as  Innok,  Quichua,  Greenland)  and 
local  dialects  (Lexique  itymologique  du  Breton  moderne;  Le 
Dicuecle  Alaman  de  Colmar)  also  claimed  his  attention.  Le 
Langage  Martien  is  a  curious  book.  It  contains  a  discussion  of 
some  40  phrases  (amounting  to  about  300  words),  which  a  certain 
Mademoiselle  Helene  Smith  (a  well-known  spiritualist  medium 
of  Geneva),  while  on  a  hypnotic  visit  to  the  planet  Mars,  learnt 
and  repeated  and  even  wrote  down  during  her  trance  as  specimens 
of  a  language  spoken  there,  explained  to  her  by  a  disembodied 
interpreter. 

HENRY,  WILLIAM  (1775-1836),  English  chemist,  son  of 
Thomas  Henry  (1734-1816),  an  apothecary  and  writer  on 
chemistry,  was  born  at  Manchester  on  the  i2th  of  December 
1775.  He  began  to  study  medicine  at  Edinburgh  in  1795, 
taking  his  doctor's  degree  in  1807,  but  ill-health  interrupted  his 
practice  as  a  physician,  and  he  devoted  his  time  mainly  to 
chemical  research,  especially  in  regard  to  gases.  One  of  his 
best-known  papers  (Phil.  Trans.,  1803)  describes  experiments 
on  the  quantity  of  gases  absorbed  by  water  at  different  tempera- 
tures and  under  different  pressures,  the  conclusion  he  reached 
("  Henry's  law  ")  being  that  "  water  takes  up  of  gas  condensed 
by  one,  two  or  more  additional  atmospheres,  a  quantity  which, 
ordinarily  compressed,  would  be  equal  to  twice,  thrice,  &c.  the 
volume  absorbed  under  the  common  pressure  of  the  atmosphere." 
Others  of  his  papers  deal  with  gas-analysis,  fire-damp,  illuminating 
gas,  the  composition  of  hydrochloric  acid  and  of  ammonia, 
urinary  and  other  morbid  concretions,  and  the  disinfecting 
powers  of  heat.  His  Elements  of  Experimental  Chemistry  (1799) 
enjoyed  considerable  vogue  in  its  day,  going  through  1 1  editions 
in  30  years.  He  died  at  Pendlebury,  near  Manchester,  on  the 
2nd  of  September  1836. 

HENRYSON,  ROBERT  (c.  1425-0.  1500),  Scottish  poet,  was 
born  about  1425.  It  has  been  surmised  that  he  was  connected 
with  the  family  of  Henderson  of  Fordell,  but  of  this  there  is 
no  evidence.  He  is  described,  on  the  title-page  of  the  1570 
edition  of  his  Fables,  as  "  scholemaister  of  Dunfermeling," 
probably  of  the  grammar-school  of  the  Benedictine  Abbey 
there.  There  is  no  record  of  his  having  studied  at  St  Andrews, 
the  only  Scottish  university  at  this  time;  but  in  1462  a  "  Master 
Robert  Henryson  "  is  named  among  those  incorporated  in  the 
recently  founded  university  of  Glasgow.  It  is  therefore  likely 
that  his  first  studies  were  completed  abroad,  at  Paris  or  Louvain. 
He  would  appear  to  have  been  in  lower  orders,  if,  in  addition 
to  being  master  of  the  grammar-school,  he  is  the  notary  Robert 
Henryson  who  subscribes  certain  deeds  in  1478.  As  Dunbar 
(q.v.)  refers  to  him  as  deceased  in  his  Lament  for  the  Makaris, 
his  death  may  be  dated  about  1500. 

Efforts  have  been  made  to  draw  up  a  chronology  of  his  poems; 
but  every  scheme  of  this  kind,  is,  in  a  stronger  sense  than  in  the 
case  of  Dunbar,  mere  guess-work.  There  are  no  biographical 
or  bibliographical  facts  to  guide  us,  and  the  "  internal  evidence  " 
is  inconclusive. 

Henryson's  longest,  and  -in  many  respects  his  most  original 
and  effective  work,  is  his  Morall  Fabillis  of  Esope,  a  collection 
of  thirteen  fables,  chiefly  based  on  the  versions  of  Anonymus, 
Lydgate  and  Caxton.  The  outstanding  merit  of  the  work 
is  its  freshness  of  treatment.  The  old  themes  are  retold  with 
such  vivacity,  such  fresh  lights  on  human  character,  and  with 
so  much  local  "  atmosphere,"  that  they  deserve  the  credit  of 
original  productions.  They  are  certainly  unrivalled  in  English 
fabulistic  literature.  The  earliest  available  texts  are  the  Char- 
teris  text  printed  by  Lekpreuik  in  Edinburgh  in  1570  and  the 
Harleian  MS.  No.  3865  in  the  British  Museum. 

In  the  Testament  of  Cresseid  Henryson  supplements  Chaucer's 
tale  of  Troilus  with  the  story  of  the  tragedy  of  Cresseid.  Here 
again  his  literary  craftsmanship  saves  him  from  the  disaster 
which  must  have  overcome  another  poet  in  undertaking  to  con- 
tinue the  part  of  the  story  which  Chaucer  had  intentionally 
left  untold.  The  description  of  Cresseid's  leprosy,  of  ner  meeting 
with  Troilus,  of  his  sorrow  and  charity,  and  of  her  death,  give 
the  poem  a  high  place  in  writings  of  this  genre. 

The  poem  entitled  Orpheus  and  Eurydice,  which  is  drawn  from 


Boethius,  contains  some  good  passages,  especially  the  lyrical 
lament  of  Orpheus,  with  the  refrains  "  Quhar  art  thow  gane, 
my  luf  Erudices?"  and  "  My  lady  quene  and  luf,  Erudices." 
It  is  followed  by  a  long  moralitas,  in  the  manner  of  the  Fables. 

Thirteen  shorter  poems  have  been  ascribed  to  Henryson. 
Of  these  the  pastoral  dialogue  "  Robene  and  Makyne,"  perhaps 
the  best  known  of  his  work,  is  the  most  successful.  Its  model 
may  perhaps  be  found  in  the  pastourclles,  but  it  stands  safely 
on  its  own  merits.  Unlike  most  of  the  minor  poems  it  is  inde- 
pendent of  Chaucerian  tradition.  The  other  pieces  deal  with  the 
conventional  15th-century  topics,  Age:  Death,  Hasty  Credence, 
Want  of  Wise  Men  and  the  like.  The  verses  entitled  "  Sum 
Practysis  of  Medecyne,"  in  which  some  have  failed  to  see  Henry- 
son's  hand,  is  an  example  of  that  boisterous  alliterative  burlesque 
which  is  represented  by  a  single  specimen  in  the  work  of  the 
greatest  makers,  Dunbar,  Douglas  and  Lyndsay.  For  this 
reason,  if  not  for  others,  the  difference  of  its  manner  is  no  argu- 
ment against  its  authenticity. 

The  MS.  authorities  for  the  text  are  the  Asloan,  Bannatyne, 
Maitland  Folio,  Makculloch,  Gray  and  Riddell.  Chepman  and 
Myllar's  Prints  (1508)  have  preserved  two  of  the  minor  poems  and  a 
fragment  of  Orpheus  and  Eurydice.  The  first  complete  edition  was 
prepared  by  David  Laing  (l  vol.,  Edinburgh,  1865).  A  more  ex- 
haustive edition  in  three  volumes,  containing  all  the  texts,  was 
undertaken  by  the  Scottish  Text  Society  (ed.  G.  Gregory  Smith), 
the  first  volume  of  the  text  (vol.  ii.  of  the  work)  appearing  in  1907. 
For  a  critical  account  of  Henryson,  see  Irving's  History  of  Scottish 
Poetry,  Henderson's  Vernacular  Scottish  Literature,  Gregory  Smith's 
Transition  Period,  J.  H.  Millar's  Literary  History  of  Scotland,  and 
the  second  volume  of  the  Cambridge  History  of  English  Literature 
(1908).  (G.  G.  S.) 

HENSCHEL,  GEORGE  [ISIDOR  GEORG]  (1850-  ),  English 
musician  (naturalized  1890),  of  German  family,  was  born  at 
Breslau,  and  educated  as  a  pianist,  making  his  first  public 
appearance  in  Berlin  in  1862.  He  subsequently,  however,  took 
up  singing,  having  developed  a  fine  baritone  voice;  and  in  1868 
he  sang  the  part  of  Hans  Sachs  in  Meister -singer  at  Munich. 
In  1877  he  began  a  successful  career  in  England,  singing  at  the 
principal  concerts;  and  in  1881  he  married  the  American 
soprano,  Lilian  Bailey  (d.  1901),  who  was  associated  with  him 
in  a  number  of  vocal  recitals.  He  was  also  prominent  as  a  con- 
ductor, starting  the  London  symphony  concerts  in  1886,  and  both 
in  England  and  America  (where  he  was  the  first  conductor  of 
the  Boston  symphony  concerts,  1881)  he  took  a  leading  part  in 
advancing  his  art.  He  composed  a  number  of  instrumental 
works,  a  fine  Stabat  Mater  (Birmingham  festival,  1894),  &c., 
and  an  opera,  Nubia  (Dresden,  1899). 

HENSELT,  ADOLF  VON  (1814-1889),  German  composer, 
was  born  at  Schwabach,  in  Bavaria,  on  the  i2th  of  May  1814. 
At  three  years  old  he  began  to  learn  the  violin,  and  at  five  the 
pianoforte  under  Frau  v.  Fladt.  On  obtaining  financial  help 
from  King  Louis  I.  he  went  to  study  under  Hummel  in  Weimar, 
and  thence  in  1832  to  Vienna,  where,  besides  studying  composition 
under  Simon  Sechter,  he  made  a  great  success  as  a  concert 
pianist.  In  order  to  recruit  his  health  he  made  a  prolonged  tour 
in  1836  through  the  chief  German  towns.  In  1837  he  settled 
at  Breslau,  where  he  had  married,  but  in  the  following  year  he 
migrated  to  St  Petersburg,  where  previous  visits  had  made  him 
persona  grata  at  Court.  He  then  became  court  pianist  and 
inspector  of  musical  studies  in  the  Imperial  Institute  of  Female 
Education,  and  was  ennobled.  In  1852  and  again  in  1867  he 
visited  England,  though  in  the  latter  year  he  made  no  public 
appearance.  St  Petersburg  was  his  home  practically  until  his 
death,  which  took  place  at  Warmbrunn  on  the  loth  of  October 
1889.  The  characteristic  of  Henselt's  playing  was  a  combination 
of  Liszt's  sonority  with  Hummel's  smoothness.  It  was  full  of 
poetry,  remarkable  for  the  great  use  he  made  of  extended 
chords,  and  for  his  perfect  technique.  He  excelled  in  his  own 
works  and  in  those  of  Weber  and  Chopin.  His  concerto  in  F 
minor  is  frequently  played  on  the  continent;  and  of  his  many 
valuable  studies,  Si  oiseau  j'elais  is  very  familiar.  His  A  minor 
trio  deserves  to  be  better  kncwn.  At  one  time  Henselt  was 
second  to  Rubinstein  in  the  direction  of  the  St  Petersburg. 
Conservatorium. 


HENSLOW— HENWOOD 


303 


HENSLOW,  JOHN  STEVENS  (1796-1861),  English  botanist 
and  geologist,  was  born  at  Rochester  on  the  6th  of  February 
1796.  From  his  father,  who  was  a  solicitor  in  that  city,  he 
imbibed  a  love  of  natural  history  which  largely  influenced  his 
career.  He  was  educated  at  St  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  graduated  as  sixteenth  wrangler  in  1818,  the  year  in 
which  Sedgwick  became  Woodwardian  professor  of  geology. 
He  accompanied  Sedgwick  in  1819  during  a  tour  in  the  Isle 
of  Wight,  and  there  he  learned  his  first  lessons  in  geology.  He 
also  studied  chemistry  under  Professor  James  Gumming  and 
mineralogy  under  E.  D.  Clarke.  In  the  autumn  of  1819  he  made 
some  valuable  observations  on  the  geology  of  the  Isle  of  Man 
(Trans.  Geol.  Soc.,  1821),  and  in  1821  he  investigated  the  geology 
of  parts  of  Anglesey,  the  results  being  printed  in  the  first  volume 
of  the  Transactions  of  the  Cambridge  Philosophical  Society  (1821), 
the  foundation  of  which  society  was  originated  by  Sedgwick 
and  Henslow.  Meanwhile,  Henslow  had  studied  mineralogy 
with  considerable  zeal,  so  that  on  the  death  of  Clarke  he  was  in 
1822  appointed  professor  of  mineralogy  in  the  university  at 
Cambridge.  Two  years  later  he  took  holy  orders.  Botany,  how- 
ever, had  claimed  much  of  his  attention,  and  to  this  science  he 
became  more  and  more  attached,  so  that  he  gladly  resigned  the 
chair  of  mineralogy  in  1825,  to  succeed  to  that  of  botany.  As 
a  teacher  both  in  the  class-room  and  in  the  field  he  was  eminently 
successful.  To  him  Darwin  largely  owed  his  attachment  to  natural 
history,  and  also  his  introduction  to  Captain  Fitzroy  of  H.M.S. 
"  Beagle."  In  1832  Henslow  was  appointed  vicar  of  Cholsey- 
cum-Moulsford  in  Berkshire,  and  in  1837  rector  of  Hitcham  in 
Suffolk,  and  at  this  latter  parish  he  lived  and  laboured,  endeared 
to  all  who  knew  him,  until  the  close  of  his  life.  His  energies  were 
devoted  to  the  improvement  of  his  parishioners,  but  his  influence 
was  felt  far  and  wide.  In  1843  he  discovered  nodules  of  coprolitic 
origin  in  the  Red  Crag  at  Felixstowe  in  Suffolk,  and  two  years 
later  he  called  attention  to  those  also  in  the  Cambridge  Greensand 
and  remarked  that  they  might  be  of  use  in  agriculture.  Although 
Henslow  derived  no  benefit,  these  discoveries  led  to  the  establish- 
ment of  the  phosphate  industry  in  Suffolk  and  Cambridgeshire; 
and  the  works  proved  lucrative  until  the  introduction  of  foreign 
phosphates.  The  museum  at  Ipswich,  which  was  established 
in  1847,  owed  much  to  Henslow,  who  was  elected  president  in 
1850,  and  then  superintended  the  arrangement  of  the  collections. 
He  died  at  Hitcham  on  the  i6th  of  May  1861.  His  publications 
included  A  Catalogue  of  British  Plants  (1829;  ed.  2,  1835); 
Principles  of  Descriptive  and  Physiological  Botany  (1835); 
Flora  of  Suffolk  (with  E.  Skepper)  (1860). 

Memoir,  by  the  Rev.  Leonard  Jenyns  (1862). 

HENSLOWE,  PHILIP  (d.  1616),  English  theatrical  manager, 
was  the  son  of  Edmund  Henslowe  of  Lindfield,  Sussex,  master  of 
the  game  in  Ashdown  Forest  and  Broil  Park.  He  was  originally 
a  servant  in  the  employment  of  the  bailiff  to  Viscount  Montague, 
whose  property  included  Montague  House  in  Southwark,  and  his 
duties  led  him  to  settle  there  before  1577.  He  subsequently 
married  the  bailiff's  widow,  and,  with  the  fortune  he  got  with  her, 
he  developed  into  a  clever  business  man  and  became  a  consider- 
able owner  of  Southwark  property.  He  started  his  connexion 
with  the  stage  when,  on  the  24th  of  March  1584,  he  bought  land 
near  what  is  now  the  southern  end  of  Southwark  Bridge,  on 
which  stood  the  Little  Rose  playhouse,  afterwards  rebuilt  as  the 
Rose.  Successive  companies  played  in  it  under  Henslowe's 
financial  management  between  1592  and  1603.  The  theatre  at 
Newington  Butts  was  also  under  him  in  1594.  A  share  of  the 
control  in  the  Swan  theatre,  which  like  the  Rose  was  on  the 
Bankside,  fell  to  Henslowe  before  the  close  of  the  i6th  century. 
With  the  actor  Edward  Alleyn,  who  married  his  step-daughter 
Joan  Woodward,  he  built  in  Golden  Lane,  Cripplegate  Without, 
the  Fortune  Playhouse,  opened  in  November  1600.  In  December 
of  1594,  they  had  secured  the  Paris  Garden,  a  place  for  bear- 
baiting,  on  the  Bankside,  and  in  1604  they  bought  the  office  of 
master  of  the  royal  game  of  bears,  bulls  and  mastiffs  from  the 
holder,  and  obtained  a  patent.  Alleyn  sold  his  share  to  Henslowe 
in  February  1610,  and  three  years  later  Henslowe  formed  a  new 
partnership  with  Jacob  Meade  and  built  the  Hope  playhouse, 


designed  for  stage  performances  as  well  as  bull  and  bear-baiting, 
and  managed  by  Meade. 

/In  Henslowe's  theatres  were  first  produced  many  plays  by  the 
famous  Elizabethan  dramatist^]  What  is  known  as  "  Henslowe's 
Diary  "  contains  some  accounts  referring  to  Ashdown  Forest 
between  1576  and  1581,  entered  by  John  Henslowe,  while  the 
later  entries  by  Philip  Henslowe  from  1592  to  1609  are  those 
which  throw  light  on  the  theatrical  matters  of  the  time,  and  which 
have  been  subjected  to  much  controversial  criticism  as  a  result  of 
injuries  done  to  the  manuscript.  "  Henslowe's  Diary  "  passed 
into  the  hands  of  Edward  Alleyn,  and  thence  into  the  Library  of 
Dulwich  College,  where  the  manuscript  remained  intact  for  more 
than  a  hundred  and  fifty  years.  In  1780  Malone  tried  to  borrow 
it,  but  it  had  been  mislaid;  in  1790  it  was  discovered  and  given 
into  his  charge.  He  was  then  at  work  on  his  Variorum  Shake- 
speare. Malone  had  a  transcript  made  of  certain  portions,  and 
collated  it  with  the  original;  and  this  transcript,  with  various 
notes  and  corrections  by  Malone,  is  now  in  the  Dulwich 
Library.  An  abstract  of  this  transcript  he  also  published 
with  his  Variorum  Shakespeare.  The  MS.  of  the  diary  was 
eventually  returned  to  the  library  in  1812  by  Malone's  executor. 
In  1840  it  was  lent  to  J.  P.  Collier,  who  in  1845  printed  for  the 
Shakespeare  Society  what  purported  to  be  a  full  edition,  but  it 
was  afterwards  shown  by  G.  F.  Warner  (Catalogue  of  the  Dulwich 
Library,  1881)  that  a  number  of  forged  interpolations  have  been 
made,  the  responsibility  for  which  rests  on  Collier. 

The  complicated  history  of  the  forgeries  and  their  detection  has 
been  exhaustively  treated  in  Walter  W.  Greg's  edition  of  Henslowe's 
Diary  (London,  1904;  enlarged  1908). 

HENTY,  GEORGE  ALFRED  (1832-1902),  English  war- 
correspondent  and  author,  was  born  at  Trumpington,  near 
Cambridge,  in  December  1832,  and  educated  at  Westminster 
School  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge.  He  served  in  the  Crimea 
in  the  Purveyor's  department,  and  after  the  peace  filled  various 
posts  in  the  department  in  England  and  Ireland,  but  he  found  the 
routine  little  to  his  taste,  and  drifted  into  journalism  for  the 
London  Standard.  He  volunteered  as  Special  Correspondent  for 
the  Austro-Italian  War  of  1866,  accompanied  Garibaldi  in  his 
Tirolese  Campaign,  followed  Lord  Napier  through  the  mountain 
gorges  to  Magdala,  and  Lord  Wolseley  across  bush  and  swamp  to 
Kumassi.  Next  he  reported  the  Franco-German  War,  starved  in 
Paris  through  the  siege  of  the  Commune,  and  then  turned  south  to 
rough  it  in  the  Pyrenees  during  the  Carlist  insurrection.  He  was 
in  Asiatic  Russia  at  the  time  of  the  Khiva  expedition,  and  later 
saw  the  desperate  hand-to-hand  fighting  of  the  Turks  in  the 
Servian  War.  He  found  his  real  vocation  in  middle  life.  Invited 
to  edit  a  magazine  for  boys  called  the  Union  Jack,  he  became  the 
mainstay  of  the  new  periodical,  to  which  he  contributed  several 
serials  in  succession.  The  stories  pleased  their  public,  and  had 
ever  increasing  circulation  in  book  form,  until  Henty  became 
a  name  to  conjure  with  in  juvenile  circles.  Altogether  he  wrote 
about  eighty  of  these  books.  Henty  was  an  enthusiastic  yachts- 
man, having  spent  at  least  six  months  afloat  each  year,  and  he 
died  on  board  his  yacht  in  Weymouth  Harbour  on  the  i6th 
of  November  1902. 

HENWOOD,  WILLIAM  JORY  (1805-1875),  English  mining 
geologist,  was  born  at  Perron  Wharf,  Cornwall,  on  the  i6th  of 
January  1805.  In  182  2  he  commenced  work  as  a  clerk  in  a  mining 
office,  and  soon  took  an  active  interest  in  the  working  of  mines 
and  in  the  metalliferous  deposits.  In  183  2  he  was  appointed  to  the 
office  of  assay-master  and  supervisor  of  tin  in  the  duchy  of 
Cornwall,  a  post  from  which  he  retired  in  1838.  Meanwhile  he 
had  commenced  in  1826  to  communicate  papers  on  mining  sub- 
jects to  the  Royal  Geological  Society  of  Cornwall,  and  the 
Geological  Society  of  London,  and  in  1840  he  was  elected  F.R.S. 
In  1843  he  went  to  take  charge  of  the  Gongo-Soco  mines  in  Brazil  ; 
afterwards  he  proceeded  to  India  to  report  on  certain  metalliferous 
deposits  for  the  Indian  government;  and  in  1858,  impaired  in 
health,  he  retired  and  settled  at  Penzance.  His  most  important 
memoirs  on  the  metalliferous  deposits  of  Cornwall  and  Devon 
were  published  in  1843  by  the  Royal  Geological  Society  of 
Cornwall.  At  a  much  later  date  he  communicated  with  enlarged 


304 


HENZADA— HEPHAESTUS 


experience  a  second  series  of  Observations  on  Metalliferous 
Deposits,  and  on  Subterranean  Temperature  (reprinted  from 
Trans.  R.  Geol.  Soc.  Cornwall,  2  vols.,  1871).  In  1874  he  con- 
tributed a  paper  on  the  Detrital  Tin-ore  of  Cornwall  (Journ.  R. 
Inst.  Cornwall).  The  Murchison  medal  of  the  Geological  Society 
was  awarded  to  him  in  1875,  and  the  mineral  Henwoodite  was 
named  after  him.  He  died  at  Penzance  on  the  5th  of  August 

1875- 

HENZADA,  a  district  of  Lower  Burma,  formerly  in  the  Pegu, 
but  now  in  the  Irrawaddy  division.  Area,  2870  sq.  m.  Pop. 
(1901)  484,558.  It  stretches  from  north  to  south  in.  one  vast 
plain,  forming  the  valley  of  the  Irrawaddy,  and  is  divided  by 
that  river  into  two  nearly  equal  portions.  This  country  is 
protected  from  inundation  by  immense  embankments,  so  that 
almost  the  whole  area  is  suitable  for  rice  cultivation.  The  chief 
mountains  are  the  Arakan  and  Pegu  Yoma  ranges.  The  greatest 
elevation  of  the  Arakan  Yomas  in  Henzada,  attained  in  the 
latitude  of  Myan-aung,  is  4003  ft.  above  sea-level.  Numerous 
torrents  pour  down  from  the  two  boundary  ranges,  and  unite 
in  the  plains  to  form  large  streams,  which  fall  into  the  chief 
streams  of  the  district,  which  are  the  Irrawaddy,  Hlaing  and 
Bassein,  all  of  them  branches  of  the  Irrawaddy.  The  forests 
comprise  almost  every  variety  of  timber  found  in  Burma. 
The  bulk  of  the  cultivation  is  rice,  but  a  number  of  acres  are 
under  tobacco.  The  chief  town  of  the  district  is  HENZADA, 
which  had  in  1901  a  population  of  24,756.  It  is  a  municipal 
town,  with  ten  elective  and  three  ex-officio  members.  Other 
municipal  towns  in  the  district  are  Zalun,  with  a  population  of 
6642;  Myan-aung,  with  a  population  of  6351 ;  and  Kyangin,  with 
a  population  of  7183,  according  to  the  1901  census.  The  town 
of  Lemyethna  had  a  population  of  5831.  The  steamers  of  the 
Irrawaddy  Flotilla  Company  call  at  Henzada  and  Myan-aung. 

The  district  was  once  a  portion  of  the  Talaing  kingdom  of 
Pegu,  afterwards  annexed  to  the  Burmese  empire  in  1753,  and  has 
no  history  of  its  own.  During  the  second  Burmese  war,  after 
Prome  had  been  seized,  the  Burmese  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Irrawaddy  crossed  the  river  and  offered  resistance  to  the  British, 
but  were  completely  routed.  Meanwhile,  in  Tharawaddy,  or 
the  country  east  of  the  Irrawaddy,  and  in  the  south  of  Henzada, 
much  disorder  was  caused  by  a  revolt,  the  leaders  of  which  were, 
however,  defeated  by  the  British  and  their  gangs  dispersed. 

HEPBURN,  SIR  JOHN  (c.  1598-1636),  Scottish  soldier  in 
the  Thirty  Years'  War,  was  a  son  of  George  Hepburn  of  Athel- 
staneford  near  Haddington.  In  1620  and  in  the  following  years 
he  served  in  Bohemia,  on  the  lower  Rhine  and  in  the  Netherlands, 
and  in  1623  he  entered  the  service  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  who, 
two  years  later,  appointed  him  colonel  of  a  Scottish  regiment 
of  his  army.  He  took  part  with  his  regiment  in  Gustavus's 
Polish  wars,  and  in  1631,  a  few  months  before  the  battle  of 
Breitenfeld  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  "  Scots "  or 
"  Green  "  brigade  of  the  Swedish  army.  At  Breitenfeld  it  was 
Hepburn's  brigade  which  delivered  the  decisive  stroke,  and 
after  this  he  remained  with  the  king,  who  placed  the  fullest 
reliance  on  his  skill  and  courage,  until  the  battle  of  the  Alte 
Veste  near  Nuremberg.  He  then  entered  the  French  service, 
and  raised  two  thousand  men  in  Scotland  for  the  French  army, 
to  which  force  was  added  in  France  the  historic  Scottish  archer 
bodyguard  of  the  French  kings.  The  existing  Royal  Scots 
(Lothian)  regiment  (late  ist  Foot)  represents  in  the  British  army 
of  to-day  Hepburn's  French  regiment,  and  indirectly,  through 
the  amalgamation  referred  to,  the  Scottish  contingent  of  the 
Hundred  Years,'  War.  Hepburn's  claim  to  the  right  of  the  line 
of  battle  was  bitterly  resented  by  the  senior  French  regiments. 
Shortly  after  this,  in  1633,  Hepburn  was  under  a  marechal  de 
camp,  and  he  took  part  in  the  campaigns  in  Alsace  and  Lorraine 
(1634-36).  In  1635  Bernhard  of  Saxe-Weimar,  on  entering  the 
French  service,  brought  with  him  Hepburn's  former  Swedish 
regiment,  which  was  at  once  amalgamated  with  the  French 
"  regiment  d'Hebron,"  the  latter  thus  attaining  the  unusual 
strength  of  8300  men.  Sir  John  Hepburn  was  killed  shortly 
afterwards  during  the  siege  of  Saverne  (Zabern)  on  the  8th  of 
July  1636.  He  was  buried  in  Toul  cathedral.  With  his  friend 


Sir  Robert  Monro,  Hepburn  was  the  foremost  of  the  Scottish 
soldiers  of  fortune  who  bore  so  conspicuous  a  part  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War.  He  was  a  sincere  Roman  Catholic.  It  is  stated 
that  he  left  Gustavuc  owing  to  a  jest  about  his  religion,  and  at 
any  rate  he  found  in  the  French  service,  in  which  he  ended  his 
days,  the  opportunity  of  reconciling  his  beliefs  with  the  desire 
of  military  glory  which  had  led  him  into  the  Swedish  army,  and 
with  the  patriotic  feeling  which  had  first  brought  him  out  to  the 
wars  to  fight  for  the  Stuart  princess,  Queen  Elizabeth  of  Bohemia. 

See  James  Grant,  Memoirs  of  Sir  John  Hepburn. 

HEPHAESTION,  a  Macedonian  general,  celebrated  as  the 
friend  of  Alexander  the  Great,  who,  comparing  himself  with 
Achilles,  called  Hephaestion  his  Patroclus.  In  the  later  cam- 
paigns in  Bactria  and  India,  he  was  entrusted  with  the  task  of 
founding  cities  and  colonies,  and  built  the  fleet  intended  to  sail 
down  the  Indus.  He  was  rewarded  with  a  golden  crown  and  the 
hand  of  Drypetis,  the  sister  of  Alexander's  wife  Stateira  (324). 
In  the  same  year  he  died  suddenly  at  Ecbatana.  A  general 
mourning  was  ordered  throughout  Asia;  at  Babylon  a  funeral 
pile  was  erected  at  enormous  cost,  and  temples  were  built  in 
his  honour  (see  ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT). 

HEPHAESTION,  a  grammarian  of  Alexandria,  who  flourished 
in  the  age  of  the  Antonines.  He  was  the  author  of  a  manual 
(abridged  from  a  larger  work  in  48  books)  of  Greek  metres 
(''Eyxtiptiiov  irepl  ij.krpwv),  which  is  most  valuable  as  the 
only  complete  treatise  on  the  subject  that  has  been  preserved. 
The  concluding  chapter  (Ilept  ironwares)  discusses  the  various 
kinds  of  poetical  composition.  It  is  written  in  a  clear  and  simple 
style,  and  was  much  used  as  a  school-book. 

Editions  by  T.  Gaisford  (1855,  with  the  valuable  scholia),  R. 
Westphal  (1886,  in  Scriptores  metrici  Graeci)  and  M.  Consbruch 
(1906);  translation  by  T.  F.  Barham  (1843);  see  also  W.  Christ, 
Gesch.  der  griech.  Litt.  (1898);  M.  Consbruch,  De  veterum  Utpl 
iron7/iaTos  doctrina  (1890) ;  J.  E.  Sandys,  Hist.  Class.  Schol.  i.  (1906). 

HEPHAESTUS,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  god  of  fire,  analogous 
to,  and  by  the  ancients  often  confused  with,  the  Roman  god 
Vulcan  (q.v.);  the  derivation  of  the  name  is  uncertain,  but  it 
may  well  be  of  Greek  origin.  The  elemental  character  of 
Hephaestus  is  far  more  apparent  than  is  the  case  with  the 
majority  of  the  Olympian  gods;  the  word  Hephaestus  was  used 
as  a  synonym  for  fire  not  only  in  poetry  (Homer,  //.  ii.  426  and 
later),  but  also  in  common  speech  (Diod.  v.  74).  It  is  doubtful 
whether  the  origin  of  the  god  can  be  traced  to  any  specific  form 
of  fire.  As  all  earthly  fire  was  thought  to  have  come  from  heaven, 
Hephaestus  has  been  identified  with  the  lightning.  This  is 
supported  by  the  myth  of  his  fall  from  heaven,  and  by  the  fact 
that,  according  to  the  Homeric  tradition,  his  father  was  Zeus, 
the  heaven-god.  On  the  other  hand,  the  lightning  is  not 
associated  with  him  in  literature  or  cult,  and  his  connexion  with 
volcanic  fires  is  so  close  as  to  suggest  that  he  was  originally  a 
volcano-god.  The  connexion,  however,  though  it  may  be  early, 
is  probably  not  primitive,  and  it  seems  reasonable  to  conclude 
that  Hephaestus  was  a  general  fire-god,  though  some  of  his 
characteristics  were  due  to  particular  manifestations  of  the 
element. 

In  Homer  the  fire-god  was  the  son  of  Zeus  and  Hera,  and 
found  a  place  in  the  Olympian  system  as  the  divine  smith.  The 
Iliad  contains  two  versions  of  his  fall  from  heaven.  In  one 
account  (i.  590)  he  was  cast  out  by  Zeus  and  fell  on  Lemnos; 
in  the  other,  Hera  threw  him  down  immediately  after  his  birth 
in  disgust  at  his  lameness,  and  he  was  received  by  the  sea-god- 
desses Eurynome  and  Thetis.  The  Lemnian  version  is  due  to 
the  prominence  of  his  cult  at  Lemnos  in  very  early  times;  and 
his  fall  into  the  sea  may  have  been  suggested  by  volcanic 
activity  in  Mediterranean  islands,  as  at  Lipara  and  Thera. 
The  subsequent  return  of  Hephaestus  to  Olympus  is  a  favourite 
theme  in  early  art.  His  wife  was  Charis,  one  of  the  Graces 
(in  the  Iliad)  or  Aphrodite  (in  the  Odyssey).  The  connexion  of 
the  rough  Hephaestus  with  these  goddesses  is  curious;  it  may 
be  due  to  the  beautiful  works  of  the  smith-god  (xo.pLtvra  tpyo.), 
but  it  is  possibly  derived  from  the  supposed  fertilizing  and 
productive  power  of  fire,  in  which  case  Hephaestus  is  a  natural 
mate  of  Charis,  a  goddess  of  spring,  and  Aphrodite  the  goddess 


HEPPENHEIM— HEPPLEWHITE 


305 


of  love.  In  Homer,  the  skill  of  Hephaestus  in  metallurgy  is 
often  mentioned;  his  forge  was  on  Olympus,  where  he  was 
served  by  images  of  golden  handmaids  which  he  had  animated. 
Similar  myths  are  found  in  relation  to  the  Finnish  smith-god 
Ilmarinen,  who  made  a  golden  woman,  and  the  Teutonic  Wieland; 
a  belief  in  the  magical  power  of  metal-workers  is  a  common 
survival  from  an  age  in  which  their  art  was  new  and  mysterious. 
In  epic  poetry  Hephaestus  is  rather  a  comic  figure,  and  his 
limping  gait  provokes  "  Homeric  laughter  "  among  the  gods. 
In  Vedic  poetry  Agni,  the  fire-god,  is  footless;  and  the  ancients 
themselves  attributed  this  lameness  to  the  crooked  appearance 
of  flame  (Servius  on  Aen.  viii.  814),  and  possibly  no  better 
explanation  can  be  found,  though  it  has  been  suggested  that  in 
an  early  stage  of  society  the  trade  of  a  smith  would  be  suitable 
for  the  lame;  Hephaestus  and  the  lame  Wieland  would  thus 
conform  to  the  type  of  their  human  counterparts. 
.  Except  in  Lemnos  and  Attica,  there  are  few  indications  of 
any  cult  of  Hephaestus.  His  association  with  Lemnos  can  be 
traced  from  Homer  to  the  Roman  age.  A  town  in  the  island  was 
called  Hephaestia,  and  the  functions  of  the  god  must  have  been 
wide,  as  we  are  told  that  his  Lemnian  priests  could  cure  snake- 
bites. Once  a  year  every  fire  was  extinguished  on  the  island  for 
nine  days,  during  which  period  sacrifice  was  offered  to  the  gods 
of  the  underworld  and  the  dead.  After  the  nine  days  were  passed, 
new  fire  was  brought  from  the  sacred  hearth  at  Delos.  The 
significance  of  this  and  similar  customs  is  examined  by  J.  G. 
Frazer,  Golden  Bough,  iii.  ch.  4.  The  close  connexion  of 
Hephaestus  with  Lemnos  and  especially  with  its  mountain 
Mosychlus  has  been  explained  by  the  supposed  existence  of  a 
volcano;  but  no  crater  or  other  sign  of  volcanic  agency  is  now 
apparent,  and  the  "  Lemnian  fire  " — a  phenomenon  attributed 
to  Hephaestus — may  have  been  due  to  natural  gas  (see  LCMNOS). 
In  Sicily,  however,  the  volcanic  nature  of  the  god  is  prominent 
in  his  cult  at  Etna,  as  well  as  in  the  neighbouring  Liparaean 
isles.  The  Olympian  forge  had  been  transferred  to  Etna  or 
some  other  volcano,  and  Hephaestus  had  become  a  subterranean 
rather  than  a  celestial  power. 

The  divine  smith  naturally  became  a  "  culture-god ";  in 
Crete  the  invention  of  forging  in  iron  was  attributed  to  him, 
and  he  was  honoured  by  all  metal-workers.  But  we  have  little 
record  of  his  cult  in  this  aspect,  except  at  Athens,  where  his 
worship  was  of  real  importance,  belonging  to  the  oldest  stratum 
of  Attic  religion.  A  tribe  was  called  after  his  name,  and  Erich- 
thonius,  the  mythical  father  of  the  Attic  people,  was  the  son  of 
Hephaestus.  Terra-cotta  statuettes  of  the  god  seem  to  have  been 
placed  before  the  hearths  of  Athenian  houses.  This  temple  has 
been  identified,  not  improbably,  with  the  so-called  "  Theseum  "; 
it  contained  a  statue  of  Athena,  and  the  two  deities  are  often 
associated,  in  literature  and  cult,  as  the  joint  givers  of  civilization 
to  the  Athenians.  The  class  of  artisans  was  under  their  special 
protection;  and  the  joint  festival  of  the  two  divinities — the 
Chalceia — commemorated  the  invention  of  bronze-working  by 
Hephaestus.  In  the  Hephaesteia  (the  particular  festival  of  the 
god)  there  was  a  torch  race,  a  ceremonial  not  indeed  confined 
to  fire-gods  like  Hephaestus  and  Prometheus,  but  probably 
in  its  origin  connected  with  them,  whether  its  object  was  to 
purify  and  quicken  the  land,  or  (according  to  another  theory) 
to  transmit  a  new  fire  with  all  possible  speed  to  places  where  the 
fire  was  polluted.  If  the  latter  view  is  correct,  the  torch  race 
would  be  closely  akin  to  the  Lemnian  fire-ritual  which  has  been 
mentioned.  The  relation  between  Hephaestus  and  Prometheus 
is  in  some  respects  close,  though  the  distinction  between  these 
gods  is  clearly  marked.  The  fire,  as  an  element,  belongs  to  the 
Olympian  Hephaestus;  the  Titan  Prometheus,  a  more  human 
character,  steals  it  for  the  use  of  man.  Prometheus  resembles 
the  Polynesian  Maui,  who  went  down  to  fetch  fire  from  the 
volcano  of  Mahuika,  the  fire-god.  Hephaestus  is  a  culture-god 
mainly  in  his  secondary  aspect  as  the  craftsman,  whereas 
Prometheus  originates  all  civilization  with  the  gift  of  fire.  But 
the  importance  of  Prometheus  is  mainly  mythological;  the 
Titan  belonged  to  a  fallen  dynasty,  and  in  actual  cult  was  largely 
superseded  by  Hephaestus. 


In  archaic  art  Hephaestus  is  generally  represented  as  bearded, 
though  occasionally  a  younger  beardless  type  is  found,  as  on  a 
vase  (in  the  British  Museum),  on  which  he  appears  as  a  young 
man  assisting  Athena  in  the  creation  of  Pandora.  At  a  later 
time  the  bearded  type  prevails.  The  god  is  usually  clothed  in  a 
short  sleeveless  tunic,  and  wears  a  round  close-fitting  cap.  His 
face  is  that  of  a  middle-aged  man,  with  unkempt  hair.  He  is 
in  fact  represented  as  an  idealized  Greek  craftsman,  with  the 
hammer,  and  sometimes  the  pincers.  Some  mythologists  have 
compared  the  hammer  of  Hephaestus  with  that  of  Thor,  and 
have  explained  it  as  the  emblem  of  a  thunder-god;  but  it  is 
Zeus,  not  Hephaestus,  who  causes  the  thunder,  and  the  emblems 
of  the  latter  god  are  merely  the  signs  of  his  occupation  as  a 
smith.  In  art  no  attempt  was  made,  as  a  rule,  to  indicate  the 
lameness  of  Hephaestus;  but  one  sculptor  (Alcamenes)  is  said 
to  have  suggested  the  deformity  without  spoiling  the  statue. 

AUTHORITIES.— L.  Preller  (ed.  C.  Robert),  Griech.  Mythologie, 
i.  174  f.  (Berlin,  1894);  W.  H.  Roscher,  Lex.  der  griech.  u.  rom. 
Mythologie,  s.v.  "  Hephaistos "  (Leipzig,  1884-1886);  Harrison, 
Myth,  and  Man.  of  Ancient  Athens,  p.  119  f.  (London,  1890);  O. 
Gruppe,  Griech.  Mythologie  u.  Religionsgesch.  p.  1304  f.  (Munich, 
1906) ;  O.  Schrader  and  F.  B.  Jevons,  Prehistoric  Antiquities  of  the 
Aryan  People,  p.  161,  &c.  (London,  1890);  L.  R.  Farnell,  Cults  of  the 
Greek  States,  v.  (1909).  (E.  E.  S.) 

HEPPENHEIM,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  grand-duchy  of 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  on  the  Bergstrasse,  between  Darmstadt 
and  Heidelberg,  21  m.  N.  of  the  latter  by  rail.  Pop.  (1905),  6364. 
It  possesses  a  parish  church,  occupying  the  site  of  one  reputed  to 
have  been  built  by  Charlemagne  about  803,  an  interesting  town 
hall  and  several  schools.  On  an  isolated  hill  close  by  stand  the 
extensive  ruins  of  the  castle  of  Starkenburg,  built  by  the  abbot, 
Ulrich  von  Lorsch,  about  1064  and  destroyed  during  the  Seven 
Years'  War,  and  another  hill,  the  Landberg,  was  a  place  of 
assembly  in  the  middle  ages.  Heppenheim,  at  first  the  property 
of  the  abbey  of  Lorsch,  became  a  town  in  1318.  After  belonging 
to  the  Rhenish  Palatinate,  it  came  into  the  possession  of  Hesse- 
Darmstadt  in  1803.  Hops,  wine  and  tobacco  are  grown,  and 
there  are  large  stone  quarries,  and  several  small  industries 
in  the  town. 

HEPPLEWHITE,  GEORGE  (d.  1786),  one  of  the  most  famous 
English  cabinet-makers  oftheiSth  century.  There  is  practically 
no  biographical  material  relating  to  Hepplewhite.  The  only 
facts  that  are  known  with  certainty  are  that  he  was  apprenticed 
to  Gillow  at  Lancaster,  that  he  carried  on  business  in  the  parish 
of  Saint  Giles,  Cripplegate,  and  that  administration  of  his  estate 
was  granted  to  his  widow  Alice  on  the  27th  of  June  1786.  The 
administrator's  accounts,  which  were  filed  in  the  Prerogative 
Court  of  Canterbury  a  year  later,  indicate  that  his  property  was 
of  considerable  value.  After  his  death  the  business  was  continued 
by  his  widow  under  the  style  of  A.  Hepplewhite  &  Co.  Our  only 
approximate  means  of  identifying  his  work  are  The  Cabinet- 
Maker  and  Upholsterer's  Guide,  which  was  first  published  in 
1788,  two  years  after  his  death,  and  ten  designs  in  The  Cabinet- 
maker's London  Book  of  Prices  (1788),  issued  by  the  London 
Society  of  Cabinet-Makers.  It  is,  however,  exceedingly  difficult 
to  earmark  any  given  piece  of  furniture  as  being  the  actual  work 
or  design  of  Hepplewhite,  since  it  is  generally  recognized  that  to 
a  very  large  extent  the  name  represents  rather  a  fashion  than 
a  man.  Lightness,  delicacy  and  grace  are  the  distinguishing 
characteristics  of  Hepplewhite  work.  The  massiveness  of 
Chippendale  had  given  place  to  conceptions  that,  especially  in 
regard  to  chairs — which  had  become  smaller  as  hoops  went  out 
of  fashion — depended  for  their  effect  more  upon  inlay  than  upon 
carving.  In  one  respect  at  least  the  Hepplewhite  style  was 
akin  to  that  of  Chippendale — in  both  cases  the  utmost  ingenuity 
was  lavished  upon  the  chair,  and  if  Hepplewhite  was  not  the 
originator  he  appears  to  have  been  the  most  constant  and  success- 
ful user  of  the  shield  back.  This  elegant  form  was  employed  by 
the  school  in  a  great  variety  of  designs,  and  nearly  always  in 
a  way  artistically  satisfying.  Where  Chippendale,  his  contem- 
poraries and  his  immediate  successors  had  used  the  cabriole 
and  the  square  leg  with  a  good  deal  of  carving,  the  Hepplewhite 
manner  preferred  a  slighter  leg,  plain,  fluted  or  reeded,  tapering  to 


306 


HEPTARCHY— HERA 


a  spade  foot  which  often  became  the  "  spider  leg  "  that  character- 
ized much  of  the  late  iSth-century  furniture;  this  form  of  leg 
was  indeed  not  confined  to  chairs  but  was  used  also  for  tables 
and  sideboards.  Of  the  dainty  drawing-room  grace  of  the  style 
there  can  be  no  question.  The  great  majority  of  modern  chairs 
are  of  Hepplewhite  inspiration,  while  he,  or  those  who  worked 
with  him,  appears  to  have  a  clear  claim  to  have  originated,  or 
at  all  events  popularized,  the  winged  easy-chair,  in  which  the 
sides  are  continued  to  the  same  height  as  the  back.  This  is 
probably  the  most  comfortable  type  of  chair  that  has  ever  been 
made.  The  backs  of  Hepplewhite  chairs  were  often  adorned 
with  galleries  and  festoons  of  wheat-ears  or  pointed  fern  leaves, 
and  not  infrequently  with  the  prince  of  Wales's  feathers  in  some 
more  or  less  decorative  form.  The  frequency  with  which  this 
badge  was  used  has  led  to  the  suggestion  either  that  A.  Hepple- 
white &  Co.  were  employed  by  George  IV.  when  prince  of  Wales, 
or  that  the  feathers  were  used  as  a  political  emblem.  The  former 
suggestion  is  obviously  the  more  feasible,  but  there  is  little  doubt 
that  the  feathers  were  used  by  other  makers  working  in  the  same 
style.  It  has  been  objected  as  an  artistic  flaw  in  Hepplewhite 's 
chairs  that  they  have  the  appearance  of  fragility.  They  are, 
however,  constructionally  sound  as  a  rule.  The  painted  and 
japanned  work  has  been  criticized  on  safer  grounds.  This 
delicate  type  of  furniture,  often  made  of  satinwood,  and  painted 
with  wreaths  and  festoons,  with  amorini  and  musical  instruments 
or  floral  motives,  is  the  most  elegant  and  pleasing  that  can  be 
imagined.  It  has,  however,  no  elements  of  decorative  perman- 
ence. With  comparatively  little  use  the  paintings  wear  off 
and  have  to  be  renewed.  A  piece  of  untouched  painted  satin- 
wood  is  almost  unknown,  and  one  of  the  essential  charms  of 
old  furniture  as  of  all  other  antiques  is  that  it  should  retain  the 
patina  of  time.  A  large  proportion  of  Hepplewhite  furniture 
is  inlaid  with  the  exotic  woods  which  had  come  into  high  favour 
by  the  third  quarter  of  the  i8th  century.  While  the  decorative 
use  upon  furniture  of  so  evanescent  a  medium  as  paint  is  always 
open  to  criticism,  any  form  of  marquetry  is  obviously  legitimate, 
and,  if  inlaid  furniture  be  less  ravishing  to  the  eye,  its  beauty 
is  but  enhanced  by  time.  It  was  not  in  chairs  alone  that 
the  Hepplewhite  manner  excelled.  It  acquired,  for  instance,  a 
speciality  of  seats  for  the  tall,  narrow  Georgian  sash  windows, 
which  in  the  Hepplewhite  period  had  almost  entirely  superseded 
the  more  picturesque  forms  of  an  earlier  time.  These  window- 
seats  had  ends  rolling  over  outwards,  and  no  backs,  and  despite 
their  skimpiness  their  elegant  simplicity  is  decidedly  pleasing. 
Elegance,  in  fact,  was  the  note  of  a  style  which  on  the  whole  was 
more  distinctly  English  than  that  which  preceded  or  immediately 
followed  it.  The  smaller  Hepplewhite  pieces  are  much  prized 
by  collectors.  Among  these  may  be  included  urn-shaped  knife- 
boxes  in  mahogany  and  satinwood,  charming  in  form  and 
decorative  in  the  extreme;  inlaid  tea-caddies,  varying  greatly 
in  shape  and  material,  but  always  appropriate  and  coquet; 
delicate  little  fire-screens  with  shaped  poles;  painted  work- 
tables,  and  inlaid  stands.  Hepplewhite's  bedsteads  with  carved 
and  fluted  pillars  were  very  handsome  and  attractive.  The 
evolution  of  the  dining-room  sideboard  made  rapid  progress 
towards  the  end  of  the  i8th  century,  but  neither  Hepplewhite 
nor  those  who  worked  in  his  style  did  much  to  advance  it.  Indeed 
they  somewhat  retarded  its  development  by  causing  it  to  revert 
to  little  more  than  that  side-table  which  had  been  its  original 
form.  It  was,  however,  a  very  delightful  table  with  its  undulat- 
ing front,  its  many  elegant  spade-footed  legs  and  its  delicate 
carving.  If  we  were  dealing  with  a  less  elusive  personality  it 
would  be  just  to  say  that  Hepplewhite's  work  varies  from  the 
extreme  of  elegance  and  the  most  delicious  simplicity  to  an 
unimaginative  commonplace,  and  sometimes  to  actual  ugliness. 
As  it  is,  this  summary  may  well  be  applied  to  the  style  as  a  whole 
— a  style  which  was  assuredly  not  the  creation  of  any  one  man, 
but  owed  much  alike  of  excellence  and  of  defect  to  a  school 
of  cabinet-makers  who  were  under  the  influence  of  conflicting 
tastes  and  changing  ideals.  At  its  best  the  taste  was  so  fine  and 
so  full  of  distinction,  so  simple,  modest  and  sufficient,  that  it 
amounted  tc  genius.  On  its  lower  planes  it  was  clearly  influenced 


by  commercialism  and  the  desire  to  make  what  tasteless  people 
preferred.  Yet  this  is  no  more  than  to  say  that  the  Hepplewhite 
style  succumbed  sometimes,  perhaps  very  often,  to  the  eternal 
enemy  of  all  art — the  uninspired  banality  of  the  average 
man.  (J.  P.-B.) 

HEPTARCHY  (Gr.  brTO.  seven,  and  dpx^,  rule),  a  word 
which  is  frequently  used  to  designate  the  period  of  English 
history  between  the  coming  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  in  449  and  the 
union  of  the  kingdoms  under  Ecgbert  in  828.  It  was  first  used 
during  the  i6th  century  because  of  the  belief  held  by  Camden 
and  other  older  historians,  that  during  this  period  there  were 
exactly  seven  kingdoms  in  England,  these  being  Northumbria, 
Mercia,  East  Anglia,  Essex,  Kent,  Sussex  and  Wessex.  This 
belief  is  erroneous,  as  the  number  of  kingdoms  varied  consider- 
ably from  time  to  time;  nevertheless  the  word  still  serves  a 
useful  purpose  to  denote  the  period. 

HERA,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  sister  and  wife  of  Zeus  and 
queen  of  the  Olympian  gods;  she  was  identified  by  the  Romans 
with  Juno.  The  derivation  of  the  name  is  obscure,  but  there 
is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  she  was  a  genuine  Greek  deity.  There 
are  no  signs  of  Oriental  influence  in  her  cults,  except  at  Corinth, 
where  she  seems  to  have  been  identified  with  Astarte.  It  is 
probable  that  she  was  originally  a  personification  of  some  depart- 
ment of  nature;  but  the  traces  of  her  primitive  significance  are 
vague,  and  have  been  interpreted  to  suit  various  theories.  Some 
of  the  ancients  connected  her  with  the  earth;  Plato,  followed 
by  the  Stoics,  derived  her  name  from  arjp,  the  air.  Both  theories 
have  been  revived  in  modern  times,  the  former  notably  by  F.  G. 
Welcker,  the  latter  by  L.  Preller.  A  third  view,  that  Hera  is 
the  moon,  is  held  by  W.  H.  Roscher  and  others.  Of  these 
explanations,  that  advanced  by  Preller  has  little  to  commend  it, 
even  if,  with  O.  Gruppe,  we  understand  the  air-goddess  as  a 
storm  deity;  some  of  the  arguments  in  support  of  the  two  other 
theories  will  be  examined  in  this  article. 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  origin  of  Hera,  to  the  historic 
Greeks  (except  a  few  poets  or  philosophers)  she  was  a  purely 
anthropomorphic  goddess,  and  had  no  close  relation  to  any 
province  of  nature.  -In  literature,  from  the  times  of  Homer 
and  Hesiod,  she  played  an  important  part,  appearing  most 
frequently  as  the  jealous  and  resentful  wife  of  Zeus.  In  this 
character  she  pursues  with  vindictive  hatred  the  heroines,  such 
as  Alcmene,  Leto  and  Semele,  who  were  beloved  by  Zeus.  She 
visits  his  sins  upon  the  children  born  of  his  intrigues,  and  is 
thus  the  constant  enemy  of  Heracles  and  Dionysus.  This  char- 
acter of  the  offended  wife  was  borrowed  by  later  poets  from  the 
Greek  epic;  but  it  belongs  to  literature  rather  than  to  cult,  in 
which  the  dignity  and  power  of  the  goddess  is  naturally  more 
emphasized. 

The  worship  of  Hera  is  found,  in  different  degrees  of  promi- 
nence, throughout  the  Greek  world.  It  was  especially  important 
in  the  ancient  Achaean  centres,  Argos,  Mycenae  and  Sparta, 
which  she  claims  in  the  Iliad  (iv.  51)  as  her  three  dearest  cities. 
Whether  Hera  was  also  worshipped  by  the  early  Dorians  is  un- 
certain; after  the  Dorian  invasion  she  remained  the  chief  deity  of 
Argos,  but  her  cult  at  Sparta  was  not  so  conspicuous.  She  received 
honour,  however,  in  other  parts  of  the  Peloponnese,  particularly 
in  Olympia,  where  her  temple  was  the  oldest,  and  in  Arcadia. 
In  several  Boeotian  cities  she  seems  to  have  been  one  of  the 
principal  objects  of  worship,  while  the  neighbouring  island  of 
Euboea  probably  derived  its  name  from  a  title  of  Hera,  who 
was  "  rich  in  cows  "  (Eu/3oia).  Among  the  islands  of  the  Aegean, 
Samos  was  celebrated  for  the  cult  of  Hera;  according  to  the 
local  tradition,  she  was  born  in  the  island.  As  Hera  Lacinia 
(from  her  Lacinian  temple  near  Croton)  she  was  extensively 
worshipped  in  Magna  Graecia. 

The  connexion  of  Zeus  and  Hera  was  probably  not  primitive, 
since  Dione  seems  to  have  preceded  Hera  as  the  wife  of  Zeus 
at  Dodona.  The  origin  of  the  connexion  may  possibly  be  due 
to  the  fusion  of  two  "  Pelasgic  "  tribes,  worshipping  Zeus  and 
Hera  respectively;  but  speculation  on  the  earliest  cult  of  the 
goddess,  before  she  became  the  wife  of  Zeus,  must  be  largely 
conjectural.  The  close  relation  of  the  two  deities  appears  in  a 


HERA 


307 


frequent  community  of  altars  and  sacrifices,  and  also  in  the 
itpos  7<i;uos,  a  dramatic  representation  of  their  sacred  marriage. 
The  festival,  which  was  certainly  ancient,  was  held  not  only 
in  Argos,  Samos,  Euboea  and  other  centres  of  Hera-worship, 
but  also  in  Athens,  where  the  goddess  was  obscured  by  the 
predominance  of  Athena.  The  details  of  the  tepos  7ajuos  may 
have  varied  locally,  but  the  main  idea  of  the  ritual  was  the  same. 
In  the  Daedala,  as  the  festival  was  called  at  Plataea,  an  effigy 
was  made  from  an  oak-tree,  dressed  in  bridal  attire,  and  carried 
in  a  cart  with  a  woman  who  acted  as  bridesmaid.  The  image 
was  called  Daedale,  and  the  ritual  was  explained  by  a  myth; 
Hera  had  left  Zeus  in  her  anger;  in  order  to  win  her  back, 
Zeus  announced  that  he  was  about  to  marry,  and  dressed  up  a 
puppet  to  imitate  a  bride;  Hera  met  the  procession,  tore  the 
veil  from  the  false  bride,  and,  on  discovering  the  ruse,  became 
reconciled  to  her  husband.  The  image  was  put  away  after  each 
occasion;  every  sixty  years  a  large  number  of  such  images, 
which  had  served  in  previous  celebrations,  were  carried  in 
procession  to  the  top  of  Mount  Cithaeron,  and  were  burned  on 
an  altar  together  with  animals  and  the  altar  itself.  As  Frazer 
notes  (Golden  Bough?  i.  227),  this  festival  appears  to  belong 
to  the  large  class  of  mimetic  charms  designed  to  quicken  the 
growth  of  vegetation;  the  marriage  of  Zeus  and  Hera  would 
in  this  case  represent  the  union  of  the  king  and  queen  of  May. 
But  it  by  no  means  follows  that  Hera  was  therefore  originally 
a  goddess  of  the  earth  or  of  vegetation.  When  the  real  nature 
of  the  ritual  had  become  lost  or  obscured,  it  was  natural  to 
explain  it  by  the  help  of  an  aetiological  myth;  in  European 
folklore,  images,  corresponding  to  those  burnt  at  the  Daedala, 
were  sometimes  called  Judas  Iscariot  or  Luther  (Golden  Bough? 
iii.  315).  At  Samos  the  tfpos  yafjios  was  celebrated  annually; 
the  image  of  Hera  was  concealed  on  the  sea-shore  and  solemnly 
discovered.  This  rite  seems  to  reflect  an  actual  custom  of 
abduction;  or  it  may  rather  refer  to  the  practice  of  intercourse 
between  the  betrothed  before  marriage.  Such  intercourse  was 
sanctioned  by  the  Samians,  who  excused  it  by  the  example  of 
Zeus  and  Hera  (schol.  on  //.  xiv.  296).  There  is  nothing  in  the 
Samian  Upos  7<x/ios  to  suggest  a  marriage  of  heaven  and  earth, 
or  of  two  vegetation-spirits;  as  Dr  Farnell  points  out,  the 
ritual  appears  to  explain  the  custom  of  human  nuptials.  The 
sacred  marriage,  therefore,  though  connected  with  vegetation 
at  the  Daedala,  was  not  necessarily  a  vegetation-charm  in  its 
origin;  consequently,  it  does  not  prove  that  Hera  was  an  earth- 
goddess  or  tree-spirit.  It  is  at  least  remarkable  that,  except 
at  Argos,  Hera  had  little  to  do  with  agriculture,  and  was  not 
closely  associated  with  such  deities  as  Cybele,  Demeter,  Perse- 
phone and  Dionysus,  whose  connexion  with  the  earth,  or  with 
its  fruits,  is  beyond  doubt. 

In  her  general  cult  Hera  was  worshipped  in  two  main  capa- 
cities: (i)  as  the  consort  of  Zeus  and  queen  of  heaven;  (2)  as 
the  goddess  who  presided  over  marriage,  and,  in  a  wider  sense, 
over  the  various  phases  of  a  woman's  life.  Dionysius  of  Hali- 
carnassus  (Ars  rhet.  ii.  2)  calls  Zeus  and  Hera  the  first  wedded 
pair,  and  a  sacrifice  to  Zeus  rAeios  and  Hera  TeXeia  was  a 
regular  feature  of  the  Greek  wedding.  Girls  offered  their  hair 
or  veils  to  Hera  before  marriage.  In  Aristophanes  (Thesm.g-js) 
she  "  keeps  the  keys  of  wedlock."  The  marriage-goddess 
naturally  became  the  protector  of  women  in  childbed,  and  bore 
the  title  of  the  birth-goddess  (Eileithyia),  at  Argos  and  Athens. 
In  Homer  (77.  xi.  270)  and  Hesiod  (Theog.  922)  she  is  the  mother 
of  the  Eileithyiae,  or  the  single  Eileithyia.  Her  cult-titles 
irapdivos  (or  irais),  reXeta  and  xrjpa  the  "  maiden,"  "  wife," 
and  "  widow "  (or  "  divorced  ")  have  been  interpreted  as 
symbolical  of  the  earth  in  spring,  summer,  and  winter;  but  they 
may  well  express  the  different  conditions  in  the  lives  of  her 
human  worshippers.  The  Argives  believed  that  Hera  recovered 
her  virginity  every  year  by  bathing  in  a  certain  spring  (Paus. 
viii.  22,  2),  a  belief  which  probably  reflects  the  custom  of  cere- 
monial purification  after  marriage  (see  Frazer,  Adonis,  p.  176). 
Although  Hera  was  not  the  bestower  of  feminine  charm  to  the 
same  extent  as  Aphrodite,  she  was  the  patron  of  a  contest 
for  beauty  in  a  Lesbian  festival  (KaXXwreia).  This  intimate 


relation  with  women  has  been  held  a  proof  that  Hera  was 
originally  a  moon-goddess,  as  the  moon  is  often  thought  to 
influence  childbirth  and  other  aspects  of  feminine  life.  But 
Hera's  patronage  of  women,  though  undoubtedly  ancient,  is 
not  necessarily  primitive.  Further,  the  Greeks  themselves, 
who  were  always  ready  to  identify  Artemis  with  the  moon, 
do  not  seem  to  have  recognized  any  lunar  connexion  in 
Hera. 

Among  her  particular  worshippers,  at  Argos  and  Samos, 
Hera  was  much  more  than  the  queen  of  heaven  and  the  marriage- 
goddess.  As  the  patron  of  these  cities  (iroXtoOxos)  she  held  a 
place  corresponding  to  that  of  Athena  in  Athens.  The  Argives 
are  called  "  the  people  of  Hera  "  by  Pindar;  the  Heraeum, 
situated  under  a  mountain  significantly  called  Mt.  Euboea, 
was  the  most  important  temple  in  Argolis.  Here  the  agricultural 
character  of  her  ritual  is  well  marked;  the  first  oxen  used  in 
ploughing  were,  according  to  an  Argive  myth,  dedicated  to  her 
as  £tv£i5la;  and  the  sprouting  ears  of  corn  were  called  "  the 
flowers  of  Hera."  She  was  worshipped  as  the  goddess  of  flowers 
(avBeia);  girls  served  in  her  temple  under  the  name  of  "flower- 
bearers,"  and  a  flower  festival  ('UpocravBda,  '~H.poa.vdia)  was 
celebrated  by  Peloponnesian  women  in  spring.  These  rites 
recall  our  May  day  observance,  and  give  colour  to  the  earth- 
goddess  theory.  On  the  other  hand  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  patron  deity  of  a  Greek  state  had  very  wide  functions;  and 
it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  Hera  (whatever  her  origin  may 
have  been)  assumed  an  agricultural  character  among  her  own 
people  whose  occupations  were  largely  agricultural.  So,  although 
the  warlike  character  of  Hera  was  not  elsewhere  prominent, 
she  assumed  a  militant  aspect  in  her  two  chief  cities;  a  festival 
called  the  Shield  (dtrirts,  in  Pindar  ay&v  xaXxeos)  was  part  of  the 
Argive  cult,  and  there  was  an  armed  procession  in  her  honour 
at  Samos.  The  city-goddess,  whether  Hera  or  Athena,  must  be 
chief  alike  in  peace  and  war. 

The  cow  was  the  animal  specially  sacred  to  Hera  both  in  ritual 
and  in  mythology.  The  story  of  lo,  metamorphosed  into  a  cow, 
is  familiar;  she  was  priestess  of  Hera,  and  was  originally,  no 
doubt,  a  form  of  the  goddess  herself.  The  Homeric  epithet 
/Jocoiris  may  have  meant  "  cow-faced  "  to  the  earliest  worshippers 
of  Hera,  though  by  Homer  and  the  later  Greeks  it  was  understood 
as  "  large-eyed,"  like  the  cow.  A  car  drawn  by  oxen  seems  to 
have  been  widely  used  in  the  processions  of  Hera,  and  the  cow 
was  her  most  frequent  sacrifice.  The  origin  of  Hera's  association 
with  the  cow  is  uncertain,  but  there  is  no  need  to  see  in  it,  with 
Roscher,  a  symbol  of  the  moon.  The  cuckoo  was  also  sacred 
to  Hera,  who,  according  to  the  Argive  legend,  was  wooed  by 
Zeus  in  the  form  of  the  bird.  In  later  times  the  peacock,  which 
was  still  unfamiliar  to  the  Greeks  in  the  $th  century,  was  her 
favourite,  especially  at  Samos. 

The  earliest  recorded  images  of  Hera  preceded  the  rise  of 
Greek  sculpture;  a  log  at  Thespiae,  a  plank  at  Samos,  a  pillar 
at  Argos  served  to  represent  the  goddess.  In  the  archaic  period 
of  sculpture  the  i^oavov  or  wooden  statue  of  the  Samian  Hera 
by  Smilis  was  famous.  In  the  first  half  of  the  5th  century  the 
sacred  marriage  was  represented  on  an  extant  metope  from  a 
temple  at  Selinus.  The  most  celebrated  statue  of  Hera  was  the 
chryselephantine  work  of  Polyclitus,  made  for  the  Heraeum  at 
Argos  soon  after  423  B.C.  It  is  fully  described  by  Pausanias, 
who  says  that  Hera  was  seated  on  a  throne,  wearing  a  crown 
(a-rtyavos) ,  and  carrying  a  sceptre  in  one  hand  and  a  pomegranate 
in  the  other.  Various  ancient  writers  testify  to  the  beauty  and 
dignity  of  the  statue,  which  was  considered  equal  to  the  Zeus 
of  Pheidias.  Polyclitus  seems  to  have  fixed  the  type  of  Hera 
as  a  youthful  matron,  but  unfortunately  the  exact  character 
of  her  head  cannot  be  determined.  A  majestic  and  rather 
severe  beauty  marks  the  conception  of  Hera  in  later  art,  of 
which  the  Farnese  bust  at  Naples  and  the  Ludovisi  Hera  are 
the  most  conspicuous  examples. 

AUTHORITIES. — F.  G.  Welcker,  Griech.  Gotterl.  \.  362  f. 
(Gottingen,  1857-1863);  L.  Preller  (ed.  C.  Robert),  Griech.  Mytho- 
logie,  i.  160  f.  (Berlin,  1894);  W.  H.  Roscher,  Lex.  der  griech.  u, 
rom.  Mythologie,  s.v.  (Leipzig,  1884) ;  C.  Daremberg  and  E.  Saglio, 


3o8 


HERACLEA— HERACLIDAE 


Diet,  des  ant.  grecques  et  rom.  s.v.  "Juno"  (Paris,  1877);  L.  R. 
Farnell,  Cults  of  the  Greek  States,  i.  179  f.  (Oxford,  1896);  A.  B. 
Cook  in  Class.  Rev.  xx.  365  f.  416  f. ;  O.  Gruppe,  Griech.  Mytho- 
logie  u.  Religionsgesch.  p.  1121  f.  (Munich,  1903).  In  the  article 
GREEK  ART,  fig.  24,  will  be  found  a  roughly  executed  head  of  Hera, 
from  the  pediment  of  the  treasury  of  the  Megarians.  (E.  E.  S.) 

HERACLEA,  the  name  of  a  large  number  of  ancient  cities 
founded  by  the  Greeks. 

1.  HERACLEA  (Gr.  'Hpa/cXeia),  an  ancient  city  of  Lucania, 
situated  near  the  modern  Policoro,  3  m.  from  the  coast  of  the  gulf 
of  Tarentum,  between  the  rivers  Aciris  (Agri)  and  Siris  (Sinni) 
about  13  m.  S.S.W.  of  Metapontum.     It  was  a  Greek  colony 
founded  by  the  Tarentines  and  Thurians  in  432  B.C.,  the  former 
being  predominant.     It  was  chosen  as  the  meeting-place  of  the 
general  assembly  of  the  Italiot   Greeks,  which  Alexander  of 
Epirus,  after  his  alienation  from  Tarentum,  tried  to  transfer  to 
Thurii.     Here  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  defeated  the  consul 
Laevinus  in  280  B.C.,  after  he  had  crossed  the  river  Siris.     In 
278  B.C.,  or  possibly  in  282  B.C.,  probably  in  order  to  detach  it 
from  Tarentum,  the  Romans  made  a  special  treaty  with  Heraclea, 
on  such  favourable  terms  that  in  89  B.C.  the  Roman  citizenship 
given  to  the  inhabitants  by  the  Lex  Plautia  Papiria  was  only 
accepted  after  considerable  hesitation.     We  hear  that  Heraclea 
surrendered  under  compulsion  to  Hannibal  in  212  B.C.  and  that 
in  the  Social  war  the  public  records  were  destroyed  by  fire. 
Cicero  in  his  defence  of  the  poet  Archias,  an  adopted  citizen  of 
Heraclea,  speaks  of  it  as  a  flourishing  town.     As  a  consequence 
of  its  having  accepted  Roman  citizenship,  it  became  a  municipium ; 
part  of  a  copy  of  the  Lex  lulia  Municipalis  of  46  B.C.  (engraved 
on  the  back  of  two  bronze  tablets,  on  the  front  of  which  is  a  Greek 
inscription  of  the  3rd  century  B.C.  defining  the  boundaries  of 
lands  belonging  to  various  temples),  which  was  found  between 
Heraclea  and  Metapontum,  is  of  the  highest  importance  for  our 
knowledge  of  that  law.     It  was  still  a  place  of  some  importance 
under  the  empire;  a  branch  road  from  Venusia  joined  the  coast 
road  here.     The  circumstances  of  its  destruction  and  abandon- 
ment was  unknown;  the  site  is  now  marked  by  a  few  heaps  of 
ruins.    Its  medieval  representative  was  Anglona,  once  a  bishopric, 
but  now  itself  a  heap  of  ruins,  among  which  are  those  of  an 
nth-century  church. 

2.  HERACLEA  MINOA,  an  ancient  town  on  the  south  coast  of 
Sicily,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Halycus,  near  the  modern 
Montallegro,  some  20  m.  N.W.  of  Girgenti.     It  was  at  first  an 
outpost  of  Selinus  (Herod,  v.  46),  then  overthrown  by  Carthage, 
later  a  border  town  of  Agrigentum.     It  passed  into  Carthaginian 
hands  by  the  treaty  of  405  B.C.,  was  won  back  by  Dionysius  in 
his  first  Punic  war,  but  recovered  by  Carthage  in  383.     From  this 
date  onwards  coins  bearing  its  Semitic  name,   Ras  Melkarl, 
become  common,  and  it  was  obviously  an  important  border 
fortress.     It  was  here  that  Dion  landed  in  357  B.C.,  when  he 
attacked  Syracuse.     The  Agrigentines  won  it  back  in  309,  but 
it  soon  fell  under  the  power  of  Agathocles.     It  was  temporarily 
recovered  for  Greece  by  Pyrrhus.  (T.  As.) 

3.  HERACLEA  PONTICA  (mod.  Bender  Eregli),  an  ancient  city 
on  the  coast  of  Bithynia  in  Asia  Minor,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Kilijsu.     It  was  founded  by  a  Megarian  colony,  which  soon 
subjugated  the  native  Mariandynians  and  extended  its  power 
over  a  considerable  territory.     The  prosperity  of  the  city,  rudely 
shaken   by  the   Galatians   and    the    Bithynians,  was    utterly 
destroyed  in  the  Mithradatic  war.     It  was  the  birthplace  of 
Heraclides  Ponticus.     The  modern  town  is  best  known  for  its 
lignite  coal-mines,  from  which  Constantinople  receives  a  good 
part  of  its  supply. 

4.  HERACLEA  SINTICA,  a  town  in  Thracian  Macedonia,  to  the 
south  of  the  Strymon,  the  site  of  which  is  marked  by  the  village 
of  Zervokhori,  and  identified  by  the  discovery  of  local  coins. 

5.  HERACLEA,  a  town  on  the  borders  of  Caria  and  Ionia,  near 
the  foot  of  Mount  Latmus.     In  its  neighbourhood  was  the 
burial  cave  of  Endymion. 

6.  HERACLEA-CYBISTRA  (mod.  Eregli  in  the  vilayet  of  Konia), 
under  the  name  Cybistra,  had  some  importance  in  Hellenistic 
times  owing  to  its  position  near  the  point  where  the  road  to  the 
Cilician  Gates  enters  the  hills.     It  lay  in  the  way  of  armies  and  was 


more  than  once  sacked  by  the  Arab  invaders  of  Asia  Minor 
(A.D.  805  and  832).  It  became  Turkish  (Seljuk)  in  the  nth 
century.  Modern  Eregli  had  grown  from  a  large  village  to  a 
town  since  the  railway  reached  it  from  Konia  and  Karaman 
in  1904;  and  it  has  now  an  hotel  and  good  shops.  Three  hours' 
ride  S.  is  the  famous  "  Hittite  "  rock-relief  of  Ivriz,  representing 
a  king  (probably  of  neighbouring  Tyana)  adoring  a  god  (see 
HITTITES).  This  was  the  first  "  Hittite  "  monument  discovered 
in  modern  times  (early  i8th  century,  by  the  Swede  Otter,  an 
emissary  of  Louis  XIV.). 

For  Heraclea  Trachinia  see  TRACHIS,  and  for  Heraclea  Perinthus 
see  PERINTHUS. 

HERACLEA  was  also  the  name  of  one  of  the  Sporades,  between 
Naxos  and  los,  which  is  still  called  Raklia,  and  bears  traces  of  a 
Greek  township  with  temples  to  Tyche  and  Zeus  Lophites. 

(D.  G.  H.) 

HERACLEON,  a  Gnostic  who  flourished  about  A.D.  125, 
probably  in  the  south  of  Italy  or  in  Sicily,  and  is  generally 
classed  by  the  early  heresiologists  with  the  Valentinian  school 
of  heresy.  In  his  system  he  appears  to  have  regarded  the 
divine  nature  as  a  vast  abyss  in  whose  pleroma  were  aeons  of 
different  orders  and  degrees, — emanations  from  the  source  of 
being.  Midway  between  the  supreme  God  and  the  material 
world  was  the  Demiurgus,  who  created  the.  latter,  and  under 
whose  jurisdiction  the  lower,  animal  soul  of  man  proceeded  after 
death,  while  his  higher,  celestial  soul  returned  to  the  pleroma 
whence  at  first  it  issued.  Though  conspicuously  uniting  faith 
in  Christ  with  spiritual  maturity,  there  are  evidences  that,  like 
other  Valentinians,  Heracleon  did  not  sufficiently  emphasize 
abstinence  from  the  moral  laxity  and  worldliness  into  which  his 
followers  fell.  He  seems  to  have  received  the  ordinary  Christian 
scriptures;  and  Origen,  who  treats  him  as  a  notable  exegete, 
has  preserved  fragments  of  a  commentary  by  him  on  the  fourth 
gospel  (brought  together  by  Grabe  in  the  second  volume  of  his 
Spicilegium),  while  Clement  of  Alexandria  quotes  from  him 
what  appears  to  be  a  passage  from  a  commentary  on  Luke. 
These  writings  are  remarkable  for  their  intensely  mystical  and 
allegorical  interpretations  of  the  text. 

HERACLEONAS,  east-Roman  emperor  (Feb.-Sept.  641),  was 
the  son  of  Heraclius  (q.v.)  and  Martina.  At  the  end  of  Heraclius' 
reign  he  obtainer1  through  his  mother's  influence  the  title  of 
Augustus  (638),  and  after  his  father's  death  was  proclaimed 
joint  emperor  with  his  half-brother  Constantine  III.  The 
premature  death  of  Constantine,  in  May  641,  left  Heracleonas 
sole  ruler.  But  a  suspicion  that  he  and  Martina  had  murdered 
Constantine  led  soon  after  to  a  revolt,  and  to  the  mutilation 
and  banishment  of  the  supposed  offenders.  Nothing  further  is 
known  about  Heracleonas  subsequent  to  641. 

HERACLIDAE,  the  general  name  for  the  numerous  descend- 
ants of  Heracles  (Hercules),  and  specially  applied  in  a  narrower 
sense  to  the  descendants  of  Hyllus,  the  eldest  of  his  four  sons 
by  Delaneirathe,  conquerors  of  Peloponnesus.  Heracles,  whom 
Zeus  had  originally  intended  to  be  ruler  of  Argos,  Lacedaemon 
and  Messenian  Pylos,  had  been  supplanted  by  the  cunning  of 
Hera,  and  his  intended  possessions  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of 
Eurystheus,  king  of  Mycenae.  After  the  death  of  Heracles, 
his  children,  after  many  wanderings,  found  refuge  from  Eurys- 
theus at  Athens.  Eurystheus,  on  his  demand  for  their  surrender 
being  refused,  attacked  Athens,  but  was  defeated  and  slain. 
Hyllus  and  his  brothers  then  invaded  Peloponnesus,  but  after 
a  year's  stay  were  forced  by  a  pestilence  to  quit.  They  with- 
drew to  Thessaly,  where  Aegimius,  the  mythical  ancestor  of  the 
Dorians,  whom  Heracles  had  assisted  in  war  against  the  Lapithae, 
adopted  Hyllus  and  made  over  to  him  a  third  part  of  his  territory. 
After  the  death  of  Aegimius,  his  two  sons,  Pamphilus  and  Dymas, 
voluntarily  submitted  to  Hyllus  (who  was,  according  to  the 
Dorian  tradition  in  Herodotus  v.  72,  really  an  Achaean),  who 
thus  became  ruler  of  the  Dorians,  the  three  branches  of  that 
race  being  named  after  these  three  heroes.  Being  desirous 
of  reconquering  his  paternal  inheritance,  Hyllus  consulted  the 
Delphic  oracle,  which  told  him  to  wait  for  "  the  third  fruit," 
and  then  enter  Peloponnesus  by  "  a  narrow  passage  by  sea." 


HERACLIDES— HERACLITUS 


309 


Accordingly,  after  three  years,  Hyllus  marched  across  the 
isthmus  of  Corinth  to  attack  Atreus,  the  successor  of  Eurystheus, 
but  was  slain  in  single  combat  by  Echemus,  king  of  Tegea.  This 
second  attempt  was  followed  by  a  third  under  Cleodaeus  and 
a  fourth  under  Aristomachus,  both  of  which  were  equally  un- 
successful. At  last,  Temenus,  Cresphontes  and  Aristodemus, 
the  sons  of  Aristomachus,  complained  to  the  oracle  that  its 
instructions  had  proved  fatal  to  those  who  had  followed  them. 
They  received  the  answer  that  by  the  "  third  fruit  "  the  "  third 
generation  "  was  meant,  and  that  the  "  narrow  passage  "  was  not 
the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  but  the  straits  of  Rhium.  They  ac- 
cordingly built  a  fleet  at  Naupactus,  but  before  they  set  sail, 
Aristodemus  was  struck  by  lightning  (or  shot  by  Apollo)  and 
the  fleet  destroyed,  because  one  of  the  Heraclidae  had  slain  an 
Acarnanian  soothsayer.  The  oracle,  being  again  consulted  by 
Temenus,  bade  him  offer  an  expiatory  sacrifice  and  banish 
the  murderer  for  ten  years,  and  look  out  for  a  man  with  three 
eyes  to  act  as  guide.  On  his  way  back  to  Naupactus,  Temenus 
fell  in  with  Oxylus,  an  Aetolian,  who  had  lost  one  eye,  riding 
on  a  horse  (thus  making  up  the  three  eyes)  and  immediately 
pressed  him  into  his  service.  According  to  another  account, 
a  mule  on  which  Oxylus  rode  had  lost  an  eye.  The  Hera- 
clidae repaired  their  ships,  sailed  from  Naupactus  to  Antirrhium, 
and  thence  to  Rhium  in  Peloponnesus.  A  decisive  battle  was 
fought  with  Tisamenus,  son  of  Orestes,  the  chief  ruler  in  the 
peninsula,  who  was  defeated  and  slain.  The  Heraclidae,  who 
thus  became  practically  masters  of  Peloponnesus,  proceeded  to 
distribute  its  territory  among  themselves  by  lot.  Argos  fell  to 
Temenus,  Lacedaemon  to  Procles  and  Eurysthenes,  the  twin  sons 
of  Aristodemus ;  and  Messene  to  Cresphontes.  The  fertile  district 
of  Elis  had  been  reserved  by  agreement  for  Oxylus.  The  Hera- 
clidae ruled  in  Lacedaemon  till  221  B.C.,  but  disappeared  much 
earlier  in  the  other  countries.  This  conquest  of  Peloponnesus 
by  the  Dorians,  commonly  called  the  "  Return  of  the  Heraclidae," 
is  represented  as  the  recovery  by  the  descendants  of  Heracles 
of  the  rightful  inheritance  of  their  hero  ancestor  and  his  sons. 
The  Dorians  followed  the  custom  of  other  Greek  tribes  in  claiming 
as  ancestor  for  their  ruling  families  one  of  the  legendary  heroes, 
but  the  traditions  must  not  on  that  account  be  regarded  as 
entirely  mythical.  They  represent  a  joint  invasion  of  Pelopon- 
nesus by  Aetolians  and  Dorians,  the  latter  having  been  driven 
southward  from  their  original  northern  home  under  pressure 
from  the  Thessalians.  It  is  noticeable  that  there  is  no  mention 
of  these  Heraclidae  or  their  invasion  in  Homer  or  Hesiod. 
Herodotus  (vi.  52)  speaks  of  poets  who  had  celebrated  their 
deeds,  but  these  were  limited  to  events  immediately  succeeding 
the  death  of  Heracles.  The  story  was  first  amplified  by  the  Greek 
tragedians,  who  probably  drew  their  inspiration  from  local 
legends,  which  glorified  the  services  rendered  by  Athens  to  the 
rulers  of  Peloponnesus. 

Apollodorus  ii.  8;  Diod.  Sic.  iv.  57,  58;  Pausanias  i.  32,  41, 
ii.  13,  1 8,  iii.  I,  iv.  3,  v.  3;  Euripides,  Heraclidae;  Pindar, 
Pythia,  ix.  137;  Herodotus  ix.  27.  See  Muller's  Dorians,  i.  ch.  3; 
Thirlwall,  History  of  Greece,  ch.  vii. ;  Grote,  Hist,  of  Greece,  pt.  i. 
ch.  xviii. ;  Busolt,  Griechische  Geschichte,  i.  ch.  ii.  sec.  7,  where  a  list 
of  modern  authorities  is  given. 

HERACLIDES  PONTICUS,  Greek  philosopher  and  miscel- 
laneous writer,  born  at  Heraclea  in  Pontus,  flourished  in  the  4th 
century  B.C.  He  studied  philosophy  at  Athens  under  Speusippus, 
Plato  and  Aristotle.  According  to  Suidas,  Plato,  on  his  departure 
for  Sicily,  left  his  pupils  in  charge  of  Heraclides.  The  latter 
part  of  his  life  was  spent  at  Heraclea.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
vain  and  fat,  and  to  have  been  so  fond  of  display  that  he  was 
nicknamed  Pompicus,  or  the  Showy  (unless  the  epithet  refers 
to  his  literary  style).  Various  idle  stories  are  related  about  him. 
On  one  occasion,  for  instance,  Heraclea  was  afflicted  with  famine, 
and  the  Pythian  priestess  at  Delphi,  bribed  by  Heraclides, 
assured  his  inquiring  townsmen  that  the  dearth  would  be  stayed 
if  they  granted  a  golden  crown  to  that  philosopher.  This  was 
done;  but  just  as  Heraclides  was  receiving  his  honour  in  a 
crowded  assembly,  he  was  seized  with  apoplexy,  while  the 
dishonest  priestess  perished  at  the  same  moment  from  the  bite 
of  a  serpent.  On  his  death-bed  he  is  said  to  have  requested  a 


friend  to  hide  his  body  as  soon  as  life  was  extinct,  and,  by  putting 
a  serpent  in  its  place,  induce  his  townsmen  to  suppose  that  he 
had  been  carried  up  to  heaven.  The  trick  was  discovered, 
and  Heraclides  received  only  ridicule  instead  of  divine  honours 
(Diogenes  Laertius  v.  6).  Whatever  may  be  the  truth  about 
these  stories,  Heraclides  seems  to  have  been  a  versatile  and 
prolific  writer  on  philosophy,  mathematics,  music,  grammar, 
physics,  history  and  rhetoric.  Many  of  the  works  attributed 
to  him,  however,  are  probably  by  one  or  more  persons  of  the 
same  name. 

The  extant  fragment  of  a  treatise  On  Constitutions  (C.W.  Miiller, 
F.H.G.  ii.  197-207)  is  probably  a  compilation  from  the  Politics  of 
Aristotle  by  Heraclides  Lembos,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy 
VI.  Philpmetor  (181-146).  See  Otto  Voss,  DeHeraclidis  Ponticivita 
etscriptis(i8<)6). 

HERACLITUS  ('HpaxXwros;  c.  540-475  B.C.),  Greek  philo- 
sopher, was  born  at  Ephesus  of  distinguished  parentage. 
Of  his  early  life  and  education  we  know  nothing;  from  the 
contempt  with  which  he  spoke  of  all  his  fellow-philosophers  and 
of  his  fellow-citizens  as  a  whole  we  may  gather  that  he  regarded 
himself  as  self-taught  and  a  pioneer  of  wisdom.  So  intensely 
aristocratic  (hence  his  nickname  6xXoXoi5opos,  "  he  who  rails 
at  the  people  ")  was  his  temperament  that  he  declined  to  exercise 
the  regal-hieratic  office  of  |3a0-iXei>s  which  was  hereditary  in  his 
family,  and  presented  it  to  his  brother.  It  is  probable,  however, 
that  he  did  occasionally  intervene  in  the  affairs  of  the  city  at 
the  period  when  the  rule  of  Persia  had  given  place  to  autonomy; 
it  is  said  that  he  compelled  the  usurper  Melancomas  to  abdicate. 
From  the  lonely  life  he  led,  and  still  more  from  the  extreme 
profundity  of  his  philosophy  and  his  contempt  for  mankind  in 
general,  he  was  called  the  "  Dark  Philosopher  "  (6  anorfivos), 
or  the  "  Weeping  Philosopher,"  in  contrast  to  Democritus,  the 
"  Laughing  Philosopher." 

Heraclitus  is  in  a  real  sense  the  founder  of  metaphysics. 
Starting  from  the  physical  standpoint  of  the  Ionian  physicists, 
he  accepted  their  general  idea  of  the  unity  of  nature,  but  entirely 
denied  their  theory  of  being.  The  fundamental  uniform  fact 
in  nature  is  constant  change  (iravra  x^P^  Kc"  ovdtv  ntvti); 
everything  both  is  and  is  not  at  the  same  time.  He  thus  arrives 
at  the  principle  of  Relativity;  harmony  and  unity  consist  in 
diversity  and  multiplicity.  The  senses  are  "  bad  witnesses  " 
(naKol  ftapTvp€s) ;  only  the  wise  man  can  obtain  knowledge. 

To  appreciate  the  significance  of  the  doctrines  of  Heraclitus, 
it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  to  Greek  philosophy  the  sharp 
distinction  between  subject  and  object  which  pervades  modern 
thought  was  foreign,  a  consideration  which  suggests  the  conclusion 
that,  while  it  is  a  great  mistake  to  reckon  Heraclitus  with  the 
materialistic  cosmologists  of  the  Ionic  schools,  it  is,  on  the  other 
hand,  going  too  far  to  treat  his  theory,  with  Hegel  and  Lassalle, 
as  one  of  pure  Panlogism.  I  Accordingly,  when  he  denies  the 
reality  of  Being,  and  declares  Becoming,  or  eternal  flux  and 
change,  to  be  the  sole  actuality,  Heraclitus  must  be  understood 
to  enunciate  not  only  the  unreality  of  the  abstract  notion  of  being, 
except  as  the  correlative  of  that  of  not-being,  but  also  the 
physical  doctrine  that  all  phenomena  are  in  a  state  of  continuous 
transition  from  non-existence  to  existence,  and  vice  versa,  without 
either  distinguishing  these  propositions  or  qualifying  them  by 
any  reference  to  the  relation  of  thought  to  experience.  "  Every 
thing  is  and  is  not  ";  all  things  are,  and  nothing  remains.  So 
far  he  is  in  general  agreement  with  Anaximander  (q.v.),  but  he 
differs  from  him  in  the  solution  of  the  problem,  disliking,  as  a 
poet  and  a  mystic,  trie  primary  matter  which  satisfied  the  patient 
researcher,  and  demanding  a  more  vivid  and  picturesque  element. 
'Naturally  he  selects  fire,  according  to  him  the  most  complete 
embodiment  of  the  process  of  Becoming,  as  the  principle  of 
empirical  existence,  out  of  which  all  things,  including  even  the 
souj,  grow  by  way  of  a  quasi  condensation,  and  into  which  all 
things  must  in  course  of  time  be  again  resolved.  But  this 
primordial  fire  is  in  itself  that  divine  rational  process,  the 
harmony  of  which  constitutes  the  law  of  the  universe  (see  LOGOS). 
Real  knowledge  consists  in  comprehending  this  all-pervading 
harmony  as  embodied  in  the  manifold  of  perception,  and  the 
senses  are  "  bad- witnesses,"  because  they  apprehend  phenomena, 


310 


HERACLIUS— HERALD 


not  as  its  manifestation,  but  as  "  stiff  and  dead."  In  like 
manner  real  virtue  consists  in  the  subordination  of  the  individual 
to  the  laws  of  this  harmony  as  the  universal  reason  wherein  alone 
true  freedom  is  to  be  found.  '-'  The  law  of  things  is  a  law  of 
Reason  Universal  (Xoyos),  but  most  men  live  as  though  they 
had  a  wisdom  of  their  own."  Ethics  here  stands  to  sociology 
in  a  close  relation,  similar,  in  many  respects,  to  that  which  we 
find  in  Hegel  and  in  Comte.  For  Heraclitus  the  soul  approaches 
most  nearly  to  perfection  when  it  is  most  akin  to  the  fiery  vapour 
out  of  which  it  was  originally  created,  and  as  this  is  most  so  in 
death,  "  while  we  live  our  souls  are  dead  in  us,  but  when  we  die 
our  souls  are  restored  to  life."  The  doctrine  of  immortality 
comes  prominently  forward  in  his  ethics,  but  whether  this  must 
not  be  reckoned  with  the  figurative  accommodation  to  the 
popular  theology  of  Greece  which  pervades  his  ethical  teaching, 
is  very  doubtful. 

The  school  of  disciples  founded  by  Heraclitus  flourished  for 
long  after  his  death,  the  chief  exponent  of  his  teaching  being 
Cratylus.  A  good  deal  of  the  information  in  regard  to  his 
doctrines  has  been  gathered  from  the  later  Greek  philosophy, 
which  was  deeply  influenced  by  it. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  only  authentic  extant  work  of  Heraclitus  is 
the  irtpl  0u<reu>s.  The  best  edition  (containing  also  the  probably 
spurious  'EjrioToAai)  is  that  of  I.  Bywater,  Heracliti  Ephesii  reliquiae 
(Oxford,  1877);  of  the  epistles  alone  by  A.  Westermann  (Leipzig, 
1857).  See  also  in  A.  H.  Ritter  and  L.  Preller's  Historia  philosophiae 
Graecae  (8th  ed.  by  E.  Wellmann,  1898);  F.  W.  A.  Mullach, 
Fragm.  philos.  Graec.  (Paris,  1860);  A.  Fairbanks,  The  First  Philo- 
sophers of  Greece  (1898);  H.  Diels,  Heraklit  von  Ephesus  (2nd  ed., 
1909),  Greek  and  German.  English  translation  of  Bywater's  edition 
with  introduction  by  G.  T.  W.  Patrick  (Baltimore,  1889).  For 
criticism  see,  in  addition  to  the  histories  of  philosophy,  F.  Lassalle, 
Die  Philosophic  Herakleitos'  des  Dunklen  (Berlin,  1858;  2nd  ed., 
1892),  which,  however,  is  too  strongly  dominated  by  modern 
Hegelianism ;  Paul  Schuster,  Heraklit  von  Ephesus  (Leipzig,  1873); 
J.  Bernays,  Die  heraklitischen  Briefe  (Berlin,  1869);  T.  Gomperz, 
Zu  Heraclits  Lehre  und  den  Oberresten  seines  Werkes  (Vienna,  1887), 
and  in  his  Greek  Thinkers  (English  translation,  L.  Magnus,  vol.  i. 
1901) ;  J.  Burnet,  Early  Greek  Philosophy  (1892) ;  A.  Patin,  Heraklits 
Einheitslehre  (Leipzig,  1886);  E.  Pfleiderer,  Die  Philosophic  des 
Hsraklitus  von  Ephesus  im  Lichte  der  Mysterienidee  (Berlin,  1886); 
G.  T.  Schafer,  Die  Philosophic  des  Heraklit  von  Ephesus  und  die 
moderne  Heraklitforschung  (Leipzig,  1902) ;  Wolfgang  Schultz,  Studien 
zur  antiken  Kultur,  i. ;  Pythagoras  und  Heraklit  (Leipzig,  1905); 
O.  Spengler,  Heraklit.  Eine  Studie  uber  den  energetischen  Grund- 
gedanken  seiner  Philosophic  (Halle,  1904);  A.  Brieger,  "  Die  Grund- 
ztige  der  heraklitischen  Physik  "  in  Hermes,  xxxix.  (1904)  182-223, 
and  "  Heraklit  der  Dunkle  "  in  Neue  Jahrb.  f.  das  klass.  Altertum 
(1904),  p.  687.  For  his  place  in  the  development  of  early  philosophy 
see  also  articles  IONIAN  SCHOOL  OF  PHILOSOPHY  and  LOGOS.  Ancient 
authorities:  Diog.  Laert.  ix. ;  Sext.  Empiric.,  Adv.  mathem.  vii. 
126,  127,  133;  Plato,  Cratylus,  402  A  and  Theaetetus,  152  E;  Plutarch, 
Isis  and  Osiris,  45,  48;  Arist.  Nic.  Eth.  vii.  3,  4;  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria, Stromata,  v.  599,  603  (ed.  Paris).  (J.  M.  M.) 

HERACLIUS  ('HpaKXetos)  (c.  575-642),  East  Roman  emperor, 
was  born  in  Cappadocia.  His  father  held  high  military  command 
under  the  emperor  Maurice,  and  as  governor  of  Africa  maintained 
his  independence  against  the  usurper  Phocas  (q.ii.).  When 
invited  to  head  a  rebellion  against  the  latter,  he  sent  his  son  with 
a  fleet  which  reached  Constantinople  unopposed,  and  precipitated 
the  dethronement  of  Phocas.  Proclaimed  emperor,  Heraclius 
set  himself  to  reorganize  the  utterly  disordered  administration. 
At  first  he  found  himself  helpless  before  the  Persian  armies  (see 
PERSIA:  Ancient  History;  and  CHOSROES  II.)  of  Chosroes  II., 
which  conquered  Syria  and  Egypt  and  since  616  had  encamped 
opposite  Constantinople;  in  618  he  even  proposed  in  despair 
to  abandon  his  capital  and  seek  a  refuge  in  Carthage,  but  at  the 
entreaty  of  the  patriarch  he  took  courage.  By  securing  a  loan 
from  the  Church  and  suspending  the  corn-distribution  at 
Constantinople,  he  raised  sufficient  funds  for  war,  and  after 
making  a  treaty  with  the  Avars,  who  had  nearly  surprised  the 
capital  during  an  incursion  in  619,  he  was  at  last  able  to  take  the 
field  against  Persia.  During  his  first  expedition  (622)  he  failed 
to  secure  a  footing  in  Armenia,  whence  he  had  hoped  to  take  the 
Persians  in  flank,  but  by  his  unwearied  energy  he  restored  the 
discipline  and  efficiency  of  the  army.  In  his  second  campaign 
(624-26)  he  penetrated  into  Armenia  and  Albania,  and  beat  the 
enemy  in  the  open  field.  After  a  short  stay  at  Constantinople, 


which  his  son  Constantine  had  successfully  defended  against 
renewed  incursions  by  the  Avars,  Heraclius  resumed  his  attacks 
upon  the  Persians  (627).  Though  deserted  by  the  Khazars, 
with  whom  he  had  made  an  alliance  upon  entering  into  Pontus, 
he  gained  a  decisive  advantage  by  a  brilliant  march  across  the 
Armenian  highlands  into  the  Tigris  plain,  and  a  hard-fought 
victory  over  Chosroes'  general,  Shahrbaraz,  in  which  Heraclius 
distinguished  himself  by  his  personal  bravery.  A  subsequent 
revolution  at  the  Persian  court  led  to  the  dethronement  of 
Chosroes  in  favour  of  his  son  Kavadh  II.  (q.v.);  the  new  king 
promptly  made  peace  with  the  emperor,  whose  troops  were 
already  advancing  upon  the  Persian  capital  Ctesiphon  (628). 
Having  thus  secured  his  eastern  frontier,  Heraclius  returned 
to  Constantinople  with  ample  spoils,  including  the  true  cross, 
which  in  629  he  brought  back  in  person  to  Jerusalem.  On  the 
northern  frontier  of  the  empire  he  kept  the  Avars  in  check  by 
inducing  the  Serbs  to  migrate  from  the  Carpathians  to  the 
Balkan  lands  so  as  to  divert  the  attention  of  the  Avars. 

The  triumphs  which  Heraclius  had  won  through  his  own 
energy  and  skill  did  not  bring  him  lasting  popularity.  In  his 
civil  administration  he  followed  out  his  own  ideas  without 
deferring  to  the  nobles  or  the  Church,  and  the  opposition  which 
he  encountered  from  these  quarters  went  far  to  paralyse  his 
attempts  at  reform.  Worn  out  by  continuous  fighting  and 
weakened  by  dropsy,  Heraclius  failed  to  show  sufficient  energy 
against  the  new  peril  that  menaced  his  eastern  provinces  towards 
the  end  of  his  reign.  In  629  the  Saracens  made  their  first  in- 
cursion into  Syria  (see  CALIPHATE,  section  A,  §  i);  in  636  they 
won  a  notable  victory  on  the  Yermuk  (Hieromax),  and  in  the 
following  years  conquered  all  Syria,  Palestine  and  Egypt. 
Heraclius  made  no  attempt  to  retrieve  the  misfortunes  of  his 
generals,  but  evacuated  his  possessions  in  sullen  despair.  The 
remaining  years  of  his  life  he  devoted  to  theological  speculation 
and  ecclesiastical  reforms.  His  religious  enthusiasm  led  him  to 
oppress  his  Jewish  subjects;  on  the  other  hand  he  sought  to 
reconcile  the  Christian  sects,  and  to  this  effect  propounded  in 
his  Ecthesis  a  conciliatory  doctrine  of  monothelism.  Heraclius 
died  of  his  disease  in  642.  He  had  been  twice  married;  his 
second  union,  with  his  niece  Martina,  was  frequently  made  a 
matter  of  reproach  to  him.  In  spite  of  his  partial  failures, 
Heraclius  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  Byzantine 
emperors,  and  his  early  campaigns  were  the  means  of  saving  the 
realm  from  almost  certain  destruction. 

AUTHORITIES. — G.  Finlay,  History  of  Greece  (Oxford,  1877)  i. 
311-358;  J.  B.  Bury,  The  Later  Roman  Empire  (London, 
1889),  ii.  207-273;  T.  E.  Evangelides,  'Hpo/cX«os  6  alrroKparup 
TOV  Bufacriou  (Odessa,  1903) ;  A.  Pernice,  L'  Imperatore  Eraclio 
(Florence,  1905).  On  the  Persian  campaigns:  the  epic  of  George 
Pisides  (ed.  1836,  Bonn);  F.  Macler,  Histoire  d' Heraclius  par 
I'eveque  Sebeos  (Paris,  1904) ;  E.  Gerland  in  Byzantinische  Zeit- 
schrift,  iii.  (1894)  330-337;  N.  H.  Baynes  in  the  English  Historical 
Review  (1904),  pp.  694-702.  (M.  O.  B.  C.) 

HERALD  (O.  Fr.  heraut,  herawlt;  the  origin  is  uncertain,  but 
O.H.G.  heren,  to  call,  or  hariwald,  leader  of  an  army,  have  been 
proposed;  the  Gr.  equivalent  is  Krjpv^:  Lat.  praeco,  caduceator, 
Jetialis),  in  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities,  the  term  for  the 
officials  described  below;  in  modern  usage,  while  the  word 
"  herald  "  is  often  used  generally  in  a  sense  analogous  to  that 
of  the  ancients,  it  is  more  specially  restricted  to  that  dealt  with 
in  the  article  HERALDRY. 

The  Greek  heralds,  who  claimed  descent  from  Hermes,  the 
messenger  of  the  gods,  through  his  son  Keryx,  were  public 
functionaries  of  high  importance  in  early  times.  Like  Hermes, 
they  carried  a  staff  of  olive  or  laurel  wood  surrounded  by  two 
snakes  (or  with  wool  as  messengers  of  peace) ;  their  persons 
were  inviolable ;  and  they  formed  a  kind  of  priesthood  or  corpora- 
tion. In  the  Homeric  age,  they  summoned  the  assemblies  of 
the  people,  at  which  they  preserved  order  and  silence;  pro- 
claimed war;  arranged  the  cessation  of  hostilities  and  the 
conclusion  of  peace;  and  assisted  at  public  sacrifices  and 
banquets.  They  also  performed  certain  menial  offices  for  the 
kings  (mixing  and  pouring  out  the  wine  for  the  guests),  by  whom 
they  were  treated  as  confidential  servants.  In  later  timesv 


HERALDRY 


their  position  was  a  less  honourable  one;  they  were  recruited 
from  the  poorer  classes,  and  were  mostly  paid  servants  of  the 
various  officials.  Pollux  in  his  Onomasticon  distinguishes  four 
classes  of  heralds:  (i)  the  sacred  heralds  at  the  Eleusinian 
mysteries;1  (2)  the  heralds  at  the  public  games,  who  announced 
the  names  of  the  competitors  and  victors;  (3)  those  who  super- 
intended the  arrangements  of  festal  processions;  (4)  those 
who  proclaimed  goods  for  sale  in  the  market  (for  which  purpose 
they  mounted  a  stone),  and  gave  notice  of  lost  children  and  run- 
away slaves.  To  these  should  be  added  (5)  the  heralds  of  the 
boule  and  demos,  who  summoned  the  members  of  the  council  and. 
ecclesia,  recited  the  solemn  formula  of  prayer  before  the  opening 
of  the  meeting,  called  upon  the  orators  to  speak,  counted  the 
votes  and  announced  the  results;  (6)  the  heralds  of  the  law  courts, 
who  gave  notice  of  the  time  of  trials  and  summoned  the  parties. 
The  heralds  received  payment  from  the  state  and  free  meals 
together  with  the  officials  to  whom  they  were  attached.  Their 
appointment  was  subject  to  some  kind  of  examination,  probably 
of  the  quality  of  their  voice.  Like  the  earlier  heralds,  they  were 
also  employed  in  negotiations  connected  with  war  and  peace. 

Among  the  Romans  the  praecones  or  "  criers  "  exercised 
their  profession  both  in  private  and  official  business.  As  private 
criers  they  were  especially  concerned  with  auctions;  they  adver- 
tized the  time,  place  and  conditions  of  sale,  called  out  the  various 
bids,  and  like  the  modern  auctioneer  varied  the  proceedings  with 
jokes.  They  gave  notice  in  the  streets  of  things  that  had  been 
lost,  and  took  over  various  commissions,  such  as  funeral  arrange- 
ments. Although  the  calling  was  held  in  little  estimation,  some 
of  these  criers  amassed  great  wealth.  The  state  criers,  who  were 
mostly  freedmen  and  well  paid,  formed  the  lowest  class  of 
apparitores  (attendants  on  various  magistrates).  On  the  whole, 
their  functions  resembled  those  of  the  Greek  heralds.  They  called 
the  popular  assemblies  together,  proclaimed  silence  and  made 
known  the  result  of  the  voting;  in  judicial  cases,  they  summoned 
the  plaintiff,  defendant,  advocates  and  witnesses;  in  criminal 
executions  they  gave  out  the  reasons  for  the  punishment  and 
called  on  the  executioner  to  perform  his  duty;  they  invited  the 
people  to  the  games  and  announced  the  names  of  the  victors. 
Public  criers  were  also  employed  at  state  auctions  in  themunicipia 
and  colonies,  but,  according  to  the  lex  Julia  municipalis  of 
Caesar,  they  were  prohibited  from  holding  office. 

Amongst  the  Romans  the  settlement  of  matters  relating  to 
war  and  peace  was  entrusted  to  a  special  class  of  heralds  called 
Petioles  (not  Feciales),  a  word  of  uncertain  etymology,  possibly 
connected  with/a/<w,/an,  and  meaning  "  the  speakers."  They 
formed  a  priestly  college  of  20  (or  15)  members,  the  institution 
of  which  was  ascribed  to  one  of  the  kings.  They  were  chosen  from 
the  most  distinguished  families,  held  office  for  life,  and  filled  up 
vacancies  in  their  number  by  co-optation.  Their  duties  were  to 
demand  redress  for  insult  or  injury  to  the  state,  to  declare  war 
unless  satisfaction  was  obtained  within  a  certain  number  of  days 
and  to  conclude  treaties  of  peace.  A  deputation  of  four  (or  two), 
one  of  whom  was  called  pater  patratus,  wearing  priestly  garments, 
with  sacred  herbs  plucked  from  the  Capitoline  hill  borne  in  front, 
proceeded  to  the  frontier  of  the  enemy's  territory  and  demanded 
the  surrender  of  the  guilty  party.  This  demand  was  called 
clarigatio  (perhaps  from  its  being  made  in  a  loud,  clear  voice). 
If  no  satisfactory  answer  was  given  within  30  days,  the  deputa- 
tion returned  to  Rome  and  made  a  report.  If  war  was  decided 
upon,  the  deputation  again  repaired  to  the  frontier,  pronounced 
a  solemn  formula,  and  hurled  a  charred  and  blood-stained  javelin 
across  the  frontier,  in  the  presence  of  three  witnesses,  which 
was  tantamount  to  a  declaration  of  war  (Livy  i.  24,  32).  With 

1  These  heralds  are  regarded  by  some  as  a  branch  of  the  Eumol- 
pidae,  by  others  as  of  Athenian  origin.  They  enjoyed  great  prestige 
and  formed  a  hieratic  caste  like  the  Eumolpidae,  with  whom  they 
shared  the  most  important  liturgical  functions.  From  them  were 
selected  the  S^SoOxos  or  torch-bearer,  the  lepofrijpuf,  whose  chief 
duty  was  to  proclaim  silence,  and  6  «rl  /3coM<e>,  an  official  connected 
with  the  service  at  the  altar  (see  L.  R.  Farnell,  Cults  of  the  Greek 
States,  iii.  161 ;  J.  Topffer,  Attische  Genealogie  (1889);  Ditten- 
berger  in  Hermes,  xx. ;  P.  Foucart,  "  Les  Grands  Mysteres 
d'Eleusis  "  in  Mem.  de  I'lnstitut  National  de  France,  xxxvii.  (1904). 


the  extension  of  the  Roman  empire,  it  became  impossible  to 
carry  out  this  ceremonial,  for  which  was  substituted  the  hurling 
of  a  javelin  over  a  column  near  the  temple  of  Bellona  in  the 
direction  of  the  enemy's  territory.  When  the  termination  of 
a  war  was  decided  upon,  the  fetiales  either  made  an  arrangement 
for  the  suspension  of  hostilities  for  a  definite  term  of  years, 
after  which  the  war  recommenced  automatically  or  they  con- 
cluded a  solemn  treaty  with  the  enemy.  Conditions  of  peace  or 
alliance  proposed  by  the  general  on  his  own  responsibility 
(sponsio)  were  not  binding  upon  the  people,  and  in  case  of 
rejection  the  general,  with  hands  bound,  was  delivered  by  the 
fetiales  to  the  enemy  (Livy  ix.  10).  But  if  the  terms  were 
agreed  to,  a  deputation  carrying  the  sacred  herbs  and  the  flint 
stones,  kept  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Feretrius  for  sacrificial 
purposes,  met  a  deputation  of  fetiales  from  the  other  side. 
After  the  conditions  of  the  treaty  had  been  read,  the  sacrificial 
formula  was  pronounced  and  the  victims  slain  by  a  blow  from  a 
stone  (hence  the  expression  foedus  ferire).  The  treaty  was  then 
signed  and  handed  over  to  the  keeping  of  the  fetial  college. 
These  ceremonies  usually  took  place  in  Rome,  but  in  201  a 
deputation  of  fetiales  went  to  Africa  to  ratify  the  conclusion  of 
peace  with  Carthage.  From  that  time  little  is  heard  of  the  fetiales, 
although  they  appear  to  have  existed  till  the  end  of  the  4th 
century  A.D.  The  caduceator  (from  caduceus,  the  latinized  form 
of  KypvKtiov)  was  the  name  of  a  person  who  was  sent  to  treat  for 
peace.  His  person  was  considered  sacred;  and  like  the  fetiales  he 
carried  the  sacred  herbs,  instead  of  the  caduceus,  which  was  not 
in  use  amongst  the  Romans. 

For  the  Greek  heralds,  see  Ch.  Ostermann,  De  praeconibus  Grae- 
corum  (1845);  for  the  Roman  Praecones,  Mommsen,  Romisches 
Staatsrecht,  i.  363  (3rd  ed.,  1887) ;  also  article  PRAECONES  in 
Pauly's  Realencyclopadie  (1852  edition);  for  the  Fetiales,  mono- 
graphs by  F.  C.  Conradi  (1734,  containing  all  the  necessary  material), 
and  G.  Fusinato  (1884,  from  Atti  della  R.  Accad.  dei  Lincei,  series 
iii.  vol.  13);  also  Marquardt,  Romische  Staatsverwaltung,  iii.  415 
(3rd  ed.,  1885),  and  A.  Weiss  in  Daremberg  and  Saglio's  Dictionnaire 
des  antiques.  (J.  H.  F.) 

HERALDRY.  Although  the  word  Heraldry  properly  belongs 
to  all  the  business  of  the  herald  (q.v.),  it  has  long  attached  itself 
to  that  which  in  earlier  times  was  known  as  armory,  the  science 
of  armorial  bearings. 

History  of  Armorial  Bearings. — In  all  ages  and  in  all  quarters 
of  the  world  distinguishing  symbols  have  been  adopted  by  tribes 
or  nations,  by  families  or  by  chieftains.  Greek  and  Roman  poets 
describe  the  devices  borne  on  the  shields  of  heroes,  and  many 
such  painted  shields  are  pictured  on  antique  vases.  Rabbinical 
writers  have  supported  the  fancy  that  the  standards  of  the  tribes 
set  up  in  their  camps  bore  figures  devised  from  the  prophecy  ,of 
Jacob,  the  ravening  wolf  for  Benjamin,  the  lion's  whelp  for 
Judah  and  the  ship  of  Zebulon.  In  the  East  we  have  such  ancient 
symbols  as  the  five-clawed  dragon  of  the  Chinese  empire  and  the 
chrysanthemum  of  the  emperor  of  Japan.  In  Japan,  indeed,  the 
systematized  badges  borne  by  the  noble  clans  may  be  regarded  as 
akin  to  the  heraldry  of  the  West,  and  the  circle  with  the  three 
asarum  leaves  of  the  Tokugawa  shoguns  has  been  made  as 
familiar  to  us  by  Japanese  lacquer  and  porcelain  as  the  red  pellets 
of  the  Medici  by  old  Italian  fabrics.  Before  the  landing  of  the 
Spaniards  in  Mexico  the  Aztec  chiefs  carried  shields  and  banners, 
some  of  whose  devices  showed  after  the  fashion  of  a  phonetic 
writing  the  names  of  their  bearers;  and  the  eagle  on  the  new 
banner  of  Mexico  may  be  traced  to  the  eagle  that  was  once  carved 
over  the  palace  of  Montezuma.  That  mysterious  business  of 
totemism,  which  students  of  folk-lore  have  discovered  among 
most  primitive  peoples,  must  be  regarded  as  another  of  the  fore- 
runners of  true  heraldry,  the  totem  of  a  tribe  supplying  a  badge 
which  was  sometimes  displayed  on  the  body  of  the  tribesman  in 
paint,  scars  or  tattooing.  Totemism  so  far  touches  our  heraldry 
that  some  would  trace  to  its  symbols  the  white  horse  of  West- 
phalia, the  bull's  head  of  the  Mecklenburgers  and  many  other 
ancient  armories. 

When  true  heraldry  begins  in  Western  Europe  nothing  is  more 
remarkable  than  the  suddenness  of  its  development,  once  the 
idea  of  hereditary  armorial  symbols  was  taken  by  the  nobles  and 


312 


HERALDRY 


knights.  Its  earliest  examples  are  probably  still  to  be  discovered 
by  research,  but  certain  notes  may  be  made  which  narrow  the 
dates  between  which  we  must  seek  its  origin.  The  older  writers 
on  heraldry,  lacking  exact  archaeology,  were  wont  to  carry  back 
the  beginnings  to  the  dark  ages,  even  if  they  lacked  the  assurance 
of  those  who  distributed  blazons  among  the  angelic  host  before 
the  Creation.  Even  in  our  own  times  old  misconceptions  give 
ground  slowly.  Georg  Ruexner's  Thurnier  Buck  of  1522  is  still 
cited  for  its  evidence  of  the  tournament  laws  of  Henry  the  Fowler, 
by  which  those  who  would  contend  in  tournaments  were  forced  to 
show  four  generations  of  arms-bearing  ancestors.  Yet  modern 
criticism  has  shattered  the  elaborated  fiction  of  Ruexner.  In 
England  many  legends  survive  of  arms  borne  by  the  Conqueror 
and  his  companions.  But  nothing  is  more  certain  than  that 
neither  armorial  banners  nor  shields  of  arms  were  borne  on  either 
side  at  Hastings.  The  famous  record  of  the  Bayeux  tapestry 
shows  shields  which  in  some  cases  suggest  rudely  devised  armorial 
bearings,  but  in  no  case  can  a  shield  be  identified  as  one  which  is 
recognized  in  the  generations  after  the  Conquest.  So  far  is  the 
idea  of  personal  arms  from  the  artist,  that  the  same  warrior,  seen 
in  different  parts  of  the  tapestry's  history,  has  his  shield  with 
differing  devices.  A  generation  later,  Anna  Comnena,  the 
daughter  of  the  Byzantine  emperor,  describing  the  shields  of  the 
French  knights  who  came  to  Constantinople,  tells  us  that  their 
polished  faces  were  plain.  • 

Of  all  men,  kings  and  princes  might  be  the  first  to  be  found 
bearing  arms.  Yet  the  first  English  sovereign  who  appears  on 
his  great  seal  with  arms  on  his  shield  is  Richard  I.  His  seal  of 
1189  shows  his  shield  charged  with  a  lion  ramping  towards  the 
sinister  side.  Since  one  half  only  is  seen  of  the  rounded  face  of  the 
shield,  English  antiquaries  have  perhaps  too  hastily  suggested 
that  the  whole  bearing  was  two  lions  face  to  face.  But  the 
mounted  figure  of  Philip  of  Alsace,  count  of  Flanders,  on  his  seal 
of  1 164  bears  a  like  shield  charged  with  a  like  lion,  and  in  this  case 
another  shield  on  the  counterseal  makes  it  clear  that  this  is  the 
single  lion  of  Flanders.  Therefore  we  may  take  it  that,  in  1189, 
King  Richard  bore  arms  of  a  lion  rampant,  while,  nine  years  later, 
another  seal  shows  him  with  a  shield  of  the  familiar  bearings 
which  have  been  borne  as  the  arms  of  England  by  each  one  of  his 
successors. 

That  seal  of  Philip  of  Alsace  is  the  earliest  known  example  of 
the  arms  of  the  great  counts  of  Flanders.  The  ancient  arms  of 
the  kings  of  France,  the  blue  shield  powdered  with  golden  fleurs- 
de-lys,  appear  even  later.  Louis  le  Jeune,  on  the  crowning  of  his 
son  Philip  Augustus,  ordered  that  the  young  prince  should  be 
clad  in  a  blue  dalmatic  and  blue  shoes,  sewn  with  golden  fleurs- 
de-lys,  a  flower  whose  name,  as  "  Fleur  de  Leys,"  played  upon 
that  of  his  own,  and  possibly  upon  his  epithet  name  of  Florus.  A 
seal  of  the  same  king  has  the  device  of  a  single  lily.  But  the  first 
French  royal  seal  with  the  shield  of  the  lilies  is  that  of  Louis  VIII. 
(1223-1226).  The  eagle  of  the  emperors  may  well  be  as  ancient 
a  bearing  as  any  in  Europe,  seeing  that  Charlemagne  is  said,  as 
the  successor  of  the  Caesars,  to  have  used  the  eagle  as  his  badge. 
The  emperor  Henry  III.  (1030-1056)  has  the  sceptre  on  his  seal 
surmounted  by  an  eagle;  in  the  i2th  century  the  eagle  was 
embroidered  upon  the  imperial  gloves.  At  Molsen  in  1080  the 
emperor's  banner  is  said  by  William  of  Tyre  to  have  borne  the 
eagle,  and  with  the  beginning  of  regular  heraldry  this  imperial 
badge  would  soon  be  displayed  on  a  shield.  The  double-headed 
eagle  is  not  seen  on  an  imperial  seal  until  after  1414,  when  the 
bird  with  one  neck  becomes  the  recognized  arms  of  the  king  of  the 
Romans. 

There  are,  however,  earlier  examples  of  shields  of  arms  than 
any  of  these.  A  document  of  the  first  importance  is  the  descrip- 
tion by  John  of  Marmoustier  of  the  marriage  of  Geoffrey  of  Anjou 
with  Maude  the  empress,  daughter  of  Henry  I.,  when  the  king  is 
said  to  have  hung  round  the  neck  of  his  son-in-law  a  shield  with 
golden  "  lioncels."  Afterwards  the  monk  speaks  of  Geoffrey  in 
fight,  "  pictos  leones  preferens  in  clypeo."  Two  notes  may  be 
added  to  this  account.  The  first  is  that  the  enamelled  plate  now 
in  the  museum  at  Le  Mans,  which  is  said  to  have  been  placed  over 
the  tomb  of  Geoffrey  after  his  death  in  1151,  shows  him  bearing  a 


long  shield  of  azure  with  six  golden  lioncels,  thus  confirming  the 
monk's  story.  The  second  is  the  well-known  fact  that  Geoffrey's 
bastard  grandson,  William  with  the  Long  Sword,  undoubtedly 
bore  these  same  arms  of  the  six  lions  of  gold  in  a  blue  field,  even 
as  they  are  still  to  be  seen  upon  his  tomb  at  Salisbury.  Some  ten 
years  before  Richard  I.  seals  with  the  three  leopards,  his  brother 
John,  count  of  Mortain,  is  found  using  a  seal  upon  which  he  bears 
two  leopards,  arms  which  later  tradition  assigns  to  the  ancient 
dukes  of  Normandy  and  to  their  descendants  the  kings  of  England 
before  Henry  II.,  who  is  said  to  have  added  the  third  leopard  in 
right  of  his  wife,  a  legend  of  no  value.  Mr  Round  has  pointed  out 
that  Gilbert  of  Clare,  earl  of  Hertford,  who  died  in  1152,  bears  on 
his  seal  to  a  document  sealed  after  1138  and  not  later  than  1146, 
the  three  cheverons  afterwards  so  well  known  in  England  as  the 
bearings  of  his  successors.  An  old  drawing  of  the  seal  of  his  uncle 
Gilbert,  earl  of  Pembroke  (Lansdowne  MS.  203),  shows  a  chever- 
onny  shield  used  between  1138  and  1 148.  At  some  date  between 
1144  and  1150,  Waleran,  count  of  Meulan,  shows  on  his  seal  a 
pennon  and  saddle-cloth  with  a  checkered  pattern:  the  house  of 
Warenne,  sprung  from  his  mother's  son,  bore  shields  cheeky  of 
gold  and  azure.  If  we  may  trust  the  inventory  of  Norman  seals 
made  by  M.  Demay,  a  careful  antiquary,  there  is  among  the 
archives  of  the  Manche  a  grant  by  Eudes,  seigneur  du  Pont, 
sealed  with  a  seal  and  counterseal  of  arms,  to  which  M.  Demay 
gives  a  date  as  early  as  1128.  The  writer  has  not  examined  this 
seal,  the  earliest  armorial  evidence  of  which  he  has  any  knowledge, 
but  it  may  be  remarked  that  the  arms  are  described  as  varying  on 
the  seal  and  counterseal,  a  significant  touch  of  primitive  armory. 
Another  type  of  seal  common  in  this  i2th  century  shows 
the  personal  device  which  had  not  yet  developed  into  an  armorial 
charge.  A  good  example  is  that  of  Enguerrand  de  Candavene, 
count  of  St  Pol,  where,  although  the  shield  of  the  horseman 
is  uncharged,  sheaves  of  oats,  playing  on  his  name,  are  strewn  at 
the  foot  of  the  seal.  Five  of  these  sheaves  were  the  arms  of 
Candavene  when  the  house  came  to  display  arms.  In  the  same 
fashion  three  different  members  of  the  family  of  Armenteres  in 
England  show  one,  two  or  three  swords  upon  their  seals,  but  here 
the  writer  has  no  evidence  of  a  coat  of  arms  derived  from  these 
devices. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  i3th  century  arms  upon  shields 
increase  in  number.  Soon  the  most  of  the  great  houses  of  the 
west  display  them  with  pride.  Leaders  in  the  field,  whether 
of  a  royal  army  or  of  a  dozen  spears,  saw  the  military  advantage 
of  a  custom  which  made  shield  and  banner  things  that  might 
be  recognized  in  the  press.  Although  it  is  probable  that  armorial 
bearings  have  their  first  place  upon  the  shield,  the  charges  of 
the  shield  are  found  displayed  on  the  knight's  long  surcoat, 
his  "  coat  of  arms,"  on  his  banner  or  pennon,  on  the  trappers 
of  his  horse  and  even  upon  the  peaks  of  his  saddle.  An  attempt 
has  been  made  to  connect  the  rise  of  armory  with  the  adoption 
of  the  barrel-shaped  close  helm;  but  even  when  wearing  the 
earlier  Norman  helmet  with  its  long  nasal  the  knight's  face  was 
not  to  be  recognized.  The  Conqueror,  as  we  know,  had  to 
bare  his  head  before  he  could  persuade  his  men  at  Hastings  that 
he  still  lived.  Armory  satisfied  a  need  which  had  long  been 
felt.  When  fully  armed,  one  galloping  knight  was  like  another; 
but  friend  and  foe  soon  learned  that  the  gold  and  blue  checkers 
meant  that  Warenne  was  in  the  field  and  that  the  gold  and 
red  vair  was  for  Ferrers.  Earl  Simon  at  Evesham  sent  up  his 
barber  to  a  spying  place  and,  as  the  barber  named  in  turn  the 
banners  which  had  come  up  against  him,  he  knew  that  his  last 
fight  was  at  hand.  In  spite  of  these  things  the  growth  of  the 
custom  of  sealing  deeds  and  charters  had  at  least  as  much  in- 
fluence in  the  development  of  armory  as  any  military  need. 
By  this  way,  women  and  clerks,  citizens  and  men  of  peace, 
corporations  and  colleges,  came  to  share  with  the  fighting  man 
in  the  use  of  armorial  bearings.  Arms  in  stone,  wood  and  brass 
decorated  the  tombs  of  the  dead  and  the  houses  of  the  living; 
they  were  broidered  in  bed-curtains,  coverlets  and  copes,  painted 
on  the  sails  of  ships  and  enamelled  upon  all  manner  of  gold- 
smiths' and  silversmiths'  work.  And,  even  by  warriors,  the 
full  splendour  of  armory  was  at  all  times  displayed  more  fully 


HERALDRY 


PLATE  I 


Ippw 1  I 1 1       ^ 
PART  OF  A  ROLL  OF  ARMS  PAINTED  IN  ENGLAND  AT  THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  14TH  CENTURY    THE  NAMES  HAVE 
BEEN  ADDED  BY  A  SOMEWHAT  LATER  HAND,  AND  ARE  IN  MANY  CASES  MISTAKEN  AND  MIS-SPELLED. 

Drawn  by  William  CM  for  the  ENCYCLOP/EDIA  BRITANNICA,  ELEVENTH  EDITION   Niagara  Lithe.   Co.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 


HERALDRY 


3*3 


in  the  fantastic  magnificence  of  the  tournament  than  in  the 
rougher  business  of  war. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  ancient  armorial  bearings  were 
chosen  at  will  by  the  man  who  bore  them,  many  reasons  guiding 
his  choice.  Crosses  in  plenty  were  taken.  Old  writers  have 
erted  that  these  crosses  commemorate  the  badge  of  the 
crusaders,  yet  the  fact  that  the  cross  was  the  symbol  of  the 
faith  was  reason  enough.  No  symbolism  can  be  found  in  such 

harges  as  bends  and  f esses;  they  are  on  the  shield  because  a 
broad  band,  aslant  or  athwart,  is  a  charge  easily  recognized. 
Medieval  wisdom  gave  every  noble  and  magnanimous  quality 
the  lion,  and  therefore  this  beast  is  chosen  by  hundreds  of 
knights  as  their  bearing.  We  have  already  seen  how  the  arms 
of  a  Candavene  play  upon  his  name.  Such  an  example  was 

nitated  on  all  sides.  Salle  of  Bedfordshire  has  two  ja/amanders 
so/tirewise;  Belet  has  his  namesake  the  weasel.  In  ancient 
shields  almost  all  beasts  and  birds  other  than  the  lion  and  the 

agle  play  upon  the  bearer's  name.     No  object  is  so  humble 

bat  it  is  unwelcome  to  the  knight  seeking  a  pun  for  his  shield. 

Trivet  has  a  three-legged  trivet;  Trumpington  two  trumps;  and 
Montbocher  three  pots.  The  legends  which  assert  that  certain 
arms  were  "  won  in  the  Holy  Land  "  or  granted  by  ancient 
kings  for  heroic  deeds  in  the  field  are  for  the  most  part 
worthless  fancies. 

Tenants  or  neighbours  of  the  great  feudal  lords  were  wont  to 
make  their  arms  by  differencing  the  lord's  shield  or  by  bringing 
some  charge  of  it  into  their  own  bearings.  Thus  a  group  of 
Kentish  shields  borrow  lions  from  that  of  Leyborne,  which  is 
azure  with  six  lions  of  silver.  Shirland  of  Minster  bore  the  same 
arms  differenced  with  an  ermine  quarter.  Detling  had  the 
silver  lions  in  a  sable  field.  Rokesle's  lions  are  azure  in  a  golden 
field  with  a  fesse  of  gules  between  them;  while  Wateringbury 
has  six  sable  lions  in  a  field  of  silver,  and  Tilmanstone  six 
ermine  lions  in  a  field  of  azure.  The  Vipont  ring  or  annelet  is 
in  several  shields  of  Westmorland  knights,  and  the  cheverons 
of  Clare,  the  cinquefoil  badge  of  Beaumont  and  the  sheaves  of 
Chester  can  be  traced  in  the  coats  of  many  of  the  followers  of 
those  houses.  Sometimes  the  lord  himself  set  forth  such  arms 
in  a  formal  grant,  as  when  the  baron  of  Greystock  grants  to 
Adam  of  Blencowe  a  shield  in  which  his  own  three  chaplets 
are  charges.  The  Whitgreave  family  of  Staffordshire  still  show 
a  shield  granted  to  their  ancestor  in  1442  by  the  earl  of  Stafford, 
in  which  the  Stafford  red  cheveron  on  a  golden  field  is  four 
times  repeated. 

Differences. — By  the  custom  of  the  middle  ages  the  "  whole 
coat,"  which  is  the  undifferenced  arms,  belonged  to  one  man 
only  and  was  inherited  whole  only  by  his  heirs.  Younger 
branches  differenced  in  many  ways,  following  no  rule.  In  modern 
armory  the  label  is  reckoned  a  difference  proper  only  to  an  eldest 
son.  But  in  older  times,  although  the  label  was  very  commonly 
used  by  the  son  and  heir  apparent,  he  often  chose  another  distinc- 
tion during  his  father's  lifetime,  while  the  label  is  sometimes  found 
upon  the  shields  of  younger  sons.  Changing  the  colours  or  varying 
the  number  of  charges,  drawing  a  bend  or  baston  over  the  shield 
or  adding  a  border  are  common  differences  of  cadet  lines. 
Beauchamp,  earl  of  Warwick,  bore  "  Gules  with  a  fesse  and  six 
crosslets  gold."  His  cousins  are  seen  changing  the  crosslets  for 
martlets  or  for  billets.  Bastards  difference  their  father's  arms, 
as  a  rule,  in  no  more  striking  manner  than  the  legitimate  cadets. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  i4th  century  we  have  the  beginning  of 
the  custom  whereby  certain  bastards  of  princely  houses  differenced 
the  paternal  arms  by  charging  them  upon  a  bend,  a  fesse  or  a 
chief,  a  cheveron  or  a  quarter.  Before  his  legitimation  the  eldest 
son  of  John  of  Gaunt  by  Katharine  Swinford  is  said  to  have 
borne  a  shield  party  silver  and  azure  with  the  arms  of  Lancaster 
on  a  bend.  After  his  legitimation  in  1397  he  changed  his  bearings 
to  the  royal  arms  of  France  and  England  within  a  border  gobony 
of  silver  and  azure.  Warren  of  Poynton,  descended  from  the 
last  earl  Warenne  and  his  concubine,  Maude  of  Neirford,  bore 
the  checkered  shield  of  Warenne  with  a  quarter  charged  with  the 
ermine  lion  of  Neirford.  By  the  end  of  the  middle  ages  the 
baston  under  continental  influence  tended  to  become  a  bastard's 


difference  in  England  and  the  jingle  of  the  two  words  may  have 
helped  to  support  the  custom.  About  the  same  time  the  border 
gobony  began  to  acquire  a  like  character.  The  "  bar  sinister  " 
of  the  novelists  is  probably  the  baston  sinister,  with  the  ends 
couped,  which  has  since  the  time  of  Charles  II.  been  familiar 
on  the  arms  of  certain  descendants  of  the  royal  house.  But 
it  has  rarely  been  seen  in  England  over  other  shields;  and, 
although  the  border  gobony  surrounds  the  arms  granted  to  a 
peer  of  Victorian  creation,  the  modern  heralds  have  fallen  into 
the  habit  of  assigning,  in  nineteen  cases  out  of  twenty,  a  wavy 
border  as  the  standard  difference  for  illegitimacy. 

Although  no  general  register  of  arms  was  maintained  it  is 
remarkable  that  there  was  little  conflict  between  persons  who 
had  chanced  to  assume  the  same  arms.  The  famous  suit  in 
which  Scrope,  Grosvenor  and  Carminow  all  claimed  the  blue 
shield  with  the  golden  bend  is  well  known,  and  there  are  a  few 
cases  in  the  i4th  century  of  like  disputes  which  were  never 
carried  to  the  courts.  But  the  men  of  the  middle  ages  would 
seem  to  have  had  marvellous  memories  for  blazonry;  and  we 
know  that  rolls  of  arms  for  reference,  some  of  them  the  records 
of  tournaments,  existed  in  great  numbers.  A  few  examples  of 
these  remain  to  us,  with  painted  shields  or  descriptions  in  French 
blazon,  some  of  them  containing  many  hundreds  of  names  and 
arms. 

To  women  were  assigned,  as  a  rule,  the  undifferenced  arms 
of  their  fathers.  In  the  early  days  of  armory  married  women — 
well-born  spinsters  of  full  age  were  all 
but  unknown  outside  the  walls  of  re- 
ligious houses — have  seals  on  which  appear 
the  shield  of  the  husband  or  the  father 
or  both  shields  side  by  side.  But  we  have 
some  instances  of  the  shield  in  which  two 
coats  of  arms  are  parted  or,  to  use  the 
modern  phrase,  "  impaled."  Early  in 
the  reign  of  King  John,  Robert  de  Pinkeny  D  Shield  from  seal  of 
i  vu  Vj  u-  u  f\  •  ii  Robert  de  Pinkeny,  an 

seals  with  a  parted  shield.     On  the  right  oarly  e  x  a  m  p  1  e  o  f 

or  dexter  side — the  right  hand  of  a  shield  parted  arms, 
is  at  the  right  hand  of  the  person  covered 

by  it — are  two  fusils  of  an  indented  fesse:  on  the  left  or 
sinister  side  are  three  waves.  The  arms  of  Pinkeny  being  an 
indented  fesse,  we  may  see  in  this  shield  the  parted  arms  of 
husband  and  wife — the  latter  being  probably  a  Basset.  In 
many  of  the  earliest  examples,  as  in  this,  the  dexter  half  of  ihe 
husband's  shield  was  united  with  the  sinister  half  of  that  of 
the  wife,  both  coats  being,  as  modern  antiquaries  have  it, 
dimidiated.  This  "  dimidiation,"  however,  had  its  incon- 
venience. With  some  coats  it  was  impossible.  If  the  wife  bore 
arms  with  a  quarter  for  the  only  charge,  her  half  of  the  shield 
would  be  blank.  Therefore  the 
practice  was  early  abandoned 
by  the  majority  of  bearers  of 
parted  shields  although  there 
is  a  survival  of  it  in  the  fact 
that  borders  and  tressures  con- 
tinue to  be  "  dimidiated  "  in 
order  that  the  charges  within 
them  shall  not  be  cramped. 
Parted  shields  came  into  com- 
mon use  from  the  reign  of 
Edward  II.,  and  the  rule  is 
established  that  the  husband's 
arms  should  take  the  dexter 
side.  There  are,  however, 
several  instances  of  the  con-  Shield  of  Joan  atte  Pole, 
trary  practice.  On  the  seal  widow  of  Robert  of  Hcmenhale, 
(I3io)  of  Maude,  wife  of  John  from  her  seal  (1403),  showing 
Boutetort  of  Halstead,  the  pal 

engrailed  saltire  of  the  Boutetorts  takes  the  sinister  place.  A 
twice-married  woman  would  sometimes  show  a  shield  charged 
with  her  paternal  arms  between  those  of  both  of  her  husbands,  as 
did  Beatrice  Stafford  in  1404,  while  in  1412  Elizabeth,  Lady  of 
Clinton,  seals  with  a  shield  paled  with  five  coats — her  arms 


3*4- 


HERALDRY 


A 
A 


of  la  Plaunche  between  those  of  four  husbands.  In  most 
cases  the  parted  shield  is  found  on  the  wife's  seal  alone.  Even 
in  our  own  time  it  is  recognized  that  the  wife's  arms  should  not 
appear  upon  the  husband's  official  seal,  upon  his  banner  or 
surcoat  or  upon  his  shield  when  it  is  surrounded  by  the  collar 
of  an  order.  Parted  arms,  it  may  be  noted,  do  not  always  repre- 
sent a  husband  and  wife.  Richard  II.  parted  with  his  quartered 

arms    of    France    and    England 
those      ascribed      to      Edward 
the    Confessor,    and    parting    is 
often    used    on    the    continent 
where  quartering  would  serve  in 
England.     In   1497   the  seal  of 
Giles    Daubeney    and    Reynold 
Bray,    fellow    justices    in    eyre, 
shows  their  arms  parted  in  one 
shield.     English   bishops,    by   a 
custom  begun  late  in  the   I4th 
century,    part    the    see's    arms 
with    their    own.      By    modern 
English  custom  a  husband  and 
wife,    where    the    wife    is    not 
Shield   of    Beatrice    Stafford  an    heir,    use    the    parted    coat 
fromher  seal  (1404),  showing  her  on    a    shield,    a    widow    bearing 
arms  of  Stafford  between  those  th 
of  her  husbands—  Thomas,  Lord  the 

Roos,  and  Sir  Richard  Burley.      on     which,     when     a.     spinster, 

she 


wme.     llrlr,n      *, 

which,     when     a. 

displayed      her      father's 

coat  alone.  When  the  wife  is  an  heir,  her  arms  are  now  borne  in 
a  little  scocheon  above  those  of  her  husband.  If  the  husband's 
arms  be  in  an  unquartered  shield  the  central  charge  is  often 
hidden  away  by  this  scocheon. 

The  practice  of  marshalling  arms  by  quartering  spread  in 
England  by  reason  of  the  example  given  by  Eleanor,  wife  of 
Edward  I.,  who  displayed  the  castle  of  Castile  quartered  with  the 
lion  of  Leon.  Isabel  of  France,  wife  of  Edward  II.,  seals  with  a 
shield  in  whose  four  quarters  are  the  arms  of  England,  France, 
Navarre  and  Champagne.  Early  in  the  i4th  century  Simon  de 
Montagu,  an  ancestor  of  the  earls  of  Salisbury,  quartered  with  his 
own  arms  a  coat  of  azure  with  a  golden  griffon.  In  1340  we 
have  Laurence  Hastings,  earl  of  Pembroke,  quartering  with  the 
Hastings  arms  the  arms  of  Valence,  as  heir  of  his  great-uncle 
Aymer,  earl  of  Pembroke.  In  the  preceding  year  the  king  had 
already  asserted  his  claim  to  another  kingdom  by  quartering 
France  with  England,  and  after  this  quartered  shields  became 
common  in  the  great  houses  whose  sons  were  carefully  matched 
with  heirs  female.  When  the  wife  was  an  heir  the  husband 
would  quarter  her  arms  with  his  own,  displaying,  as  a  rule, 

the  more  important  coat  in  the 
first  quarter.  Marshalling  be- 
comes more  elaborate  with  shields 
showing  both  quarterings  and 
partings,  as  in  the  seal  (1368)  of 
Sibil  Arundel,  where  Arundel 
(Fitzalan)  is  quartered  with 
Warenne  and  parted  with  the 
arms  of  Montagu.  In  all,  save 
one,  of  these  examples  the  quart- 
ering is  in  its  simplest  form, 
with  one  coat  repeated  in  the 
first  and  fourth  quarters  of  the 
shield  and  another  in  the  second 
and  third.  But  to  a  charter  of  1434 
Henry  Bromflete  sets  a  seal 
upon  which  Bromflete  quarters 
Vesci  in  the  second  quarter,  Aton 

in  the  third  and  St  John  in  the  fourth,  after  the  fashion  of  the 
much  earlier  seal  of  Edward  II.  's  queen.  Another  development 
is  that  of  what  armorists  style  the  "  grand  quarter,"  a  quarter 
which  is  itself  quartered,  as  in  the  shield  of  Reynold  Grey  of 
Ruthyn,  which  bears  Grey  in  the  first  and  fourth  quarters  and 
Hastings  quartered  with  Valence  in  the  third  and  fourth. 
Humphrey  Bourchier,  Lord  Cromwell,  in  1469,  bears  one  grand 


Shield  of  John  Talbot,  first 
earl  of  Shrewsbury  (d.  1453).   " 
showing  four  coats  quartered. 


quarter  quartered  with  another,  the  first  having  Bourchier 
and  Lovaine,  the  second  Tatershall  and  Cromwell. 

The  last  detail  to  be  noted  in  medieval  marshalling  is  the 
introduction  into  the  shield  of  another  surmounting  shield 
called  by  old  armorists  the  "  innerscocheon  "  and  by  modern 
blazoners  the  "  inescutcheon."  John  the  Fearless,  count  of 
Flanders,  marshalled  his  arms  in  1409  as  a  quartered  shield 
of  the  new  and  old  coats  of  Burgundy.  Above  these  coats  a 
little  scocheon,  borne  over  the  crossing  of  the  quartering  lines, 
had  the  black  lion  of  Flanders,  the  arms  of  his  mother.  Richard 
Beauchamp,  the  adventurous  earl  of  Warwick,  who  had  seen 
most  European  courts  during  his  wanderings,  may  have  had 
this  shield  in  mind  when,  over  his  arms  of  Beauchamp  quartering 
Newburgh,  he  set  a  scocheon  of  Clare  quartering  Despenser, 
the  arms  of  his  wife  Isabel  Despenser,  co-heir  of  the  earls  of 
Gloucester.  The  seal  of  his  son-in-law,  the  King-Maker,  shows 
four  quarters — Beauchamp  quartering  Clare,  Montagu  quartering 
Monthermer,  Nevill  alone,  and  Newburgh  quartering  Despenser. 
An  interesting  use  of  the  scocheon  en  surtout  is  that  made  by 
Richard  Wydvile,  Lord  Rivers, 
whose  garter  stall-plate  has  a 
grand  quarter  of  Wydvile  and 
Prouz  quartering  Beauchamp  of 
Hache,  the  whole  surmounted 
by  a  scocheon  with  the  arms  of 
Reviers  or  Rivers,  the  house 
from  which  he  took  the  title 
of  his  barony.  On  the  continent 
the  common  use  of  the  scocheon 
is  to  bear  the  paternal  arms  of  a 
sovereign  or  noble,  surmounting 
the  quarterings  of  his  kingdoms, 
principalities,  fiefs  or  seigniories. 
Our  own  prince  of  Wales  bears 
the  arms  of  Saxony  above  those  Shield  of  Richard  Beauchamp, 
of  the  United  Kingdom  differ-  earl  of  Warwick,  from  his  garter 
enced  with  his  silver  label.  Mar-  stall-plate  (after  1423).  The 
shalling  takes  its  most  elaborate  arms  are  Beauchamp  quartering 
°,  Newburgh,  with  a  scocheon  of 

form,    the    most    removed    from  Clare  quartering  Despenser. 
the    graceful    simplicity    of    the 

middle  ages,  in  such  shields  as  the  "  Great  Arms "  of  the 
Austrian  empire,  wherein  are  nine  grand  quarters  each  marshal- 
ling in  various  fashions  from  three  to  eleven  coats,  six  of  the 
grand-quarters  bearing  scocheons  en  surtout,  each  scocheon 
ensigned  with  a  different  crown. 

Crests. — The  most  important  accessory  of  the  arms  is  the 
crested  helm.  Like  the  arms  it  has  its  pre-heraldic  history  in 
the  crests  of  the  Greek  helmets,  the  wings,  the  wild  boar's  and 
bull's  heads  of  Viking  headpieces.  A  little  roundel  of  the  arms 
of  a  Japanese  house  was  often  borne  as  a  crest  in  the  Japanese 
helmet,  stepped  in  a  socket  above  the  middle  of  the  brim.  The 
12th-century  seal  of  Philip  of  Alsace,  count  of  Flanders,  shows 
a  demi-lion  painted  or  beaten  on  the  side  of  the  upper  part  of 
his  helm,  and  on  his  seal  of  1198  our  own  Richard  Cceur  de 
Lion's  barrel-helm  has  a  leopard  upon  the  semicircular  comb- 
ridge,  the  edge  of  which  is  set  off  with  feathers  arranged  as 
two  wings.  Crests,  however,  came  slowly  into  use  in  England, 
although  before  1250  Roger  de  Quincy,  earl  of  Winchester, 
is  seen  on  his  seal  with  a  wyver  upon  his  helm.  Of  the  long  roll 
of  earls  and  barons  sealing  the  famous  letter  to  the  pope  in  1301 
only  five  show  true  crests  on  their  seals.  Two  of  them  are  the 
earl  of  Lancaster  and  his  brother,  each  with  a  wyver  crest  like 
that  of  Quincy.  One,  and  the  most  remarkable,  is  John  St  John 
of  Halnaker,  whose  crest  is  a  leopard  standing  between  two 
upright  palm  branches.  Ralph  de  Monthermer  has  an  eagle 
crest,  while  Walter  de  Money's  helm  is  surmounted  by  a  fox-like 
beast.  In  three  of  these  instances  the  crest  is  borne,  as  was  often 
the  case,  by  the  horse  as  well  as  the  rider.  Others  of  these 
seals  to  the  barons'  letter  have  the  fan-shaped  crest  without 
any  decoration  upon  it.  But  as  the  furniture  of  tournaments 
grew  more  magnificent  the  crest  gave  a  new  field  for  display, 
and  many  strange  shapes  appear  in  painted  and  gilded  wood, 


HERALDRY 


metal,  leather  or  parchment  above  the  helms  of  the  jousters. 
The  Berkeleys,  great  patrons  of  abbeys,  bore  a  mitre  as  their 
crest  painted  with  their  arms,  like  crests  being  sometimes  seen 
on  the  continent  where  the  wearer  was  advocatm  of  a  bishopric 
or  abbey.  The  whole  or  half  figures  or  the  heads  and  necks 
of  beasts  and  birds  were  employed  by  other  families.  Saracens' 
heads  topped  many  helms,  that  of  the  great  Chandos  among  them. 
Astley  bore  for  his  crest  a  silver  harpy  standing  in  marsh-sedge, 
a  golden  chain  fastened  to  a  crown  about  her  neck.  Dymoke 
played  pleasantly  on  his  name  with  a  long-eared  moke's  scalp. 
Stanley  took  the  eagle's  nest  in  which  the  eagle  is  lighting 
down  with  a  swaddled  babe  in  his  claws.  Burnell  had  a  burdock 
bush,  la  Vache  a  cow's  leg,  and  Lisle's  strange  fancy  was  to 
perch  a  huge  millstone  on  edge  above  his  head.  Many  early 
helms,  as  that  of  Sir  John  Loterel,  painted  in  the  Loterel  psalter, 
repeat  the  arms  on  the  sides  of  a  fan-crest.  Howard  bore  for  a 
crest  his  arms  painted  on  a  pair  of  wings,  while  simple  "  bushes  " 
or  feathers  are  seen  in  great  plenty.  The  crest  of  a  cadet  is  often 
differenced  like  the  arms,  and  thus  a  wyver  or  a  leopard  will 
have  a  label  about  its  neck.  The  Montagu  griffon  on  the  helm 
of  John,  marquess  of  Montagu,  holds  in  its  beak  the  gimel  ring 
with  which  he  differenced  his  father's  shield.  His  brother, 


Ralph  de  Monthermer  (1301),  showing  shield  of  arms,  helm  with 
crest  and  mantle,  horse-crest  and  armorial  trappers. 

the  King-Maker,  following  a  custom  commoner  abroad  than  at 
home,  shows  two  crested  helms  on  his  seal,  one  for  Montagu 
and  one  for  Beauchamp — none  for  his  father's  house  of  Nevill. 
It  is  often  stated  that  a  man,  unless  by  some  special  grace  or 
allowance,  can  have  but  one.  crest.  This,  however,  is  contrary 
to  the  spirit  of  medieval  armory  in  which  a  man,  inheriting  the 
coat  of  arms  of  another  house  than  his  own,  took  with  it  all  its 
belongings,  crest,  badge  and  the  like.  The  heraldry  books, 
with  more  reason,  deny  crests  to  women  and  to  the  clergy,  but 
examples  are  not  wanting  of  medieval  seals  in  which  even  this 
rule  is  broken.  It  is  perhaps  unfair  to  cite  the  case  of  the  bishops 
of  Durham  who  ride  in  full  harness  on  their  palatinate  seals;  but 
Henry  Despenser,  bishop  of  Norwich,  has  a  helm  on  which  the 
winged  griffon's  head  of  his  house  springs  from  a  mitre,  while 
Alexander  Nevill,  archbishop  of  York,  seals  with  shield,  supporters 
and  crowned  and  crested  helm  like  those  of  any  lay  magnate. 
Richard  Holt,  a  Northamptonshire  clerk  in  holy  orders,  bears 
on  his  seal  in  the  reign  of  Henry  V.  a  shield  of  arms  and  a  mantled 
helm  with  the  crest  of  a  collared  greyhound's  head.  About  the 
middle  of  the  same  century  a  seal  cut  for  the  wife  of  Thomas 
Chetwode,  a  Cheshire  squire,  has  a  shield  of  her  husband's  arms 
parted  with  her  own  and  surmounted  by  a  crowned  helm  with  the 
crest  of  a  demi-lion;  and  this  is  not  the  only  example  of  such 
bearings  by  a  woman. 
Before  passing  from  the  crest  let  us  note  that  in  England  the  i 


juncture  of  crest  and  helm  was  commonly  covered,  especially 
after  the  beginning  of  the  isth  century,  by  a  torse  or  "  wreath  " 
of  silk,  twisted  with  one,  two  or  three  colours.  Coronets  or 
crowns  and  "  hats  of  estate  "  often  take  the  place  of  the  wreath  as 
a  base  for  the  crest,  and  there  are  other  curious  variants.  With 
the  wreath  may  be  considered  the 
mantle,  a  hanging  cloth  which,  in  its 
earliest  form,  is  seen  as  two  strips  of 
silk  or  sendal  attached  to  the  top  of  the 
helm  below  the  crest  and  streaming 
like  pennants  as  the  rider  bent  his  head 
and  charged.  Such  strips  are  often 
displayed  from  the  conical  top  of  an 
uncrested  helm,  and  some  ancient  ex- 
amples have  the  air  of  the  two  ends  of 
a  stole  or  of  the  infulae  of  a  bishop's 
mitre.  The  general  opinion  of  anti- 
quaries has  been  that  the  mantle 
originated  among  the  crusaders  as  a 
protection  for  the  steel  helm  from  the 
rays  of  an  Eastern  sun;  but  the  fact  that 
mantles  take  in  England  their  fuller 
form  after  our  crusading  days  were  over 
seems  against  this  theory.  When  the 
fashion  for  slittering  the  edges  of  hef^'lith"  hatband 
clothing  came  in,  the  edges  of  the  mantle  of  Thomas  of 
mantle  were  slittered  like  the  edge  Hengrave  (1401). 
of  the  sleeve  or  skirt,  and,  flourished 

out  on  either  side  of  the  helm,  it  became  the  delight  of 
the  painter  of  armories  and  the  seal  engraver.  A  worthless 
tale,  repeated  by  popular  manuals,  makes  the  slittered  edge 
represent  the  shearing  work  of  the  enemy's  sword,  a  fancy 
which  takes  no  account  of  the  like  developments  in  civil  dress. 
Modern  heraldry  in  England  paints  the  mantle  with  the  principal 
colour  of  the  shield,  lining  it  with  the  principal  metal.  This  in 
cases  where  no  old  grant  of  arms  is  cited  as  evidence  of  another 
usage.  The  mantles  of  the  king  and  of  the  prince  of  Wales  are, 
however,  of  gold  lined  with  ermine  and  those  of  other  members 
of  the  royal  house  of  gold  lined  with  silver.  In  ancient  examples 
there  is  great  variety  and  freedom.  Where  the  crest  is  the  head 
of  a  griffon  or  bird  the  feathering  of  the  neck  will  be  carried  on 
to  cover  the  mantle.  Other  mantles  will  be  powdered  with 
badges  or  with  charges  from  the  shield,  others  checkered,  barred 
or  paled.  More  than  thirty  of  the  mantles  enamelled  on  the 
stall-plates  of  the  medieval  Garter-knights  are  of  red  with  an 
ermine  lining,  tinctures  which  in  most  cases  have  no  reference 
to  the  shields  below  them. 

Supporters. — Shields  of  arms,  especially  upon  seals,  are 
sometimes  figured  as  hung  round  the  necks  of  eagles,  lions, 
swans  and  griffons,  as  strapped  between  the  horns  of  a  hart  or  to 
the  boughs  of  a  tree.  Badges  may  fill  in  the  blank  spaces  at 
the  sides  between  the  shield  and  the  inscription  on  the  rim,  but 
in  the  later  i3th  and  early  I4th  centuries  the  commonest  objects 
so  serving  are  sprigs  of  plants,  lions,  leopards,  or,  still  more 
frequently,  lithe-necked  wyvers.  John  of  Segrave  in  1301  flanks 
his  shields  with  two  of  the  sheaves  of  the  older  coat  of  Segrave: 
William  Marshal  of  Hingham  does  the  like  with  his  two  marshal's 
staves.  Henry  of  Lancaster  at  the  same  time  shows  on  his  seal 
a  shield  and  a  helm  crested  with  a  wyver,  with  two  like  wyvers 
ranged  on  either  side  of  the  shield  as  "  supporters."  It  is 
uncertain  at  what  time  in  the  I4th  century  these  various  fashions 
crystallize  into  the  recognized  use  of  beasts,  birds,  reptiles,  men 
or  inanimate  objects,  definitely  chosen  as  "  supporters  "  of  the 
shield,  and  not  to  be  taken  as  the  ornaments  suggested  by  the 
fancy  of  the  seal  engraver.  That  supporters  originate  in  the 
decoration  of  the  seal  there  can  be  little  doubt.  Some  writers, 
the  learned  Menetrier  among  them,  will  have  it  that  they  were 
first  the  fantastically  clad  fellows  who  supported  and  displayed 
the  knight's  shield  at  the  opening  of  the  tournament.  If  the 
earliest  supporters  were  wild  men,  angels  or  Saracens,  this  theory 
might  be  defended ;  but  lions,  boars  and  talbots,  dogs  and  trees 
are  guises  into  which  a  man  would  put  himself  with  difficulty. 


316 


HERALDRY 


By  the  middle  of  the  i4th  century  we  find  what  are  clearly 
recognizable  as  supporters.  These,  as  in  a  lesser  degree  the 
crest,  are  often  personal  rather  than  hereditary,  being  changed 
generation  by  generation.  The  same  person  is  found  using  more 


Arms  of  William,  Lord  Hastings,  from  his  seal  (1477),  showing 
shield,  crowned  and  crested  helm  with  mantle  and  supporters. 

than  one  pair  of  them.  The  kings  of  France  have  had  angels  as 
supporters  of  the  shield  of  the  fleurs  de  lys  since  the  1 5th  century, 
but  the  angels  have  only  taken  their  place  as  the  sole  royal 
supporters  since  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.  Sovereigns  of 
England  from  Henry  IV.  to  Elizabeth  changed  about  between 
supporters  of  harts,  leopards,  antelopes,  bulls,  greyhounds,  boars 
and  dragons.  James  I.  at  his  accession  to  the  English  throne 
brought  the  Scottish  unicorn  to  face  the  English  leopard  rampant 
across  his  shield,  and,  ever  since,  the  "  lion  and  unicorn  "  have 
been  the  royal  supporters. 

An  old  herald  wrote  as  his  opinion  that  "  there  is  little  or 
nothing  in  precedent  to  direct  the  use  of  supporters."  Modern 
custom  gives  them,  as  a  rule,  only  to  peers,  to  knights  of  the 
Garter,  the  Thistle  and  St  Patrick,  and  to  knights  who  are  "  Grand 


Badge  of  John  of  Whethamstede,  Rudder  badge  of 

abbot  of  St  Albans  (d.  1465),  from  Willoughby. 

his  tomb  in  the  abbey  church. 

Crosses "  or  Grand  Commanders  of  other  orders.  Royal 
warrants  are  sometimes  issued  for  the  granting  of  supporters 
to  baronets,  and,  in  rare  cases,  they  have  been  assigned  to  un- 
titled  persons.  But  in  spite  of  the  jealousy  with  which  official 
heraldry  hedges  about  the  display  of  these  supporters  once 
assumed  so  freely,  a  few  old  English  families  still  assert  their 


Dacre     of 
I  and  Dacre  of  the 


the 


right  by  hereditary  prescription  to  use  these  ornaments  as  their 
forefathers  were  wont  to  use  them. 

Badges. — The  badge  may  claim  a  greater  antiquity  -and  a 
wider  use  than  armorial  bearings.  The  "  Plantagenet  "  broom 
is  an  early  example  in  England,  sprigs 
of  it  being  figured  on  the  seal  of 
Richard  I.  In  the  i4th  and  i$th  cen- 
turies every  magnate  had  his  badge, 
which  he  displayed  on  his  horse- 
furniture,  on  the  hangings  of  his  bed, 
his  wall  and  his  chair  of  state,  besides 
giving  it  as  a  "  livery  "  to  his  servants 
and  followers.  Such  were  the  knots  of 
Stafford,  Bourchier  and  Wake,  the 
scabbard  -  crampet  of  La  Warr,  the 
sickle  of  Hungerford,  the  swan  of 
Toesni,  Bohun  and  Lancaster,  the  dun- 
bull  of  Nevill,  the  blue  boar  of  Vere  and 
the  bear  and  ragged  staff  of  Beauchamp, 
Nevill  of  Warwick  and  Dudley  of  Northumberland.  So  well 
known  of  all  were  these  symbols  that  a  political  ballad  of  1440 
sings  of  the  misfortunes  of  the  great  lords  without  naming  one 
of  them,  all  men  understanding  what  signified  the  Falcon,  the 
Water  Bowge  and  the  Cresset  and  the  other  badges  of 
doggerel.  More  famous  still  were  the  White 
Hart,  the  Red  Rose,  the  White  Rose,  the 
Sun,  the  Falcon  and  Fetterlock,  the  Port- 
cullis and  the  many  other  badges  of  the 
royal  house.  We  still  call  those  wars  that 
blotted  out  the  old  baronage  the  Wars  of 
the  Roses,  and  the  Prince  of  Wales's  feathers 
are  as  well  known  to-day  as  the  royal  arms. 
The  Flint  and  Steel  of  Burgundy  make  a 
collar  for  the  order  of  the  Golden  Fleece. 

Mottoes. — The  motto  now  accompanies 
every  coat  of  arms  in  these  islands.  Few  of 
these  Latin  aphorisms,  these  bald  assertions 
of  virtue,  high  courage,  patriotism,  piety  and 
loyalty  have  any  antiquity.  Some  few,  how- 
ever, like  the  "  Esperance "  of  Percy,  were 
the  war-cries  of  remote  ancestors.  "  I  mak' 
sicker "  of  Kirkpatrick  recalls  pridefully  a 
bloody  deed  done  on  a  wounded  man, 
and  the  "Dieu  Ayde,"  "Agincourt"  and 
"  D'Accomplir  Agincourt  "  of  the  Irish 
"  Montmorencys  "  and  the  English  Wode- 
houses  and  Dalisons,  glorious  traditions  badgeof  Beaufort, 
based  upon  untrustworthy  genealogy.  The  p^a™  ofi^'o^The 
often-quoted  punning  mottoes  may  be  illus-  silver  feather  has 
trated  by  that  of  Cust,  who  says  "  Qui 
Cust-odit  caveat,"  a  modern  example  and  a 
fair  one.  Ancient  mottoes  as  distinct  from 
the  war  or  gathering  cry  of  a  house  are  often  cryptic  sentences 
whose  meaning  might  be  known  to  the  user  and  perchance  to 
his  mistress.  Such  are  the  "  Plus  est  en  vous  "  of  Louis  de 
Bruges,  the  Flemish  earl  of  Winchester,  and  the  "  So  have  I 
cause  "  and  "  Till  then  thus  "  of  two  Englishmen.  The  word 
motto  is  of  modern  use,  our  forefathers  speaking  rather  of  their 
"  word  "  or  of  their  "  reason." 

Coronets  of  Rank. — Among  accessories  of  the  shield  may  now 
be  counted  the  coronets  of  peers,  whose  present  form  is  post- 
medieval.  When  Edward  III.  made  dukes  of  his  sons,  gold 
circlets  were  set  upon  their  heads  in  token  of  their  new  dignity. 
In  1385  John  de  Vere,  marquess  of  Dublin,  was  created  in  the 
same  fashion.  Edward  VI.  extended  the  honour  of  the  gold 
circle  to  earls.  Caps  of  honour  were  worn  with  these  circles  or 
coronets,  and  viscounts  wore  the  cap  by  appointment  of  James  I., 
Vincent  the  herald  stating  that  "  a  verge  of  pearls  on  top  of 
the  circulet  of  gold  "  was  added  at  the  creation  of  Robert  Cecil 
as  Viscount  Cranborne.  At  the  coronation  of  Charles  I.  the 
viscounts  walked  in  procession  with  their  caps  and  coronets. 
A  few  days  before  the  coronation  of  Charles  II.  the  privilege 


Ostrich  feather 


a   quill    g 
silver  and 


obony 
azure. 


HERALDRY 


PLATE  II. 


SIXTEEN  SHIELDS  FROM  A  ROLL  OF  ARMS  OF  ENGLISH  KNIGHTS  AND  BARONS  MADE  BY  AN  ENGLISH 

PAINTER  EARLY  IN  THE  REIGN  OF  EDWARD  III. 


Drawn  by  William  Gibb. 


Niagara  Lilho.   Co..  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 


HERALDRY 


of  the  cap  of  honour  was  given  to  the  lowest  rank  of  the  peerage, 
and  letters  patent  of  January  1661  assign  to  them  both  cap  and 
coronet.  The  caps  of  velvet  turned  up  with  miniver,  which  are 
nowalways  worn  with  the  peer's  coronet,  are  therefore  the  ancient 
caps  of  honour,  akin  to  that  "  cap  of  maintenance  "  worn  by 
English  sovereigns  on  their  coronation  days  when  walking  to  the 
Abbey  Church,  and  borne  before  them  on  occasions  of  royal  state. 
The  ancient  circles  were  enriched  according  to  the  taste  of 
the  bearer,  and,  although  used  at  creations  as  symbols  of  the 
rank  conferred,  were  worn  in  the  i4th  and  isth  centuries  by  men 
and  women  of  rank  without  the  use  signifying  a  rank  in  the 
peerage.  Edmund,  earl  of  March,  in  his  will  of  1380,  named  his 
sercle  we  roses,  emeraudes  et  rubies  d'alisaundre  en  les  roses,  and 
bequeathed  it  to  his  daughter.  Modern  coronets  are  of  silver-gilt, 
without  jewels,  set  upon  caps  of  crimson  velvet  turned  up  with 
ermine,  with  a  gold  tassel  at  the  top.  A  duke's  coronet  has  the 
circle  decorated  with  eight  gold  "strawberry  leaves";  that  of 
a  marquess  has  four  gold  strawberry  leaves  and  four  silver  balls. 
The  coronet  of  an  earl  has  eight  silver  balls,  raised  upon  points, 
with  gold  strawberry  leaves  between  the  points.  A  viscount's 
coronet  has  on  the  circle  sixteen  silver  balls,  and  a  baron's  coronet 
six  silver  balls.  On  the  continent  the  modern  use  of  coronets 
is  not  ordered  in  the  precise  English  fashion,  men  of  gentle  birth 
displaying  coronets  which  afford  but  slight  indication  of  the 
bearer's  rank. 

Lines. — Eleven  varieties  of  lines,  other  than  straight  lines, 
which  divide  the  shield,  or  edge  our  cheverons,  pales,  bars  and 
the  like,  are  pictured  in  the  heraldry  books  and  named  as  en- 
grailed, embattled,  indented,  invected,  wavy  or  undy,  nebuly, 
dancetty,  raguly,  potente,  dovetailed  and  urdy. 

As  in  the  case  of  many  other  such  lists  of  the  later  armorists 
these  eleven  varieties  need  some  pruning  and  a  new  explanation. 
The  most  commonly  found  is  the  line  engrailed,  which  for  the 
student  of  medieval  armory  must  be  associated  with  the  line 
indented.  In  its  earliest  form  the  line  which  a  roll  of  arms  will 
describe  indifferently  as  indented  or  engrailed  takes  almost 
invariably  the  form  to  which  the  name  indented  is  restricted 
by  modern  armorists. 

The  cross  may  serve  as  our  first  example.  A  cross,  engrailed 
or  indented,  the  words  being  used  indifferently,  is  a  cross  so 
deeply  notched  at  the  edges  that  it  seems  made  up  of  so  many 
lozenge-shaped  wedges  or  fusils.  About  the  middle  of  the  i4th 
century  begins  a  tendency,  resisted  in  practice  by  many  conserva- 
tive families,  to  draw  the  engrailing  lines  in  the  fashion  to  which 
modern  armorists  restrict  the  word  "  engrailed,"  making 
shallower  indentures  in  the  form  of  lines  of  half  circles.  -Thus 

the  engrailed  cross  of  the 
Mohuns  takes  either  of  the 
two  forms  which  we  illustrate. 
Bends  follow  the  same  fashion, 
early  bends  engrailed  or  in- 
dented being  some  four  or 
more  fusils  joined  bendwise  by 
their  blunt  sides,  bends  of  less 
than  four  fusils  being  very  rare. 
Thus  also  the  engrailed  or  in- 
dented saltires,  pales  or  cheverons,  the  exact  number  of  the  fusils 
which  go  to  the  making  of  these  being  unconsidered.  For  the  fesse 
there  is  another  law.  The  fesse  indented  or  engrailed  is  made  up 
of  fusils  as  is  the  engrailed  bend.  But  although  early  rolls  of 
arms  sometimes  neglect  this  detail  in  their  blazon,  the  fusils 
making  a  fesse  must  always  be  of  an  ascertained  number. 
Montagu,  earl  of  Salisbury,  bore  a  fesse  engrailed  or  indented 
of  three  fusils  only,  very  few  shields  imitating  this.  Medieval 
armorists  will  describe  his  arms  as  a  fesse  indented  of  three 
indentures,  as  a  fesse  fusilly  of  three  pieces,  or  as  a  fesse  engrailed 
of  three  points  or  pieces,  all  of  these  blazons  having  the  same 
value.  The  indented  fesse  on  the  red  shield  of  the  Dynhams 
has  four  such  fusils  of  ermine.  Four,  however,  is  almost  as  rare 
a  number  as  three,  the  normal  form  of  a  fesse  indented  being  that 
of  five  fusils  as  borne  by  Percys,  Pinkenys,  Newmarches  and 
many  other  ancient  houses.  Indeed,  accuracy  of  blazon  is  served  \ 


Mohun. 


if  the  number  of  fusils  in  a  fesse  be  named  in  the  cases  of  threes 
and  fours.  Fesses  of  six  fusils  are  not  to  be  found.  Note  that 
bars  indented  or  engrailed  are,  for  a  reason  which  will  be  evi- 
dent, never  subject  to  this  counting  of  fusils.  Fauconberg,  for 
example,  bore  "  Silver  with  two  bars  engrailed,  or  indented, 
sable."  Displayed  on  a  shield  of  the  flat-iron  outline,  the 
lower  bar  would  show  fewer  fusils  than  the  upper,  while  on  a 
square  banner  each  bar  would  have  an  equal  number — usually 
five  or  six. 

While  bends,   cheverons,   crosses,   saltires    and    pales  often 
follow,  especially  in  the  isth  century,  the  tendency  towards  the 


Montagu.  Dynham. 


Percy. 


Fauconberg; 


rounded  "  engrailing,"  fesses  keep,  as  a  rule,  their  bold  indentures 
• — neither  Percy  nor  Montagu  being  ever  found  with  his  bearings 
in  aught  but  their  ancient  form.  Borders  take  the  newer  fashion 
as  leaving  more  room  for  the  charges  of  the  field.  But  indented 
chiefs  do  not  change  their  fashion,  although  many  saw-teeth 
sometimes  take  the  place  of  the  three  or  four  strong  points  of 
early  arms,  and  parti-coloured  shields  whose  party  line  is  indented 
never  lose  the  bold  zig-zag. 

While  bearing  in  mind  that  the  two  words  have  no  distinctive 
force  in  ancient  armory,  the  student  and  the  herald  of  modern 
times  may  conveniently  allow  himself  to  blazon  the  sharp  and 
saw-toothed  line  as  "  indented "  and  the  scolloped  line  as 
"  engrailed,"  especially  when  dealing  with  the  debased  armory 
in  which  the  distinction  is  held  to  be  a  true  one  and  one  of  the 
first  importance.  One  error  at  least  he  must  avoid,  and  that 
is  the  following  of  the  heraldry-book  compilers  in  their  use  of  the 
word  "dancetty."  A  "dancetty"  line,  we  are  told,  is  a  line 
having  fewer  and  deeper  indentures  than  the  line  indented.  But 
no  dancetty  line  could  make  a  bolder  dash  across  the  shield  than 
do  the  lines  which  the  old  armorists  recognized  as  "  indented." 
In  old  armory  we  have  fesses  dancy — commonly 
called  "  dances  " — bends  dancy,  or  cheverons  |  | 

dancy;  there  are  no  chiefs  dancy  nor  borders 
dancy,  nor  are  there  shields  blazoned  as  parted 
with  a  dancy  line.  Waved  lines,  battled  lines 
and  ragged  lines  need  little  explanation  that  a 
picture  cannot  give.  The  word  invecked  or 
invected  is  sometimes  applied  by  old-fashioned 
heraldic  pedants  to  engrailed  lines;  later 
pedants  have  given  it  to  a  line  found  in 
modern  grants  of  arms,  an  engrailed  line  reversed.  Dove- 
tailed and  urdy  lines  are  mere  modernisms.  Of  the  very 
rare  nebuly  or  clouded  line  we  can  only  say  that  the  ancient 
form,  which  imitated  the  conventional  cloud-bank  of  the  old 
painters,  is  now  almost  forgotten,  while  the  bold  "  wavy  "  lines 
of  early  armory  have  the  word  "  nebuly  "  misapplied  to  them. 

The  Ordinary  Charges. — The  writers  upon  armory  have  given 
the  name  of  Ordinaries  to  certain  conventional  figures  commonly 
charged  upon  shields.  Also  they  affect  to  divide  these  into 
Honourable  Ordinaries  and  Sub-Ordinaries  without  explaining 
the  reason  for  the  superior  honour  of  the  Saltire  or  for  the 
subordination  of  the  Quarter.  -  Disregarding  such  distinctions, 
we  may  begin  with  the  description  of  the  "  Ordinaries  "  most 
commonly  to  be  found. 

From  the  first  the  Cross  was  a  common  bearing  on  English 
shields,  "  Silver  a  cross  gules  "  being  given  early  to  St  George, 
patron  of  knights  and  of  England,  for  his  arms;  and  under  St 
George's  red  cross  the  English  were  wont  to  fight.  Our  armorial 
crosses  took  many  shapes,  but  the  "  crosses  innumerabill " 
of  the  Book  of  St  Albans  and  its  successors  may  be  left  to  the 
heraldic  dictionary  makers  who  have  devised  them.  It  is  more 


West. 


3i8 


HERALDRY 


important  to  define  those  forms  in  use  during  the  middle  ages, 
and  to  name  them  accurately  after  the  custom  of  those  who  bore 
them  in  war,  a  task  which  the  heraldry  books  have  never  as  yet 
attempted  with  success. 

The  cross  in  its  simple  form  needs  no  definition,  but  it  will  be 
noted  that  it  is  sometimes  borne  "  voided  "  and  that  in  a  very 
few  cases  it  appears  as  a  lesser  charge  with  its  ends  cut  off  square, 
in  which  case  it  must  be  clearly  blazoned  as  "  a  plain  Cross." 

Andrew  Harcla,  the  march-warden,  whom  Edward  II.  made  an 
earl  and  executed  as  a  traitor,  bore  the  arms  of  St  George  with  a 
martlet  sable  in  the  quarter. 

Crevequer  of  Kent  bore  "  Gold  a  voided  cross  gules." 

Newsom  (Hth  century)  bore  "  Azure  a  fesse  silver  with  three  plain 
crosses  gules." 

Next  to  the  plain  Cross  may  be  taken  the  Cross  paty,  the 
croiz  patee  or  pate  of  old  rolls  of  arms.  It  has  several  forms, 
according  to  the  taste  of  the  artist  and  the  age.  So,  in  the 
I3th  and  early  i4th  centuries,  its  limbs  curve  out  broadly,  while 
at  a  later  date  the  limbs  become  more  slender  and  of  even  breadth, 
the  ends  somewhat  resembling  fleurs-de-lys.  Each  of  these  forms 
has  been  seized  by  the  heraldic  writers  as  the  type  of  a  distinct 
cross  for  which  a  name  must  be  found,  none  of  them,  as  a  rule, 
being  recognized  as  a  cross  paty,  a  word  which  has  its  misapplica- 


St  George. 


Harcla. 


Crevequer. 


Latimer. 


tion  elsewhere.  Thus  the  books  have  "  cross  patonce  "  for  the 
earlier  form,  while  "  cross  clechee  "  and  "  cross  fleurie  "  serve 
for  the  others.  But  the  true  identification  of  the  various  crosses 
is  of  the  first  importance  to  the  antiquary,  since  without  it 
descriptions  of  the  arms  on  early  seals  or  monuments  must  needs 
be  valueless.  Many  instances  of  this  need  might  be  cited  from 
the  British  Museum  catalogue  of  seals,  where,  for  example, 
the  cross  paty  of  Latimer  is  described  twice  as  a  "  cross  flory," 
six  times  as  a  "  cross  patonce,"  but  not  once  by  its  own  name, 
although  there  is  no  better  known  example  of  this  bearing  in 
England. 

Latimer  bore  "  Gules  a  cross  paty  gold." 

The  cross  formy  follows  the  lines  of  the  cross  paty  save  that  its 
broadening  ends  are  cut  off  squarely. 

Chetwode  bore  "  Quarterly  silver  and  gules  with  four  crosses  formy 
countercoloured  " — that  is  to  say,  the  two  crosses  in  the  gules  are 
of  silver  and  the  two  in  the  silver  of  gules. 

The  cross  flory  or  flowered  cross,  the  "  cross  with  the  ends 
flowered  " — od  les  boutes  floreles  as  some  of  the  old  rolls  have 
it — is,  like  the  cross  paty,  a  mark  for  the  misapprehension  of 
writers  on  armory,  who  describe  some  shapes  of  the  cross  paty 
by  its  name.  Playing  upon  discovered  or  fancied  variants  of  the 
word,  they  bid  us  mark  the  distinctions  between  crosses  "  fleur- 
de-lisee,"  "  fleury  "  and  "  fleurettee,"  although  each  author  has 
his  own  version  of  the  value  which  must  be  given  these  precious 
words.  But  the  facts  of  the  medieval  practice  are  clear  to  those 
who  take  their  armory  from  ancient  examples 
and  not  from  phrases  plagiarized  from  the 
hundredth  plagiarist.  The  flowered  cross  is  one 
whose  limbs  end  in  fleur-de-lys,  which  spring 
sometimes  from  a  knop  or  bud  but  more  fre- 
quently issue  from  the  square  ends  of  a  cross  of 
the  "  formy  "  type. 

Swynnerton  bore"  Silver  a  flowered  cross  sable." 
The  mill-rind,  which  takes  its  name  from  the 
iron  of  a  mill-stone — fer  de  moline — must  be  set  with  the 
crosses.  Some  of  the  old  rolls  call  it  croiz  recercele,  from  which 
armorial  writers  have  leaped  to  imagine  a  distinct  type.  Also 
they  call  the  mill-rind  itself  a  "  cross  moline  "  keeping  the  word 


V 


Mill-rinds. 


mill-rind  for  a  charge  having  the  same  origin  but  of  somewhat 
differing  form.     Since  this  charge  became  common  in  Tudor 
armory  it  is  perhaps  better  that  the  original  mill-rind  should 
be  called  for  distinction  a  mill-rind  cross. 
Willoughby  bore  "  Gules  a  mill-rind  cross  silver." 
The  crosslet,  cross  botonny  or  cross  crosletted,  is  a  cross  whose 
limbs,  of  even  breadth,  end  as  trefoils  or  treble  buds.     It  is 
rarely  found  in  medieval  examples  in  the  shape— that  of  a  cross 
with  limbs  ending  in  squarely  cut  plain  crosses — which  it  took 


Chetwode.  Swynnerton.          Willoughby.          Brerelegh. 

during  the  16th-century  decadence.  As  the  sole  charge  of  a 
shield  it  is  very  rare;  otherwise  it  is  one  of  the  commonest  of 
charges. 

Brerelegh  bore  "  Silver  a  crosslet  gules." 

Within  these  modest  limits  we  have  brought  the  greater  part 
of  that  monstrous  host  of  crosses  which  cumber  the  dictionaries. 
A  few  rare  varieties  may  be  noticed. 

Dukinfield  bore  "  Silver  a  voided  cross  with  sharpened  ends." 

Skirlaw,  bishop  of  Durham  (d.  1406),  the  son  of  a  basket- weaver, 
bore  "  Silver  a  cross  of  three  upright  wattles  sable,  crossed  and 
interwoven  by  three  more." 

Drury  bore  "  Silver  a  chief  vert  with  a  St  Anthony's  cross  gold 
between  two  golden  molets,  pierced  gules." 

Brytton  bore  "  Gold  a  patriarch's  cross  set  upon  three  degrees  or 
steps  of  gules." 

Hurlestone  of  Cheshire  bore  "  Silver  a  cross  of  four  ermine  tails 
sable." 

Melton  bore  "  Silver  a  Toulouse  cross  gules."    By  giving  this  cross 


Skirlaw. 


Drury.          St  Anthony's  Cross.     Brytton. 


a  name  from  the  counts  of  Toulouse,  its  best-known  bearers,  some 
elaborate  blazonry  is  spared. 

The  crosses  paty  and  formy,  and  more  especially  the  crosslets, 
are  often  borne  fitchy,  that  is  to  say,  with  the  lower  limb  some- 
what lengthened  and  ending  in  a  point,  for  which  reason  the 
15th-century  writers  call  these  "  crosses  fixabill."  In  the  14th- 
century  rolls  the  word  "  potent  "  is  sometimes  used  for  these 
crosses  fitchy,  the  long  foot  suggesting  a  potent  or  staff.  From 
this  source  modern  English  armorists  derive  many  of  their 
"  crosses  potent,"  whose  four  arms  have  the  T  heads  of  old- 
fashioned  walking  staves. 

Howard  bore  "  Silver  a  bend  between  six  crosslets  fitchy  gules." 
Scott  of  Congerhurst  in  Kent  bore  "  Silver  a  crosslet  fitchy  sable." 

The  Saltire  is  the  cross  in  the  form  of  that  on  which  St  Andrew 


Hurlestone. 


Melton. 


Howard. 


Scott. 


suffered,  whence  it  is  borne  on  the  banner  of  Scotland,  and  by 
the  Andrew  family  of  Northamptonshire. 

Nevile  of  Raby  bore  "  Gules  a  saltire  silver." 

Nicholas  Upton,  the  15th-century  writer  on  armory,  bore  "  Silver 
a  saltire  sable  with  the  ends  couped  and  five  golden  rings  thereon." 


HERALDRY 


Aynho  bore  "  Sable  a  saltire  silver  having  the  ends  flowered  between 
four  leopards  gold." 

"  Mayster  Elwett  of  Yorke  chyre  "  in  a  15th-century  roll  bears 
"  Silver  a  saltire  of  chains  sable  with  a  crescent  in  the  chief." 


Nevile. 


Upton. 


Aynho. 


Elwett. 


Fenwick. 


Restwolde  bore  "  Party  saltirewise  of  gules  and  ermine." 

The  chief  is  the  upper  part  of  the  shield  and,  marked  out  by  a 
line  of  division,  it  is  taken  as  one  of  the  Ordinaries.  Shields 
with  a  plain  chief  and  no  more  are  rare  in  England,  but  Tichborne 
of  Tichborne  has  borne  since  the  i3th  century  "  Vair  a  chief 
_  gold."  According  to  the  heraldry  books  the 

chief  should  be  marked  off  as  a  third  part  of 
the  shield,  but  its  depth  varies,  being  broader 
when  charged  with  devices  and  narrower 
when,  itself  uncharged,  it  surmounts  a  charged 
field.  Fenwick  bore  "  Silver  a  chief  gules 
with  six  martlets  countercoloured,"  and  in  this 
case  the  chief  would  be  the  half  of  the  shield. 
Clinging  to  the  belief  that  the  chief  must  not 
fill  more  than  a  third  of  the  shield,  the  heraldry 
books  abandon  the  word  in  such  cases,  blazoning  them  as  "  party 
per  fesse." 

Hastang  bore  "  Azure  a  chief  gules  and  a  lion  with  a  forked  tail 
over  all." 

Walter  Kingston  seals  in  the  I3th  century  with  a  shield  of  "  Two 
rings  or  annelets  in  the  chief." 

Hilton  of  Westmoreland  bore  "  Sable  three  rings  gold  and  two 
saltires  silver  in  the  chief." 

With  the  chief  may  be  named  the  Foot,  the  nether  part  of  the 
shield  marked  off  as  an  Ordinary.  So  rare  is  this  charge  that 
we  can  cite  but  one  example  of  it,  that  of  the  shield  of  John 
of  Skipton,  who  in  the  i4th  century  bore  "  Silver  with  the  foot 
indented  purple  and  a  lion  purple."  The  foot,  however,  is  a 
recognized  bearing  in  France,  whose  heralds  gave  it  the  name 
of  champagne. 

The  Pale  is  a  broad  stripe  running  the  length  of  the  shield. 
Of  a  single  pale  and  of  three  pales  there  are  several  old  examples. 
Four  red  pales  in  a  golden  shield  were  borne  by  Eleanor  of 
Provence,  queen  of  Henry  III.;  but  the  number  did  not  com- 


Restwolde. 


Hastang. 


Hilton. 


Provence. 


mend  itself  to  English  armorists.  When  the  field  is  divided 
evenly  into  six  pales  it  is  said  to  be  paly;  if  into  four  or  eight 
pales,  it  is  blazoned  as  paly  of  that  number  of  pieces.  But  paly 
of  more  or  less  than  six  pieces  is  rarely  found. 

The  Yorkshire  house  of  Gascoigne  bore  "  Silver  a  pale  sable  with 
a  golden  conger's  head  thereon,  cut  off  at  the  shoulder." 
Ferlington  bore  "  Gules  three  pales  vair  and  a  chief  gold." 
Strelley  bore  "  Paly  silver  and  azure." 
Rothinge  bore  "  Paly  silver  and  gules  of  eight  pieces." 

When  the  shield  or  charge  is  divided  palewise  down  the  middle 
into  two  tinctures  it  is  said  to  be  "  party."  "  Party  silver 
and  gules  "  are  the  arms  of  the  Waldegraves.  Bermingham 
bore  "  Party  silver  and  sable  indented."  Caldecote  bore  "  Party 
silver  and  azure  with  a  chief  gules."  Such  partings  of  the 
field  often  cut  through  charges  whose  colours  change  about  on 


either  side  of  the  parting  line.     Thus  Chaucer  the  poet  bore 
"  Party  silver  and  gules  with  a  bend  countercoloured." 

The  Fesse  is  a  band  athwart  the  shield,  filling,  according  to  the 
rules  of  the  heraldic  writers,  a  third  part  of  it.  By  ancient  use, 
however,  as  in  the  case  of  the  chief  and  pale,  its  width  varies 
with  the  taste  of  the  painter,  narrowing  when  set  in  a  field  full 
of  charges  and  broadening  when  charges  are  displayed  on  itself. 


Rothinge. 


When  two  or  three  fesses  are  borne  they  are  commonly  called 
Bars.  "  Ermine  four  bars  gules  "  is  given  as  the  shield  of  Sir 
John  Sully,  a  14th-century  Garter  knight,  on  his  stall-plate 
at  Windsor:  but  the  plate  belongs  to  a  later  generation,  and 
should  probably  have  three  bars  only.  Little  bars  borne  in 
couples  are  styled  Gemels  (twins).  The  field  divided  into  an 
even  number  of  bars  of  alternate  colours  is  said  to  be  barry, 


Bermingham.  Caldecote. 


Colevile. 


Fauconberg. 


barry  of  six  pieces  being  the  normal  number.  If  four  or  eight 
divisions  be  found  the  number  of  pieces  must  be  named;  but  with 
ten  or  more  divisions  the  number  is  unreckoned  and  "  burely  " 
is  the  word. 

Colevile  of  Bitham  bore  "  Gold  a  fesse  gules." 
West  bore  "  Silver  a  dance  (or  fesse  dancy)  sable." 
Fauconberg  bore  "  Gold  a  fesse  azure  with  three  pales  gules  in  the 
chief." 

Cayvile  bore  "  Silver  a  fesse  gules,  flowered  on  both  sides." 


Cayvile. 


Devereux.        Chamberlayne.         Harcourt. 


Devereux  bore  "  Gules  a  fesse  silver  with  three  roundels  silver  in 
the  chief." 

Chamberlayne  of  Northamptonshire  bore  "  Gules  a  fesse  and  three 
scallops  gold." 

Harcourt  bore  "  Gules  two  bars  gold." 

Manners  bore  "  Gold  two  bars  azure  and  a  chief  gules." 

Wake  bore  "  Gold  two  bars  gules  with  three  roundels  gules  in  the 
chief." 

Bussy  bore  "  Silver  three  bars  sable." 

Badlesmere  of  Kent  bore  "  Silver  a  fesse  between  two  gemels 
gules." 

Melsanby  bore  "  Sable  two  gemels  and  a  chief  silver." 


Manners. 


Wake. 


Melsanby. 


Grey. 


Grey  bore  "  Barry  of  silver  and  azure." 

Fitzalan  of  Bedale  bore  "  Barry  of  eight  pieces  gold  and  gules. 

Stutevile  bore  "  Burely  of  silver  and  gules." 


320 


HERALDRY 


The  Bend  is  a  band  traversing  the  shield  aslant,  arms  with 
one,  two  or  three  bends  being  common  during  the  middle  ages 
in  England.  Bendy  shields  follow  the  rule  of  shields  paly  and 
barry,  but  as  many  as  ten  pieces  have  been  counted  in  them. 
The  bend  is  often  accompanied  by  a  narrow  bend  on  either 
side,  these  companions  being  called  Cotices.  A  single  narrow 
bend,  struck  over  all  other  charges,  is  the  Baston,  which  during 
the  i3th  and  i4th  centuries  was  a  common  difference  for  the 
shields  of  the  younger  branches  of  a  family,  coming  in  late? 
times  to  suggest  itself  as  a  difference  for  bastards. 

The  Bend  Sinister,  the  bend  drawn  from  right  to  left  beginning 
at  the  "  sinister  "  corner  of  the  shield,  is  reckoned  in  the  heraldry 
books  as  a  separate  Ordinary,  and  has  a  peculiar  significance 


Fitzalan  of  Bedale.     Mauley.  Harley.  Wallop. 

accorded  to  it  by  novelists.  Medieval  English  seals  afford 
a  group  of  examples  of  Bends  Sinister  and  Bastons  Sinister, 
but  there  seems  no  reason  for  taking  them  as  anything  more 
than  cases  in  which  the  artist  has  neglected  the  common  rule. 

Mauley  bore  "  Gold  a  bend  sable." 

Harley  bore  "  Gold  a  bend  with  two  cotices  sable." 

Wallop  bore  "  Silver  a  bend  wavy  sable." 

Ralegh  bore  "  Gules  a  bend  indented,  or  engrailed,  silver." 


Ralegh. 


Tracy. 


Bodrugan.          St  Philibert. 


Tracy  bore  "  Gold  two  bends  gules  with  a  scallop  sable  in  the  chief 

between  the  bends." 

Bodrugan  bore  "  Gules  three  bends  sable." 

St  Philibert  bore  "  Bendy  of  six  pieces,  silver  and  azure." 

Bishopsdon  bore  "  Bendy  of  six  pieces,  gold  and  azure,  with  a 

quarter  ermine." 

Montfort  of  Whitchurch  bore  "  Bendy  of  ten  pieces  gold  and 

azure." 

Henry  of  Lancaster,  second  son  of  Edmund  Crouchback,  bore  the 


Bishopsdon.  Montfort. 


Lancaster.          Fraunceys. 


arms  of  his  cousin,  the  king  of  England,  with  the  difference  of  "  a 
baston  azure." 

Adam  Fraunceys  (i4th  century)  bore  "  Party  gold  and  sable 
bendwise  with  a  lion  countercoloured."  The  parting  line  is  here 
commonly  shown  as  "  sinister." 

The  Cheveron,  a  word  found  in  medieval  building  accounts 
for  the  barge-boards  of  a  gable,  is  an  Ordinary  whose  form  is 
explained  by  its  name.  Perhaps  the  very  earliest  of  English 
armorial  charges,  and  familiarized  by  the  shield  of  the  great 
house  of  Clare,  it  became  exceedingly  popular  in  England. 
Like  the  bend  and  the  chief,  its  width  varies  in  different  examples. 
Likewise  its  angle  varies,  being  sometimes  so  acute  as  to  touch 
the  top  of  the  shield,  while  in  post-medieval  armory  the  point 
is  often  blunted  beyond  the  right  angle.  One,  two  or  three 
cheverons  occur  in  numberless  shields,  and  five  cheverons  have 
been  found.  Also  there  are  some  examples  of  the  bearing  of 
cheveronny. 


The  earls  of  Gloucester  of  the  house  of  Glare  bore  "  Gold  three 
cheverons  gules  "  and  the  Staffords  derived  from  them  their  shield  of 

Gold  a  cheveron  gules.'' 

Chaworth  bore  "  Azure  two  cheverons  gold." 

Peytevyn  bore  "  Cheveronny  of  ermine  and  gules." 

St  Quintin  of  Yorkshire  bore  "  Gold  two  cheverons  gules  and  a 
chief  vair." 

Sheffield  bore  "  Ermine  a  cheveron  gules  between  three  sheaves 
gold." 

Cobham  of  Kent  bore  "  Gules  a  cheveron  gold  with  three  fleurs- 
de-lys  azure  thereon." 

Fitzwalter  bore  "  Gold  a  fesse  between  two  cheverons  gules." 


Chaworth. 


Peytevyn. 


Sheffield. 


Cobham. 


Shields  parted  cheveronwise  are  common  in  the  isth  century, 
when  they  are  often  blazoned  as  having  chiefs  "  enty  "  or 
grafted.  Aston  of  Cheshire  bore  "  Party  sable  and  silver  chever- 
onwise "  or  "  Silver  a  chief  enty  sable." 

The  Pile  or  stake  (estache)  is  a  wedge-shaped  figure  jutting 
from  the  chief  to  the  foot  of  the  shield,  its  name  allied  to  the 
pile  of  the  bridge-builder.  A  single  pile  is  found  in  the  notable 
arms  of  Chandos,  and  the  black  piles  in  the  ermine  shield  of 
Hollis  are  seen  as  an  example  of  the  bearing  of  two  piles.  Three 
piles  are  more  easily  found,  and  when  more  than  one  is  represented 
the  points  are  brought  together  at  the  foot.  In  ancient  armory 
piles  in  a  shield  are  sometimes  reckoned  as  a  variety  of  pales, 
and  a  Basset  with  three  piles  on  his  shield  is  seen  with  three 
pales  on  his  square  banner. 

Chandos  bore  "  Gold  a  pile  gules." 
Bryene  bore  "  Gold  three  piles  azure." 

The  Quarter  is  the  space  of  the  first  quarter  of  the  shield 
divided  crosswise  into  four  parts.  As  an  Ordinary  it  is  an 
ancient  charge  and  a  common  one  in  medieval  England,  although 
it  has  all  but  disappeared  from  modern  heraldry  books,  the 
"  Canton,"  an  alleged  "  diminutive,"  unknown  to  early  armory, 
taking  its  place.  Like  the  other  Ordinaries,  its  size  is  found 
to  vary  with  the  scheme  of  the  shield's  charges,  and  this  has 
persuaded  those  armorists  who  must  needs  call  a  narrow  bend 
a  "  bendlet,"  to  the  invention  of  the  "  Canton,"  a  word  which 
in  the  sense  of  a  quarter  or  small  quarter  appears  for  the  first 
time  in  the  latter  part  of  the  isth  century.  Writers  of  the 
i4th  century  sometimes  give  it  the  name  of  the  Cantel,  but  this 
word  is  also  applied  to  the  void  space  on  the  opposite. side  of 
the  chief,  seen  above  a  bend. 


Aston. 


Hollis. 


Bryene. 


Blencowe. 


Blencowe  bore  "  Gules  a  quarter  silver." 

Basset  of  Dray  ton  bore  "  Gold  three  piles  (or  pales)  gules  with  a 
quarter  ermine." 

Wydvile  bore  "  Silver  a  fesse  and  a  quarter  gules." 

Odingseles  bore  "  Silver  a  fesse  gules  with  a  molet  gules  in  the 
quarter." 

Robert  Dene  of  Sussex  (i4th  century)  bore  "Gules  a  quarter 
azure  '  embelif,'  or  aslant,  and  thereon  a  sleeved  arm  and  hand  of 
silver." 

Shields  or  charges  divided  crosswise  with  a  downward  line 
and  a  line  athwart  are  said  to  be  quarterly.  An  ancient  coat 
of  this  fashion  is  that  of  Say  who  bore  (i3th  century)  "  Quarterly 
gold  and  gules  " — the  first  and  fourth  quarters  being  gold  and 
the  second  and  third  red.  Ever  or  Eure  bore  the  same  with  the 


PLATE  III. 


•••  — c          j     r     t 

SHIELDS  OF  ARMS  OF  "LE  ROY  DARRABE,"  "LE  ROY  DE  TARSSE,"  AND  OTHER  SOVEREIGNS,  MOSTLY  MYTHICAL. 
TAKEN  FROM  A  ROLL  OF  ARMS  MADE  BY  AN  ENGLISH  PAINTER  IN  THE  TIME  OF  HENRY  VI. 

Draw  by   William   CM.  Niagara  Lilho.   Co,.  Buffalo.  N.  Y. 


HERALDRY 


321 


_ddition  of  "  a  bend  sable  with  three  silver  scallops  thereon." 
Phelip,  Lord  Bardolf,  bore  "  Quarterly  gules  and  silver  with  an 
agle  gold  in  the  quarter." 

With  the  i  sth  century  came  a  fashion  of  dividing  the  shield 
ato  more  than  four  squares,  six  and  nine  divisions  being  often 
ound  in  arms  of  that  age.  The  heraldry  books,  eager  to  work 


Basset. 


Wydvile. 


Odingseles. 


Ever. 


mt  problems  of  blazonry,  decide  that  a  shield  divided  into 
squares  should  be  described  as  "  Party  per  fesse  with  a  pale 
unterchanged,"  and  one  divided  into  nine  squares  as  bearing 
a  cross  quarter-pierced."     It  seems  a  simpler  business   to 
illow  a  isth-century  fashion  and  to  blazon  such  shields  as 
being  of  six  or  nine  "  pieces."    Thus  John  Garther  (i  sth  century) 
bore  "  Nine  pieces  erminees  and  ermine  "  and  Whitgreave  of 
Staffordshire  "  Nine  pieces  of  azure  and  of  Stafford's  arms, 
which  are  gold  with  a  cheveron  gules."    The  Tallow  Chandlers 
of  London  had  a  grant  in  1456  of  "  Six  pieces  azure  and  silver 
with  three  doves  in  the  azure,  each  with  an  olive  sprig  in  her 
beak." 

Squared  into  more  than  nine  squares  the  shield  becomes 
cheeky  or  checkered  and  the  number  is  not  reckoned.    Warenne's 
checker  of  gold  and  azure  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  coats  in 
.ngland  and  checkered  fields  and  charges  follow  in  great  numbers, 
ven  lions  have  been  borne  checkered. 
Warenne  bore  "  Cheeky  gold  and  azure." 
Clifford  bore  the  like  with  "  a  fesse  gules." 
Cobhara  bore  "  Silver  a  lion  cheeky  gold  and  sable." 
Arderne  bore  "  Ermine  a  fesse  cheeky  gold  and  gules." 

Such  charges  as  this  fesse  of  Arderne's  and  other  checkered 
iesses,  bars,  bends,  borders  and  the  like,  will  commonly  bear  but 


Tallow 
Chandlers. 


Warenne. 


CO 

S 

an 


wo  rows  of  squares,  or  three  at  the  most.  The  heraldry  writers 
•e  ready  to  note  that  when  two  rows  are  used  "  counter- 
compony  "  is  the  word  in  place  of  cheeky,  and  "  compony- 
counter-compony  "  in  the  case  of  three  rows.  It  is  needless  to 
y  that  these  words  have  neither  practical  value  nor  antiquity 
commend  them.  But  bends  and  bastons,  labels,  borders 
and  the  rest  are  often  coloured  with  a  single  row  of  alternating 
tinctures.  In  this  case  the  pieces  are  said  to  be  "  gobony." 
Thus  John  Cromwell  (i4th  century)  bore  "  Silver  a  chief  gules 
with  a  baston  gobony  of  gold  and  azure." 

The  scocheon  or  shield  used  as  a  charge  is  found  among  the 
earliest  arms.  Itself  charged  with  arms,  it  served  to  indicate 
alliance  by  blood  or  by  tenure  with  another  house,  as  in  the 
bearings  of  St  Owen  whose  shield  of  "  Gules  with  a  cross  silver  " 
has  a  scocheon  of  Clare  in  the  quarter.  In  the  latter  half  of  the 
i  Sth  century  it  plays  an  important  part  in  the  curious  marshalling 
•of  the  arms  of  great  houses  and  lordships. 

Erpingham  bore  "  Vert  a  scocheon  silver  with  an  orle  (or  border) 
of  silver  martlets." 

Davillers  bore  at  the  battle  of  Boroughbridge  "  Silver  three 
scodicons  gules." 

The  scocheon  was  often  borne  voided  or  pierced,  its  field  cut 
away  to  a  narrow  border.    Especially  was  this  the  case  in  the 
ar  North,  where  the  Balliols,  who  bore  such  a  voided  scocheon, 

XIII.   II 


were  powerful.  The  voided  scocheon  is  wrongly  named  in  all 
the  heraldry  books  as  an  orle,  a  term  which  belongs  to  a  number 
of  small  charges  set  round  a  central  charge.  Thus  the  martlets 
in  the  shield  of  Erpingham,  already  described,  may  be  called  an 
orle  of  martlets  or  a  border  of  martlets.  This  misnaming  of  the 
voided  scocheon  has  caused  a  curious  misapprehension  of  its 
form,  even  Dr  Woodward,  in  his  Heraldry,  British  and  Foreign, 
describing  the  "  orle  "  as  "  a  narrow  border  detached  from  the 
edge  of  the  shield."  Following  this  definition  modern  armorial 
artists  will,  in  the  case  of  quartered  arms,  draw  the  "  orle  "  in 
a  first  or  second  quarter  of  a  quartered  shield  as  a  rectangular 
figure  and  in  a  third  or  fourth  quarter  as  a  scalene  triangle 
with  one  arched  side.  Thereby  the  original  voided  scocheon 
changes  into  forms  without  meaning. 

Balliol  bore  "  Gules  a  voided  scocheon  silver." 

Surtees  bore  "  Ermine  with  a  quarter  of  the  arms  of  Balliol." 

The  Tressure  or  flowered  tressure  is  a  figure  which  is  correctly 
described  by  Woodward's  incorrect  description  of  the  orle  as 
cited  above,  being  a  narrow  inner  border  of  the  shield.  It  is 
distinguished,  however,  by  the  fleurs-de-lys  which  decorate  it, 


Arderne. 


Cromwell. 


Erpingham. 


setting  off  its  edges.  The  double  tressure  which  surrounds  the 
lion  in  the  royal  shield  of  Scotland,  and  which  is  borne  by  many 
Scottish  houses  who  have  served  their  kings  well  or  mated  with 
their  daughters,  is  carefully  described  by  Scottish  heralds  as 
"  flowered  and  counter-flowered,"  a  blazon  which  is  held  to 
mean  that  the  fleurs-de-lys  show  head  and  tail  in  turn  from  the 
outer  rim  of  the  outer  tressure  and  from  the  inner  rim  of  the 
innermost.  But  this  seems  to  have  been  no  essential  matter 
with  medieval  armorists  and  a  curious  isth-century  enamelled 
roundel  of  the  arms  of  Vampage  shows  that  in  this  English 
case  the  flowering  takes  the  more  convenient  form  of  allowing 
all  the  lily  heads  to  sprout  from  the  outer  rim. 

Vampage  bore  "Azure  an  eagle  silver  within  a  flowered  tressure 
silver." 

The  king  of  Scots  bore  "  Gold  a  lion  within  a  double  tressure 
flowered  and  counterflowered  gules." 

Felton  bore  "  Gules  two  lions  passant  within  a  double  tressure 
flory  silver." 

The  Border  of  the  shield  when  marked  out  in  its  own  tincture 
is  counted  as  an  Ordinary.  Plain  or  charged,  it  was  commonly 
used  as  a  difference.  As  the  principal  charge  of  a  shield  it  is 
very  rare,  so  rare  that  in  most  cases  where  it  apparently  occurs 


Davillers.  Balliol.  Surtees.  Vampage. 

we  may,  perhaps,  be  following  medieval  custom  in  blazoning 
the  shield  as  one  charged  with  a  scocheon  and  not  with  a  border. 
Thus  Hondescote  bore  "  Ermine  a  border  gules  "  or  "  Gules  a 
scocheon  ermine." 

Somerville  bore  "  Burely  silver  and  gules  and  a  border  azure  with 
golden  martlets." 

Paynel  bore  "  Silver  two  bars  sable  with  a  border,  or  orle,  of 
martlets  gules." 

The  Flaunches  are  the  flanks  of  the  shield  which,  cut  off  by 
rounded  lines,  are  borne  in  pairs  as  Ordinaries.  These  charges 
are  found  in  many  coats  devised  by  isth-century  armorists. 

5 


322 


HERALDRY 


"  Ermine  two  flaunches  azure  with  six  golden  wheat-ears  " 
was  borne  by  John  Greyby  of  Oxfordshire  (isth  century). 

The  Label  is  a  narrow  fillet  across  the  upper  part  of  the  chief, 
from  which  hang  three,  four,  five  or  more  pendants,  the  pendants 
being,  in  most  old  examples,  broader  than  the  fillet.  Reckoned 
with  ihe  Ordinaries,  it  was  commonly  used  as  a  means  of  differenc- 
ing a  cadet's  shield,  and  in  the  heraldry  books  it  has  become  the 
accepted  difference  for  an  eldest  son,  although  the  cadets  often 
bore  it  in  the  middle  ages.  John  of  Hastings  bore  in  1300  before 
Carlaverock  "  Gold  a  sleeve  (or  maunche)  gules,"  while  Edmund 
his  brother  bore  the  same  arms  with  a  sable  label.  In  modern 
armory  the  pendants  are  all  but  invariably  reduced  to  three, 
which,  in  debased  examples,  are  given  a  dovetailed  form  while 
the  ends  of  the  fillet  are  cut  off. 

The  Fret,  drawn  as  a  voided  lozenge  interlaced  by  a  slender 
saltire,  is  counted  an  Ordinary.  A  charge  in  such  a  shape  is 
extremely  rare  in  medieval  armory,  its  ancient  form  when  the 
field  is  covered  by  it  being  a  number  of  bastons— three  being 
the  customary  number — interlaced  by  as  many  more  from  the 
sinister  side.  Although  the  whole  is  described  as  a  fret  in  certain 
English  blazons  of  the  1,5th  century,  the  adjective  "  fretty  " 


Scotland. 


Hondescote. 


Greyby. 


Hastings. 


is  more  commonly  used.  Trussel's  fret  is  remarkable  for  its 
bezants  at  the  joints,  which  stand,  doubtless,  for  the  golden 
nail-heads  of  the  "  trellis  "  suggested  by  his  name.  Curwen, 
Wyvile  and  other  northern  houses  bearing  a  fret  and  a  chief 
have,  owing  to  their  fashion  of  drawing  their  frets,  often  seen 
them  changed  by  the  heraldry  books  into  "  three  cheverons 
braced  or  interlaced." 

Huddlestone  bore  "  Gules  fretty  silver." 
Trussel  bore  "  Silver  fretty  gules,  the  joints  bezanty. 
Hugh  Giffard  (nth  century)  bore  "  Gules  with  an  engrailed  fret 
of  ermine." 

Wyvile  bore  "  Gules  fretty  vair  with  a  chief  gold. 
Boxhull  bore  "  Gold  a  lion  azure  fretty  silver." 

Another  Ordinary  is  the  Giron  or  Gyron—  a  word  now  com- 
monly mispronounced  with  a  hard  "  g."    It  may  be  defined  as  the 


Trussel. 


Giffard. 


Wyvile. 


Mortimer. 


lower  half  of  a  quarter  which  has  been  divided  bendwise.  No 
old  example  of  a  single  giron  can  be  found  to  match  the  figure 
in  the  heraldry  books.  Gironny,  or  gyronny,  is  a  manner  of 
dividing  the  field  into  sections,  by  lines  radiating  from  a  centre 
point,  of  which  many  instances  may  be  given.  Most  of  the 
earlier  examples  have  some  twelve  divisions  although  later 
armory  gives  eight  as  the  normal  number,  as  Campbell  bears 
them. 

Basslngbourne  bore  "Gironny  of  gold  and  azure  of  twelve 
pieces." 

William  Stoker,  who  died  Lord  Mayor  of  London  in  1484-  bore 
"  Gironny  of  six  pieces  azure  and  silver  with  three  popinjays  m  the 
silver  pieces." 

A  pair  of  girons  on  either  side  of  a  chief  were  borne  in  the  strange 
shield  of  Mortimer,  commonly  blazoned  as  "  Barry  azure  and  gold 
of  six  pieces,  the  chief  azure  with  two  pales  and  two  girons  gold,  a 
scocheon  silver  over  all."  An  early  example  shows  that  this  shield 
began  as  a  plain  field  with  a  gobony  border. 


With  the  Ordinaries  we  may  take  the  Roundels  or  Pellets, 
disks  or  balls  of  various  colours.  Ancient  custom  gives  the  name 
of  a  bezant  to  the  golden  roundel,  and  the  folly  of  the  heraldic 
writers  has  found  names  for  all  the  others,  names  which  may 
be  disregarded  together  with  the  belief  that,  while  bezants  and 
silver  roundels,  as  representing  coins,  must  be  pictured  with  a 
flat  surface,  roundels  of  other  hues  must  needs  be  shaded  by 
the  painter  to  represent  rounded  balls.  Rings  or  Annelets 
were  common  charges  in  the  North,  where  Lowthers,  Musgraves 


Campbell.         Bassingbourne. 


Stoker. 


Burlay. 


and  many  more,  differenced  the  six  rings  of  Vipont  by  bearing 
them  in  various  colours. 

Burlay  of  Wharfdale  bore  "  Gules  a  bezant." 

Courtenay,  earl  of  Devon,  bore  "  Gold  three  roundels  gules  with 
a  label  azure." 

Caraunt  bore  "  Silver  three  roundels  azure,  each  with  three 
cheverons  gules." 

Vipont  bore  "  Gold  six  annelets  gules." 

Avenel  bore  "  Silver  a  fesse  and  six  annelets  (aunels)  gules." 

Hawberk  of  Stapleford  bore  "  Silver  a  bend  sable  charged  with 
three  pieces  of  a  mail  hawberk,  each  of  three  linked  rings  of  gold." 

Stourton  bore  "  Sable  a  bend  gold  between  six  fountains."  The 
fountain  is  a  roundel  charged  with  waves  of  white  and  blue. 

The  Lozenge  is  linked  in  the  heraldry  book  with  the  Fusil. 
This  Fusil  is  described  as  a  lengthened  and  sharper  lozenge.  But 


Courtenay. 


Caraunt. 


Vipont. 


Avenel. 


it  will  be  understood  that  the  Fusil,  other  than  as  part  of 
an  engrailed  or  indented  bend,  pale  or  fesse,  is  not  known  to 
true  armory.  Also  it  is  one  of  the  notable  achievements  of 
the  English  writers  on  heraldry  that  they  should  have  allotted 
to  the  lozenge,  when  borne  voided,  the  name  of  Mascle.  This 
"  mascle  "  is  the  word  of  the  oldest  armorists  for  the  unvoided 
charge,  the  voided  being  sometimes  described  by  them  as  a 
lozenge,  without  further  qualifications.  Fortunately  the  difficulty 
can  be  solved  by  following  the  late  14th-century  custom  in 
distinguishing  between  "  lozenges  "  and  "  voided  lozenges  "  and 
by  abandoning  altogether  this  misleading  word  Mascle. 

Thomas  of  Merstone,  a  clerk,  bore  on  his  seal  in  1359  "Ermine  a 
lozenge  with  a  pierced  molet  thereon." 


Hawberk. 


Stourton. 


Charles. 


Fitzwilliam. 


Braybroke  bore  "  Silver  seven  voided  lozenges  gules." 
Charles  bore  "  Ermine  a  chief  gules  with  five  golden  lozenges 
thereon."  „ 

Fitzwilliam  bore  "  Lozengy  silver  and  gules. 

Billets  are  oblong  figures  set  upright.  Black  billets  in  the 
arms  of  Delves  of  Cheshire  stand  for  "  delves  "  of  earth  and  the 
gads  of  steel  in  the  arms  of  the  London  Ironmongers'  Company 
took  a  somewhat  similar  form. 


HERALDRY 


323 


Sir  Ralph  Mounchensy  bore  in  the  I4th  century  "  Silver  a  cheveron 
etween  three  billets  sable." 

Haggerston  bore  "  Azure  a  bend  with  cotices  silver  and  three  billets 
able  on  the  bend." 

With  the  Billet,  the  Ordinaries,  uncertain  as  they  are  in  number, 
,y  be  said  to  end.     But  we  may  here  add  certain  armorial 

•ges  which  might  well  have  been  counted  with  them. 
First  of  these  is  the  Molet,  a  word  corrupted  in  modern  heraldry 
Mullet,  a  fish-like  change  with  nothing  to  commend  it.   This 
re  is  as  a  star  of  five  or  six  points,  six  points  being  perhaps 
'e  commonest  form  in  old  examples,  although  the  sixth  point  is, 
a  rule,  lost  during  the  later  period.    Medieval  armorists  are 
it,  it  seems,  inclined  to  make  any  distinction  between  molets 
f  five  and  six  points,  but  some  families,  such  as  the  Harpedens 
id  Asshetons,  remained  constant  to  the  five-pointed  form.    It 
as  generally  borne  pierced  with  a  round  hole,  and  then  represents, 
its  name  implies,  the  rowel  of  a  spur.    In  ancient  rolls  of  arms 
he  word  Rowel  is  often  used,  and  probably  indicated  the  pierced 
lolet.  That  the  piercing  was  reckoned  an  essential  difference 
shown  by  a  roll  of  the  time  of  Edward  II.,  in  which  Sir  John 
f  Pabenham  bears  "  Barry  azure  and  silver,  with  a  bend  gules 
,nd  three  molets  gold  thereon,"  arms  which  Sir  John  his  son 
ifferences  by  piercing  the  molets.    Beside  these  names  is  that 
if  Sir  Walter  Baa  with  "  Gules  a  cheveron  and  three  rowels 
.ver,"  rowels  which  are  shown  on  seals  of  this  family  as  pierced 
olets.    Probably  an  older  bearing  than  the  molet,  which  would 
popularized  when  the  rowelled  spur  began  to  take  the  place 
of  the  prick-spur,  is  the  Star  or  Estoile,  differing  from  the 
lolet  in  that  its  five  or  six  points  are  wavy.     It  is  possible  that 
iveral  star  bearings  of  the  i3th  century  were  changed  in  the 
4th  for  molets.    The  star  is  not  pierced  in  the  fashion  of  the 
iolet;  but,  like  the  molet,  it  tends  to  lose  its  sixth  point  in  armory 
f  the  decadence.    Suns,  sometimes  blazoned  in  old  rolls  as  Sun- 
,ys — rays  de  soleil — are  pictured  as  unpierced  molets  of  many 
points,  which  in  rare  cases  are  waved. 
Harpeden  bore  "  Silver  a  pierced  molet  gules." 
Gentil  bore  "  Gold  a  cnief  sable  with  two  molets  goles  pierced 
lies." 

Grimston  bore  "  Silver  a  fesse  sable  and  thereon  three  molets  silver 
lierced  gules." 

Ingleby  of  Yorkshire  bore  "  Sable  a  star  silver." 
Sir  John  de  la  Haye  of  Lincolnshire  bore  "  Silver  a  sun  gules." 

The  Crescent  is  a  charge  which  has  to  answer  for  many  idle 
les  concerning  the  crusading  ancestors  of  families  who  bear 


Mounchensy.          Haggerston.          Harpeden. 


Gentil. 


it.  It  is  commonly  borne  with  both  points  uppermost,  but  when 
representing  the  waning  or  the  waxing  moon — decrescent  or 
increscent — its  horns  are  turned  to  the  sinister  or  dexter  side 

iof  the  shield. 
Peter  de  Marines  (i3th  century)  bore  on  his  seal  a  shield  charged 
with  a  crescent  in  the  chief. 

William  Gobioun   (Hth  century)   bore   "  A  bend  between  two 
waxing  moons." 
Longchamp  bore  "  Ermine  three  crescents  gules,  pierced  silver." 

Tinctures. — The  tinctures  or  hues  of  the  shield  and  its  charges 
.re  seven  in  number — gold  or  yellow,  silver  or  white,  red,  blue, 
black,  green  and  purple.  Medieval  custom  gave,  according  to 
a  rule  often  broken,  "  gules,"  "  azure  "  and  "  sable  "  as  more 
high-sounding  names  for  the  red,  blue  and  black.  Green  was 
often  named  as  "  vert,"  and  sometimes  as  "  synobill,"  a  word 
which  as  "  sinople  "  is  used  to  this  day  by  French  armorists. 
The  song  of  the  siege  of  Carlaverock  and  other  early  documents 
have  red,  gules  or  "  vermeil,"  sable  or  black,  azure  or  blue,  but 
gules,  azure,  sable  and  vert  came  to  be  recognized  as  armorists' 


. 


e«"--3. 

! 


adjectives,  and  an  early  i  sth-century  romance  discards  the  simple 
words  deliberately,  telling  us  of  its  hero  that 

"  His  shield  was  black  and  blue,  sanz  fable, 
Barred  of  azure  and  of  sable." 

But  gold  and  silver  served  as  the  armorists'  words  for  yellows 
and  whites  until  late  in  the  i6th  century,  when,  gold  and  silver 
made  way  for  "  or  "  and  "  argent,"  words  which  those  for  whom 
the  interest  of  armory  lies  in  its  liveliest  days  will  not  be  eager 
to  accept.  Likewise  the  colours  of  "  sanguine  "  and  "  tenne  " 
brought  in  by  the  pedants  to  bring  the  tinctures  to  the  mystical 
number  of  nine  may  be  disregarded. 

A  certain  armorial  chart  of  the  duchy  of  Brabant,  published 
in  1600,  is  the  earliest  example  of  the  practice  whereby  later 
engravers  have  indicated  colours  in  uncoloured  plates  by  the 
use  of  lines  and  dots.  Gold  is  indicated  by  a  powdering  of  dots; 


Grimston. 


Ingilby. 


Gobioun. 


silver  is  left  plain.  Azure  is  shown  by  horizontal  shading  lines; 
gules  by  upright  lines;  sable  by  cross-hatching  of  upright  and 
horizontal  lines.  Diagonal  lines  from  sinister  to  dexter  indicate 
purple;  vert  is  marked  with  diagonal  lines  from  dexter  to 
sinister.  The  practice,  in  spite  of  a  certain  convenience,  has  been 
disastrous  in  its  cramping  effects  on  armorial  art,  especially 
when  applied  to  seals  and  coins. 

Besides  the  two  "  metals  "  and  five  "  colours,"  fields  and 
charges  are  varied  by  the  use  of  the  furs  ermine  and  vair.  Ermine 
is  shown  by  a  white  field  flecked  with  black  ermine  tails,  and  vair 
by  a  conventional  representation  of  a  fur  of  small  skins  sewn  in 
rows,  white  and  blue  skins  alternately.  In  the  15th  century 
there  was  a  popular  variant  of  ermine,  white  tails  upon  a  black 
field.  To  this  fur  the  books  now  give  the  name  of  "  ermines  " — 
a  most  unfortunate  choice,  since  ermines  is  a  name  used  in  old 
documents  for  the  original  ermine.  "  Erminees,"  which  has 
at  least  a  15th-century  authority,  will  serve  for  those  who  are 
not  content  to  speak  of  "  sable  ermined  with  silver."  Vair, 
although  silver  and  blue  be  its  normal  form,  may  be  made  up 
of  gold,  silver  or  ermine,  with  sable  or  gules  or  vert,  but  in  these 
latter  cases  the  colours  must  be  named  in  the  blazon.  To  the 
vairs  and  ermines  of  old  use  the  heraldry  books  have  added 
"  erminois,"  which  is  a  gold  field  with  black  ermine  tails,  "  pean," 
which  is  "  erminois "  reversed,  and  "  erminites,"  which  is 
ermine  with  a  single  red  hair  on  either  side  of  each  black  tail. 
The  vairs,  mainly  by  misunderstanding  of  the  various  patterns 
found  in  old  paintings,  have  been  amplified  with  "  countervair,  " 
"  potent,"  "  counter-potent  "  and  "  vair-en-point,"  no  one  of 
which  merits  description. 

No  shield  of  a  plain  metal  or  colour  has  ever  been  borne  by 
an  Englishman,  although  the  knights  at  Carlaverock  and  Falkirk 
saw  Amaneu  d'Albret  with  his  banner  all  of  red  having  no 
charge  thereon.  Plain  ermine  was  the  shield  of  the  duke  of 
Brittany  and  no  Englishman  challenged  the  bearing.  But 
Beauchamp  of  Hatch  bore  simple  vair,  Ferrers  of  Derby  "  Vairy 
gold  and  gules,"  and  Ward  "  Vairy  silver  and  sable."  Gresley 
had  "Vairy  ermine  and  gules,"  and  Beche  "Vairy  silver  and 
gules." 

Only  one  English  example  has  hitherto  been  discovered  of  a 
field  covered  not  with  a  fur  but  with  overlapping  feathers. 
A  isth-century  book  of  arms  gives  "  Plumetty  of  gold  and 
purple  "  for  "  Mydlam  in  Coverdale." 

Drops  of  various  colours  which  variegate  certain  fields  and 
charges  are  often  mistaken  for  ermine  tails  when  ancient  seals 
are  deciphered.  A  simple  example  of  such  spattering  is  in  the 
shield  of  Grayndore,  who  bore  "  Party  ermine  and  vert,  the  vert 


324 


HERALDRY 


dropped  with  gold."    Sir  Richard  le  Brun  (i4th  century)  bore 
"  Azure  a  silver  lion  dropped  with  gules." 

A  very  common  variant  of  charges  and  fields  is  the  sowing 
or  "  powdering  "  them  with  a  small  charge  repeated  many  times. 
Mortimer  of  Norfolk  bore  "  gold  powdered  with  fleurs-de-lys 
sable  "  and  Edward  III.  quartered  for  the  old  arms  of  France 
"  Azure  powdered  with  fleurs-de-lys  gold,"  such  fields  being  often 


Brittany. 


Beauchamp. 


Mydlam. 


Grayndorge. 


described  as  flowered  or  flory.  Golden  billets  were  scattered 
in  Cowdray's  red  shield,  which  is  blazoned  as  "  Gules  billety 
gold,"  and  bezants  in  that  of  Zouche,  which  is  "  Gules  bezanty 
with  a  quarter  ermine."  The  disposition  of  such  charges  varied 
with  the  users.  Zouche  as  a  rule  shows  ten  bezants  placed  four, 
three,  two  and  one  on  his  shield,  while  the  old  arms  of  France 
in  the  royal  coat  allows  the  pattern  of  flowers  to  run  over  the 
edge,  the  shield  border  thus  showing  halves  and  tops  and  stalk 
ends  of  the  fleurs-de-lys.  But  the  commonest  of  these  powderings 
is  that  with  crosslets,  as  in  the  arms  of  John  la  Warr  "  Gules 
crusily  silver  with  a  silver  lion." 

Trees,  Leaves  and  Flowers. — Sir  Stephen  Cheyndut,  a  13th- 
century  knight,  bore  an  oak  tree,  the  cheyne  of  his  first  syllable, 
while  for  like  reasons  a  Piriton  had  a  pear  tree  on  his  shield. 
Three  pears  were  borne  (temp.  Edward  III.)  by  Nicholas  Stivecle 
of  Huntingdonshire,  and  about  the  same  date  is  Applegarth's 


Mortimer. 


Cowdray. 


Zouche. 


La  Warr. 


shield  of  three  red  apples  in  a  silver  field.  Leaves  of  burdock 
are  in  the  arms  (i4th  century)  of  Sir  John  de  Lisle  and  mulberry 
leaves  in  those  of  Sir  Hugh  de  Morieus.  Three  roots  of  trees 
are  given  to  one  Richard  Rotour  in  a  14th-century  roll.  Mal- 
herbe  (i3th  century)  bore  the  "  evil  herb  " — a  teazle  bush. 
Pineapples  are  borne  here  and  there,  and  it  will  be  noted  that 
armorists  have  not  surrendered  this,  our  ancient  word  for  the 
"  fir-cone,"  to  the  foreign  ananas.  Out  of  the  cornfield  English 
armory  took  the  sheaf,  three  sheaves  being  on  the  shield  of  an 
earl  of  Chester  early  in  the  I3th  century  and  Sheffield  bearing 
sheaves  for  a  play  on  his  name.  For  a  like  reason  Peverel's 
sheaves  were  sheaves  of  pepper.  Rye  bore  three  ears  of  rye  on  a 
bend,  and  Graindorge  had  barley-ears.  Flowers  are  few  in  this 


Cheyndut. 


Applegarth. 


Chester. 


Rye. 


field  of  armory,  although  lilies  with  their  stalks  and  leaves  are 
in  the  grant  of  arms  to  Eton  College.  Ousethorpe  has  water 
flowers,  and  now  and  again  we  find  some  such  strange  charges 
as  those  in  the  i  sth-century  shield  of  Thomas  Porthelyne  who 
bore  "  Sable  a  cheveron  gules  between  three  '  popyebolles,'  or 
poppy-heads  vert." 

The  fleur-de-lys,  a  conventional  form  from  the  beginnings  of 


armory,  might  well  be  taken  amongst  the  "ordinaries."    ID 
England  as  in  France  it  is  found  in  great  plenty. 

Aguylon  bore  "  Gules  a  fleur-de-lys  silver." 

Peyferer  bore  "  Silver  three  fleur-de-lys  sable." 

Trefoils  are  very  rarely  seen  until  the  isth  century,  although 
Hervey  has  them,  and  Gausill,  and  a  Bosville  coat  seems  to  have 
borne  them.     They  have  always  their  stalk  left 
hanging   to    them.      Vincent,    Hattecliffe   and 
Massingberd    all    bore    the    quatrefoil,    while 
the  Bardolfs,  and  the  Quincys,  earls  of  Win- 
chester, had   cinqfoils.     The  old  rolls  of  arms 
made  much  confusion  between    cinqfoils   and 
sixfoils  (quintef allies  e  sisfoilles)  and  the  rose. 
It  is  still  uncertain  how  far    that    confusion 
extended    amongst    the    families    which    bore     Eton  College, 
these  charges.     The  cinqfoil  and  sixfoil,  how- 
ever,  are    all    but    invariably    pierced    in     the    middle    like 
the  spur    rowel,   and    the    rose's    blunt-edged    petals    give    it 
definite   shape   soon   after   the   decorative   movement   of    the 
Edwardian  age  began  to  carve  natural  buds  and  flowers  in  stone 
and  wood. 

Hervey  bore  "  Gules  a  bend  silver  with  three  trefoils  vert  thereon.'" 

Vincent  bore  "  Azure  three  quatrefoils  silver." 


Aguylon.  Peyferer.  Hervey.  Vincent. 

Quincy  bore  "  Gules  a  cinqfoil  silver." 

Bardolf  of  Wormegay  bore  "  Gules  three  cinqfoils  silver." 

Cosington  bore  "  Azure  three  roses  gold." 

Hilton  bore  "  Silver  three  chaplets  or  garlands  of  red  roses." 

Beasts  and  Birds. — The  book  of  natural  history  as  studied  in- 
the  middle  ages  lay  open  at  the  chapter  of  the  lion,  to  which 
royal  beast  all  the  noble  virtues  were  set  down."  What  is  the 
oldest  armorial  seal  of  a  sovereign  prince  as  yet  discovered  bears 
the  rampant  lion  of  Flanders.  In  England  we  know  of  no  royal 
shield  earlier  than  that  first  seal  of  Richard  I.  which  has  a  like 
device.  A  long  roll  of  our  old  earls,  barons  and  knights  wore  the 


Quincy. 


Bardolf. 


Cosington. 


Hilton. 


lion  on  their  coats — Lacy,  Marshal,  Fitzalan  and  Montfort, 
Percy,  Mowbray  and  Talbot.  By  custom  the  royal  beast  is 
shown  as  rampant,  touching  the  ground  with  but  one  foot  and 
clawing  at  the  air  in  noble  rage.  So  far  is  this  the  normal 
attitude  of  a  lion  that  the  adjective  "  rampant  "  was  often 
dropped,  and  we  have  leave  and  good  authority  for  blazoning 
the  rampant  beast  simply  as  "  a  lion,"  leave  which  a  writer  on 
armory  may  take  gladly  to  the  saving  of  much  repetition.  In 
France  and  Germany  this  licence  has  always  been  the  rule,  and 
the  modern  English  herald's  blazon  of  "  Gules  a  lion  rampant 
or  "  for  the  arms  of  Fitzalan,  becomes  in  French  de  gueules  au 
lion  d'or  and  in  German  in  Rot  ein  goldener  Loewe.  Other 
positions  must  be  named  with  care  and  the  prowling  "  lion 
passant  "  distinguished  from  the  rampant  beast,  as  well  as  from 
such  rarer  shapes  as  the  couchant  lion,  the  lion  sleeping,  sitting 
or  leaping.  Of  these  the  lion  passant  is  the  only  one  commonly 
encountered.  The  lion  standing  with  his  forepaws  together  is 
not  a  figure  for  the  shield,  but  for  the  crest,  where  he  takes  this 
position  for  greater  stableness  upon  the  helm,  and  the  sitting 
lion  is  also  found  rather  upon  helms  than  in  shields.  For  a 


HERALDRY 


PLATE  IV. 


:"• 5  BEGINNING  OF  A  ROLL  OP  THE  ARMS  OP  THOSE  JOUSTING  IN  A  TOURNAMENT  HELD  ON  THE  FIELD  OF 
'HE  CLOTH  OF  GOLD.   BESIDES  THE  ARMS  OF  THE  KINGS  OF  FRANCE  AND  ENGLAND  ARE  TWO  COLUMNS 
OF  "CHEQUES,"  MARKED  WITH  THE  NAMES  AND  SCORING  POINTS  OF  THE  JOUSTERS. 
mby  William  Gikb.  Niagara  Lilho.  Co.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 


HERALDRY 


325 


couchant  lion  or  a  dormant  lion  one  must  search  far  afield, 
although  there  are  some  medieval  instances.  The  leaping  lion 
is  in  so  few  shields  that  no  maker  of  a  heraldry  book  has,  it 
would  appear,  discovered  an  example.  In  the  books  this  "  lion 
salient  "  is  described  as  with  the  hind  paws  together  on  the 
ground  and  the  fore  paws  together  in  the  air,  somewhat  after  the 
fashion  of  a  diver's  first  movement.  But  examples  from  seals 
and  monuments  of  the  Felbrigges  and  the  Merks  show  that  the 
leaping  lion  differed  only  from  the  rampant  in  that  he  leans 
somewhat  forward  in  his  eager  spring.  The  compiler  of  the 
British  Museum  catalogue  of  medieval  armorial  seals,  and  others 
equally  unfamiliar  with  medieval  armory,  invariably  describe 
this  position  as  "  rampant,"  seeing  no  distinction  from  other 
rampings.  As  rare  as  the  leaping  lion  is  the  lion  who  looks 
backward  over  his  shoulder.  This  position  is  called  "  regardant  " 
by  modern  armorists.  The  old  French  blazon  calls  it  rere 
regardant  or  turnaunte  le  visage  arere,  "  regardant  "  alone  meaning 
simply  "  looking,"  and  therefore  we  shall  describe  it  more 
reasonably  in  plain  English  as  "  looking  backward."  The  two- 
headed  lion  occurs  in  a  15th-century  coat  of  Mason,  and  at  the 
same  period  a  monstrous  lion  of  three  bodies  and  one  head  is 
borne,  apparently,  by  a  Sharingbury. 

The  lion's  companion  is  the  leopard.     What  might  be  the 
true  form  of  this  beast  was  a  dark  thing  to  the  old  armorist,  yet 
knowing  from  the  report  of  grave  travellers  that  the  leopard 
was  begotten  in  spouse-breach  between  the  lion  and  the  pard, 
it  was  felt  that  his  shape  would  favour  his  sire's.     But  nice 
distinctions  of  outline,  even  were  they  ascertainable,  are  not  to  be 
marked  on  the  tiny  seal,  or  easily  expressed  by  the  broad  strokes 
of  the  shield  painter.     The  leopard  was  indeed  lesser  than  the 
lion,  but  in  armory,  as  in  the  Noah's  arks  launched  by  the  old 
yards,  the  bear  is  no  bigger  than  the  badger.    Then  a  happy 
device  came  to  the  armorist.     He  would  paint  the  leopard  like 
the  lion  at  all  points.    But  as  the  lion  looks  forward  the  leopard 
should  look  sidelong,  showing  his  whole  face.    The  matter  was 
arranged,  and  until  the  end  of  the  middle  ages  the  distinction 
held  and  served.    The  disregarded  writers  on  armory,  Nicholas 
Upton,  and  his  fellows,  protested  that  a  lion  did  not  become  a 
leopard  by  turning  his  face  sidelong,  but  none  who  fought  in  the 
field  under  lion  and  leopard  banners  heeded  this  pedantry  from 
cathedral  closes.     The  English  king's  beasts  were  leopards  in 
blazon,  in  ballad  and  chronicle,  and  in  the  mouths  of  liegeman 
and  enemy.    Henry  V.'s  herald,  named  from  his  master's  coat, 
was  Leopard  Herald;  and  Napoleon's  gazettes 
never  fail  to  speak  of  the  English  leopards.    In 
our  own  days,  those  who  deal  with  armory  as 
antiquaries  and  students  of  the  past  will  observe 
the  old  custom  for  convenience'  sake.    Those 
for  whom  the  interest  of  heraldry  lies  in  the 
nonsense-language  brewed  during  post-medieval 
years  may  correct   the  medieval  ignorance  at 
their  pleasure.    The  knight  who  saw  the  king's 
banner  fly  at  Falkirk  or  Crecy  tells  us  that  it 
with   three    leopards    of    gold."      The    modern 
shame   the  uninstructed  warrior  with    "  Gules 

I  three  lions  passant  gardant  in  pale  or." 
As  the  lion  rampant  is  the  normal  lion,  so  the  normal  leopard 
is  the  leopard  passant,  the  adjective  being  needless.  In  a  few 
cases  only  the  leopard  rises  up  to  ramp  in  the  lion's  fashion, 
and  here  he  must  be  blazoned  without  fail  as  a  leopard  rampant. 
Parts  of  the  lion  and  the  leopard  are  common  charges.  Chief 
of  these  are  the  demi-lion  and  the  demi-leopard,  beasts  com- 
plete above  their  slender  middles,  even  to  the  upper  parts  of 
their  lashing  tails.  Rampant  or  passant,  they  follow  the  customs 
of  the  unmaimed  brute.  Also  the  heads  of  lion  and  leopard 
are  in  many  shields,  and  here  the  armorist  of  the'  modern  hand- 
books stumbles  by  reason  of  his  refusal  to  regard  clearly  marked 
medieval  distinctions.  The  instructed  will  know  a  lion's  head 
because  it  shows  but  half  the  face  and  a  leopard's  head  because 
it  is  seen  full-fa;e.  But  the  handbooks  of  heraldry,  knowing 
naught  of  leopards,  must  judge  by  absence  or  presence  of  a 
lane,  speaking  uncertainly  of  leopards'  faces  and  lions'  heads 


England. 

bore    "  Gules 
armorist    will 


and  faces.  Here  again  the  old  path  is  the  straighter.  The  head 
of  a  lion,  or  indeed  of  any  beast,  bird  or  monster,  is  generally 
painted  as  "  razed,"  or  torn  away  with  a  ragged  edge  which 
is  pleasantly  conventionalized.  Less  of  ten  it  is  found  "  couped  " 
or  cut  off  with  a  sheer  line.  But  the  leopard's  head  is  neither 
razed  nor  couped,  for  no  neck  is  shown  below  it.  Likewise  the 
lion's  fore  leg  or  paw — "  gamb  "  is  the  book  word — may  be 
borne,  razed  or  coupled.  Its  normal  position  is  raided  upright, 
although  Newdegate  seems  to  have  borne  "  Gules  three  lions' 
legs  razed  silver,  the  paws  downward."  With  the  strange 
bearing  of  the  lion's  whip-like  tail  cut  off  at  the  rump,  we  may 
end  the  list  of  these  oddments. 

Fitzalan,  earl  of  Arundel,  bore  "  Gules  a  lion  gold." 
Simon  de  Montfort  bore  "  Gules  a  silver  lion  with  a  forked  tail." 
Scgrave  bore  "  Sable  a  lion  silver  crowned  gold." 
Havering  bore  "  Silver  a  lion  rampant  gules  with  a  forked  tail, 
having  a  collar  azure." 

Felbrigge  of  Felbrigge  bore  "  Gold  a  leaping  lion  gules." 
Esturmy  bore  "  Silver  a  lion  sable  (or  purple)  looking  backward." 
Marmion  bore  "  Gules  a  lion  vair." 
Mason  bore  "  Silver  a  two-headed  lion  gules." 
Lovetot  bore  "  Silver  a  lion  parted  athwart  of  sable  and  gules." 
Richard  le  Jen  bore  "  Vert  a  lion  gold  " — the  arms  of  Wakelin 
of  Arderne — "  with  a  fesse  gules  on  the  lion." 
Fiennes  bore  "  Azure  three  lions  gold." 
Leyburne  of  Kent  bore  "Azure  six  lions  silver." 


Fitzalan.  Felbrigge.  Fiennes.  Leyburne. 

Carew  bore  "  Gold  three  lions  passant  sable." 

Fotheringhay  bore  "  Silver  two  lions  passant  sable,  looking  back- 
ward." 

Richard  Norton  of  Waddeworth  (1357)  sealed  with  arms  of  "  A 
lion  dormant." 

Lisle  bore  "  Gules  a  leopard  silver  crowned  gold." 

Ludlowe  bore  "  Azure  three  leopards  silver." 

Brocas  bore  "  Sable  a  leopard  rampant  gold." 


Carew.  Fotheringhay.  Brocas.  Lisle. 

John  Hardrys  of  Kent  seals  in  1372  with  arms  of  "a. sitting 
leopard." 

John  Northampton,  Lord  Mayor  of  London  in  1381,  bore  "  Azure* 
a  crowned  leopard  gold  with  two  bodies  rampant  against  each  other." 

Newenham  bore  "  Azure  three  demi-lions  silver." 

A  deed  delivered  at  Lapworth  in  Warwickshire  in  1466  is  sealed 
with  arms  of  "  a  molet  between  three  demi-leopards." 

Kenton  bore  "  Gules  three  lions'  heads  razed  sable." 


Kenton.  Pole.  Cantelou.  Pynchebek. 

Pole,  earl  and  duke  of  Suffolk,  bore  "  Azure  a  fesse  between  three 
leopards'  heads  gold." 

Cantelou  bore  "  Azure  three  leopards'  heads  silver  with  silver 
fleurs-de-lys  issuing  from  them." 

Wederton  bore  "  Gules  a  cheveron  between  three  lions'  legs  razed 
silver." 

Pynchebek  bore  "  silver  three  forked  tails  of  lions  sable." 

The  tiger  is  rarely  named  in  collections  of  medieval  arms. 
Deep  mystery  wrapped  the  shape  of  him,  which  was  never  during 


326 


HERALDRY 


the  middle  ages  standardized  by  artists.  A  crest  upon  a  isth- 
century  brass  shows  him  as  a  lean  wolf-like  figure,  with  a  dash 
of  the  boar,  gazing  after  his  vain  wont  into  a  looking-glass; 
and  the  16th-century  heralds  gave  him  the  body  of  a  lion  with  the 
head  of  a  wolf,  head  and  body  being  tufted  here  and  there  with 
thick  tufts  of  hair.  But  it  is  noteworthy  that  the  arms  of  Sir 
John  Norwich,  a  well-known  knight  of  the  I4th  century,  are 
blazoned  in  a  roll  of  that  age  as  "  party  azure  and  gules  with  a 
tiger  rampant  ermine."  Now  this  beast  in  the  arms  of  Norwich 
has  been  commonly  taken  for  a  lion,  and  the  Norwich  family 
seem  in  later  times  to  have  accepted  the  lion  as  their  bearing. 
But  a  portion  of  a  painted  roll  of  Sir  John's  day  shows  on  careful 
examination  that  his  lion  has  been  given  two  moustache-like 
tufts  to  the  nose.  A  copy  made  about  1600  of  another  roll  gives 
the  same  decoration  to  the  Norwich  lion,  and  it  is  at  least  possible 
we  have  here  evidence  that  the  economy  of  the  medieval  armor- 
ist  allowed  him  to  make  at  small  cost  his  lion,  his  leopard  and 
his  tiger  out  of  a  single  beast  form. 

Take  away  the  lions  and  the  leopards,  and  the  other  beasts 
upon  medieval  shields  are  a  little  herd.  In  most  cases  they 
are  here  to  play  upon  the  names  of  their  bearers.  Thus  Swin- 
burne of  Northumberland  has  the  heads  of  swine  in  his  coat 
and  Bacon  has  bacon  pigs.  Three  white  bears  were  borne  by 
Barlingham,  and  a  bear  ramping  on  his  hind  legs  is  for  Barnard. 
Lovett  of  Astwell  has  three  running  wolves,  Videlou  three 
wolves'  heads,  Colfox  three  foxes'  heads. 

Three  hedgehogs  were  in  the  arms  of  Heriz.  Barnewall 
reminds  us  of  extinct  natives  of  England  by  bearing  two  beavers, 
and  Otter  of  Yorkshire  had  otters.  Harewell  had  hares'  heads, 


Lovett. 


Talbot. 


Saunders. 


Cunliffe  conies,  Mitford  moles  or  moldiwarps.  A  Talbot  of 
Lancashire  had  three  purple  squirrels  in  a  silver  shield.  An 
elephant  was  brought  to  England  as  early  as  the  days  of  Henry 
III.,  but  he  had  no  immediate  armorial  progeny,  although 
Saunders  of  Northants  may  have  borne  before  the  end  of  the 
middle  ages  the  elephants'  heads  which  speak  of  Alysaunder 
the  Great,  patron  of  all  Saunderses.  Bevil  of  the  west  had  a  red 
bull,  and  Bulkeley  bore  three  silver  bulls'  heads.  The  heads 
in  Neteham's  14th-century  shield  are  neat's  heads,  ox  heads 
are  for  Oxwyk.  Calves  are  for  Veel,  and  the  same  mild  beasts 
are  in  the  arms  of  that  fierce  knight  Hugh  Calveley.  Stansfeld 
bore  three  rams  with  bells  at  their  necks,  and  a  14th-century 
Lecheford  thought  no  shame  to  bear  the  head  of  the  ram  who 
is  the  symbol  of  lechery.  Lambton  had  lambs.  Goats  were 
borne  by  Chevercourt  to  play  on  his  name,  a  leaping  goat  by 
Bardwell,  and  goats'  heads  by  Gateshead.  Of  the  race  of  dogs 
the  greyhound  and  the  talbot,  or  mastiff,  are  found  most  often. 
Thus  Talbot  of  Cumberland  had  talbots,  and  Mauleverer,  running 
greyhounds  or  "  leverers  "  for  his  name's  sake.  The  alaund, 
a  big,  crop-eared  dog,  is  in  the  i  sth-century  shield  of  John  Woode 
of  Kent,  and  "  kenets,"  or  little  tracking  dogs,  in  a  13th-century 
coat  of  Kenet.  The  horse  is  not  easily  found  as  an  English  charge, 
but  Moyle's  white  mule  seems  an  old  coat;  horses'  heads  are 
in  Horsley's  shield,  and  ass  heads  make  crests  for  more  than 
one  noble  house.  Askew  has  three  asses  in  his  arms.  Three  bats 
or  flittermice  are  in  the  shield  of  Burninghill  and  in  that  of 
Heyworth  of  Whethamstede. 

As  might  be  looked  for  in  a  land  where  forest  and  greenwood 
once  linked  from  sea  to  sea,  the  wild  deer  is  a  common  charge 
in  the  shield.  Downes  of  Cheshire  bore  a  hart  "  lodged  "  or 
lying  down.  Hertford  had  harts'  heads,  Malebis,  fawns'  heads 
(tesles  de  bis),  Bukingham,  heads  of  bucks.  The  harts  in  Rother- 
ham's  arm-,  are  the  roes  of  his  name's  first  syllable.  Reindeer 


Griffin. 


Drake. 


heads  were  borne  by  Bowet  in  the  I4th  century.  Antelopes, 
fierce  beasts  with  horns  that  have  something  of  the  ibex,  show 
by  their  great  claws,  their  lion  tails,  and  their  boar  muzzles 
and  tusks  that  they  are  midway  between  the  hart  and  the 
monster. 

Of  the  outlandish  monsters  the  griffon  is  the  oldest  and  the 
chief.  With  the  hinder  parts  of  a  lion,  the  rest  of  him  is  eagle, 
head  and  shoulders,  wings  and  fore  legs.  The  __^__^__ 
long  tuft  under  the  beak  and  his  pointed  ears 
mark  him  out  from  the  eagle  when  his  head 
alone  is  borne.  At  an  early  date  a  griffon 
rampant,  his  normal  position,  was  borne  by 
the  great  house  of  Montagu  as  a  quartering, 
and  another  griffon  played  upon  Griffin's  name. 

The  wyver,  who  becomes  wyvern  in  the  i6th 
century,  and  takes  a  new  form  under  the 
care  of  inventive  heralds,  was  in  the  middle 
ages  a  lizard-like  dragon,  generally  with  small  wings.  Sir 
Edmund  Mauley  in  the  i4th  century  is  found  differencing  the 
black  bend  of  his  elder  brother  by  charging  it  with  three  wyvers 
of  silver.  During  the  middle  ages  there  seems  small  distinction 
between  the  wyver  and  the  still  rarer  dragon,  which,  with  the 
coming  of  the  Tudors,  who  bore  it  as  their  ^_^____ 
badge,  is  seen  as  a  four-legged  monster  with 
wings  and  a  tail  that  ends  like  a  broad 
arrow.  The  monster  in  the  arms  of  Drake, 
blazoned  by  Tudor  heralds  as  a  wyvern,  is 
clearly  a  fire-drake  or  dragon  in  his  origin. 

The  unicorn  rampant  was  borne  by  Harlyn 
of  Norfolk,  unicorn's  heads  by  the  Cambridge- 
shire family  of  Paris.  The  mermaid  with  her 
comb  and  looking-glass  makes  a  14th-century 
crest  for  Byron,  while  "  Silver  a  bend  gules  with  three  silver 
harpies  thereon  "  is  found  in  the  1 5th  century  for  Entyrdene. 

Concerning  beasts  and  monsters  the  heraldry  books  have 
many  adjectives  of  blazonry  which  may  be  disregarded.  Even 
as  it  was  once  the  pride  of  the  cook  pedant  to  carve  each  bird 
on  the  board  with  a  new  word  for  the  act,  so  it  became  the 
delight  of  the  pedant  herald  to  order  that  the  rampant  horse 
should  be  "  forcen6,"  the  rampant  griffon  <:  segreant," 
the  passant  hart  "  trippant  ";  while  the  same  hart  must 
needs  be  "  attired  "  as  to  its  horns  and  "  unguled  "  as  to 
its  hoofs.  There  is  ancient  authority  for  the  nice  blazonry 
which  sometimes  gives  a  separate  colour  to  the  tongue  and  claws 
of  the  lion,  but  even  this  may  be  set  aside.  Though  a  black  lion 
in  a  silver  field  may  be  armed  with  red  claws,  and  a  golden 
leopard  in  a  red  field  given  blue  claws  and  tongues,  these  trifles 
are  but  fancies  which  follow  the  taste  of  the  painter,  and  are  never 
of  obligation.  The  tusks  and  hoofs  of  the  boar,  and  often  the 
horns  of  the  hart,  are  thus  given  in  some  paintings  a  colour  of 
their  own  which  elsewhere  is  neglected. 

As  the  lion  is  among  armorial  beasts,  so  is  the  eagle  among 
the  birds.  A  bold  convention  of  the  earliest  shield  painters 
displayed  him  with  spread  wing  and  claw,  the  feat  of  a  few 
strokes  of  the  brush,  and  after  this  fashion  he  appears  on  many 
scores  of  shields.  Like  the  claws  and  tongue  of  the  lion,  the  beak 
and  claws  of  the  eagle  are  commonly  painted  of  a  second  colour 
in  all  but  very  small  representations.  Thus  the  golden  eagle  of 
Lymesey  in  a  red  field  may  have  blue  beak  and  claws,  and  golden 
beak  and  claws  will  be  given  to  Jorce's  silver  eagle  upon  red. 
A  lure,  or  two  wings  joined  and  spread  like  those  of  an  eagle, 
is  a  rare  charge  sometimes  found.  When  fitted  with  the  cord  by 
which  a  falconer's  lure  is  swung,  the  cord  must  be  named. 

Monthermer  bore  "  Gold  an  eagle  vert." 

Siggeston  bore  "  Silver  a  two-headed  eagle  sable." 

Gavaston,  earl  of  Cornwall,  bore  "  Vert  six  eagles  gold." 

Bayforde  of  Fordingbridge  sealed  (in  1388)  with  arms  of  "  An  eagle 
bendwise,  with  a  border  engrailed  and  a  baston." 

Graunson  bore  "  Paly  silver  and  azure  with  a  bend  gules  and  three 
golden  eagles  thereon." 

Seymour  bore  "  Gules  a  lure  of  two  golden  wings." 

Commoner  than  the  eagle  as  a  charge  is  the  martlet,  a  humbler 
bird  which  is  never  found  as  the  sole  charge  of  a  shield.  In  all 


HERALDRY 


327 


ut  a  few  early  representations  the  feathers  of  the  legs  are  seen 

rithout  the  legs  or  claws.    The  martlet  indicates  both  swallow 

ad  martin,  and  in  the  arms  of  the  Cornish  Arundels  the  martlets 

oust  stand  for  "  hirundels  "  or  swallows. 

The  falcon  or  hawk  is  borne  as  a  rule  with  close  wings,  so  that 

may  not  be  taken  for  the  eagle.    In  most  cases  he  is  there 


Monthermer. 


Siggeston. 


Gavaston. 


Graunson. 


Arunc'el. 


to  play  on  the  bearer's  name,  and  this  may  be 
said  of  most  of  the  flight  of  lesser  birds. 

Naunton  bore  "  Sable  three  martlets  silver." 
Heron  bore  "  Azure  three  herons  silver." 
Fauconer  bore  "  Silver  three  falcons  gules." 
Hauvile  bore  "  Azure  a  dance  between  three 
hawks  gold." 

Twenge   bore    "  Silver   a   fesse   gules   between 
three  popinjays  (or  parrots)  vert." 

Cranesley   bore    "  Silver   a   cheveron  gules  be- 
tween three  cranes  azure." 


Asdale  bore  "  Gules  a  swan  silver." 

Dalston  bore  "  Silver  a  cheveron  engrailed  between  three  daws' 

ads  razed  sable." 

Corbet  bore  "  Gold  two  corbies  sable." 


Seymour. 


Naunton. 


Fauconer. 


Twenge. 


Cockfield  bore  "  Silver  three  cocks  gules." 

Burton  bore  "  Sable  a  cheveron  sable  between  three  silver  owls." 
Rokeby  bore  "  Silver  a  cheveron  sable  between  three  rooks." 
Duflfelde  bore  "  Sable  a  cheveron  silver  between  three  doves." 
Pelham  bore  "  Azure  three  pelicans  silver." 


Asdale. 


Corbet. 


Cockfield. 


Burton. 


!?: 


Sumcri  (i3th  century)  sealed  with  arms  of  "  A  peacock  with  his 
tail  spread." 

John  Pyeshale  of  Suffolk  (i4th  century)  scaled  with  arms  of 
"  Three  magpies." 

Fishes,  Reptiles  and  Insects. — Like  the  birds,  the  fishes  are 
rne  for  the  most  part  to  call  to  mind  their  bearers'  names. 

Unless  their  position  be  otherwise  named,  they  are  painted  as 

upright  in  the  shield,  as  though  rising  towards  the  water  surface. 

The  dolphin  is  known  by  his  bowed  back,  old  artists  making 

him  a  grotesquely  decorative  figure. 

Lucy  bore  "  Gules  three  luces  (or  pike)  silver." 

Heringaud  bore  "  Azure,  crusilly  gold,  with  six  golden  herrings." 

Fishacre  bore  "  Gules  a  dolphin  silver." 

La  Roche  bore  "  Three  roach  swimming." 

John  Samon  (l4th  century)  sealed  with  arms  of  "  Three  salmon 
swimming." 

Sturgeon  bore  "  Azure  three  sturgeon  swimming  gold,  with  a  Iret 
gules  over  all." 

Whalley  bore  "  Silver  three  whales'  heads  razed  sable." 

Shell-fish  would  hardly  have  place  in  English  armory  were 
it  not  for  the  abundance  of  scallops  which  have  followed  their 
appearance  in  the  banners  of  Dacre  and  Scales.  The  crest 


of  the  Yorkshire  Scropes,  playing  upon  their  name,  was  a  pair 
of  crabs'  claws. 

Dacre  bore  "  Gules  three  scallops  silver." 

Shelley  bore  "  Sable  a  fesse  engrailed  between  three  whelk-shells 
gold." 

Reptiles  and  insects  are  barely  represented.  The  lizards 
in  the  crest  and  supporters  of  the  Ironmongers  of  London  belong 
to  the  isth  century.  Gawdy  of  Norfolk  Tnay  have  borne  the 
tortoise  in  his  shield  in  the  same  age.  "  Silver  three  toads 
sable  "  was  quartered  as  a  second  coat  for  Botreaux  of  Cornwall 


Rokeby. 


Pelham. 


Lucy. 


Fishacre. 


Roche. 


in    the    i6th    century — Botereau    or    Boterel 

signifying   a    little   toad   in    the    old    French 

tongue — but  the  arms  do  not  appear  on   the 

old  Botreaux  seals  beside  their  ancient  bearing 

of  the  griffon.     Beston  bore  "  Silver  a  bend 

between    six    bees   sable "    and    a    is-century 

Harbottle  seems  to  have  sealed  with  arms  of 

three  bluebottle  flies.    Three  butterflies  are  in 

the  shield  of  Presfen  of  Lancashire  in  1415,  while 

the  winged  insect  shown  on  the  seal  of  John  Mayre,  a  King's 

Lynn  burgess  of  the  age  of  Edward  I.,  is  probably  a  mayfly. 

Human  Charges. — Man  and  the  parts  of  him  play  but  a  small 
part  in  English  shields,  and  we  have  nothing  to  put  beside  such 
a  coat  as  that  of  the  German  Manessen,  on  which  two  armed 
knights  attack  each  other's  hauberks  with  their  teeth.  But 
certain  arms  of  religious  houses  and  the  like  have  the  whole 
figure,  the  see  of  Salisbury  bearing  the  Virgin  and  Child  in  a 


Dacre. 


Shelley.          See  of  Salisbury.      Isle  of  Man. 


blue  field.  And  old  crests  have  demi-Saracens  and  falchion 
men,  coal-miners,  monks  and  blackamoors.  Sowdan  bore  in  his 
shield  a  turbaned  soldan's  head;  Eady,  three  old  men's  "  'eads  "! 
Heads  of  maidens,  the  "  winsome  marrows  "  of  the  ballad,  are 
in  the  arms  of  Marow.  The  Stanleys,  as  kings  of  Man,  quartered 
the  famous  three-armed  legs  whirling  mill-sail  fashion,  and 
Tremayne  of  the  west  bore  three  men's  arms  in  like  wise.  "  Gules 
three  hands  silver  "  was  for  Malmeyns  as  early  as  the  I3th  century, 
and  Tynte  of  Colchester  displayed  hearts. 

Miscellaneous  Charges. — Other  charges  of  the  shield  are  less 
frequent  but  are  found  in  great  variety,  the  reason  for  most  of 
them  being  the  desire  to  play  upon  the  bearer's  name. 

Weapons  and  the  like  are  rare,  having  regard  to  the  military 
associations  of  armory.  Daubeney  bore  three  helms;  Philip 
Marmion  took  with  his  wife,  the  coheir  of  Kilpek,  the  Kilpek 
shield  of  a  sword  (espek).  Tuck  had  a  stabbing  sword  or  "  tuck." 
Bent  bows  were  borne  by  Bowes,  an  arblast  by  Arblaster,  arrows 
by  Archer,  birding-bolts  or  bosouns  by  Bosun,  the  mangonel 
by  Mangnall.  The  three  lances  of  Amherst  is  probably  a  medieval 
coat;  Leweston  had  battle-axes. 

A  scythe  was  in  the  shield  of  Praers;  Picot  had  picks;  Bilsby 
a  hammer  or  "  beal  " ;  Malet  showed  mallets.  The  chamberlain's 
key  is  in  the  shield  of  a  Chamberlain,  and  the  spenser's  key 
in  that  of  a  Spenser.  Porter  bore  the  porter's  bell,  Boteler 
the  butler's  cup.  Three-legged  pots  were  borne  by  Monbocher. 


328 


HERALDRY 


Crowns  are  for  Coroun.  Yarde  had  yard-wands;  Bordoun  a 
burdon  or  pilgrim's  staff. 

Of  horse-furniture  we  have  the  stirrups  of  Scudamore  and 
Giffard,  the  horse-barnacles  of  Bernake,  and  the  horse-shoes 
borne  by  many  branches  and  tenants  of  the  house  of  Ferrers. 

Of  musical  instruments  there  are  pipes,  trumps  and  harps 
for  Pipe,  Trumpington  and  Harpesfeld.  Hunting  horns  are 
common  among  families  bearing  such  names  as  Forester  or 
Home.  Remarkable  charges  are  the  three  organs  of  Grenville, 
who  held  of  the  house  of  Clare,  the  lords  of  Glamorgan. 

Combs  play  on  the  name  of  Tunstall,  and  gloves  (wauns  or 
gauns)  on  that  of  Wauncy.  Hose  were  borne  by  Hoese;  buckles 
by  a  long  list  of  families.  But  the  most  notable  of  the  charges 
derived  from  clothing  is  the  hanging  sleeve  familiar  in  the  arms 
of  Hastings,  Conyers  and  Mansel. 

Chess-rooks,  hardly  to  be  distinguished  from  the  roc  or  roquet 
at  the  head  of  a  jousting-lance,  were  borne  by  Rokewode  and 
by  many  more.  Topcliffe  had  pegtops  in  his  shield,  while 
Ambesas  had  a  cast  of  three  dice  which  should  each  show  the 
point  of  one,  for  "  to  throw  ambesace  "  is  an  ancient  phrase 
used  of  those  who  throw  three  aces. 

Although  we  are  a  sea-going  people,  there  are  few  ships  in  our 
armory,  most  of  these  in  the  arms  of  sea-ports.  Anchors  are 
commoner. 

Castles  and  towers,  bridges,  portcullises  and  gates  have  all 
examples,  and  a  minster-church  was  the  curious  charge  borne 
by  the  ancient  house  of  Musters  of  Kirklington. 

Letters  of  the  alphabet  are  very  rarely  found  in  ancient  armory ; 
but  three  capital  T's,  in  old  English  script,  were  borne  by  Toft 
of  Cheshire  in  the  i4th  century.  In  the  period  of  decadence 
whole  words  or  sentences,  commonly  the  names  of  military  or 
naval  victories,  are  often  seen. 

Blazonry. — An  ill-service  has  been  done  to  the  students  of 
armory  by  those  who  have  pretended  that  the  phrases  in  which 
the  shields  and  their  charges  are  described  or  blazoned  must 
follow  arbitrary  laws  devised  by  writers  of  the  period  of  armorial 
decadence.  One  of  these  laws,  and  a  mischievous  one,  asserts 
that  no  tincture  should  be  named  a  second  time  in  the  blazon 
of  one  coat.  Thus  if  gules  be  the  hue  of  the  field  any  charge  of 
that  colour  must  thereafter  be  styled  "  of  the  first."  Obeying 
this  law  the  blazoner  of  a  shield  of  arms  elaborately  charged 
may  find  himself  sadly  involved  among  "  of  the  first,"  "  of  the 
second,"  and  "  of  the  third."  It  is  needless  to  say  that  no  such 
law  obtained  among  armorists  of  the  middle  ages.  The  only 
rule  that  demands  obedience  is  that  the  brief  description  should 
convey  to  the  reader  a  true  knowledge  of  the  arms  described. 

The  examples  of  blazonry  given  in  that  part  of  this  article 
which  deals  with  armorial  charges  will  be  more  instructive  to  the 
student  than  any  elaborated  code  of  directions.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  description  of  the  field  is  first  set  down,  the 
blazoner  giving  its  plain  tincture  or  describing  it  as  burely, 
party,  paly  or  barry,  as  powdered  or  sown  with  roses,  crosslets 
or  fleurs-de-lys.  Then  should  follow  the  main  or  central  charges, 
the  lion  or  griffon  dominating  the  field,  the  cheveron  or  the  pale, 
the  fesse,  bend  or  bars,  and  next  the  subsidiary  charges  in  the 
field  beside  the  "  ordinary  "  and  those  set  upon  it.  Chiefs  and 
quarters  are  blazoned  after  the  field  and  its  contents,  and  the 
border,  commonly  an  added  difference,  is  taken  last  of  all. 
Where  there  are  charges  both  upon  and  beside  a  bend,  fesse  or 
the  like,  a  curious  inversion  is  used  by  pedantic  blazoners. 
.  The  arms  of  Mr  Samuel  Pepys  of  the  Admiralty  Office  would 
have  been  described  in  earlier  times  as ' '  Sable  a  bend  gold  between 
two  horses'  heads  razed  silver,  with  three  fleurs-de-lys  sable  on  the 
bend."  Modern  heraldic  writers  would  give  the  sentence  as 
"  Sable,  on  a  bend  or  between  two  horses'  heads  erased  argent, 
three  fleurs-de-lys  of  the  first."  Nothing  is  gained  by  this 
inversion  but  the  precious  advantage  of  naming  the  bend  but 
once.  On  the  other  side  it  may  be  said  that,  while  the  newer 
blazon  couches  itself  in  a  form  that  seems  to  prepare  for  the 
naming  of  the  fleurs-de-lys  as  the  important  element  of  the  shield, 
the  older  form  gives  the  fleurs-de-lys  as  a  mere  postscript,  and 
rightly,  seeing  that  charges  in  such  a  position  are  very  commonlv 


the  last  additions  to  a  shield  by  way  of  difference.  In  like 
manner  when  a  crest  is  described  it  is  better  to  say  "  a  lion's 
head  out  of  a  crown  "  than  "  out  of  a  crown  a  lien's  head." 
The  first  and  last  necessity  in  blazonry  is  lucidity,  which  is  cheaply 
gained  at  the  price  of  a  few  syllables  repeated. 

Modern  Heraldry. — With  the  accession  of  the  Tudors  armory 
began  a  rapid  decadence.  Heraldry  ceased  to  play  its  part  in 
military  affairs,  the  badges  and  banners  under  which  the  medieval 
noble's  retinue  came  into  the  field  were  banished,  and  even  the 
tournament  in  its  later  days  became  a  renascence  pageant  which 
did  not  need  the  painted  shield  and  armorial  trappers.  Treatises 
on  armory  had  been  rare  in  the  days  before  the  printing  press, 
but  even  so  early  a  writer  as  Nicholas  Upton  had  shown  himself 
as  it  were  unconcerned  with  the  heraldry  that  any  man  might 
see  in  the  camp  and  the  street.  From  the  Book  of  St  Albans 
onward  the  treatises  on  armory  are  informed  with  a  pedantry 
which  touches  the  point  of  crazy  mysticism  in  such  volumes 
as  that  of  Sylvanus  Morgan.  Thus  came  into  the  books  those 
long  lists  of  "  diminutions  of  ordinaries,"  the  closets  and  escarpes, 
the  endorses  and  ribands,  the  many  scores  of  strange  crosses 
and  such  wild  fancies  as  the  rule,  based  on  an  early  German 
pedantry,  that  the  tinctures  in  peers  shields  should  be  given  the 
names  of  precious  stones  and  those  in  the  shields  of  sovereigns 
the  names  of  planets.  Blazon  became  cumbered  with  that 
vocabulary  whose  French  of  Stratford  atte  Bowe  has  driven 
serious  students  from  a  business  which,  to  use  a  phrase  as  true 
as  it  is  hackneyed,  was  at  last  "  abandoned  to  the  coachpainter 
and  the  undertaker." 

With  the  false  genealogy  came  in  the  assumption  or  assigning 
of  shields  to  which  the  new  bearers  had  often  no  better  claim 
than  lay  in  a  surname  resembling  that  of  the  original  owner. 
The  ancient  system  of  differencing  arms  disappeared.  Now  and 
again  we  see  a  second  son  obeying  the  book-rules  and  putting 
a  crescent  in  his  shield  or  a  third  son  displaying  a  molet,  but 
long  before  our  own  times  the  practice  was  disregarded,  and  the 
most  remote  kinsman  of  a  gentle  house  displayed  the  "  whole 
coat  "  of  the  head  of  his  family. 

The  art  of  armory  had  no  better  fate.  An  absurd  rule  current 
for  some  three  hundred  years  has  ordered  that  the  helms  of 
princes  and  knights  should  be  painted  full-faced  and  those  of 
peers  and  gentlemen  sidelong.  Obeying  this,  the  herald  painters 
have  displayed  the  crests  of  knights  and  princes  as  sideways 
upon  a  full-faced  helm;  the  torse  or  wreath,  instead  of  being 
twisted  about  the  brow  of  the  helm,  has  become  a  sausage-shaped 
bar  see-sawing  above  the  helm;  and  upon  this  will  be  balanced 
a  crest  which  might  puzzle  the  ancient  craftsman  to  mould  in 
his  leather  or  parchment.  A  ship  on  a  lee-shore  with  a  thunder- 
storm lowering  above  its  masts  may  stand  as  an  example  of  such 
devices.  "  Tastes,  of  course,  differ,"  wrote  Dr  Woodward,  "  but 
the  writer  can  hardly  think  that  the  epergne  given  to  Lieut.- 
General  Smith  by  his  friends  at  Bombay  was  a  fitting  ornament 
for  a  helmet."  As  with  the  crest,  so  with  the  shield.  It  became 
crowded  with  ill-balanced  figures  devised  by  those  who  despised 
and  ignored  the  ancient  examples  whose  painters  had  followed 
instinctively  a  simple  and  pleasant  convention.  Landscapes 
and  seascapes,  musical  lines,  military  medals  and  corrugated 
boiler-flues  have  all  made  their  appearance  in  the  shield.  Even 
as  on  the  signs  of  public  houses,  written  words  have  taken  the 
place  of  figures,  and  the  often-cited  arms  exemplified  to  the  first 
Earl  Nelson  marked,  it  may  be  hoped,  the  high  watermark  of 
these  distressing  modernisms.  Of  late  years,  indeed,  official 
armory  in  England  has  shown  a  disposition  to  follow  the  lessons 
of  the  archaeologist,  although  the  recovery  of  medieval  use  has 
not  yet  been  as  successful  as  in  Germany,  where  for  a  long 
generation  a  school  of  vigorous  armorial  art  has  flourished. 

Officers  of  Arms. — Officers  of  arms,  styled  kings  of  arms, 
heralds  and  pursuivants,  appear  at  an  early  period  of  the  history 
of  armory  as  the  messengers  in  peace  and  war  of  princes  and 
magnates.  It  is  probable  that  from  the  first  they  bore  in  some 
wise  their  lord's  arms  as  the  badge  of  their  office.  In  the  i4th 
century  we  have  heralds  with.the  arms  on  a  short  mantle,  witness 
the  figure  of  the  duke  of  Gelderland's  herald  painted  in  the 


HERALDRY 


329 


rmorial  de  Gelre.     The  title  of  Blue  Mantle  pursuivant,  as  old 
the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  suggests  a  like  usage  in  England, 
hen  the  tight-laced  coat  of  arms  went  out  of  fashion  among  the 
hthood  the  loose  tabard  of  arms  with  its  wide  sleeves  was 
once  taken  in  England  as  the  armorial  dress  of  both  herald 
id  cavalier,  and  the  fashion  of  it  has  changed  but  little  since 
ose  days.     Clad  in  such  a  coat  the  herald  was  the  image  of  his 
:er  and,  although  he  himself  was  rarely  chosen  from  any 
above  that  of  the  lesser  gentry,  his  person,  as  a  messenger, 
:quired  an  almost  priestly  sacredness.     To  injure  or  to  insult 

was  to  affront  the  coat  that  he  wore. 

We  hear  of  kings  of  arms  in  the  royal  household  of  the  i3th 
mtury,  and  we  may  compare  their  title  with  those  of  such 
ifficers  as  the  King  of  the  Ribalds  and  the  King  of  the  Minstrels; 
iut  it  is  noteworthy  that,  even  in  modern  warrants  for  heralds' 
tents,  the  custom  of  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  is  still  cited  as 
ring  the  necessary  precedents  for  the  officers'  liveries.  Officers 
arms  took  their  titles  from  their  provinces  or  from  the  titles 
.d  badges  of  their  masters.  Thus  we  have  Garter,  Norroy 
id  Clarenceux,  March,  Lancaster,  Windsor,  Leicester,  Leopard, 
'alcon  and  Blanc  Sanglier  as  officers  attached  to  the  royal  house; 
!handos,  the  herald  of  the  great  Sir  John  Chandos;  Vert  Eagle 
the  Nevill  earls  of  Salisbury,  Esperance  and  Crescent  of  the 
'ercys  of  Northumberland.  The  spirit  of  Henry  VII .  's  legislation 
against  such  usages  in  baronial  houses,  and  in  the  age  of  the 
'udors  the  last  of  the  private  heralds  disappears. 
In  England  the  royal  officers  of  arms  were  made  a  corporation 
Richard  III.  Nowadays  the  members  of  this  corporation, 
lown  as  the  College  of  Arms  or  Heralds'  College,  are  Garter 
ncipal  King  of  Arms,  Clarenceux  King  of  Arms  South  of 
•ent,  Norroy  King  of  Arms  North  of  Trent,  the  heralds  Windsor, 
icster,  Richmond,  Somerset,  York  and  Lancaster,  and  the 
lursuivants  Rouge  Croix,  Bluemantle,  Rouge  Dragon  and 
'ortcullis.  Another  king  of  arms,  not  a  member  of  this  corpora- 
x>n,  has  been  attached  to  the  order  of  the  Bath  since  the  reign 
George  I.,  and  an  officer  of  arms,  without  a  title,  attends  the 
'der  of  St  Michael  and  St  George. 

There  is  no  college  or  corporation  of  heralds  in  Scotland  or 
Jand.     In  Scotland  "  Lyon-king-of-arms,"  "  Lyon  rex  ann- 
ul,"  or  "  Leo  fecialis,"  so  called  from  the  lion  on  the  royal 
!eld,  is  the  head  of  the  office  of  arms.     When  first  the  dignity 
constituted  is  not  known,  but  Lyon  was  a  prominent  figure 
the  coronation  of  Robert  II.  in  1371.    The  office  was  at  first, 
in  England,  attached  to  the  earl  marshal,  but  it  has  long 
n  conferred  by  patent  under  the  great  seal,  and  is  held  direct 
m  the  crown.     Lyon  is  also  king-of-arms  for  the  national 
T  of  the  Thistle.     He  is  styled  "  Lord  Lyon,"  and  the  office 
always  been  held  by  men  of  family,  and  frequently  by  a 
r  who  would  appoint  a  "  Lyon  depute."     He  is  supreme 
all  matters  of  heraldry  in  Scotland.     Besides  the  "  Lyon 
ute,"  there  are   the   Scottish  heralds,   Albany,   Ross  and 
.othesay,  with  precedence  according  to  date  of  appointment; 
id  the  pursuivants,  Carrick,  March  and  Unicorn.     Heralds 
d  pursuivants  are  appointed  by  Lyon. 

Ireland  also  there  is  but  one  king-of-arms,  Ulster.  The 
ice  was  instituted  by  Edward  VI.  in  1553.  The  patent  is 
ven  by  Rymer,  and  refers  to  certain  emoluments  as  "  praedicto 
'fficio  .  .  .  ab  antique  spectantibus."  The  allusion  is  to  an 
•eland  king-of-arms  mentioned  in  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  and 
iperseded  by  Ulster.  Ulster  holds  office  by  patent,  during 
easure;  under  him  the  Irish  office  of  arms  consists  of  two 
raids,  Cork  and  Dublin;  and  a  pursuivant,  Athlone.  Ulster 
king-of-arms  to  the  order  of  St  Patrick.  He  held  visitations 
parts  of  Ireland  from  1 568  to  1620,  and  these  and  other  records, 
icluding  all  grants  of  arms  from  the  institution  of  the  office,  are 
pt  in  the  Birmingham  Tower,  Dublin. 

The  armorial  duties  of  the  ancient  heralds  are  not  clearly 
Defined.    The  patent  of  Edward  IV.,  creating  John  Wrythe 
king  of  arms  of  England  with  the  style  of  Garter,  speaks  vaguely 
of  the  care  of  the  office  of  arms  and  those  things  which  belong  to 
that  office.     We  know  that  the  heralds  had  their  part  in  the 
ering  of  tournaments,  wherein  armory  played  its  greatest 


C: 


part,  and  that  their  expert  knowledge  of  arms  gave  them  such 
duties  as  reckoning  the  noble  slain  on  a  battlefield.  But  it  is 
not  until  the  i5th  century  that  we  find  the  heralds  following 
a  recognized  practice  of  granting  or  assigning  arms,  a  practice 
on  which  John  of  Guildford  comments,  saying  that  such  arms 
given  by  a  herald  are  not  of  greater  authority  than  those  which 
a  man  has  taken  for  himself.  The  Book  of  St  Albans,  put  forth 
in  1486,  speaking  of  arms  granted  by  princes  and  lords,  is  careful 
to  add  that  "  armys  bi  a  mannys  proper  auctorite  take,  if  an 
other  man  have  not  borne  theym  afore,  be  of  strength  enogh," 
repeating,  as  it  seems,  Nicholas  Upton's  opinion  which,  in  this 
.matter,  does  not  conflict  with  the  practice  of  his  day.  It  is 
probable  that  the  earlier  grants  of  arms  by  heralds  were  made 
by  reason  of  persons  uncunning  in  armorial  lore  applying 
for  a  suitable  device  to  experts  in  such  matters— and  that  such 
setting  forth  of  arms  may  have  been  practised  even  in  the  i4th 
century. 

The  earliest  known  grants  of  arms  in  England  by  sovereigns 
or  private  persons  are,  as  a  rule,  the  conveyance  of  a  right  in  a 
coat  of  arms  already  existing  or  of  a  differenced  version  of  it. 
Thus  in  1391  Thomas  Grendale,  a  squire  who  had  inherited 
through  his  grandmother  the  right  in  the  shield  of  Beaumeys, 
granted  his  right  in  it  to  Sir  William  Moigne,  a  knight  who  seems 
to  have  acquired  the  whole  or  part  of  the  Beaumeys  manor 
in  Sawtry.  Under  Henry  VI.  we  have  certain  rare  and  curious 
letters  of  the  crown  granting  nobility  with  arms  "  in  signum 
hujusmodi  nobilitatis  "  to  certain  individuals,  some,  and  perhaps 
all  of  whom,  were  foreigners  who  may  have  asked  for  letters  which 
followed  a  continental  usage.  After  this  time  we  have  a  regular 
series  of  grants  by  heralds  who  in  later  times  began  to  assert 
that  new  arms,  to  be  valid,  must  necessarily  be  derived  from 
their  assignments,  although  ancient  use  continued  to  be  recog- 
nized. 

An  account  of  the  genealogical  function  of  the  heralds,  so 
closely  connected  with  their  armorial  duties  will  be  found  in  the 
article  GENEALOGY.  In  spite  of  the  work  of  such  distinguished 
men  as  Camden  and  Dugdale  they  gradually  fell  in  public 
estimation  until  Blackstone  could  write  of  them  that  the  marshal- 
ling of  coat-armour  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  certain  officers 
called  heralds,  who  had  allowed  for  lucre  such  falsity  and  con- 
fusion to  creep  into  their  records  that  even  their  common  seal 
could  no  longer  be  received  as  evidence  in  any  court  of  justice. 
From  this  low  estate  they  rose  again  when  the  new  archaeology 
included  heraldry  in  its  interests,  and  several  antiquaries  of 
repute  have  of  late  years  worn  the  herald's  tabard. 

In  spite  of  the  vast  amount  of  material  which  the  libraries 
catalogue  under  the  head  of  "  Heraldry,"  the  subject  has  as  yet 
received  little  attention  from  antiquaries  working  in  the  modern 
spirit.  The  old  books  are  as  remarkable  for  their  detachment 
from  the  facts  as  for  their  folly.  The  work  of  Nicholas  Upton, 
De  studio  militari,  although  written  in  the  first  half  of  the  isth 
century,  shows,  as  has  been  already  remarked,  no  attempt  to 
reconcile  the  conceits  of  the  author  with  the  armorial  practice 
which  he  must  have  seen  about  him  on  every  side.  Gerard  Leigh, 
Bossewell,  Feme  and  Morgan  carry  on  this  bad  tradition,  each 
adding  his  own  extravagances.  The  Display  of  Heraldry,  first 
published  in  1610  under 'the  name  of  John  Guillim,  is  more 
reasonable  if  not  more  learned,  and  in  its  various  editions  gives 
a  valuable  view  of  the  decadent  heraldry  of  the  i7th  century. 
In  the  1 9th  century  many  important  essays  on  the  subject  are 
to  be  found  in  such  magazines  as  the  Genealogist,  the  Herald  and 
Genealogist  and  the  Ancestor,  while  Planche's  Pursuivant  oj 
Arms  contains  some  slight  but  suggestive  work  which  attempts 
original  enquiry.  But  Dr  Woodward's  Treatise  on  Heraldry, 
British  and  Foreign  (1896),  in  spite  of  many  errors  arising  from 
the  author's  reliance  upon  unchecked  material,  must  be  counted 
the  only  scholarly  book  in  English  upon  a  matter  which  has 
engaged  so  many  pens.  Among  foreign  volumes  may  be  cited 
those  of  Menestrier  and  Spener,  and  the  vast  compilation  of  the 
German  Siebmacher.  Notable  ordinaries  of  arms  are  those  of 
Pap  worth  and  Renesse,  companions  to  the  armorials  of  Burke  and 
Rietstap.  The  student  may  be  advised  to  turn  his  attention  tp 


330 


HERAT 


all  works  dealing  with  the  effigies,  brasses  and  other  monuments 
of  the  middle  ages,  to  the  ancient  heraldic  seals  and  to  the 
heraldry  of  medieval  architecture  and  ornament.  (O.  BA.) 

HERAT,  a  city  and  province  of  Afghanistan.  The  city  of 
Herat  lies  in  34°  20'  30*  N.,  and  62°  n'  o*  E.,  at  an  altitude 
of  2500  ft.  above  sea-level.  Estimated  pop.  about  10,000.  It 
is  a  city  of  great  interest  historically,  geographically,  politically 
and  strategically,  but  in  modern  days  it  has  quite  lost  its  ancient 
commercial  importance.  From  this  central  point  great  lines 
of  communication  radiate  in  all  directions  to  Russian,  British, 
Persian  and  Afghan  territory.  Sixty-six  miles  to  the  north  lies 
the  terminus  of  the  Russian  railway  system;  to  the  south-east 
is  Kandahar  (360 m.)  and  about  70 m.  beyond  that,  New  Chaman, 
the  terminus  of  the  British  railway  system.  Southward  lies 
Seistan  (200  m.),  and  eastward  Kabul  (550  m.);  while  on  the 
west  four  routes  lead  into  Persia  by  Turbet  to  Meshed  (215  m.), 
and  by  Birjend  to  Kerman  (400  m.),  to  Yezd  (500  m.),  or  to 
Isfahan  (600  m.).  The  city  forms  a  quadrangle  of  nearly  i  m. 
square  (more  accurately  about  1600  yds.  by  1500  yds.);  on 
the  western,  southern  and  eastern  faces  the  line  of  defence  is 
almost  straight,  the  only  projecting  points  being  the  gateways, 
but  on  the  northern  face  the  contour  is  broken  by  a  double 
outwork,  consisting  of  the  Ark  or  citadel,  which  is  built  of  sun- 
dried  brick  on  a  high  artificial  mound  within  the  enceinte, 
and  a  lower  work  at  its  foot,  called  the  Ark-i-nao,  or  "  new 
citadel,"  which  extends  100  yds.  beyond  the  line  of  the  city 
wall.  That  which  distinguishes  Herat  from  all  other  Oriental 
cities,  and  at  the  same  time  constitutes  its  main  defence,  is  the 
stupendous  character  of  the  earthwork  upon  which  the  city  wall 
is  built.  This  earthwork  averages  250  ft.  in  width  at  the  base 
and  about  50  ft.  in  height,  and  as  it  is  crowned  by  a  wall  25  ft. 
high  and  14  ft.  thick  at  the  base,  supported  by  about  150  semi- 
circular towers,  and  is  further  protected  by  a  ditch  45  ft.  in 
width  and  16  in  depth,  it  presents  an  appearance  of  imposing 
strength.  When  the  royal  engineers  of  the  Russo-Afghan 
Boundary  Commission  entered  Herat  in  1885  they  found  its 
defences  in  various  stages  of  disrepair.  The  gigantic  rampart 
was  unflanked,  and  the  covered  ways  in  the  face  of  it  subject  to 
enfilade  from  end  to  end.  The  ditch  was  choked,  the  gates  were 
unprotected;  the  tumbled  mass  of  irregular  mud  buildings 
which  constituted  the  city  clung  tightly  to  the  walls;  there 
were  no  gun  emplacements.  Outside,  matters  were  almost 
worse  than  inside.  To  the  north  of  the  walls  the  site  of  old 
Herat  was  indicated  by  a  vast  mass  of  debris — mounds  of  bricks 
and  pottery  intersected  by  a  network  of  shallow  trenches, 
where  the  only  semblance  of  a  protective  wall  was  the  irregular 
line  of  the  Tal-i-Bangi.  South  of  the  city  was  a  vast  area  filled 
in  with  the  graveyards  of  centuries.  Here  the  trenches  dug  by 
the  Persians  during  the  last  siege  were  still  in  a  fair  state  of 
preservation;  they  were  within  a  stone's-throw  of  the  walls. 
Round  about  the  city  on  all  sides  were  similar  opportunities 
for  close  approach ;  even  the  villages  stretched  out  long  irregular 
streets  towards  the  city  gates.  To  the  north-west,  beyond  the 
Tal-i-Bangi,  the  magnificent  outlines  of  the  Mosalla  filled  a  wide 
space  with  the  glorious  curves  of  dome  and  gateway  and  the 
stately  grace  of  tapering  minars,  but  the  impressive  beauty 
of  this,  by  far  the  finest  architectural  structure  in  all  Afghanistan, 
could  not  be  permitted  to  weigh  against  the  fact  that  the  position 
occupied  by  this  pile  of  solid  buildings  was  fatal  to  the  interests 
of  effective  defence.  By  the  end  of  August  1885,  when  a  political 
crisis  had  supervened  between  Great  Britain  and  Russia,  under 
the  orders  of  the  Amir  the  Mosalla  was  destroyed;  but  four 
minars  standing  at  the  corners  of  the  wide  plinth  still  remain 
to  attest  to  the  glorious  proportions  of  the  ancient  structure, 
and  to  exhibit  samples  of  that  decorative  tilework,  which  for 
intricate  beauty  of  design  and  exquisite  taste  in  the  blending 
of  colour  still  appeals  to  the  memory  as  unique.  At  the  same  time 
the  ancient  graveyards  round  the  city  were  swept  smooth  and 
levelled;  obstructions  were  demolished,  outworks  constructed, 
and  the  defences  generally  renovated.  Whether  or  no  the  strength 
of  this  bulwark  of  North-Western  Afghanistan  should  ever  be 
practically  tested,  the  general  result  of  the  most  recent  in- 


vestigations into  the  value  of  Herat  as  a  strategic  centre  has 
been  largely  to  modify  the  once  widely-accepted  view  that  the 
key  to  India  lies  within  it.  Abdur  Rahman  and  his  successor 
Habibullah  steadfastly  refused  the  offer  of  British  engineers 
to  strengthen  its  defences;  and  though  the  Afghans  themselves 
have  occasionally  undertaken  repairs,  it  is  doubtful  whether 
the  old  walls  of  Herat  are  maintained  in  a  state  of  efficiency. 

The  exact  position  of  Herat,  with  reference  to  the  Russian 
station  of  Kushk  (now  the  terminus  of  a  branch  railway  from 
Merv),  is  as  follows:  From  Herat,  a  gentle  ascent  northwards 
for  3  m.  reaches  to  the  foot  of  the  Koh-i-Mulla  Khwaja,  crossing 
the  Jui  Nao  or  "  new  "  canal,  which  here  divides  the  gravel- 
covered  foot  hills  from  the  alluvial  flats  of  the  Hari  Rud  plain. 
The  crest  of  the  outer  ridges  of  this  subsidiary  range  is  about 
700  ft.  above  the  city,  at  a  distance  of  4  m.  from  it.  For  28  m. 
farther  the  road  winds  first  amongst  the  broken  ridges  of  the 
Koh-i-Mulla  Khwaja,  then  over  the  intervening  dasht  into  the 
southern  spurs  of  the  Paropamisus  to  the  Ardewan  pass.  This 
is  the  highest  point  it  attains,  and  it  has  risen  about  2130  ft. 
from  Herat.  From  the  pass  it  drops  over  the  gradually  decreas- 
ing grades  of  a  wide  sweep  of  Choi  (which  here  happens  to  be 
locally  free  from  the  intersecting  network  of  narrow  ravines 
which  is  generally  a  distinguishing  feature  of  Turkestan  loess 
formations)  for  a  distance  of  35  m.  into  the  Russian  railway 
station,  falling  some  2700  ft.  from  the  crest  of  the  Paropamisus. 
To  the  south  the  road  from  Herat  to  India  through  Kandahar 
lies  across  an  open  plain,  which  presents  no  great  engineering 
difficulties,  but  is  of  a  somewhat  waterless  and  barren  character. 

The  city  possesses  five  gates,  two  on  the  northern  face,  the 
Kutab-chak  near  the  north-east  angle  of  the  wall,  and  the  Malik 
at  the  re-entering  angle  of  the  Ark-i-nao;  and  three  others 
in  the  centres  of  the  remaining  faces,  the  Irak  gate  on  the  west, 
the  Kandahar  gate  on  the  south  and  the  Kushk  gate  on  the 
east  face.  Four  streets  called  the  Chahar-stik,  running  from  the 
centre  of  each  face,  meet  in  the  centre  of  the  town  in  a  small 
domed  quadrangle.  The  principal  street  runs  from  the  south 
or  Kandahar  gate  to  the  market  in  front  of  the  citadel,  and  is 
covered  in  with  a  vaulted  roof  through  its  entire  length,  the 
shops  and  buildings  of  this  bazaar  being  much  superior  to  those 
of  the  other  streets,  and  the  merchants'  caravanserais,  several 
of  which  are  spacious  and  well  built,  all  opening  out  on  this 
great  thoroughfare.  Near  the  central  quadrangle  of  the  city 
is  a  vast  reservoir  of  water,  the  dome  of  which  is  of  bold  and 
excellent  proportions.  The  only  other  public  building  of  any 
consequence  in  Herat  is  the  great  mosque  or  Mesjid-i-Juma, 
which  comprises  an  area  of  800  yds.  square,  and  must  have  been 
a  most  magnificent  structure.  It  was  erected  towards  the  close 
of  the  isth  century,  during  the  reign  of  Shah  Sultan  Hussein 
of  the  family  of  Timur,  and  is  said  when  perfect  to  have  been 
465  ft.  long  by  275  ft.  wide,  to  have  had  408  cupolas,i3O  windows, 
444  pillars  and  6  entrances,  and  to  have  been  adorned  in  the 
most  magnificent  manner  with  gilding,  carving,  precious  mosaics 
and  other  elaborate  and  costly  embellishments.  Now,  however, 
it  is  falling  rapidly  into  ruin,  the  ever-changing  provincial 
governors  who  administer  Herat  having  neither  the  means 
nor  the  inclination  to  undertake  the  necessary  repairs.  Neither 
the  palace  of  the  Charbagh  within  the  city  wall,  which  was  the  re- 
sidence of  the  British  mission  in  1840-1841,  nor  the  royal  quarters 
in  the  citadel  deserve  any  special  notice.  At  the  present  day, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Chahar-suk,  where  there  is  always 
a  certain  amount  of  traffic,  and  where  the  great  diversity  of  race 
and  costume  imparts  much  liveliness  to  the  scene,  Herat  presents 
a  very  melancholy  and  desolate  appearance.  The  mud  houses 
in  rear  of  the  bazaars  are  for  the  most  part  uninhabited  and  in 
ruins,  and  even  the  burnt  brick  buildings  are  becoming  every- 
where dilapidated.  The  city  is  also  one  of  the  filthiest  in  the 
East,  as  there  are  no  means  of  drainage  or  sewerage,  and  garbage 
of  every  description  lies  in  heaps  in  the  open  streets. 

Along  the  slopes  of  the  northern  hills  there  is  a  space  of  some 
4  m.  in  length  by  3  m.  in  breadth,  the  surface  of  the  plain,  strewn 
over  its  whole  extent  with  pieces  of  pottery  and  crumbling 
bricks,  and  also  broken  here  and*  there  by  earthen  mounds  and 


HERAT 


ruined  walls,  the  debris  of  palatial  structures  which  at  one  time 
were  the  glory  and  wonder  of  the  East.  Of  these  structures 
indeed  some  have  survived  to  the  present  day  in  a  sufficiently 
perfect  state  to  bear  witness  to  the  grandeur  and  beauty  of  the 
old  architecture  of  Herat.  Such  was  the  mosque  of  the  Mosalla 
before  its  destruction.  Scarcely  inferior  in  beauty  of  design 
and  execution,  though  of  more  moderate  dimensions,  is  the  tomb 
of  the  saint  Abdullah  Ansari,  in  the  same  neighbourhood.  This 
building,  which  was  erected  by  Shah  Rukh  Mirza,  the  grandson 
of  Timur,  over  500  years  ago,  contains  some  exquisite  specimens 
of  sculpture  in  the  best  style  of  Oriental  art.  Adjoining  the  tomb 
also  are  numerous  marble  mausoleums,  the  sepulchres  of  princes 
of  the  house  of  Timur;  and  especially  deserving  of  notice  is  a 
royal  building  tastefully  decorated  by  an  Italian  artist  named 
Geraldi,  who  was  in  the  service  of  Shah  Abbas  the  Great.  The 
locality,  which  is  further  enlivened  by  gardens  and  running 
streams,  is  na-med  Gazir-g&h,  and  is  a  favourite  resort  of  the 
Heratis.  It  is  held  indeed  in  high  veneration  by  all  classes,  and 
the  famous  Dost  Mahommed  Khan  is  himself  buried  at  the  foot 
of  the  tomb  of  the  saint.  Two  other  royal  palaces  named 
respectively  Bagh-i-Shah  and  Takht-i-Sefer,  are  situated  on  the 
same  rising  ground  somewhat  farther  to  the  west.  The  buildings 
are  now  in  ruins,  but  the  view  from  the  pavilions,  shaded  by 
splendid  plane  trees  on  the  terraced  gardens  formed  on  the 
slope  of  the  mountain,  is  said  to  be  very  beautiful. 

The  population  of  Herat  and  the  neighbourhood  is  of  a  very 
mixed  character.  The  original  inhabitants  of  Ariana  were  no 
doubt  of  the  Aryan  family,  and  immediately  cognate  with  the 
Persian  race,  but  they  were  probably  intermixed  at  a  very  early 
period  with  the  Sacae  and  Massagetae,  who  seem  to  have  held 
the  mountains  from  Kabul  to  Herat  from  the  first  dawn  of 
history,  and  to  whom  must  be  ascribed — rather  than  to  an 
infusion  of  Turco-Tartaric  blood  introduced  by  the  armies  of 
Jenghiz  and  Timur — the  peculiar  broad  features  and  flatfish 
countenance  which  distinguish  the  inhabitants  of  Herat,  Seistan 
and  the  eastern  provinces  of  Persia  from  their  countrymen 
farther  to  the  west.  Under  the  government  of  Herat,  however, 
there  are  a  very  large  number  cf  tribes,  ruled  over  by  separate 
and  semi-independent  chiefs,  and  belonging  probably  to  different 
nationalities.  The  principal  group  of  tribes  is  called  the  Chahar- 
Aimdk,  or  "  four  races,"  the  constituent  parts  of  which,  however, 
are  variously  stated  by  different  authorities  both  as  to  strength 
and  nomenclature.  The  Heratis  are  an  agricultural  race,  and 
are  not  nearly  so  warlike  as  the  Pathans  from  the  neighbourhood 
of  Kabul  or  Kandahar. 

The  long  narrow  valley  of  the  Hari  Rud,  starting  from  the 
western  slopes  of  the  Koh-i-Baba,  extends  almost  due  west 
for  300  m.  before  it  takes  its  great  northern  bend  at 
Kuhsan,  ar>d  passes  northwards  through  the  broken 
ridges  of  the  Siah  Bubuk  (the  western  extremity  of  the 
range  which  we  now  call  Paropamisus)  towards  Sarakhs.  For 
the  greater  part  of  its  length  it  drains  the  southern  slopes  only 
of  the  Paropamisus  and  the  northern  slopes  of  a  parallel  range 
called  Koh-i-Safed.  The  Paropamisus  forms  the  southern  face 
of  the  Turkestan  plateau,  which  contains  the  sources  of  the 
Murghab  river;  the  northern  face  of  the  same  plateau  is  defined 
by  the  Band-i-Turkestan.  On  the  south  of  the  plateau  we  find  a 
similar  succession  of  narrow  valleys  dividing  parallel  flexures, 
or  anticlinals,  formed  under  similar  geological  conditions  to 
those  which  appear  to  be  universally  applicable  to  the  Himalaya, 
the  Hindu  Kush,  and  the  Indus  frontier  mountain  systems. 
From  one  of  these  long  lateral  valleys  the  Hari  Rud  receives  its 
principal  tributary,  which  joins  the  main  river  below  Obeh,  180 
m.  from  its  source;  and  it  is  this  tributary  (separated  from  the 
Hari  Rud  by  the  narrow  ridges  of  the  Koh-i-Safed  and  Band-i- 
Baian)  that  offers  the  high  road  from  Herat  to  Kabul,  and  not 
the  Hari  Rud  itself.  From  its  source  to  Obeh  the  Hari  Rud  is  a 
valley  of  sandy  desolation.  There  are  no  glaciers  nearits  sources, 
although  they  must  have  existed  there  in  geologically  recent 
times,  but  masses  of  melting  snow  annually  give  rise  to  floods, 
which  rush  through  the  midst  of  the  valley  in  a  turbid  red  stream, 
frequently  rendering  the  river  impassable  and  cutting  off  the 


crazy  brick  bridges  at  Herat  and  Tirpul.  It  is  impossible, 
whilst  watching  the  rolling,  seething  volume  of  flood-water 
which  swirls  westwards  in  April,  to  imagine  the  waste  stretches 
of  dry  river-bed  which  in  a  few  months'  time  (when  every 
available  drop  of  water  is  carried  off  for  irrigation)  will  represent 
the  Hari  Rud.  The  soft  shales  or  clays  of  the  hills  bounding 
the  valley  render  these  hills  especially  subject  to  the  action 
of  denudation,  and  the  result,  in  rounded  slopes  and  easily 
accessible  crests,  determines  the  nature  of  the  easy  tracks  and 
passes  which  intersect  them.  At  the  same  time,  any  excessive 
local  rainfall  is  productive  of  difficulty  and  danger  from  the 
floods  of  liquid  mud  and  loose  boulders  which  sweep  like  an 
avalanche  down  the  hill  sides.  The  intense  cold  which  usually 
accompanies  these  sudden  northern  blizzards  of  Herat  and 
Turkestan  is  a  further  source  of  danger. 

From  Obeh,  50  m.  east  of  Herat,  the  cultivated  portion  of  the 
valley  commences,  and  it  extends,  with  a  width  which  varies 
from  8  to  16  m.,  to  Kuhsan,  60  m.  west  of  the  city.  But  the 
great  stretch  of  highly  irrigated  and  valuable  fruit-growing 
land,  which  appears  to  spread  from  the  walls  of  Herat  east  and 
west  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  and  to  sweep  to  the  foot  of  the 
hills  north  and  south  with  an  endless  array  of  vineyards  and 
melon-beds,  orchards  and  villages,  varied  with  a  brilliant  patch- 
work of  poppy  growth  brightening  the  width  of  green  wheat-fields 
with  splashes  of  scarlet  and  purple— all  this  is  really  comprised 
within  a  narrow  area  which  does  not  extend  beyond  a  ten-miles' 
radius  from  the  city.  The  system  of  irrigation  by  which  these 
agricultural  results  are  attained  is  most  elaborate.  The  despised 
Herati  Tajik,  in  blue  shirt  and  skull-cap,  and  with  no  instrument 
better  than  a  three-cornered  spade,  is  as  skilled  an  agriculturist 
as  is  the  Ghilzai  engineer,  but  he  cannot  effect  more  than  the 
limits  of  his  water-supply  will  permit.  He  adopts  the  karez 
(or,  Persian,  kandl)  system  of  underground  irrigation,  as  does  the 
Ghilzai,  and  brings  every  drop  of  water  that  he  can  find  to  the 
surface;  but  it  cannot  be  said  that  he  is  more  successful  than 
the  Ghilzai.  It  is  the  startling  contrast  of  the  Herati  oasis  with 
the  vast  expanse  of  comparative  sterility  that  encloses  it  which 
has  given  such  a  fictitious  value  to  the  estimates  of  the  material 
wealth  of  the  valley  of  the  Hari  Rud. 

The  valley  about  Herat  includes  a  flat  alluvial  plain  which 
might,  for  some  miles  on  any  side  except  the  north,  be  speedily 
reduced  to  an  impassable  swamp  by  means  of  flood-water  from 
the  surrounding  canals.  Three  miles  to  the  south  of  the  city 
the  river  flows  from  east  to  west,  spanned  by  the  Pal-i-Malun, 
a  bridge  possessing  grand  proportions,  but  which  was  in  1885  in 
a  state  ,of  grievous  disrepair  and  practically  useless.  East  and 
west  stretches  the  long  vista  of  the  Hari  Rud.  Due  north  the 
hills  called  the  Koh-i-Mulla  Khwaja  appear  to  be  close  and 
dominating,  but  the  foot  of  these  hills  is  really  about  3  m.  distant 
from  the  city.  This  northern  line  of  barren,  broken  sandstone 
hills  is  geographically  no  part  of  the  Paropamisus  range,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  a  stretch  of  sandy  upland  about  20  m. 
in  width,  called  the  Dasht-i-Hamdamao,  or  Dasht-i-Ardewan, 
formed  by  the  talus  or  drift  of  the  higher  mountains,  which, 
washed  down  through  centuries  of  denudation,  now  forms  long 
sweeping  spurs  of  gravel  and  sand,  scantily  clothed  with  worm- 
wood scrub  and  almost  destitute  of  water.  Through  this  stretch 
of  dasht  the  drainage  from  the  main  water-divide  breaks  down- 
wards to  the  plains  of  Herat,  where  it  is  arrested  and  utilized 
for  irrigation  purposes.  To  the  north-east  of  the  city  a  very 
considerable  valley  has  been  formed  between  the  Paropamisus 
and  the  subsidiary  Koh-i-Mulla  Khwaja  range,  called  Korokh. 
Here  there  are  one  or  two  important  villages  and  a  well-known 
shrine  marked  by  a.  group  of  pine  trees  which  is  unique  in  this 
part  of  Afghanistan.  The  valley  leads  to  a  group  of  passes 
across  the  Paropamisus  into  Turkestan,  of  which  the  Zirmast  is 
perhaps  the  best  known.  The  main  water-divide  between  Herat 
and  the  Turkestan  Choi  (the  loess  district)  has  been  called 
Paropamisus  for  want  of  any  well-recognized  general  name. 
To  the  north  of  the  Korokh  valley  it  exhibits  something  of  the 
formation  of  the  Hindu  Kush  (of  which  it  is  apparently  a  geo- 
logical extension),  but  as  it  passes  westwards  it  becomes  broken 


332 


HERAULT 


into  fragments  by  processes  of  denudation,  until  it  is  hardly 
recognizable  as  a  distinct  range  at  all.  The  direct  passes  across 
it  from  Herat  (the  Baba  and  the  Ardewan)  wind  amongst  masses 
of  disintegrating  sandstone  for  some  miles  on  each  side  of  the 
dividing  watershed,  but  farther  west  the  rounded  knolls  of  the 
rain-washed  downs  may  be  crossed  almost  at  any  point  without 
difficulty.  The  names  applied  to  this  debris  of  a  once  formidable 
mountain  system  are  essentially  local  and  hardly  distinctive. 
Beyond  this  range  the  sand  arid  clay  loess  formation  spreads 
downwards  like  a  tumbled  sea,  hiding  within  the  folds  of  its 
many-crested  hills  the  twisting  course  of  the  Kushk  and  its 
tributaries. 

History. — The  origin  of  Herat  is  lost  in  antiquity.  The  name 
first  appears  in  the  list  of  primitive  Zoroastrian  settlements 
contained  in  the  Vendidad  Sade,  where,  however,  like  most  of 
the  names  in  the  same  list, — such  as  Sughudu  (Sogdiana),  Mouru 
(Merv or  Margus),  Haraquiti  (Arachotus  or  Arghand-ab),  Haetu- 
mant  (Etymander  or  Helmund),  and  Ragha  (or  Argha-stan), — it 
seems  to  apply  to  the  river  or  river-basin,  which  was  the  special 
centre  of  population.  This  name  of  Haroyu,  as  it  is  written  in 
the  Vendidad, or  Hariiva, as  it  appears  in  the  inscriptions  of  Darius, 
is  a  cognate  form  with  the  Sanskrit  Sarayu,  which  signifies  "  a 
river,"  and  its  resemblance  to  the  ethnic  title  of  Aryan  (Sans. 
Arya)  is  purely  fortuitous;  though  from  the  circumstance  of 
the  city  being  named  "  Aria  Metropolis  "  by  the  Greeks,  and 
being  also  recognized  as  the  capital  of  Ariana,  "  the  country  of 
the  Arians,"  the  two  forms  have  been  frequently  confounded. 
Of  the  foundation  of  Herat  (or  Heri,  as  it  is  still  often  called) 
nothing  is  known.  We  can  only  infer  from  the  colossal  character 
of  the  earth-works  which  surround  the  modern  town,  that,  like 
the  similar  remains  at  Bost  on  the  Helmund  and  at  Ulan  Robat 
of  Arachosia,  they  belong  to  that  period  of  Central-Asian  history 
which  preceded  the  rise  of  Achaemenian  power,  and  which  in 
Grecian  romance  is  illustrated  by  the  names  of  Bacchus,  of 
Hercules  and  of  Semiramis.  To  trace  in  any  detail  the  fortunes 
of  Herat  would  be  to  write  the  jnodern  history  of  the  East,  for 
there  has  hardly  been  a  dynastic  revolution,  or  a  foreign  invasion, 
or  a  great  civil  war  in  Central  Asia  since  the  time  of  the  prophet, 
in  which  Herat  has  not  played  a  conspicuous  part  and  suffered 
accordingly.  Under  the  Tahirids  of  Khorasan,  the  Saffarids 
of  Seistan  and  the  Samanids  of  Bokhara,  it  flourished  for  some 
centuries  in  peace  and  progressive  prosperity;  but  during  the 
succeeding  rule  of  the  Ghaznevid  kings  its  metropolitan 
character  was  for  a  time  obscured  by  the  celebrity  of  the  neigh- 
bouring capital  of  Ghazni,  until  finally  in  the  reign  of  Sultan 
San  jar  of  Merv  about  1157  the  city  was  entirely  destroyed  by 
an  irruption  of  the  Ghuzz,  the  predecessors,  in  race  as  well  as  in 
habitat,  of  the  modern  Turkomans.  Herat  gradually  recovered 
under  the  enlightened  Ghorid  kings,  who  were  indeed  natives 
of  the  province,  though  they  preferred  to  hold  their  court  amid 
their  ancestral  fortresses  in  the  mountains  of  Ghor,  so  that  at  the 
time  of  Jenghiz  Khan's  invasion  it  equalled  or  even  exceeded 
in  populousness  and  wealth  its  sister  capitals  of  Balkh,  Merv 
and  Nishapur,  the  united  strength  of  the  four  cities  being 
estimated  at  three  millions  of  inhabitants.  But  this  Mogul 
visitation  was  most  calamitous;  forty  persons,  indeed,  are 
stated  to  have  alone  survived  the  general  massacre  of  1232,  and 
as  a  similar  catastrophe  overtook  the  city  at  the  hands  of  Timur 
in  1398,  when  the  local  dynasty  of  Kurt,  which  had  succeeded 
the  Ghorides  in  eastern  Khorasan,  was  put  an  end  to,  it  is 
astonishing  to  find  that  early  in  the  isth  century  Herat  was  again 
flourishing  and  populous,  and  the  favoured  seat  of  the  art  and 
literature  of  the  East.  It  was  indeed  under  the  princes  of  the 
house  of  Timur  that  most  of  the  noble  buildings  were  erected, 
of  which  the  remains  still  excite  our  admiration  at  Herat,  while 
all  the  great  historical  works  relative  to  Asia,  such  as  the  Rozet- 
es-Sefa,  the  Habib-es-seir,  Hafiz  Abru's  Tarikh,  the  Matld'  a-es- 
Sa'adin,  &c.,  date  from  the  same  place  and  the  same  age. 
Four  times  was  Herat  sacked  by  Turkomans  and  Usbegs  during 
the  centuries  which  intervened  between  the  Timuride  princes 
and  the  rise  of  the  Afghan  power,  and  it  has  never  in  modern 
times  attained  to  anything  like  its  old  importance.  Afghan 


tribes,  who  had  originally  dwelt  far  to  the  east,  were  first  settled 
at  Herat  by  Nadir  Shah,  and  from  that  time  they  have  mono- 
polized the  government  and  formed  the  dominant  element  in  the 
population.  It  will  be  needless  to  trace  the  revolutions  and 
counter-revolutions  which  have  followed  each  other  in  quick 
succession  at  Herat  since  Ahmad  Shah  Durani  founded  the 
Afghan  monarchy  about  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century.  Let 
it  suffice  to  say  that  Herat  has  been  throughout  the  seat  of  an 
Afghan  government,  sometimes  in  subordination  to  Kabul  and 
sometimes  independent.  Persia  indeed  for  many  years  showed 
a  strong  disposition  to  reassert  the  supremacy  over  Herat  which 
was  exercised  by  the  Safawid  kings,  but  great  Britain,  dis- 
approving of  the  advance  of  Persia  towards  the  Indian  frontier, 
steadily  resisted  the  encroachment;  and,  indeed,  after  helping 
the  Heratis  to  beat  off  the  attack  of  the  Persian  army  in  1838, 
the  British  at  length  compelled  the  shah  in  1857  at  the  close  of 
his  war  with  them  to  sign  a  treaty  recognizing  the  further  in- 
dependence of  the  place,  and  pledging  Persia  against  any  further 
interference  with  the  Afghans.  In  1863  Herat,  which  for  fifty 
years  previously  had  been  independent  of  Kabul,  was  incor- 
porated by  Dost  Mahomed  Khan  in  the  Afghan  monarchy,  and 
the  Amir,  Habibullah  of  Afghanistan,  like  his  father  Abdur 
Rahman  before  him,  remained  Amir  of  Herat  and  Kandahar,  as 
well  as  Kabul. 

See  Holdich,  Indian  Borderland  (1901);  C.  E.  Yate,  Northern 
Afghanistan  (1888).  (T.  H.  H.*) 

HERAULT,  a  department  in  the  south  of  France,  formed 
from  Lower  Languedoc.  Pop.  (1906)  482,779.  Area,  2403  sq.  m. 
It  is  bounded  N.E.  by  Card,  N.W.  by  Aveyron  and  Tarn,  and 
S.  by  Aude  and  the  Golfe  du  Lion.  The  southern  prolongation 
of  the  Cevennes  mountains  occupies  the  north-western  zone  of 
the  department,  the  highest  point  being  about  4250  ft.  above 
the  sea-level.  South-east  of  this  range  comes  a  region  of  hills 
and  plateaus  decreasing  in  height  as  they  approach  the  sea, 
from  which  they  are  separated  by  the  rich  plains  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Orb  and  the  Herault  and,  farther  to  the  north-east,  by 
the  line  of  intercommunicating  salt  lagoons  (Etang  de  Thau,  &c.) 
which  fringes  the  coast.  The  region  to  the  north-west  of  Mont- 
pellier  comprises  an  extensive  tract  of  country  known  as  the 
Garrigues,  a  district  of  dry  limestone  plateaus  and  hills,  which 
stretches  into  the  neighbouring  department  of  Card.  The 
mountains  of  the  north-west  form  the  watershed  between  the 
Atlantic  and  Mediterranean  basins.  From  them  flow  the 
Herault,  its  tributary  the  Lergue,  and  more  to  the  south-west 
the  Livrori  and  the  Orb,  which  are  the  main  rivers  of  the  depart- 
ment. Dry  summers,  varied  by  occasional  violent  storms,  are 
characteristic  of  Herault.  The  climate  is  naturally  colder  and 
more  rainy  in  the  mountains. 

A  third  of  the  surface  of  Herault  is  planted  with  vines,  which 
are  the  chief  source  of  agricultural  wealth,  the  department 
ranking  first  in  France  with  respect  to  the  area  of  its  vineyards; 
the  red  wines  of  St  Georges,  Cazouls-les-Beziers,  Picpoul  and 
Maranssan,  and  the  white  wines  of  Frontignan  and  Lunel  (pop. 
in  1906,  6769)  are  held  in  high  estimation.  The  area  given  over 
to  arable  land  and  pasture  is  small  in  extent.  Fruit  trees  of 
various  kinds,  but  especially  mulberries,  olives  and  chestnuts 
flourish.  The  rearing  of  silk-worms  is  largely  carried  on.  Con- 
siderable numbers  of  sheep  are  raised,  their  milk  being  utilized 
for  the  preparation  of  Roquefort  cheeses.  The  mineral  wealth 
of  the  department  is  considerable.  There  are  mines  of  lignite, 
coal  in  the  vicinity  of  Graissessac,  iron,  calamine  and  copper, 
and  quarries  of  building -stone,  limestone,  gypsum,  &c.; 
the  marshes  supply  salt.  Mineral  springs  are  numerous,  the 
most  important  being  those  of  Lamalon-les-Bains  and  Balaruc- 
les-Bains.  The  chief  manufactures  are  woollen  and  cotton 
cloth,  especially  for  military  use,  silk  (Ganges),  casks,  soap  and 
fertilizing  stuffs.  There  are  also  oil-works,  distilleries  (Beziers) 
and  tanneries  (Bedarieux).  Fishing  is  an  important  industry. 
Cette  and  Meze  (pop.  in  1906,  5574)  are  the  chief  ports.  Herault 
exports  salt  fish,  wine,  liqueurs,  timber,  salt,  building-material, 
&c.  It  imports  cattle,  skins,  wool,  cereals,  vegetables,  coal  and 
other  commodities.  The  railway  lines  belong  chiefly  to  the 


HERAULT  DE  SECHELLES— HERBARIUM 


333 


Southern  and  Paris-Lyon-M6diterranee  companies.  The  Canal 
du  Midi  traverses  the  south  of  the  department  for  44  m.  and 
terminates  at  Cette.  The  Canal  des  Etangs  traverses  the 
department  for  about  20  m.,  forming  part  of  a  line  of  com- 
munication between  Cette  and  Aigues-Mortes.  Montpellier,  the 
capital,  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  of  the  province  of  Avignon,  and 
of  a  court  of  appeal  and  centre  of  an  academie  (educational 
division).  The  department  belongs  to  the  i6th  military  region, 
which  has  its  headquarters  at  Montpellier.  It  is  divided  into 
the  arrondissements  of  Montpellier,  Beziers,  Lodeve  and  St 
Pons,  with  36  cantons  and  340  communes. 

Montpellier,  Beziers,  Lodeve,  Bedarieux,  Cette,  Agde,  Pezenas, 
Lamalou-les-Bains  and  Clermont-l'Herault  are  the  more  note- 
worthy towns  and  receive  separate  treatment.  Among  the  other 
interesting  places  in  the  department  are  St  Pons,  with  a  church 
of  the  1 2th  century,  once  a  cathedral,  Villemagne,  which  has 
several  old  houses  and  two  ruined  churches,  one  of  the  i3th,  the 
other  of  the  I4th  century;  Pignan,  a  medieval  town,  near  which 
is  the  interesting  abbey-church  of  Vignogoul  in  the  early  Gothic 
style;  and  St  Guilhem-le-Desert,  which  has  a  church  of  the 
nth  and  I2th  centuries.  Maguelonne,  which  in  the  6th  century 
became  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  transferred  to  Montpellier  in  1536, 
has  a  cathedral  of  the  I2th  century. 

HERAULT  DE  SECHELLES,  MARIE  JEAN  (1759-1794), 
French  politician,  was  born  at  Paris  on  the  2oth  of  September 
1759,  of  a  noble  family  connected  with  those  of  Contades  and 
Polignac.  He  made  his  debut  as  a  lawyer  at  the  Chatelet,  and 
delivered  some  very  successful  speeches;  later  he  was  avocat 
general  to  the  parlement  of  Paris.  His  legal  occupations  did  not 
prevent  him  from  devoting  himself  also  to  literature,  and  after 
1 789  he  published  an  account  of  a  visit  he  had  made  to  the  comte 
de  Buffon  at  Montbard.  Herault's  account  is  marked  by  a 
delicate  irony,  and  it  has  with  some  justice  been  called  a  master- 
piece of  interviewing,  before  the  day  of  journalists.  Herault, 
who  was  an  ardent  champion  of  the  Revolution,  took  part  in 
the  taking  of  the  Bastille,  and  on  the  8th  of  December  1789 
was  appointed  judge  of  the  court  of  the  first  arrondissement 
in  the  department  of  Paris.  From  the  end  of  January  to  April 
1791  Herault  was  absent  on  a  mission  in  Alsace,  where  he  had 
been  sent  to  restore  order.  On  his  return  he  was  appointed 
commissaire  du  roi  in  the  court  of  cassation.  He  was  elected 
as  a  deputy  for  Paris  to  the  Legislative  Assembly,  where  he 
gravitated  more  and  more  towards  the  extreme  left;  he  was  a 
member  of  several  committees,  and,  when  a  member  of  the 
diplomatic  committee,  presented  a  famous  report  demanding 
that  the  nation  should  be  declared  to  be  in  danger  (nth  June 
1793).  After  the  revolution  of  the  loth  of  August  1792  (see 
FRENCH  REVOLUTION),  he  co-operated  with  Danton,  one  of  the 
organizers  of  this  rising,  and  on  the  2nd  of  September  was 
appointed  president  of  the  Legislative  Assembly.  He  was  a 
deputy  to  the  National  Convention  for  the  department  of 
Seine-et-Oise,  and  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  organize  the  new 
department  of  Mont  Blanc.  He  was  thus  absent  during  the 
trial  of  Louis  XVI.,  but  he  made  it  known  that  he  approved 
of  the  condemnation  of  the  king,  and  would  probably  have 
voted  for  the  death  penalty.  On  his  return  to  Paris,  Herault  was 
several  times  president  of  the  Convention,  notably  on  the  2nd  of 
June  1793,  the  occasion  of  the  attack  on  the  Girondins,  and 
on  the  loth  of  August  1793,  on  which  the  passing  of  the  new 
constitution  was  celebrated.  On  this  occasion  Herault,  as 
president  of  the  Convention,  had  to  make  several  speeches.  It 
was  he,  moreover,  who,  on  the  rejection  of  the  projected  constitu- 
tion drawn  up  by  Condorcet,  was  entrusted  with  the  task  of 
preparing  a  fresh  one;  this  work  he  performed  within  a  few  days, 
and  his  plan,  which,  however,  differed  very  little  from  that  of 
Condorcet,  became  the  Constitution  of  1793,  which  was  passed, 
but  never  applied.  As  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Public 
Safety,  it  was  with  diplomacy  that  Herault  was  chiefly  concerned, 
and  from  October  to  December  1793  he  was  employed  on  a 
diplomatic  and  military  mission  in  Alsace.  But  this  mission 
helped  to  make  him  an  object  of  suspicion  to  the  other  members 
of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety,  and  especially  to  Robespierre, 


who  as  a  deist  and  a  fanatical  follower  of  the  ideas  of  Rousseau, 
hated  Herault,  the  follower  of  the  naturalism  of  Diderot.  He 
was  accused  of  treason,  and  after  being  tried  before  the  revolu- 
tionary tribunal,  was  condemned  at  the  same  time  as  Danton, 
and  executed  on  the  i6th  Germinal  in  the  year  II.  (jth  April 
1794).  He  was  handsome,  elegant  and  a  lover  of  pleasure,  and 
was  one  of  the  most  individual  figures  of  the  Revolution. 

See  the  Voyage  &  Montbard,  published  by  A.  Aulard  (Paris,  1890); 
A.  Aulard,  Les  Oraleurs  de  la  Legislative  el  de  la  Convention,  2nd  ed. 
(Paris,  1906);  J.  Claretie,  Camille  Desmoulins  .  .  .  etude  sur  les 
Dantonistes  (Paris,  1875);  Dr  Robinet,  Le  Proems  des  Dantonistes 
(Paris,  1879);  "  H6rault  de  S6chelles,  sa  premiere  mission  en 
Alsace  "  in  the  review  La  Revolution  Fran$aise,  tome  22;  E.  Daudet, 
Le  Roman  d'un  conventionnel.  Herault  de  Sechelles  et  les  dames  de 
Bellegarde  (1904).  His  QLuvres  litteraires  were  edited  (Paris,  1907) 
by  E.  Dard.  (R.  A.*) 

HERB  (Lat.  herba,  grass,  food  for  cattle,  generally  taken  to 
represent  the  Old  La.t.forbea,  Gr.  0op/3ij,  pasture,  (/>epj3eti',tofeed, 
Sans,  bharb,  to  eat),  in  botany,  the  name  given  to  those  plants 
whose  stem  or  stalk  dies  entirely  or  down  to  the  root  each  year, 
and  does  not  become,  as  in  shrubs  or  trees,  woody  or  permanent, 
such  plants  are  also  called  "  herbaceous."  The  term  "  herb  " 
is  also  used  of  those  herbaceous  plants,  which  possess  certain 
properties,  and  are  used  for  medicinal  purposes,  for  flavouring 
or  garnishing  in  cooking,  and  also  for  perfumes  (see  HORTI- 
CULTURE and  PHARMACOLOGY). 

HERBARIUM,  or  HORTUS  Siccus,  a  collection  of  plants  so 
dried  and  preserved  as  to  illustrate  as  far  as  possible  their 
characters.  Sincethesameplant, owing  to  peculiarities  of  climate, 
soil  and  situation,  degree  of  exposure  to  light  and  other  influences 
may  vary  greatly  according  to  the  locality  in  which  it  occurs, 
it  is  only  by  gathering  together  for  comparison  and  study  a 
large  series  of  examples  of  each  species  that  the  flora  of  different 
regions  can  be  satisfactorily  represented.  Even  in  the  best 
equipped  botanical  garden  it  is  impossible  to  have,  at  one  and 
the  same  time,  more  than  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  flora  of  any  given  region  or  of  any  large  group 
of  plants.  Hence  a  good  herbarium  forms  an  indispensable  part 
of  a  botanical  museum  or  institution.  There  are  large  herbaria 
at  the  British  Museum  and  at  the  Royal  Gardens,  Kew,  and 
smaller  collections  at  the  botanical  institutions  at  the  principal 
British  universities.  The  original  herbarium  of  Linnaeus  is  in 
the  possession,  of  the  Linnacan  Society  of  London.  It  was 
purchased  from  the  widow  of  Linnaeus  by  Dr  (afterwards  Sir) 
J.  E.  Smith,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Linnaean  Society,  and 
after  his  death  was  purchased  by  the  society.  Herbaria  are  also 
associated  with  the  more  important  botanic  gardens  and  museums 
in  other  countries.  The  value  of  a  herbarium  is  much  enhanced 
by  the  possession  of  "  types,"  that  is,  the  original  specimens 
on  the  study  of  which  a  species  was  founded.  Thus  the  herbarium 
at  the  British  Museum,  which  is  especially  rich  in  the  earlier 
collections  made  in  the  i8th  and  early  igth  centuries,  contains 
the  types  of  many  species  founded  by  the  earlier  workers  in 
botany.  It  is  also  rich  in  the  types  of  Australian  plants  in  the 
collections  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks  and  Robert  Brown,  and  contains 
in  addition  many  valuable  modern  collections.  The  Kew 
herbarium,  founded  by  Sir  William  Hooker  and  greatly  increased 
by  his  son  Sir  Joseph  Hooker,  is  also  very  rich  in  types,  especially 
those  of  plants  described  in  the  Flora  of  British  India  and 
various  colonial  floras.  The  collection  of  Dillenius  is  deposited 
at  Oxford,  and  that  of  Professor  W.  H.  Harvey  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin.  The  collections  of  Antoine  Laurent  de  Jussieu, 
his  son  Adrien,  and  of  Auguste  de  St  Hilaire,  are  included  in  the 
large  herbarium  of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  at  Paris,  and  in  the 
same  city  is  the  extensive  private  collection  of  Dr  Ernest  Cosson. 
At  Geneva  are  three  large  collections— Augustin  Pyrame  de 
Candolle's,  containing  the  typical  specimens  of  the  Prodromus, 
a  large  series  of  monographs  of  the  families  of  flowering  plants, 
Benjamin  Delessert's  fine  series  at  the  Botanic  Garden,  and  the 
Boissier  Herbarium,  which  is  rich  in  Mediterranean  and  Oriental 
plants.  The  university  of  Gottingen  has  had  bequeathed  to  it 
the  largest  collection  (exceeding  40,000  specimens)  ever  made 
by  a  single  individual — that  of  Professor  Grisebach.  At  the 


334 


HERBARIUM 


herbarium  in  Brussels  are  the  specimens  obtained  by  the  traveller 
Karl  Friedrich  Philipp  von  Martius,  the  majority  of  which 
formed  the  groundwork  of  his  Flora  Brasiliensis,  The  Berlin 
herbarium  is  especially  rich  in  more  recent  collections,  and  other 
national  herbaria  sufficiently  extensive  to  subserve  the  require- 
ments of  the  systematic  botanist  exist  at  St  Petersburg,  Vienna, 
Leiden,  Stockholm,  Upsala,  Copenhagen  and  Florence.  Of 
those  in  the  United  States  of  America,  the  chief,  formed  by  Asa 
Gray,  is  the  property  of  Harvard  university;  there  is  also  a 
large  one  at  the  New  York  Botanical  Garden.  The  herbarium 
at  Melbourne,  Australia,  under  Baron  Miiller,  attained  large 
proportions;  and  that  of  the  Botanical  Garden  of  Calcutta  is 
noteworthy  as  the  repository  of  numerous  specimens  described 
by  writers  on  Indian  botany. 

Specimens  of  flowering  plants  and  vascular  cryptograms 
are  generally  mounted  on  sheets  of  stout  smooth  paper,  of 
uniform  quality;  the  size  adopted  at  Kew  is  17  in.  long  by  n  in. 
broad,  that  at  the  British  Museum  is  slightly  larger;  the  palms 
and  their  allies,  however,  and  some  ferns,  require  a  larger  size. 
The  tough  but  flexible  coarse  grey  paper  (German  Fliesspapier), 
upon  which  on  the  Continent  specimens  are  commonly  fixed  by 
gummed  strips  of  the  same,  is  less  hygroscopic  than  ordinary 
cartridge  paper,  but  has  the  disadvantage  of  affording  harbourage 
in  the  inequalities  of  its  surface  to  a  minute  insect,  Atropos 
pulsatoria,  which  commits  great  havoc  in  damp  specimens, 
and  which,  even  if  noticed,  cannot  be  dislodged  without  difficulty. 
The  majority  of  plant  specimens  are  most  suitably  fastened  on 
paper  by  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  gum  tragacanth  and  gum 
arabic  made  into  a  thick  paste  with  water.  Rigid  leathery 
leaves  are  fixed  by  means  of  glue,  or,  if  they  present  too  smooth 
a  surface,  by  stitching  at  their  edges.  Where,  as  in  private 
herbaria,  the  specimens  are  not  liable  to  be  handled  with  great 
frequency,  a  stitch  here  and  there  round  the  stem,  tied  at  the 
back  of  the  sheet,  or  slips  of  paper  passed  over  the  stem  through 
two  slits  in  the  sheet  and  attached  with  gum  to'  its  back,  or 
simply  strips  of  gummed  paper  laid  across  the  stem,  may  be 
resorted  to. 

To  preserve  from  insects,  the  plants,  after  mounting,  are 
often  brushed  over  with  a  liquid  formed  by  the  solution  of 
5  fb.  each  of  corrosive  sublimate  and  carbolic  acid  in  i  gallon 
of  methylated  spirits.  They  are  then  laid  out  to  dry  on  shelves 
made  of  a  network  of  stout  galvanized  iron  wire.  The  use  of 
corrosive  sublimate  is  not,  however,  recommended,  as  it  forms 
on  drying  a  fine  powder  which  when  the  plants  are  handled 
will  rub  off  and,  being  carried  into  the  air,  may  prove  injurious 
to  workers.  If  the  plants  are  subjected  to  some  process,  before 
mounting,  by  which  injurious  organisms  are  destroyed,  such 
as  exposure  in  a  closed  chamber  to  vapour  of  carbon  bisulphide 
for  some  hours,  the  presence  of  pieces  of  camphor  or  naphthalene 
in  the  cabinet  will  be  found  a  sufficient  preservative.  After 
mounting  are  written — usually  in  the  right-hand  corner  of  the 
sheet,  or  on  a  label  there  affixed — the  designation  of  each  species, 
the  date  and  place  of  gathering,  and  the  name  of  the  collector. 
Other  particulars  as  to  habit,  local  abundance,  soil  and  claim 
to  be  indigenous  may  be  written  on  the  back  of  the  sheet  or  on 
a  slip  of  writing  paper  attached  to  its  edge.  It  is  convenient 
to  place  in  a  small  envelope  gummed  to  an  upper  corner  of  the 
sheet  any  flowers,  seeds  or  leaves  needed  for  dissection  or 
microscopical  examination,  especially  where  from  the  fixation 
of  the  specimen  it  is  impossible  to  examine  the  leaves  for  oil- 
receptacles  and  where  seed  is  apt  to  escape  from  ripe  capsules 
and  be  lost.  The  addition  of  a  careful  dissection  of  a  flower 
greatly  increases  the  value  of  the  specimen.  To  ensure  that 
all  shall  lie  evenly  in  the  herbarium  the  plants  should  be  made 
to  occupy  as  far  as  possible  alternately  the  right  and  left  sides 
of  their  respective  sheets.  The  species  of  each  genus  are  then 
arranged  either  systematically  or  alphabetically  in  separate 
covers  of  stout,  usually  light  brown  paper,  or,  if  the  genus  be 
large,  in  several  covers  with  the  name  of  the  genus  clearly  in- 
dicated in  the  lower  left-hand  corner  of  each,  and  opposite 
it  the  names  or  reference  numbers  of  the  species.  Undetermined 
species  are  relegated  to  the  end  of  the  genus.  Thus  prepared, 


the  specimens  are  placed  on  shelves  or  movable  trays,  at  intervals 
of  about  6  in.,  in  an  air-tight  cupboard,  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
door  of  which,  as  a  special  protection  against  insects,  is  suspended 
a  muslin  bag  containing  a  piece  of  camphor. 

The  systematic  arrangement  varies  in  different  herbaria.  In 
the  great  British  herbaria  the  orders  and  genera  of  flowering 
plants  are  usually  arranged  according  to  Bentham  and  Hooker's 
Genera  plantarum;  the  species  generally  follow  the  arrangement 
of  the  most  recent  complete  monograph  of  the  family.  In  non- 
flowering  plants  the  works  usually  followed  are  for  ferns,  Hooker 
and  Baker's  Synopsis  filicum;  for  mosses,  Muller's  Synopsis 
muscorum  frondosorum,  Jaeger  &  Sauerbeck's  Genera  et  species 
muscorum,  and  Engler  &  Prantl's  Pflanzenfamilien;  for  algae, 
de  Toni's  Sylloge  algarum;  for  hepaticae,  Gottsche,  Lindenberg 
and  Nees  ab  Esenbeck's  Synopsis  hepaticarum,  supplemented 
by  Stephani's  Species  hepaticarum;  for  fungi,  Saccardo's 
Sylloge  fungorum,  and  for  mycetozoa  Lister's  monograph  of 
the  group.  For  the  members  of  laige  genera,  e.g.  Piper  and 
Ficus,  since  the  number  of  cosmopolitan  or  very  widely  dis- 
tributed species  is  comparatively  few,  a  geographical  grouping  is 
found  specially  convenient  by  those  who  are  constantly  receiving 
parcels  of  plants  from  known  foreign  sources.  The  ordinary 
systematic  arrangement  possesses  trie  great  advantage,  in  the 
case  of  large  genera,  of  readily  indicating  the  affinities  of  any 
particular  specimen  with  the  forms  most  nearly  allied  to  it. 
Instead  of  keeping  a  catalogue  of  the  species  contained  in  the 
herbarium,  which,  owing  to  the  constant  additions,  would  be 
almost  impossible,  such  species  are  usually  ticked  off  with  a 
pencil  in  the  systematic  work  which  is  followed  in  arranging 
them,  so  that  by  reference  to  this  work  it  is  possible  to  see  at  a 
glance  whether  the  specimen  sought  is  in  the  herbarium  and 
what  species  are  still  wanted. 

Specimens  intended  for  the  herbarium  should  be  collected  when 
possible  in  dry  weather,  care  being  taken  to  select  plants  or  portions 
of  plants  in  sufficient  number  and  of  a  size  adequate  to  illustrate 
all  the  characteristic  features  of  the  species.  When  the  root-leaves 
and  roots  present  any  peculiarities,  they  should  invariably  be 
collected,  but  the  roots  should  be  dried  separately  in  an  oven  at  a 
moderate  heat.  Roots  and  fruits  too  bulky  to  be  placed  on  the  sheet 
of  the  herbarium  may  be  conveniently  arranged  in  glass-covered 
boxes  contained  in  drawers.  The  best  and  most  effective  mode  of 
drying  specimens  is  learned  only  by  experience,  different  species 
requiring  special  treatment  according  to  their  several  peculiarities. 
The  chief  points  to  be  attended  to  are  to  have  a  plentiful  supply  of 
botanical  drying  paper,  so  as  to  be  able  to  use  about  six  sheets  for 
each  specimen;  to  change  the  paper  at  intervals  of  six  to  twelve 
hours;  to  avoid  contact  of  one  leaf  or  flower  with  another;  and  to 
increase  the  pressure  applied  only  in  proportion  to  the  dry  ness  of  the 
specimen.  To  preserve  the  colour  of  flowers  pledgets  of  cotton  wool, 
which  prevent. bruising,  should  be  introduced  between  them,  as  also, 
if  the  stamens  are  thick  and  succulent,  as  in  Digitalis,  between  these 
and  the  corolla.  A  flower  dissected  and  gummed  on  the  sheets  will 
often  retain  the  colour  which  it  is  impossible  to  preserve  in  a  crowded 
inflorescence.  A  flat  sheet  of  lead  or  some  other  suitable  weight 
should  be  laid  upon  the  top  of  the  pile  of  specimens,  so  as  to  keep  up 
a  continuous  pressure.  Succulent  specimens,  as  many  of  the  Orchi- 
daceae  and  sedums  and  various  other  Crassulaceous  plants,  require 
to  be  killed  by  immersion  in  boiling  water  before  being  placed  in 
drying  paper,  or,  instead  of  becoming  dry,  they  will  grow  between  the 
sheets.  When,  as  with  some  plants  like  Verbascum,  the  thick  hard 
stems  are  liable  to  cause  the  leaves  to  wrinkle  in  drying  by  removing 
the  pressure  from  them,  small  pieces  of  bibulous  paper  or  cotton  wool 
may  be  placed  upon  the  leaves  near  their  point  of  attachment  to 
the  stem.  When  a  number  of  specimens  have  to  be  submitted  to 
pressure,  ventilation  is  secured  by  means  of  frames  corresponding 
in  size  to  the  drying  paper,  and  composed  of  strips  of  wood  or  wires 
laid  across  each  other  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  network.  Another  mode 
of  drying  is  to  keep  the  specimens  in  a  box  of  dry  sand  in  a  warm 
place  for  ten  or  twelve  hours,  and  then  press  them  in  drying  paper. 
A  third  method  consists  in  placing;  the  specimen  within  bibulous 
paper,  and  enclosing  the  whole  between  two  plates  of  coarsely 
perforated  zinc  supported  in  a  wooden  frame.  The  zinc  plates  are 
then  drawn  close  together  by  means  of  straps,  and  suspended  before 
a  fire  until  the  drying  is  effected.  By  the  last  two  methods  the 
colour  of  the  flowers  may  be  well  preserved.  When  the  leaves  are 
finely  divided,  as  in  Conium,  much  trouble  will  be  experienced  in 
lifting  a  half-dried  specimen  from  one  paper  to  another;  but  the 
plant  may  be  placed  in  a  sheet  of  thin  blotting  paper,  and  the  sheet 
containing  the  plant,  instead  of  the  plant  itself,  can  then  be  moved. 
Thin  straw-coloured  paper,  such  as  is  used  for  biscuit  bags,  may  be 
conveniently  employed  by  travellers  unable  to  carry  a  quantity  of 


HERBART 


335 


bibulous  paper.  It  offers  the  advantage  of  fitting  closely  to  thick- 
stemmed  specimens  and  of  rapidly  drying.  A  light  but  strong 
portfolio,  to  which  pressure  by  means  of  straps  can  be  applied,  and 
a  few  quires  of  this  paper,  if  the  paper  be  changed  night  and  morning, 
will  be  usually  sufficient  to  dry  all  except  very  succulent .  plants. 
When  a  specimen  is  too  large  for  one  sheet,  and  it  is  necessary,  in 
order  to  show  its  habit,  &c.,  to  dry  the  whole  of  it,  it  may  be  divided 
into  two  or  three  portions,  and  each  placed  on  a  separate  sheet  for 
drying.  Specimens  may  be  judged  to  be  dry  when  they  no  longer 
cause  a  cold  sensation  when  applied  to  the  cheek,  or  assume  a 
rigidity  not  evident  in  the  earlier  stages  of  preparation. 

Each  class  of  flowerless  or  cryptogamic  plants  requires  special 
treatment  for  the  herbarium. 

Marine  algae  are  usually  mounted  on  tough  smooth  white  cartridge 
paper  in  the  following  manner.  Growing  specimens  of  good  colour 
and  in  fruit  are  if  possible  selected,  and  cleansed  as  much  as  practic- 
able from  adhering  foreign  particles,  either  in  the  sea  or  a  rocky  pool. 
Some  species  rapidly  change  colour,  and  cause  the  decay  of  any 
others  with  which  they  come  in  contact.  This  is  especially  the  case 
with  the  Ectocarpi,  Desmarestiae,  and  a  few  others,  which  should 
therefore  be  brought  home  in  a  separate  vessel.  In  mounting,  the 
specimen  is  floated  out  in  a  flat  white  dish  containing  sea-water,  so 
that  foreign  matter  may  be  detected,  and  a  piece  of  paper  of  suitable 
size  is  placed  under  it,  supported  either  by  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand 
or  by  a  palette.  It  is  then  pruned,  in  order  clearly  to  show  the  mode 
of  branching,  and  is  spread  out  as  naturaljy  as  possible  with  the 
right  hand.  For  this  purpose  a  bone  knitting-needle  answers  well 
for  the  coarse  species,  and  a  camel's-hair  pencil  for  the  more  delicate 
ones.  The  paper  with  the  specimen  is  then  carefully  removed  from 
the  water  by  sliding  it  over  the  edge  of  the  dish  so  as  to  drain  it  as 
much  as  possible.  If  during  this  process  part  of  the  fronds  run 
together,  the  beauty  of  the  specimen  may  be  restored  by  dipping 
the  edge  into  water,  so  as  to  float  out  the  part  and  allow  it  to  subside 
naturally  on  the  paper.  The  paper,  with  the  specimen  upwards,  is 
then  laid  on  bibulous  paper  for  a  few  minutes  to  absorb  as  much  as 
possible  of  the  superfluous  moisture.  When  freed  from  excess  of 
water  it  is  laid  on  a  sheet  of  thick  white  blotting-paper,  and  a  piece 
of  smooth  washed  calico  is  placed  upon  it  (unwashed  calico,  on  account 
of  its  "  facing,"  adheres  to  the  sea-weed).  Another  sheet  of  blotting- 
paper  is  then  laid  over  it;  and,  a  number  of  similar  specimens 
being  formed  into  a  pile,  the  whole  is  submitted  to  pressure,  the  paper 
being  changed  every  hour  or  two  at  first.  The  pressure  is  increased, 
and  the  papers  are  changed  less  frequently  as  the  specimens  become 
dry,  which  usually  takes  place  in  thirty-six  hours.  Some  species, 
especially  those  of  a  thick  or  leathery  texture,  contract  so  much  in 
drying  that  without  strong  pressure  the  edges  of  the  paper  become 
puckered.  Other  species  of  a  gelatinous  nature,  like  Nemalion  and 
Dudresnaya,  may  be  allowed  to  dry  on  the  paper,  and  need  not  be 
submitted  to  pressure  until  they  no  longer  present  a  gelatinous 
appearance.  Large  coarse  algae,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  Fucaceae 
and  Laminariae,  do  not  readily  adhere  to  paper,  and  require  soaking 
for  some  time  in  fresh  water  before  being  pressed.  The  less  robust 
species,  such  as  Sphacelaria  scoparia,  which  do  not  adhere  well  to 
paper,  may  be  made  to  do  so  by  brushing  them  over  either  with  milk 
carefully  skimmed,  or  with  a  liquid  formed  by  placing  isinglass  ( j  oz.) 
and  water  (i  £  oz.)  in  a  wide-mouthed  bottle,  and  the  bottle  in  a  small 
glue-pot  or  saucepan  containing  cold  water,  heating  until  solution  is 
effected,  and  then  adding  I  oz.  of  rectified  spirits  of  wine;  the  whole 
is  next  stirred  together,  and  when  cold  is  kept  in  a  stoppered  bottle. 
For  use,  the  mixture  is  warmed  to  render  it  fluid,  and  applied  by 
means  of  a  camel's  hair  brush  to  the  under  side  of  the  specimen,  which 
is  then  laid  neatly  on  paper.  For  the  more  delicate  species,  such 
as  the  Callithamnia  and  Ectocarpi,  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  place  a 
small  fruiting  fragment,  carefully  floated  out  in  water,  on  a  slip  of 
mica  of  the  size  of  an  ordinary  microscopical  slide,  and  allow  it  to 
dry.  The  plant  can  then  be  at  any  time  examined  under  the  micro- 
scope without  injuring  the  mounted  specimen.  Many  of  the  fresh- 
water algae  which  form  a  mere  crust,  such  as  Palmella  cruenta,  may 
be  placed  in  a  vessel  of  water,  where  after  a  time  they  float  like  a 
scum,  the  earthy  matter  settling  down  to  the  bottom,  and  may  then 
be  mounted  by  slipping  a  piece  of  mica  under  them  and  allowing  it 
to  dry.  Oscillatorme  may  be  mounted  by  laying  a  portion  on  a  silver 
coin  placed  on  a  piece  of  paper  in  a  plate,  and  pouring  in  water  until 
the  edge  of  the  coin  is  just  covered.  The  alga  by  its  own  peculiar 
movement  will  soon  form  a  radiating  circle,  perfectly  free  from  dirt, 
around  the  coin,  which  may  then  be  removed.  There  is  considerable 
difficulty  in  removing  mounted  specimens  of  algae  from  paper,  and 
therefore  a  small  portion  preserved  on  mica  should  accompany  each 
specimen,  enclosed  for  safety  in  a  small  envelope  fastened  at  one 
corner  of  the  sheet  of  paper.  Filamentous  diatoms  may  be  mounted 
like  ordinary  seaweeds,  and,  as  well  as  all  parasitic  algae,  should 
whenever  possible  be  allowed  to  remain  attached  to  a  portion  of  the 
alga  on  which  they  grow,  some  species  being  almost  always  found 
found  parasitical  on  particular  plants.  Ordinary  diatoms  and 
desmids  may  be  mounted  on  mica,  as  above  described,  by  putting 
a  portion  in  a  vessel  of  water  and  exposing  it  to  sunlight,  when  they 
rise  to  the  surface,  and  may  be  thus  removed  comparatively  free 
from  dirt  or  impurity.  Owing  to  their  want  of  adhesiveness,  they  are, 
however,  usually  mounted  on  glass  as  microscopic  slides,  either  in 
glycerin  jelly,  Canada  balsam  or  some  other  suitable  medium. 


|  Lichens  are  generally  mounted  on  sheets  of  paper  of  the  ordinary 
size,  several  specimens  from  different  localities  being  laid  upon  one 
sheet,  each  specimen  having  been  first  placed  on  a  small  square  of 
paper  which  is  gummed  on  the  sheet,  and  which  has  the  locality, 
date,  name  of  collector,  &c.,  written  upon  it.  This  mode  has  some 
disadvantages,  attending  it;  such  sheets  are  difficult  to  handle; 
the  crustaceous  species  are  liable  to  have  their  surfaces  rubbed; 
the  f  oliaceous  species  become  so  compressed  as  to  lose  their  character- 
istic appearance;  and  the  spaces  between  the  sheets  caused  by  the 
thickness  of  the  specimen  permit  the  entrance  of  dust.  A  plan  which 
has  been  found  to  answer  well  is  to  arrange  them  in  cardboard  boxes, 
either  with  glass  tops  or  in  sliding  covers,  in  drawers — the  name  being 
placed  outside  each  box  and  the  specimens  gummed  into  the  boxes. 
Lichens  for  the  herbarium  should,  whenever  possible,  be  sought  for 
on  a  slaty  or  laminated  rock,  so  as  to  procure  them  on  flat  thin  pieces 
of  the  same,  suitable  for  mounting.  Specimens  on  the  bark  of  trees 
require  pressure  until  the  bark  is  dry,  lest  they  become  curled; 
and  those  growing  on  sand  or  friable  soil,  such  as  Coniocybefurfuracea, 
should  be  laid  carefully  on  a  layer  of  gum  in  the  box  in  which  they 
are  intended  to  be  kept.  Many  lichens,  such  as  the  Verrucariae  and 
Collemaceae,  are  found  in  the  best  condition  during  the  winter 
months.  In  mounting  collemas  it  is  advisable  to  let  the  specimen 
become  dry  and  hard,  and  then  to  separate  a  portion  from  adherent 
mosses,  earth,  &c.,  and  mount  it  separately  so  as  to  show  the  branch- 
ing of  the  thallus.  Pertusariae  should  be  represented  by  both  fruiting 
and  sorediate  specimens. 

The  larger  species  of  fungi,  such  as  the  Agaricini  and  Polyporei, 
&c.,  are  prepared  for  the  herbarium  by  cutting  a  slice  out  of  the 
centre  of  the  plant  so  as  to  show  the  outline  of  the  cap  or  pileus,  the 
attachment  of  the  gills,  and  the  character  of  the  interior  of  the  stem. 
The  remaining  portions  of  the  pileus  are  then  lightly  pressed,  as  well 
as  the  central  slices,  between  bibulous  paper  until  dry,  and  the  whole 
is  then  "  poisoned,"  and  gummed  on  a  sheet  of  paper  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  show  the  under  surface  of  the  one  and  the  upper  surface  of  the 
other  half  of  the  pileus  on  the  same  sheet.  A  "  map  "  of  the  spores 
should  be  taken  by  separating  a  pileus  and  placing  it  flat  on  a  piece 
of  thin  paper  for  a  few  hours  when  the  spores  will  fall  and  leave  a 
nature  print  of  the  arrangement  of  the  gills  which  may  be  fixed  by 
gumming  the  other  side  of  the  paper.  As  it  is  impossible  to  preserve 
the  natural  colours  of  fungi,  the  specimens  should,  whenever  possible, 
be  accompanied  by  a  coloured  drawing  of  the  plant.  Microscopic 
fungi  are  usually  preserved  in  envelopes,  or  simply  attached  to  sheets 
of  paper  or  mounted  as  microscopic  slides.  Those  fungi  which  are 
of  a  dusty  nature,  and  the  Myxomycetes  or  Mycetozoa  may,  like  the 
lichens,  be  preserved  in  small  boxes  and  arranged  in  drawers. 
Fungi  under  any  circumstances  form  the  least  satisfactory  portion 
of  an  herbarium. 

Mosses  when  growing  in  tufts  should  be  gathered  just  before  the 
capsules  have  become  brown,  divided  into  small  flat  portions,  and 
pressed  lightly  in  drying  paper.  During  this  process  the  capsules 
ripen,  and  are  thus  obtained  in  a  perfect  state.  They  are  then  pre- 
served in  envelopes  attached  to  a  sheet  of  paper  of  the  ordinary  size,  a 
single  perfect  specimen  being  washed,  and  spread  out  under  the 
envelope  so  as  to  show  the  habit  of  the  plant.  For  attaching  it  to  the 
paper  a  strong  mucilage  of  gum  tragacanth,  containing  an  eighth 
of  its  weight  of  spirit  of  wine,  answers  best.  If  not  preserved  in  an 
envelope  the  calyptra  and  operculum  are  very  apt  to  fall  off  and 
become  lost.  Scale-mosses  are  mounted  in  the  same  way,  or  may 
be  floated  out  in  water  like  sea-weeds,  and  dried  in  white  blotting 
paper  under  strong  pressure  before  gumming  on  paper,  but  are  best 
mounted  as  microscopic  slides,  care  being  taken  to  show  the  stipules. 
The  specimens  should  be  collected  when  the  capsules  are  just  appear- 
ing above  or  in  the  colesule  or  calyx;  if  kept  in  a  damp  saucer  they 
soon  arrive  at  maturity,  and  can  then  be  mounted  in  better  condition, 
the  fruit-stalks  being  too  fragile  to  bear  carriage  in  a  botanical  tin 
case  without  injury. 

Of  the  Characeae  many  are  so  exceedingly  brittle  that  it  is  best 
to  float  them  out  like  sea-weeds,  except  the  prickly  species,  which 
may  be  carefully  laid  out  on  bibulous  paper,  and  when  dry  fastened 
on  sheets  of  white  paper  by  means  of  gummed  strips.  Care  should 
be  taken  in  collecting  charae  to  secure,  in  the  case  of  dioecious 
species,  specimens  of  both  forms,  and  also  to  get  when  possible  the 
roots  of  those  species  on  which  the  small  granular  starchy  bodies  or 
gemmae  are  found,  as  in  C.  fragifera.  Portions  of  the  fructification 
may  be  preserved  in  small  envelopes  attached  to  the  sheets. 

HERBART,  JOHANN  FRIEDRICH  (1776-1841),  German 
philosopher  and  educationist,  was  born  at  Oldenburg  on  the 
4th  of  May  1776.  After  studying  under  Fichte  at  Jena  he  gave 
his  first  philosophical  lectures  at  Gottingen  in  1805,  whence 
he  removed  in  1809  to  occupy  the  chair  formerly  held  by  Kant 
at  Konigsberg.  Here  he  also  established  and  conducted  a 
seminary  of  pedagogy  till  1833,  when  he  returned  once  more  to 
Gottingen,  and  remained  there  as  professor  of  philosophy  till 
his  death  on  the  i4th  of  August  1841. 

Philosophy,  according  to  Herbart,  begins  with  reflection  upon  our 

empirical  conceptions,  and  consists  in  the  reformation  and  elabora- 

'  tion  of  these — its  three  primary  divisions  being  determined  by  as 


33^ 


HERBART 


many  distinct  forms  of  elaboration.  Logic,  which  stands  first,  has 
to  render  our  conceptions  and  the  judgments  and  reasonings  arising 
from  them  clear  and  distinct.  But  some  conceptions  are  such  that 
the  more  distinct  they  are  made  the  more  contradictory  their  elements 
become;  so  to  change  and  supplement  these  as  to  make  them  at 
length  thinkable  is  the  problem  of  the  second  part  of  philosophy, 
or  metaphysics.  There  is  still  a  class  of  conceptions  requiring  more 
than  a  logical  treatment,  but  differing  from  the  last  in  not  involving 
latent  contradictions,  and  in  being  independent  of  the  reality  of  their 
objects,  the  conceptions,  viz.  that  embody  our  judgments  of  approval 
and  disapproval;  the  philosophic  treatment  of  these  conceptions 
falls  to  Aesthetic. 

In  Herbart's  writings  logic  receives  comparatively  meagre  notice; 
he  insisted  strongly  on  its  purely  formal  character,  and  expressed 
himself  in  the  main  at  one  with  Kantians  such  as  Fries  and  Krug. 

As  a  metaphysician  he  starts  from  what  he  terms  "  the  higher 
scepticism  "  of  the  Hume-Kantian  sphere  of  thought,  the  beginnings 
of  which  he  discerns  in  Locke's  perplexity  about  the  idea  of  substance. 
By  this  scepticism  the  real  validity  of  even  the  forms  of  experience 
is  called  in  question  on  account  of  the  contradictions  they  are  found 
to  involve.  And  yet  that  these  forms  are  "  given  "  to  us,  as  truly  as 
sensations  are,  follows  beyond  doubt  when  we  consider  that  we  are 
as  little  able  to  control  the  one  as  the  other.  To  attempt  at  this  stage 
a  psychological  inquiry  into  the  origin  of  these  conceptions  would  be 
doubly  a  mistake;  for  we  should  nave  to  use  these  unlegitimated 
conceptions  in  the  course  of  it,  and  the  task  of  clearing  up  their 
contradictions  would  still  remain,  whether  we  succeeded  in  our  enquiry 
or  not.  But  how  are  we  to  set  about  this  task?  We  have  given  to  us 
a  conception  A  uniting  among  its  constituent  marks  two  that  prove 
to  be  contradictory,  say  M  and  N ;  and  we  can  neither  deny  the  unity 
nor  reject  one  of  the  contradictory  members.  For  to  do  either  is 
forbidden  by  experience ;  and  yet  to  do  nothing  is  forbidden  by  logic. 
We  are  thus  driven  to  the  assumption  that  the  conception  is  con- 
tradictory because  incomplete;  but  how  are  we  to  supplement  it? 
What  we  have  must  point  the  way  to  what  we  want,  or  our  procedure 
will  be  arbitrary.  Experience  asserts  that  M  is  the  same  (i.e.  a  mark 
of  the  same  concept)  as  N,  while  logic  denies  it;  and  so — it  being 
impossible  for  one  and  the  same  M  to  sustain  these  contradictory 
positions — there  is  but  one  way  open  to  us;  we  must  posit  several 
Ms.  But  even  now  we  cannot  say  one  of  these  Ms  is  the  same  as  N, 
another  is  not ;  for  every  M  must  be  both  thinkable  and  valid.  We 
may,  however,  take  the  Ms  not  singly  but  together;  and  again,  no 
other  course  being  open  to  us,  this  is  what  we  must  dp;  we  must 
assume  that  N  results  from  a  combination  of  Ms.  This  is  Herbart's 
method  of  relations,  the  counterpart  in  his  system  of  the  Hegelian 
dialectic. 

In  the  Ontology  this  method  is  employed  to  determine  what  in 
reality  corresponds  to  the  empirical  conceptions  of  substance  and 
cause,  or  rather  of  inherence  and  change.  But  first  we  must  analyse 
this  notion  of  reality  itself,  to  which  our  scepticism  had  already  led 
us,  for,  though  we  could  doubt  whether  "  the  given  "  is  what  it 
appears,  we  cannot  doubt  that  it  is  something;  the  conception  of  the 
real  thus  consists  of  the  two  conceptions  of  being  and  quality.  That 
which  we  are  compelled  to  "  posit,"  which  cannot  be  sublated,  is 
that  which  is,  and  in  the  recognition  of  this  lies  the  simple  conception 
of  -being.  But  when  is  a  thing  thus  posited?  When  it  is  posited 
as  we  are  wont  to  posit  the  things  we  see  and  taste  and  handle. 
If  we  were  without  sensations,  i.e.  were  never  bound  against  our  will 
to  endure  the  persistence  of  a  presentation,  we  should  never  know 
what  being  is.  Keeping  fast  hold  of  this  idea  of  absolute  position, 
Herbart  leads  us  next  to  the  quality  of  the  real,  (i)  This  must 
exclude  everything  negative;  for  non-A  sublates  instead  of  positing, 
and  is  not  absolute,  but  relative  to  A.  (2)  The  real  must  be  absolutely 
simple;  for  if  it  contain  two  determinations,  A  and  B,  then  either 
these  are  reducible  to  one,  which  is  the  true  quality,  or  they  are  not, 
when  each  is  conditioned  by  the  other  and  their  position  is  no  longer 
absolute.  (3)  All  quantitative  conceptions  are  excluded,  for  quantity 
implies  parts,  and  these  are  incompatible  with  simplicity.  (4)  But 
there  may  be  a  plurality  of  "  reals,"  albeit  the  mere  conception  of 
being  can  tell  us  nothing  as  to  this.  The  doctrine  here  developed 
is  the  first  cardinal  point  of  Herbart's  system,  and  has  obtained 
for  it  the  name  of  "  pluralistic  realism." 

The  contradictions  he  finds  in  the  common-sense  conception  of 
inherence,  or  of  "  a  thing  with  several  attributes,"  will  now  become 
obvious.  Let  us  take  some  thing,  say  A,  having  »  attributes,  a,  b, 
c  .  .  .:  we  are  forced  to  posit  each  of  these  because  each  is  presented 
in  intuition.  But  in  conceiving  A  we  make,  not  n  positions,  still  less 
n  +  l  positions,  but  one  position  simply;  for  common  sense  removes 
the  absolute  position  from  its  original  source,  sensation.  So  when  we 
ask,  What  is  the  one  posited?  we  are  told — the  possessor  of  a,  b,  c 
. .  .  ,  or  in  other  words,  their  seat  or  substance.  But  if  so,  then 
A,  as  a  real,  being  simple,  must=a;  similarly  it  must  =  6;  and  so 
on.  Now  this  would  be  possible  if  a,  6,  c  ...  were  but  "  contingent 
aspects  "  of  A,  as  e.g.  2',V64,  4+3  +  1  are  contingent  aspects  of  8. 
Such,  of  course,  is  not  the  case,  and  so  we  have  as  many  contradic- 
tions as  there  are  attributes;  for  we  must  say  A  is  a,  is  not  a,  is  b, 
is  not  6,  &c.  There  must  then,  according  to  the  method  of  relations, 
be  several  As.  For  o  let  us  assume  Ai+Ai+Ai  .  .  .  ;  for  b, 
A2+A2+A2  .  .  .;  and  so  on  for  the  rest.  But  now  what  relation 
can  there  be  among  these  several  As,  which  will  restore  to  us 


the  unity  of  our  original  A  or  substance?  There  is  but  one;  we 
must  assume  that  the  first  A  of  every  series  is  identical,  just  as  the 
centre  is  the  same  point  in  every  radius.  By  way  of  concrete 
illustration  Herbart  instances  "  the  common  observation  that  the 
properties  of  things  exist  only  under  external  conditions.  Bodies,  we 
say,  are  coloured,  but  colour  is  nothing  without  light,  and  nothing 
without  eyes.  They  sound,  but  only  in  a  vibrating  medium,  and 
for  healthy  ears.  Colour  and  tone  present  the  appearance  of  in- 
herence, but  on  looking  closer  we  find  they  are  not  really  immanent 
in  things  but  rather  presuppose  a  communion  among  several." 
The  result  then  is  briefly  thus:  In  place  of  the  one  absolute  position, 
which  in  some  unthinkable  way  the  common  understanding  sub- 
stitutes for  the  absolute  positions  of  the  n  attributes,  we  have  really 
a  series  of  two  or  more  positions  for  each  attribute,  every  series, 
however,  beginning  with  the  same  (as  it  were,  central)  real  (hence 
the  unity  of  substance  in  a  group  of  attributes),  but  each  being 
continued  by  different  reals  (hence  the  plurality  and  difference  of 
attributes  in  unity  of  substance).  Where  there  is  the  appearance  of 
inherence,  therefore,  there  is  always  a  plurality  of  reals;  no  such 
correlative  to  substance  as  attribute  or  accident  can  be  admitted 
at  all.  Substantiality  is  impossible  without  causality,  and  to  this 
as  its  true  correlative  we  now  turn. 

The  common-sense  conception  of  change  involves  at  bottom  the 
same  contradiction  of  opposing  qualities  in  one  real.  The  same  A 
that  was  a,  b,  c  .  .  .  becomes  a,  b,  d  .  .  . ;  and  this,  which  experi- 
ence thrusts  upon  us,  proves  on  reflection  unthinkable.  The  meta- 
physical supplementing  is  also  fundamentally  as  before.  Since  c 
depended  on  a  series  of  reals  As+As+As ...  in  connexion  with 
A,  and  d  may  be  said  similarly  to  depend  on  a  series  A<+A»+A4  .  .  ., 
then  the  change  from  c  to  d  means,  not  that  the  central  real  A  or 
any  real  has  changed,  but  that  A  is  now  in  connexion  with  A4,  &c.,  and 
no  longer  in  connexion  with  A3,  &c. 

But  to  think  a  number  of  reals  "  in  connexion  "  (Zusammensein) 
will  not  suffice  as  an  explanation  of  phenomena ;  something  or  other 
must  happen  when  they  are  in  connexion;  what  is  it?  The  answer 
to  this  question  is  the  second  hinge-point  of  Herbart's  theoretical 
philosophy.  What  "  actually  happens  "  as  distinct  from  all  that 
seems  to  happen,  when  two  reals  A  and  B  are  together  is  that, 
assuming  them  to  differ  in  quality,  they  tend  to  disturb  each  other 
to  the  extent  of  that  difference,  at  the  same  time  that  each  preserves 
itself  intact  by  resisting,  as  it  were,  the  other's  disturbance.  And 
so  by  coming  into  connexion  with  different  reals  the  "  self-preserva- 
ticns  "  of  A  will  vary  accordingly,  A  remaining  the  same  through 
all;  just  as,  by  way  of  illustration,  hydrogen  remains  the  same  in 
water  and  in  ammonia,  or  as  the  same  line  may  be  now  a  normal 
and  now  a  tangent.  But  to  indicate  this  opposition  in  the  qualities 
of  the  reals  A+B,  we  must  substitute  for  these  symbols  others, 
which,  though  only  "  contingent  aspects  "  of  A  and  B,  i.e.  repre- 
senting their  relations,  not  themselves,  yet  like  similar  devices  in 
mathematics  enable  thought  to  advance.  Thus  we  may  put  A  = 
0+/3— 7,  B=TO+n+-x;  -y  then  represents  the  character  of  the  self- 
preservations  in  this  case,  and  a+/3+»i+n  represents  all  that  could 
be  observed  by  a  spectator  who  did  not  know  the  simple  qualities, 
but  was  himself  involved  in  the  relations  of  A  to  B;  and  such  is 
exactly  our  position. 

Having  thus  determined  what  really  is  and  what  actually  happens, 
our  philosopher  proceeds  next  to  explain  synthetically  the  objective 
semblance  (der  objective  Schein)  that  results  from  these.  But  if 
this  construction  is  to  be  truly  objective,  i.e.  valid  for  all  intelligences, 
ontology  must  furnish  us  with  a  clue.  This  we  have  in  the  forms  of 
Space,  Time  and  Motion  which  are  involved  whenever  we  think  the 
reals  as  being  in,  or  coming  into,  connexion  and  the  opposite. 
These  forms  then  cannot  be  merely  the  products  of  our  psychological 
mechanism,  though  they  may  turn  out  to  coincide  with  these. 
Meanwhile  let  us  call  them  "  intelligible,"  as  being  valid  for  all  who 
comprehend  the  real  and  actual  by  thought,  although  no  such  forms 
are  predicable  of  the  real  and  actual  themselves.  The  elementary 
spatial  relation  Herbart  conceives  to  be  "  the  contiguity  (A  neinander) 
of  two  points,"  so  that  every  "  pure  and  independent  line  "  is  discrete. 
But  an  investigation  of  dependent  lines  which  are  often  incommensur- 
able forces  us  to  adopt  the  contradictory  fiction  of  partially  over- 
lapping, i.e.  divisible  points,  or  in  other  words,  the  conception  of 
Continuity.1  But  the  contradiction  here  is  one  we  cannot  eliminate 
by  the  method  of  relations,  because  it  does  not  involve  anything 
real;  and  in  fact  as  a  necessary  outcome  of  an  "  intelligible  "  form, 
the  fiction  of  continuity  is  valid  for  the  "  objective  semblance," 
and  no  more  to  be  discarded  than  say  V  —I-  By  its  help  we  are 
enabled  to  comprehend  what  actually  happens  among  reals  to 
produce  the  appearance  of  matter.  When  three  or  more  reals  are 
together,  each  disturbance  and  self-preservation  will  (in  general) 
be  imperfect,  i.e.  of  less  intensity  than  when  only  two  reals  are 
together.  But  "objective  semblance"  corresponds  with  reality; 
the  spatial  or  external  relations  of  the  reals  in  this  case  must,  there- 
fore, tally  with  their  inner  or  actual  states.  Had  the  self-preservations 
been  perfect,  the  coincidence  in  space  would  have  been  complete, 
and  the  group  of  reals  would  have  been  inextended ;  or  had  the  several 
reals  been  simply  contiguous,  i.e.  without  connexion,  then,  as  nothing 


1  Hence  Herbart  gave  the  name  Synechology  to  this  branch  of 
metaphysics,  instead  of  the  usual  one,  Cosmology. 


HERBART 


337 


would  actually  have  happened,  nothing  would  appear.  As  it  is 
we  shall  find  a  continuous  molecule  manifesting  attractive  and 
repulsive  forces;  attraction  corresponding  to  the  tendency  of  the 
self-preservations  to  become  perfect,  repulsion  to  the  frustration  of 
this.  Motion,  even  more  evidently  than  space,  implicates  the  con- 
tradictory conception  of  continuity,  and  cannot,  therefore,  be  a  real 
predicate,  though  valid  as  an  intelligible  form  and  necessary  to  the 
comprehension  of  the  objective  semblance.  For  we  have  to  think 
of  the  reals  as  absolutely  independent  and  yet  as  entering  into  con- 
nexions. This  we  can  only  do  by  conceiving  them  as  originally 
moving  through  intelligible  space  in  rectilinear  paths  and  with 
uniform  velocities.  For  such  motion  no  cause  need  be  supposed; 
motion,  in  fact,  is  no  more  a  state  of  the  moving  real  than  rest  is, 
both  alike  being  but  relations,  with  which,  therefore,  the  real  has  no 
concern.  The  changes  in  this  motion,  however,  for  which  we  should 
require  a  cause,  would  be  the  objective  semblance  of  the  self-preserva- 
tions that  actually  occur  when  reals  meet.  Further,  by  means  of  such 
motion  these  actual  occurrences,  which  are  in  themselves  timeless, 
fall  for  an  observer  in  a  definite  time — a  time  which  becomes  con- 
tinuous through  the  partial  coincidence  of  events. 

But  in  all  this  it  has  been  assumed  that  we  are  spectators  of  the 
objective  semblance;  it  remains  to  make  good  this  assumption,  or, 
in  other  words,  to  show  the  possibility  of  knowledge;  this  is  the 
problem  of  what  Herbart  terms  Eidolology,  and  forms  the  transition 
from  metaphysic  to  psychology.  Here,  again,  a  contradictory  con- 
ception blocks  the  way,  that,  viz.  of  the  Ego  as  the  identity  of 
knowing  and  being,  and  as  such  the  stronghold  of  idealism.  The 
contradiction  becomes  more  evident  when  the  ego  is  denned  to  be 
a  subject  (and  so  a  real)  that  is  its  own  object.  As  real  and  not 
merely  formal,  this  conception  of  the  ego  is  amenable  to  the  method 
of  relations.  The  solution  this  method  furnishes  is  summarily  that 
there  are  several  objects  which  mutually  modify  each  other,  and  so 
constitute  that  ego  we  take  for  the  presented  real.  But  to  explain 
this  modification  is  the  business  of  psychology ;  it  is  enough  now  to 
see  that  the  subject  like  all  reals  is  necessarily  unknown,  and  that, 
therefore,  the  idealist's  theory  of  knowledge  is  unsound.  But  though 
the  simple  quality  of  the  subject  or  soul  is  beyond  knowledge,  we 
know  what  actually  happens  when  it  is  in  connexion  with  other's 
reals,  for  its  self-preservations  then  are  what  we  call  sensations. 
And  these  sensations  are  the  sole  material  of  our  knowledge;  but 
they  are  not  given  to  us  as  a  chaos  but  in  definite  groups  and  series, 
whence  we  come  to  know  the  relations  of  those  reals,  which,  though 
themselves  unknown,  our  sensations  compel  us  to  posit  absolutely. 

In  his  Psychology  Herbart  rejects  altogether  the  doctrine  of  mental 
faculties  as  one  refuted  by  his  metaphysics,  and  tries  to  show  that 
all  psychical  phenomena  whatever  result  from  the  action  and  inter- 
action of  elementary  ideas  or  presentations  (Vorstellungen).  The 
soul  being  one  and  simple,  its  separate  acts  of  self-preservation 
or  primary  presentations  must  be  simple  too,  and  its  several  presenta- 
tions must  become  united  together.  And  this  they  can  do  at  once 
and  completely  when,  as  is  the  case,  for  example,  with  the  several 
attributes  of  an  object,  they  are  not  of  opposite  quality.  But  other- 
wise there  ensues  a  conflict  in  which  the  opposed  presentations 
comport  themselves  like  forces  and  mutually  suppress  or  obscure 
each  other.  The  act  of  presentation  (Vorstellen)  then  becomes 
partly  transformed  into  an  effort,  and  its  product,  the  idea,  becomes 
in  the  same  proportion  less  and  less  intense  till  a  position  of  equili- 
brium is  reached;  and  then  at  length  the  remainders  coalesce. 
We  have  thus  a  statics  and  a  mechanics  of  mind  which  investigate 
respectively  the  conditions  of  equilibrium  and  of  movement  among 
presentations.  In  the  statics  two  magnitudes  have  to  be  determined : 
(i)  the  amount  of  the  suppression  or  inhibition  (Hemmungssumme) , 
and  (2)  the  ratio  in  which  this  is  shared  among  the  opposing  presenta- 
tions. The  first  must  obviously  be  as  small  as  possible;  thus  for 
two  totally-opposed  presentations  a  and  b,  of  which  a  is  the  greater, 
the  inhibendum  =  b.  For  a  given  degree  of  opposition  this  burden 
will  be  shared  between  the  conflicting  presentations  in  the  inverse 
ratio  of  their  strength.  When  its  remainder  after  inhibition  =  O, 
a  presentation  is  said  to  be  on  the  threshold  of  consciousness,  for  on 
a  small  diminution  of  the  inhibition  the  "  effort  "  will  become  actual 
presentation  in  the  same  proportion.  Such  total  exclusion  from 
consciousness  is,  however,  manifestly  impossible  with  only  two 
presentations,1  though  with  three  or  a  greater  number  the  residual 
value  of  one  may  even  be  negative.  The  first  and  simplest  law  in 
psychological  mechanics  relates  to  the  "  sinking "  of  inhibited 
presentations.  As  the  presentations  yield  to  the  pressure,  the 
pressure  itself  diminishes,  so  that  the  velocity  of  sinking  decreases,  i.e. 
we  have  the  equation  (S  —  a)  dt  =  da,  where  S  is  the  total  inhibendum, 
and  a  the  intensity  actually  inhibited  after  the  time  t.  Hence 

'  =  '°S  S  — <r'  and  <7  =  S(i  —  e~').  From  this  law  it  follows,  for  example, 
that  equilibrium  is  never  quite  obtained  for  those  presentations 
which  continue  above  the  threshold  of  consciousness,  while  the  rest 

1  Thus,  taking  the  casoabove  supposed,  the  share  of  the  inhibendum 
falling  to  the  smaller  presentation  b  is  the  fourth  term  of  the  pro- 
portion a+b:a:  -b'-^fi,'-  and  so  b's  remainder  is  b—^Tj>=i[+0~' 
which  only  =O  when  a  =  x. 


which  cannot  so  continue  are  very  speedily  driven  beyond  the 
threshold.  More  important  is  the  law"  according  to  which  a  presenta- 
tion freed  from  inhibition  and  rising  anew  into  consciousness  tends 
to  raise  the  other  presentations  with  which  it  is  combined.  Suppose 
two  presentations  p  and  IT  united  by  the  residua  r  and  p;  then  the 
amount  of  p's  "  help  "  to  JT  is  r,  the  portion  of  which  appropriated  by 

v  is  given  by  the  ratio  p:  ir;  and  thus  the  initial  help  is  — . 

But  after  a  time  /,  when  a  portion  of  p  represented  by  w  has  been 
actually  brought  into  consciousness,  the  help  afforded  in  the  next 
instant  will  be  found  by  the  equation 

rp    p  —  w,.      , 
—  • at  =  ddi, 

7T  p 

from  which  by  integration  we  have  the  value  of  a. 


W  =  p  I  I  — 


So  that  if  there  are  several  ITS  connected  with  p  by  smaller  and 
smaller  parts,  there  will  be  a  definite  "  serial  "  order  in  which  they 
will  be  revived  by  p ;  and  on  this  fact  Herbart  rests  all  the  phenomena 
of  the  so-called  faculty  of  memory,  the  development  of  spatial  and 
temporal  forms  and  much  besides.  Emotions  and  volitions,  he 
holds,  are  not  directly  self-preservations  of  the  soul,  as  our  presenta- 
tions are,  but  variable  states  of  such  presentations  resulting  from 
their  interaction  when  above  the  threshold  of  consciousness.  Thus 
when  some  presentations  tend  to  force  a  presentation  into  con- 
sciousness, and  others  at  the  same  time  tend  to  drive  it  out,  that 
presentation  is  the  seat  of  painful  feeling;  when,  on  the  other  hand, 
its  entrance  is  favoured  by  all,  pleasure  results.  Desires  are  presenta- 
tions struggling  into  consciousness  against  hindrances,  and  when 
accompanied  by  the  supposition  of  success  become  volitions.  Tran- 
scendental freedom  of  will  in  Kant's  sense  is  an  impossibility. 
Self-consciousness  is  the  result  of  an  interaction  essentially  the  same 
in  kind  as  that  which  takes  place  when  a  comparatively  simple 
presentation  finds  the  field  of  consciousness  occupied  by  a  long- 
formed  and  well-consolidated  "  mass  "  of  presentations — as,  e.g. 
one's  business  or  garden,  the  theatre,  &c.,  which  promptly  inhibit 
the  isolated  presentation  if  incongruent,  and  unite  it  to  themselves 
if  not.  What  we  call  Self  is,  above  all,  such  a  central  mass,  and 
Herbart  seeks  to  show  with  great  ingenuity  and  detail  how  this 
position  is  occupied  at  first  chiefly  by  the  body,  then  by  the  seat  of 
ideas  and  desires,  and  finally  by  that  first-personal  Self  which  re- 
collects the  past  and  resolves  concerning  the  future.  But  at  any  stage 
the  actual  constituents  of  this  "complexion"  are  variable;  the 
concrete  presentation  of  Self  is  never  twice  the  same.  And,  therefore, 
finding  on  reflection  any  particular  concrete  factor  contingent,  we 
abstract  the  position  from  that  which  occupies  it,  and  so  reach  the 
speculative  notion  of  the  pure  Ego. 

Aesthetics  elaborates  the  "  ideas  "  involved  in  the  expression  of 
taste  called  forth  by  those  relations  of  object  which  acquire  for  them 
the  attribution  of  beauty  or  the  reverse.  The  beautiful  (na\6v)  is 
to  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the  allied  conceptions  of  the  useful 
and  the  pleasant,  which  vary  with  time,  place  and  person;  whereas 
beauty  is  predicated  absolutely  and  involuntarily  by  all  who  have 
attained  the  right  standpoint.  Ethics,  which  is  but  one  branch  of 
aesthetics,  although  the  chief,  deals  with  such  relations  among 
volitions  (WMensverhaltnisse)  as  thus  unconditionally  please  or  dis- 
please. These  relations  Herbart  finds  to  be  reducible  to  five,  which  do 
not  admit  of  further  simplification ;  and  corresponding  to  them  are  as 
many  moral  ideas  ( Musterbegriffe] ,  viz.:  (i)  Internal  Freedom,  the 
underlying  relation  being  that  of  the  individual's  will  to  his  judgment 
of  it;  (2)  Perfection,  the  relation  being  that  of  his  several  volitions 
to  each  other  in  respect  of  intensity,  variety  and  concentration ;  (3) 
Benevolence,  the  relation  being  that  between  his  own  will  and  the 
thought  of  another's;  (4)  Right,  in  case  of  actual  conflict  with 
another;  and  (5)  Retribution  or  Equity,  for  intended  good  or  evil 
done.  The  ideas  of  a  final  society,  a  system  of  rewards  and  punish- 
ments, a  system  of  administration,  a  system  of  culture  and  a 
"  unanimated  society,"  corresponding  to  the  ideas  of  law,  equity, 
benevolence,  perfection  and  internal  freedom  respectively,  result 
when  we  take  account  of  a  number  of  individuals.  Virtue  is  the 
perfect  conformity  of  the  will  with  the  moral  ideas ;  of  this  the  single 
virtues  are  but  special  expressions.  The  conception  of  duty  arises 
from  the  existence  of  hindrances  to  the  attainment  of  virtue.  A 
general  scheme  of  principles  of  conduct  is  possible,  but  the  sub- 
sumption  of  special  cases  under  these  must  remain  matter  of  tact. 
The  application  of  ethics  to  things  as  they  are  with  a  view  to  the 
realization  of  the  moral  ideas  is  moral  technology  (Tugendlehre) , 
of  which  the  chief  divisions  are  Paedagogy  and  Politics. 

In  Theology  Herbart  held  the  argument  from  design  to  be  as  valid 
For  divine  activity  as  for  human,  and  to  justify  the  belief  in  a  super- 
sensible real,  concerning  which,  however,  exact  knowledge  is  neither 
attainable  nor  on  practical  grounds  desirable. 

Among  the  post-Kantian  philosophers  Herbart  doubtless  ranks 
next  to  Hegel  in  importance,  and  this  without  taking  into  account 
tiis  very  great  contributions  to  the  science  of  education.  His 
disciples  speak  of  theirs  as  the  "  exact  philosophy,"  and  the  term 
well  expresses  their  master's  chief  excellence  and  the  character  of 


338 


HERBELOT  DE  MOLAINVILLE— HERBERT 


the  chief  influence  he  has  exerted  upon  succeeding  thinkers  of  his 
own  and  other  schools.  His  criticisms  are  worth  more  than  his 
constructions;  indeed  for  exactness  and  penetration  of  thought  he 
is  quite  on  a  level  with  Hume  and  Kant.  His  merits  in  this  respect, 
however,  can  only  be  appraised  by  the  study  of  his  works  at  first 
hand.  But  we  are  most  of  all  indebted  to  Herbart  for  the  enormous 
advance  psychology  has  been  enabled  to  make,  thanks  to  his  fruitful 
treatment  of  it,  albeit  as  yet  but  few  among  the  many  who  have 
appropriated  and  improved  his  materials  have  ventured  to  adopt 
his  metaphysical  and  mathematical  foundations.  (J.  W.*) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Herbart's  works  were  collected  and  published 
by  his  disciple  G.  Hartenstein  (Leipzig,  1850-1852;  reprinted  at 
Hamburg,  with  supplementary  volume,  1883-1893);  another  edition 
by  K.  Kehrbach  (Leipzig,  1882,  and  Langensalza,  1887).  The 
following  are  the  most  important:  Allgemeine  Padagogik  (1806;  new 
ed.,  1894) ;  Hauptpunkte  der  Metaphysik  (1808) ;  Allgemeine  praktische 
Philosophic  (1808);  Lehrbuch  zur  Einleitung  in  die  Philosophie 
(1813;  new  ed.  by  Hartenstein,  1883);  Lehrbuch  der  Psychologic 
(1816;  new  ed.  by  Hartenstein,  1887);  Psychologic  als  Wissenschaft 
(1824-1825);  Allgemeine  Metaphysik  (1828-1829);  Encyklopadie 
der  Philosophie  (2nd  ed.,  1841);  Umriss  pddagogischer  Vorlesungen 
(2nd  ed.,  1841);  Psychologische  Untersuchungen  (1839-1840). 

Some  of  his  works  have  been  translated  into  English  under  the 
following  titles:  Textbook  in  Psychology,  by  M.  K.  Smith  (1891); 
The  Science  of  Education  and  the  Aesthetic  Revelation  of  the  World 
(1892),  and  Letters  and  Lectures  on  Education  (1898),  by  H.  M.  and 
E.  Felkin ;  A  B  C  of  Sense  Perception  and  minor  pedagogical  works 
(New  York,  1896),  by  W.  J.  Eckhoff  and  others;  Application  of 
Psychology  to  the  Science  of  Education  (1898),  by  B.  C.  Mulliner; 
Outlines  of  Educational  Doctrine,  by  A.  F.  Lange  (1901). 

There  is  a  life  of  Herbart  in  Hartenstein's  introduction  to  his 
Kleinere  philosophische  Schriften  und  Abhandlungen  (1842-1843) 
and  by  F.  H.  T.  Allihn  in  Zeitschrift  fur  exacte  Philosophie  (Leipzig, 
1861),  the  organ  of  Herbart  and  his  school,  which  ceased  to  appear 
in  1873.  In  America  the  National  Society  for  the  Scientific  Study  of 
Education  was  originally  founded  as  the  National  Herbart  Society. 

Of  the  large  number  of  writings  dealing  with  Herbart's  works  and 
theories,  the  following  may  be  mentioned:  H.  A.  Fechner,  Zur 
Kritik  der  Grundlagen  von  Herbart's  Metaphysik  (Leipzig,  1853); 
J.  Kaftan,  Sollen  und  Sein  in  ihrem  Verhdltniss  zu  einander:  eine 
Studie  zur  Kritik  Herbarts  (Leipzig,  1872);  M.  W.  Drobisch,  Uber 
die  Fortbildung  der  Philosophie  durch  Herbart  (Leipzig,  1876); 
K.  S.  Just,  Die  Fortbildung  der  Kant'schen  Ethik  durch  Herbart 
(Eisenach,  1876);  C.  Ufer,  Vorschule  der  Padagogik  Herbarts  (1883; 
Eng.  tr.  by  J.  C.  Zinser,  1895);  G.  Kozle,  Die  padagogische  Schule 
Herbarts  und  ihre  Lehre  (Gutersloh,  1889);  L.  Striimpell,  Das 
System  der  Padagogik  Herbarts  (Leipzig,  1894);  J.  Christinger, 
Herbarts  Erziehungslehre  und  ihre  Fortbildner  (Zurich,  1895) ;  O.  H. 
Lang,  Outline  of  Herbart's  Pedagogics  (1894);  H.  M.  and  E.  Felkin, 
Introduction  to  Herbart's  Science  and  Practice  of  Education  (1895); 
C.  de  Garmo,  Herbart  and  the  Herbartians  (New  York,  1895);  E. 
Wagner,  Die  Praxis  der  Herbartianer  (Langensalza,  1897)  and 
Vollstdndige  Darstellung  der  Lehre  Herbarts  (to.,  1899);  J.  Adams, 
The  Herbartian  Psychology  applied  to  Education  (1897);  F.  H. 
Hayward,  The  Student's  Herbart  (1902),  The  Critics  of  Herbart- 
ianism  (1903),  Three  Historical  Educators:  Pestalozzi,  Frobel, 
Herbart  (1905),  The  Secret  of  Herbart  (1907),  The  Meaning  of  Educa- 
tion as  interpreted  by  Herbart  (1907);  W.  Kinkel,  J.  F.  Herbart: 
sein  Leben  und  seine  Philosophie  (1903);  A.  Darroch,  Herbart  and  the 
Herbartian  Theory  of  Education  (1903);  C.  J.  Dodd,  Introduction 
to  the  Herbartian  Principles  of  Teaching  (1904);  J.  Davidson,  A 
new  Interpretation  of  Herbart's  Psychology  and  Educational  Theory 
through  the  Philosophy  of  Leibnitz  (1906);  see  also  J.  M.  Baldwin, 
Dictionary  of  Psychology  and  Philosophy  (1901-1905). 

HERBELOT  DE  MOLAINVILLE,  BARTHElEMY  D'  ^625- 
1695),  French  orientalist,  was  born  on  the  I4th  of  December 
1625  at  Paris.  He  was  educated  at  the  university  of  Paris, 
and  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  oriental  languages,  going 
to  Italy  to  perfect  himself  in  them  by  converse  with  the  orientals 
who  frequented  its  sea-ports.  There  he  also  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Holstenius,  the  Dutch  humanist  (1596-1661),  and  Leo 
Allatius,  the  Greek  scholar  (1586-1669).  On  his  return  to 
France  after  a  year  and  a  half,  he  was  received  into  the  house 
of  Fouquet,  superintendent  of  finance,  who  gave  him  a  pension 
of  1500  livres.  Losing  this  on  the  disgrace  of  Fouquet  in  1661, 
he  was  appointed  secretary  and  interpreter  of  Eastern  languages 
to  the  king.  A  few  years  later  he  again  visited  Italy,  when  the 
grand-duke  Ferdinand  II.  of  Tuscany  presented  him  with  a 
large  number  of  valuable  Oriental  MSS.,  and  tried  to  attach  him 
to  his  court.  Herbelot,  however,  was  recalled  to  France  by 
Colbert,  and  received  from  the  king  a  pension  equal  to  the  one 
he  had  lost.  In  1692  he  succeeded  D'Auvergne  in  the  chair  of 
Syriac,  in  the  College  de  France.  He  died  in  Paris  on  the  8th 
of  December  1695.  His  great  work  is  the  Bibliotheque  orientate, 


ou  dictionnaire  unvoersd  contenant  tout  ce  qui  regarde  la  connois- 
sance  des  peuples  de  I'Orienl,  which  occupied  him  nearly  all  his 
life,  and  was  completed  in  1697  by  A.  Galland.  It  is  based 
on  the  immense  Arabic  dictionary  of  Hadji  Khalfa,  of  which 
indeed  it  is  largely  an  abridged  translation,  but  it  also  contains 
the  substance  of  a  vast  number  of  other  Arabic  and  Turkish 
compilations  and  manuscripts. 

The  Bibliotheque  was  reprinted  at  Maestricht  (fpl.  1776),  and  at  the 
Hague  (4  vols.  410,  1777-1799).  The  latter  edition  is  enriched  with 
the  contributions  of  the  Dutch  orientalist  Schultens,  Johann  Jakob 
Reiske  (1716-1774),  and  by  a  supplement  provided  by  Visdelow 
and  Galland.  Herbelot's  other  works,  none  of  which  have  been 
published,  comprise  an  Oriental  Anthology,  and  an  Arabic,  Persian, 
Turkish  and  Latin  Dictionary. 

HERBERAY  DES  ESSARTS,  NICOLAS  DE  (d.  about  1557), 
French  translator,  was  born  in  Pic'ardy.  He  served  in  the 
artillery,  and  at  the  expressed  desire  of  Francis  I.  he  translated 
into  French  the  first  eight  books  of  Amadis  de  Gaul  (1540-1548). 
The  remaining  books  were  translated  by  other  authors.  His 
other  translations  from  the  Spanish  include  L'Amant  maltraite 
de  so,  mye  (1539) ;  Le  Premier  Lime  de  la  chronique  de  dom  Flares 
de  Greet  (1552);  and  L'Horloge  des  princes  (1555)  from  Guevara. 
He  also  translated  the  works  of  Josephus  (1557).  He  died 
about  1557.  The  Amadis  de  Gaul  was  translated  into  English 
by  Anthony  Munday  in  1619. 

HERBERT  (FAMILY).  The  sudden  rising  of  this  English 
family  to  great  wealth  and  high  place  is  the  more  remarkable 
in  that  its  elevation  belongs  to  the  isth  century  and  not  to 
that  age  of  the  Tudors  when  many  new  men  made  their  way 
upwards  into  the  ranks  of  the  nobility.  Earlier  generations  of 
a  pedigree  which  carries  the  origin  of  the  Herberts  to  Herbert 
the  Chamberlain,  a  Domesday  tenant,  being  disregarded,  their 
patriarch  may  be  taken  to  be  one  Jenkin  ap  Adam  (temp. 
Edward  III.),  who  had  a  small  Monmouthshire  estate  at  Llan- 
vapley  and  the  office  of  master  sergeant  of  the  lordship  of 
Abergavenny,  a  place  which  gave  him  precedence  after  the 
steward  of  that  lordship.  Jenkin's  son,  Gwilim  ap  Jenkin,  who 
followed  his  father  as  master  sergeant,  is  given  six  sons  by  the 
border  genealogists,  no  less  than  six  score  pedigrees  finding  their 
origin  in  these  six  brothers.  Their  order  is  uncertain,  although 
the  Progers  of  Werndee,  the  last  of  whom  sold  his  ancestral 
estate  in  1780,  are  reckoned  as  the  senior  line  of  Gwilim 's 
descendants.  But  Thomas  ap  Gwilim  Jenkin,  called  the  fourth 
son,  is  ancestor  of  all  those  who  bore  the  surname  of  Herbert. 

Thomas's  fifth  son,  William  or  Gwilim  ap  Thomas,  who  died 
in  1446,  was  the  first  man  of  the  family  to  make  any  figure  in 
history.  This  Gwilim  ap  Thomas  was  steward  of  the  lordships 
of  Usk  and  Caerleon  under  Richard,  duke  of  York.  Legend 
makes  him  a  knight  on  the  field  of  Agincourt,  but  his  knighthood 
belongs  to  the  year  1426.  He  appears  to  have  married  twice, 
his  first  wife  being  Elizabeth  Bluet  of  Raglan,  widow  of  Sir 
James  Berkeley,  and  his-  second  a  daughter  of  David  Gam,  a 
valiant  Welsh  squire  slain  at  Agincourt.  Royal  favour  enriched 
Sir  William,  and  he  was  able  to  buy  Raglan  Castle  from  the  Lord 
Berkeley,  his  first  wife's  son,  the  deed,  which  remains  among 
the  Beaufort  muniments,  refuting  the  pedigree-maker's  state- 
ment that  he  inherited  the  castle  as  heir  of  his  mother  "Maude, 
daughter  of  Sir  John  Morley."  His  sons  William  and  Richard, 
both  partisans  of  the  White  Rose,  took  the  surname  of  Herbert 
in  or  before  1461.  Playing  a  part  in  English  affairs  remote  from 
the  Welsh  Marches,  their  lack  of  a  surname  may  well  have 
inconvenienced  them,  and  their  choice  of  the  name  Herbert 
can  only  be  explained  by  the  suggestion  that  their  long  pedigree 
from  Herbert  the  Chamberlain,  absurdly  represented  as  a  bastard 
son  of  Henry  I.,  must  already  have  been  discovered  for  them. 
Copies  exist  of  an  alleged  commission  issued  by  Edward  IV. 
to  a  committee  of  Welsh  bards  for  the  ascertaining  of  the  true 
ancestry  of  William  Herbert,  earl  of  Pembroke,  whom  "  the 
chief est  men  of  skill  "  in  the  province  of  South  Wales  declare 
to  be  the  descendant  of  "  Herbert,  a  noble  lord,  natural  son  to 
King  Henry  the  first,"  and  it  is  recited  that  King  Edward,  after 
the  creation  of  the  earldom,  commanded  the  earl  and  Sir  Richard 
his  brother  to  "  take  their  surnames  after  their  first  progenitor 


HERBERT,  GEORGE 


339 


Herbert  fitz  Roy  and  to  forego  the  British  order  and  manner." 
But  this  commission,  whose  date  anticipates  by  some  years  the 
true  date  of  the  creation  of  the  earldom,  is  the  work  of  one 
of  the  many  genealogical  forgers  who  flourished  under  the 
Tudors. 

Sir  William  Herbert,  called  by  the  Welsh  Gwilim  Ddu  or 
Black  William,  was  a  baron  in  1461  and  a  Knight  of  the  Garter 
in  the  following  year.  With  many  manors  and  castles  on  the 
Marches  he  had  the  castle,  town  and  lordship  of  Pembroke,  and 
after  the  attainder  of  Jasper  Tudor  in  1468  was  created  earl  of 
Pembroke.  When  in  July  1469  he  was  taken  by  Sir  John  Conyers 
and  the  northern  Lancastrians  on  Hedgecote,  he  was  beheaded 
with  his  brother  Sir  Richard  Herbert  of  Coldbrook.  The  second 
earl  while  still  a  minor  exchanged  at  the  king's  desire  in  1479 
his  earldom  of  Pembroke  for  that  of  Huntingdon.  In  1484  this 
son  of  one  whom  Hall  not  unjustly  describes  as  born  "  a  mean 
gentleman  "  contracted  to  marry  Katharine  the  daughter  of 
King  Richard  III.,  but  her  death  annulled  the  contract  and  the 
earl  married  Mary,  daughter  of  the  Earl  Rivers,  by  whom  he  had 
a  daughter  Elizabeth,  whose  descendants,  the  Somersets,  lived 
in  the  Herbert's  castle  of  Raglan  until  the  cannon  of  the  parlia- 
ment broke  it  in  ruins.  With  the  second  earl's  death  in  1491 
the  first  Herbert  earldom  became  extinct.  No  claim  being  set 
up  among  the  other  descendants  of  the  first  earl,  it  may  be  taken 
that  their  lines  were  illegitimate.  One  of  the  chief  difficulties 
which  beset  the  genealogist  of  the  Herberts  lies  in  their  Cambrian 
disregard  of  the  marriage  tie,  bastards  and  legitimate  issue 
growing  up,  it  would  seem,  side  by  side  in  their  patriarchal 
households.  Thus  the  ancestor  of  the  present  earls  of  Pembroke 
and  Carnarvon  and  of  the  Herbert  who  was  created  marquess 
of  Powis  was  a  natural  son  of  the  first  earl,  one  Richard  Herbert, 
whom  the  restored  inscription  on  his  tomb  at  Abergavenny 
incorrectly  describes  as  a  knight.  He  was  constable  and  porter 
of  Abergavenny  Castle,  and  his  son  William,  "  a  mad  fighting 
fellow  "  in  his  youth,  married  a  sister  of  Catherine  Parr  and  thus 
in  1543  became  nearly  allied  to  the  king,  who  made  him  one  of 
the  executors  of  his  will.  The  earldom  of  Pembroke  was  revived 
for  him  in  1551.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  all  traces  of  illegiti- 
macy have  long  since  been  removed  from  the  arms  of  the  noble 
descendants  of  Richard  Herbert. 

The  honours  and  titles  of  this  clan  of  marchmen  make  a  long 
list.  They  include  the  marquessate  of  Powis,  two  earldoms 
with  the  title  of  Pembroke,  two  with  that  of  Powis,  and  the 
earldoms  of  Huntingdon  and  Montgomery,  Torrington  and 
Carnarvon,  the  viscountcies  of  Montgomery  and  Ludlo w,  fourteen 
baronies  and  seven  baronetcies.  Seven  Herberts  have  worn  the 
Garter.  The  knights  and  rich  squires  of  the  stock  can  hardly 
be  reckoned,  more  especially  as  they  must  be  sought  among 
Raglans,  Morgans,  Parrys,  Vaughans,  Progers,  Hugheses, 
Thomases,  Philips,  Powels,  Gwyns,  Evanses  and  Joneses,  as 
well  as  among  those  who  have  borne  the  surname  of  Herbert,  a 
surname  which  in  the  igth  century  was  adopted  by  the  Joneses 
of  Llanarth  and  Clytha,  although  they  claim  no  descent 
from  those  sons  of  Sir  William  ap  Thomas  for  whom  it  was 
devised.  (O.  BA.) 

HERBERT,  GEORGE  (1393-1633),  English  poet,  was  born  at 
Montgomery  Castle  on  the  3rd  of  April  1593.  He  was  the  fifth 
son  of  Sir  Richard  Herbert  and  a  brother  of  Lord  Herbert  of 
Cherbury.  His  mother,  Lady  Magdalen  Herbert,  a  woman  of 
great  good  sense  and  sweetness  of  character,  and  a  friend  of 
John  Donne,  exercised  great  influence  over  her  son.  Educated 
privately  until  1605,  he  was  then  sent  to  Westminster  School, 
and  in  1609  he  became  a  scholar  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  was  made  B.A.  in  1613,  M.A.  and  major  fellow  of  the 
college  in  1616.  In  1618  he  became  Reader  in  Rhetoric,  and  in 
1619  orator  for  the  university.  In  this  capacity  he  was  several 
times  brought  into  contact  with  King  James.  From  Cambridge 
he  wrote  some  Latin  satiric  verses  *  in  defence  of  the  universities 
and  the  English  Church  against  Andrew  Melville,  a  Scottish 
Presbyterian  minister.  He  numbered  among  his  friends  Dr 

1  Printed  in  1662  as  an  appendix  to  J.  Vivian's  Ecclesiastes 
Solomonis. 


Donne,  Sir  Henry  Wotton,  Izaak  Walton,  Bishop  Andrewes 
and  Francis  Bacon,  who  dedicated  to  him  his  translation  of  the 
Psalms.  Walton  tells  us  that  "  the  love  of  a  court  conversation, 
mixed  with  a  laudable  ambition  to  be  something  more  than  he 
was,  drew  him  often  from  Cambridge  to  attend  the  king  whereso- 
ever the  court  was,"  and  James  I.  gave  him  hi  1623  the  sinecure 
lay  rectory  of  Whitford,  Flintshire,  worth  £120  a  year.  The 
death  of  his  patrons,  the  duke  of  Richmond  and  the  marquess 
of  Hamilton,  and  of  King  James  put  an  end  to  his  hopes  of 
political  preferment;  moreover  he  probably  distrusted  the 
conduct  of  affairs  under  the  new  reign.  Largely  influenced 
by  his  mother,  he  decided  to  take  holy  orders,  and  in  July  1626 
he  was  appointed  prebendary  of  Layton  Ecclesia  (Leighton 
Bromswold),  Huntingdon.  Here  he  was  within  two  miles  of  Little 
Gidding,  and  came  under  the  influence  of  Nicholas  Ferrar. 
It  was  at  Ferrar's  suggestion  that  he  undertook  to  rebuild  the 
church  at  Layton,  an  undertaking  carried  through  by  his  own 
gifts  and  the  generosity  of  his  friends.  There  is  little  doubt 
that  the  close  friendship  with  Ferrar  had  a  large  share  in  Herbert's 
adoption  of  the  religious  life.  In  1630  Charles  I.,  at  the  instance 
of  the  earl  of  Pembroke,  whose  kinsman  Herbert  was,  presented 
him  to  the  living  of  Fugglestone  with  Bemerton,  near  Salisbury, 
and  he  was  ordained  priest  in  September.  A  year  before,  after 
three  days'  acquaintance,  he  had  married  Jane  Danvers,  whose 
father  had  been  set  on  the  marriage  for  a  long  time.  He  had 
often  spoken  of  his  daughter  Jane  to  Herbert,  and  "  so  much 
commended  Mr  Herbert  to  her,  that  Jane  became  so  much  a 
Platonic  as  to  fall  in  love  with  Mr  Herbert  unseen."  The  story 
of  the  poet's  life  at  Bemerton,  as  told  by  Walton,  is  one  of 
the  most  exquisite  pictures  in  literary  biography.  He  devoted 
much  time  to  explaining  the  meaning  of  the  various  parts  of  the 
Prayer-Book,  and  held  services  twice  every  day,  at  which  many 
of  the  parishioners  attended,  and  some  "  let  their  plough  rest 
when  Mr  Herbert's  saints-bell  rung  to  prayers,  that  they  might 
also  offer  their  devotions  to  God  with  him."  Next  to  Christianity 
itself  he  loved  the  English  Church.  He  was  passionately  fond 
of  music,  and  his  own  hymns  were  written  to  the  accompaniment 
of  his  lute  or  viol.  He  usually  walked  twice  a  week  to  attend 
the  cathedral  at  Salisbury,  and  before  returning  home,  would 
"  sing  and  play  his  part  "  at  a  meeting  of  music  lovers.  Walton 
illustrates  Herbert's  kindness  to  the  poor  by  many  touching 
anecdotes,  but  he  had  not  been  three  years  in  Bemertnn  when 
he  succumbed  to  consumption.  He  was  buried  beneath  the 
altar  of  his  church  on  the  3rd  of  March  1633. 

None  of  Herbert's  English  poems  was  published  during  his 
lifetime.  On  his  death-bed  he  gave  to  Nicholas  Ferrar  a  manu- 
script with  the  title  The  Temple:  Sacred  Poems  and  Private 
Ejaculations.  This  was  published  at  Cambridge,  apparently  for 
private  circulation,  almost  immediately  after  Herbert's  death, 
and  a  second  imprint  followed  in  the  same  year.  On  the  title-page 
of  both  is  the  quotation  "  In  his  Temple  doth  every  man  speak 
of  his  honour."  The  Temple  is  a  collection  of  religious  poems 
connected  by  unity  of  sentiment  and  inspiration.  Herbert 
tried  to  interpret  his  own  devout  meditations  by  applying 
images  of  all  kinds  to  the  ritual  and  beliefs  of  the  Church. 
Nothing  in  his  own  church  at  Bemerton  was  too  commonplace 
to  serve  as  a  starting-point  for  the  epigrammatic  expression  of 
his  piety.  The  church  key  reminds  him  that  "  it  is  my  sin  that 
locks  his  handes,"  and  the  stones  of  the  floor  are  patience  and 
humility,  while  the  cement  that  binds  them  together  is  love  and 
charity.  The  chief  faults  of  the  book  are  obscurity,  verbal 
conceits  and  a  forced  ingenuity  which  shows  itself  in  grotesque 
puns,  odd  metres  and  occasional  want  of  taste.  But  the  quaint 
beauty  of  Herbert's'  style  and  its  musical  quality  give  The 
Temple  a  high  place.  "The  Church  Porch,"  "  The  Agony," 
"  Sin,"  "  Sunday,"  "  Virtue,"  "  Man,"  "  The  British  Church," 
"  The  Quip,"  "  The  Collar,"  "  The  Pulley,"  "  The  Flower," 
"  Aaron  "  and  "  The  Elixir "  are  among  the  best  known  of 
these  poems.  Herbert  and  Keble  are  the  poets  of  Anglican 
theology.  No  book  is  fuller  of  devotion  to  the  Church  of  England 
than  The  Temple,  and  no  poems  in  our  language  exhibit  more 
of  the  spirit  of  true  Christianity.  Every  page  is  marked  by 


340 


HERBERT,  H.  W.— HERBERT  OF  CHERBURY 


transparent  sincerity,  and  reflects  the  beautiful  character  of 
"  holy  George  Herbert." 

Nicholas  Ferrar's  translation  (Oxford,  1638)  of  the  Hundred  and 
Ten  Considerations  ...  of  Juan  de  Valdes  contained  a  letter  and 
notes  by  Herbert.  In  1652  appeared  Herbert's  Remains;  or, 
Sundry  Pieces  of  that  Sweet  Singer  of  the  Temple,  Mr  George  Herbert. 
This  included  A  Priest  to  the  Temple;  or,  The  Country  Parson,  his 
Character,  and  Rule  of  Holy  Life,  in  prose;  Jacula  prudentum,  a 
collection  of  proverbs  with  a  separate  title-page  dated  1651,  which 
had  appeared  in  a  shorter  form  as  Outlandish  Proverbs  in  1640; 
and  some  miscellaneous  matter.  The  completest  edition  of  his 
works  is  that  by  Dr  A.  B.  Grosart  in  1874,  this  edition  of  the  Poetical 
works  being  reproduced  in  the  "  Aldine  edition  "  in  1876.  The 
English  Works  of  George  Herbert  ...  (3  vols.,  1905)  were  edited  in 
much  detail  by  G.  H.  Palmer.  A  contemporary  account  of  Herbert's 
life  by  Barnabas  Oley  was  prefixed  to  the  Remains  of  1652,  but  the 
classic  authority  is  Izaak  Walton's  Life  of  Mr  George  Herbert,  pub- 
lished in  1670,  with  some  letters  from  Herbert  to  his  mother.  See 
also  A.  G.  Hyde,  George  Herbert  and  his  Times  (1907),  and  the 
"  Oxford  "  edition  of  his  poems  by  A.  Waugh  (1908). 

HERBERT,  HENRY  WILLIAM  ["  Frank  Forester  "]  (1807- 
1858),  English  novelist  and  writer  on  sport,  son  of  the  Hon.  and 
Rev.  William  Herbert,  dean  of  Manchester,  a  son  of  the  first  earl 
of  Carnarvon,  was  born  in  London  on  the  3rd  of  April  1807.  He 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  where 
he  graduated  B.A.  in  1830.  Having  become  involved  in  debt, 
he  emigrated  to  America,  and  from'  1831  to  1839  was  teacher 
of  Greek  in  a  private  school  in  New  York.  In  1833  he  started 
the  American  Monthly  Magazine,  which  he  edited,  in  conjunction 
with  A.  D.  Patterson,  till  1835.  In  1834  he  published  his  first 
novel,  The  Brothers:  a  Tale  of  (he  Fronde,  which  was  followed 
by  a  number  of  others  which  obtained  a  certain  degree  of  popu- 
larity. He  also  wrote  a  series  of  historical  studies,  including  The 
Cavaliers  of  England  (1852),  The  Knights  of  England,  France 
and  Scotland  (1852),  The  Chevaliers  of  France  (1853),  and  The 
Captains  of  the  Old  World  (1851);  but  he  is  best  known  for  his 
works  on  sport,  published  under  the  pseudonym  of  "  Frank 
Forester."  These  include  The  Field  Sports  of  the  United  States 
and  British  Provinces  (1849),  Frank  Forester  and  his  Friends 
(1849),  The  Fish  and  Fishing  of  the  United  Slates  (1850),  The 
Young  Sportsman's  Complete  Manual  (1852),  and  The  Horse  and 
Horsemanship  in  the  United  States  and  British  Provinces  of  North 
America  (1858).  He  also  translated  many  of  the  novels  of 
Eugene  Sue  and  Alexandre  Dumas.  Herbert  was  a  man  of 
varied  accomplishments,  but  of  somewhat  dissipated  habits. 
He  died  by  his  own  hand  in  New  York  on  the  i7th  of  May  1858. 

HERBERT,  SIR  THOMAS  (1606-1682),  English  traveller 
and  author,  was  born  at  York  in  1606.  Several  of  his  ancestors 
were  aldermen  and  merchants  in  that  city — e.g.  his  grandfather 
and  benefactor,  Alderman  Herbert  I'd.  1614) — and  they  traced 
a  connexion  with  the  earls  of  Pembroke.  Thomas  became  a 
commoner  of  Jesus  College,  Oxford,  in  1621,  but  afterwards 
removed  to  Cambridge,  through  the  influence  of  his  uncle 
Dr  Ambrose  Akroyd.  In  1627  the  earl  of  Pembroke  procured 
his  appointment  in  the  suite  of  Sir  Dodmore  Cotton,  then 
starting  as  ambassador  for  Persia  with  Sir  Robert  Shirley. 
Sailing  in  March  they  visited  the  Cape,  Madagascar,  Goa  and 
Surat;  landing  at  Gambrun  (loth  of  January  1627-1628), 
they  travelled  inland  to  Ashraf  and  thence  to  Kazvin,  where 
both  Cotton  and  Shirley  died,  and  whence  Herbert  made  exten- 
sive travels  in  the  Persian  Hinterland,  visiting  Kashan,  Bagdad, 
&c.  On  his  return  voyage  he  touched  at  Ceylon,  the  Coromandel 
coast,  Mauritius  and  St  Helena.  He  reached  England  in  1629, 
travelled  in  Europe  in  1630-1631,  married  in  1632  and  retired 
from  court  in  1634  (his  prospects  perhaps  blighted  by  Pembroke's 
death  in  1630);  after  this  he  resided  on  his  Tintern  estate  and 
elsewhere  till  the  Civil  War,  siding  with  the  parliament  till  his 
appointment  to  attend  on  the  king  in  1646.  Becoming  a  devoted 
royalist,  he  was  rewarded  with  a  baronetcy  at  the  Restoration 
(1660).  He  resided  mainly  in  York  Street,  Westminster,  till 
the  Great  Plague  (1666),  when  he  retired  to  York,  where  he  died 
(at  Petergate  House)  on  the  ist  of  March  1682. 

Herbert's  chief  work  is  the  Description  of  the  Persian  Monarchy 
now  beinge:  the  Orienta.ll  Indyes,  lies  and  other  parts  of  the  Greater 
Asia  and  Africk  (1634),  reissued  with  additions,  &c.,  in  1638  as 


Some  Yeares  Travels  into  Africa  and  Asia  the  Great  (al.  into  divers 
parts  of  Asia  and  Afrique) ;  a  third  edition  followed  in  1664,  and  a 
fourth  in  1677.  This  is  one  of  the  best  records  of  17th-century 
travel.  Among  its  illustrations  are  remarkable  sketches  of  the  dodo, 
cuneiform  inscriptions  and  Persepolis.  Herbert's  Threnodia  Carolina; 
or,  Memoirs  of  the  two  last  years  of  the  reign  of  that  unparallell'd  prince 
of  ever  blessed  memory  King  Charles  I.,  was  in  great  part  printed  at 
the  author's  request  in  Wood's  Athenae  Oxonienses;  in  full  by  Dr  C. 
Goodall  in  his  Collection  of  Tracts  (1702,  repr.  G.  &  W.  Nicol,  1813). 
Sir  William  Dugdale  is  understood  to  have  received  assistance  from 
Herbert  in  the  Monasticon  Anglicanum,  vol.  iv. ;  see  two  of  Herbert's 
papers  on  St  John's,  Beverley  and  Ripon  collegiate  church,  now 
cathedral,  in  Drake's Eboracum  (appendix).  Cf.  also  Robert  Davies' 
account  of  Herbert  in  The  Yorkshire  Archaeological  and  Topographical 
Journal,  part  iii.,  pp.  182-214  (1870),  containing  a  facsimile  of  the 
inscription  on  Herbert's  tomb;  Wood's  Athenae,  iv.  15-41;  and 
Fasti,  ii.  26,  131,  138,  143-144,  150. 

HERBERT  OF  CHERBURY,  EDWARD  HERBERT,  BARON 
(1583-1648),  English  soldier,  diplomatist,  historian  and  religious 
philosopher,  eldest  son  of  Richard  Herbert  of  Montgomery  Castle 
(a  member  of  a  collateral  branch  of  the  family  of  the  earls  of 
Pembroke)  and  of  Magdalen,  daughter  of  Sir  Richard  Newport, 
was  born  at  Eyton-on-Severn  near  Wroxeter  on  the  3rd  of 
March  1583.  After  careful  private  tuition  he  matriculated 
at  University  College,  Oxford,  as  a  gentleman  commoner,  in 
May  1596.  On  the  28th  of  February  1599  he  married  his  cousin 
Mary,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Sir  William  Herbert  (d.  1593). 
He  returned  to  Oxford  with  his  wife  and  mother,  continued 
his  studies,  and  obtained  proficiency  in  modern  languages  as 
well  as  in  music,  riding  and  fencing.  On  the  accession  of  James  I. 
he  presented  himself  at  court  and  was  created  a  knight  of  the 
Bath  on  the  24th  of  July  1603.  In  1608  he  went  to  Paris,  en- 
joying the  friendship  and  hospitality  of  the  old  constable  de 
Montmorency,  and  being  entertained  by  Henry  IV.  On  his 
return,  as  he  says  himself  with  nai've  vanity,  he  was  "  in  great 
esteem  both  in  court  and  city,  many  of  the  greatest  desiring 
my  company."  In  1610  he  served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  Low 
Countries  under  the  prince  of  Orange,  whose  intimate  friend 
he  became,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  capture  of  Juliers 
from  the  emperor.  He  offered  to  decide  the  war  by  engaging 
in  single  combat  with  a  champion  chosen  from  among  the 
enemy,  but  his  challenge  was  declined.  During  an  interval 
in  the  fighting  he  paid  a  visit  to  Spinola,  in  the  Spanish  camp 
near  Wezel,  and  afterwards  to  the  elector  palatine  at  Heidelberg, 
subsequently  travelling  in  Italy.  At  the  instance  of  the  duke 
of  Savoy  he  led  an  expedition  of  4000  Huguenots  from  Languedoc 
into  Piedmont  to  help  the  Savoyards  against  Spain,  but  after 
nearly  losing  his  life  in  the  journey  to  Lyons  he  was  imprisoned 
on  his  arrival  there,  and  the  enterprise  came  to  nothing.  Thence 
he  returned  to  the  Netherlands  and  the  prince  of  Orange,  arriving 
in  England  in  1617.  In  1619  he  was  made  by  Buckingham  am- 
bassador at  Paris,  but  a  quarrel  with  de  Luynes  and  a  challenge 
sent  by  him  to  the  latter  occasioned  his  recall  in  1621.  After 
the  death  of  de  Luynes  Herbert  resumed  his  post  in  February 
1622.  He  was  very  popular  at  the  French  court  and  showed 
considerable  diplomatic  ability,  his  chief  objects  being  to 
accomplish  the  union  between  Charles  and  Henrietta  Maria  and 
secure  the  assistance  of  Louis  XIII.  for  the  unfortunate  elector 
palatine.  This  latter  advantage  he  could  not  obtain,  and  he 
was  dismissed  in  April  1624.  He  returned  home  greatly  in 
debt  and  received  little  reward  for  his  services  beyond  the  Irish 
peerage  of  Castle  island  in  1624  and  the  English  barony  of 
Cherbury,  or  Chirbury,  on  the  7th  of  May  1629.  In  1632  he 
was  appointed  a  member  of  the  council  of  war.  He  attended 
the  king  at  York  in  1639,  and  in  May  1642  was  imprisoned  by 
the  parliament  for  urging  the  addition  of  the  words  "  without 
cause  "  to  the  resolution  that  the  king  violated  his  oath  by 
making  war  on  parliament.  He  determined  after  this  to  take 
no  further  part  in  the  struggle,  retired  to  Montgomery  Castle, 
and  declined  the  king's  summons.  On  the  sth  of  September 
1644  he  surrendered  the  castle  to  the  parliamentary  forces, 
returned  to  London,  submitted,  and  was  granted  a  pension 
of  £20  a  week.  In  1647  he  paid  a  visit  to  Gassendi  at  Paris, 
and  died  in  London  on  the  2oth  of  August  1648,  being  buried 
in  the  church  of  St  Giles's  in  the  Fields. 


HERBERT  OF  LEA 


Lord  Herbert  left  two  sons,  Richard  (c.  1600-1655), 
succeeded  him  as  2nd  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury,  and  Edward, 
the  title  becoming  extinct  in  the  person  of  Henry  Herbert,  the 
4th  baron,  grandson  of  the  ist  Lord  Herbert  in  1691.  In  1694, 
however,  it  was  revived  in  favour  of  Henry  Herbert  (1654-1709), 
son  of  Sir  Henry  Herbert  (1595-1673),  brother  of  the  ist  Lord 
Herbert  of  Cherbury.  Sir  Henry  was  master  of  the  revels  to 
Charles  I.  and  Charles  II.,  being  busily  employed  in  reading 
and  licensing  plays  and  in  supervising  all  kinds  of  public  enter- 
tainments. He  died  in  April  1673;  his  son  Henry  died  in 
January  1709,  when  the  latter's  son  Henry  became  2nd  , Lord 
Herbert  of  Cherbury  of  the  second  creation.  He  died  without 
issue  in  April  1738,  and  again  the  barony  became  extinct.  In 
1743  it  was  revived  for  Henry  Arthur  Herbert  (c.  1703-1772), 
who  five  years  later  was  created  earl  of  Powis.  This  nobleman 
was  a  great-grandson  of  the  2nd  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury  of 
the  first  creation,  and  since  his  time  the  barony  has  been  held 
by  the  earls  of  Powis. 

Lord  Herbert's  cousin,  Sir  Edward  Herbert  (c.  1591-1657), 
was  a  member  of  parliament  under  James  I.  and  Charles  I. 
Having  become  attorney-general  he  was  instructed  by  Charles 
to  take  proceedings  against  some  members  of  parliament  who 
had  been  concerned  in  the  passing  of  the  Grand  Remonstrance; 
the  only  result,  however,  was  Herbert's  own  impeachment  by 
the  House  of  Commons  and  his  imprisonment.  Later  in  life 
he  was  with  the  exiled  royal  family  in  Holland  and  in  France, 
becoming  lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal  to  Charles  IE.,  an  office 
which  he  had  refused  in  1645.  He  died  in  Paris  in  December 
1657.  One  of  Herbert's  son  was  Arthur  Herbert,  earl  of  Torring- 
ton,  and  another  was  Sir  Edward  Herbert  (c.  1648-1698), 
titular  earl  of  Portland,  who  was  made  chief  justice  of  the  king's 
bench  in  1685  in  succession  to  Lord  Jeffreys.  It  was  Sir  Edward 
who  declared  for  the  royal  prerogative  in  the  case  of  Godden  v. 
Hales,  asserting  that  the  kings  of  England,  being  sovereign 
princes,  could  dispense  with  particular  laws  in  particular  cases. 
After  the  escape  of  James  II.  to  France  this  king  made  Herbert 
his  lord  chancellor  and  created  him  earl  of  Portland,  although 
he  was  a  Protestant  and  had  exhibited  a  certain  amount  of 
independence  during  1687. 

The  first  Lord  Herbert's  real  claim  to  fame  and  remembrance  is 
derived  from  his  writings.  Herbert's  first  and  most  important  work 
is  the  De  veritate  prout  distinguitur  a  revelatione,  a  verisimili,  a 
possibili,  et  a  falso  (Paris,  1624;  London,  1633;  translated  into 
French  1639,  but  never  into  English;  a  MS.  in  add.  MSS.  7081. 
Another,  Sloane  MSS.  3957,  has  the  author's  dedication  to  his  brother 
George  in  his  own  hand,  dated  1622).  It  combines  a  theory  of 
knowledge  with  a  partial  psychology,  a  methodology  for  the  investiga- 
tion of  truth,  and  a  scheme  of  natural  religion.  The  author's 
method  is  prolix  and  often  far  from  clear;  the  book  is  no  compact 
system,  but  it  contains  the  skeleton  and  much  of  the  soul  of  a  com- 
plete philosophy.  Giving  up  all  past  theories  as  useless,  Herbert 
professedly  endeavours  to  constitute  a  new  and  true  system.  Truth, 
which  he  defines  as  a  just  conformation  of  the  faculties  with  one 
another  and  with  their  objects,  he  distributed  into  four  classes  or 
stages:  (i)  truth  in  the  thing  or  the  truth  of  the  object;  (2)  truth 
of  the  appearance;  (3)  truth  of  the  apprehension  (conceptus) ; 
(4)  truth  of  the  intellect.  The  faculties  of  the  mind  are  as  numerous 
as  the  differences  of  their  objects,  and  are  accordingly  innumerable; 
but  they  may  be  arranged  in  Tour  groups.  The  first  and  fundamental 
and  most  certain  group  is  the  Natural  Instinct,  to  which  belong  the 
Koivai  tvvoitu,  the  notitiae  communes,  which  are  innate,  of  divine 
origin  and  indisputable.  The  second  group,  the  next  in  certainty, 
is  the  sensus  internus  (under  which  head  Herbert  discusses  amongst 
others  love,  hate,  fear,  conscience  with  its  communis  notitia,  and 
free  will);  the  third  is  the  sensus  externus;  and  the  fourth  is 
discursus,  reasoning,  to  which,  as  being  the  least  certain,  we  have 
recourse  when  the  other  faculties  fail.  The  ratiocinative  faculties 
proceed  by  division  and  analysis,  by  questioning,  and  are  slow  and 
gradual  in  their  movement ;  they  take  aid  from  the  other  faculties, 
those  of  the  instinctus  naturalis  being  always  the  final  test.  Herbert's 
categories  or  questions  to  be  used  in  investigation  are  ten  in  number 
whether  (a  thing  is),  what,  of  what  sort,  how  much,  in  what  relation, 
how,  when,  where,  whence,  wherefore.  No  faculty,  rightly  used,  can 
err  "even  in  dreams";  badly  exercised,  reasoning  becomes  the 
source  of  almost  all  our  errors.  The  discussion  of  the  notitiae  com- 
munes is  the  most  characteristic  part  of  the  book.  The  exposition 
of  them,  though  highly  dogmatic,  is  at  times  strikingly  Kantian  in 
substance.  "  So  far  are  these  elements  or  sacred  principles  from 
being  derived  from  experience  or  observation  that  without  some 
of  them,  or  at  least  some  one  of  them,  we  can  neither  experience 


nor  even  observe."  Unless  we  felt  driven  by  them  to  explore  the 
nature  of  things,  "  it  would  never  occur  to  us  to  distinguish  one 
thing  from  another."  It  cannot  be  said  that  Herbert  proves  the 
existence  of  the  common  notions ;  he  does  not  deduce  them  or  even 
give  any  list  of  them.  But  each  faculty  has  its  common  notion; 
and  they  may  be  distinguished  by  six  marks,  their  priority,  inde- 
pendence, universality,  certainty,  necessity  (for  the  well-being  of  man), 
and  immediacy.  Law  is  based  on  certain  common  notions;  so  is 
religion.  Though  Herbert  expressly  defines  the  scope  of  his  book  as 
dealing  with  the  intellect,  not  faith,  it  is  the  common  notions  of 
religion  he  has  illustrated  most  fully;  and  it  is  plain  that  it  is  in 
this  part  of  his  system  that  he  is  chiefly  interested.  The  common 
notions  of  religion  are  the  famous  five  articles,  which  became  the 
charter  of  the  English  deists  (see  DEISM).  There  is  little  polemic 
against  the  received  form  of  Christianity,  but  Herbert's  attitude 
towards  the  Church's  doctrine  is  distinctly  negative,  and  he  denies 
revelation  except  to  the  individual  soul.  In  the  De  religione 
gentilium  (completed  1645,  published  Amsterdam,  1663,  translated 
into  English  by  W.  Lewis,  London,  1705)  he  gives  what  may  be  called, 
in  Hume's  words,  "a  natural  history  of  religion."  By  examining 
the  heathen  religions  Herbert  finds,  to  his  great  delight,  the  uni- 
versality of  his  five  great  articles,  and  that  these  are  clearly  recogniz- 
able under  their  absurdities  as  they  are  under  the  rites,  ceremonies 
and  polytheism  invented  by  sacerdotal  superstition.  The  same  vein 
is  maintained  in  the  tracts  De  cansis  errorum,  an  unfinished  work 
on  logical  fallacies,  Religio  laid,  and  Ad  sacerdotes  de  religione 
laid  (1645).  In  the  De  veritate  Herbert  produced  the  first  purely 
metaphysical  treatise  written  by  an  Englishman,  and  in  the  De 
religione  gentilium  one  of  the  earliest  studies  extant  in  comparative 
theology;  while  both  his  metaphysical  speculations  and  his 
religious  views  are  throughout  distinguished  by  the  highest  originality 
and  provoked  considerable  controversy.  His  achievements  in  histori- 
cal writing  are  vastly  inferior,  and  vitiated  by  personal  aims  and  his 
preoccupation  to  gain  the  royal  favour.  Herbert's  first  historical 
work  is  the  Expeditio  Buckinghami  duds  (published  in  a  Latin 
translation  in  1656  and  in  the  original  English  by  the  earl  of  Powis 
for  the  Philobiblon  Society  in  1860),  a  defence  of  Buckingham's 
conduct  of  the  ill-fated  expedition  of  1627.  The  Life  and  Raigne 
of  King  Henry  VIII.  (1649)  derives  its  chief  value  from  its  com- 
position from  original  documents,  but  is  ill-proportioned,  and  the 
author  judges  the  character  and  statesmanship  of  Henry  with  too 
obvious  a  partiality. 

His  poems,  published  in  1665  (reprinted  and  edited  by  J.  Churton 
Collins  in  1881),  show  him  in  general  a  faithful  disciple  of  Donne, 
obscure  and  uncouth.  His  satires  are  miserable  compositions,  but 
a  few  of  his  lyrical  verses  show  power  of  reflection  and  true  inspira- 
tion, while  his  use  of  the  metre  afterwards  employed  by  Tennyson 
in  his  "  In  Memoriam  "  is  particularly  happy  and  effective.  His 
Latin  poems  are  evidence  of  his  scholarship.  Three  of  these  had 
appeared  together  with  the  De  causis  errorum  in  1645.  To  these 
works  must  be  added  A  Dialogue  between  a  Tutor  and  a  Pupil 
(1768;  a  treatise  on  education,  MS.  in  the  Bodleian  Library);  a 
treatise  on  the  king's  supremacy  in  the  Church  (MS.  in  the  Record 
Office  and  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford),  and  his  well-known  auto- 
biography, first  published  by  Horace  Walpole  in  1764,  a  naive  and 
amusing  narrative,  too  much  occupied,  however,  with  his  duels  and 
amorous  adventures,  to  the  exclusion  of  more  creditable  incidents 
in  his  career,  such  as  his  contributions  to  philosophy  and  history, 
his  intimacy  with  Donne,  Ben  Jonson,  Selden  and  Carew,  Casaubon, 
Gassendi  and  Grotius,  or  his  embassy  in  France,  in  relation  to  which 
he  only  described  the  splendour  of  his  retinue  and  his  social  triumphs. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  autobiography  edited  by  Sidney  Lee  with 
correspondence  from  add.  MSS.  7082  (1886);  article  in  the  Diet,  of 
Nat.  Biog.  by  the  same  writer  and  the  list  of  authorities  there 
collated;  Hist.  MSS.  Comm.  Rep.  x.  app.  iv.,  378;  Lord  Herbert 
de  Cherbury,  by  Charles  de  Remusat  (1874);  Eduard,  Lord  Herbert 
von  Cherbury,  by  C.  Guttler  (a  criticism  of  his  philosophy;  1897); 
Collections  Historical  and  Archaeological  relating  to  Montgomery- 
shire, vols.  vii.,  xi.,  xx.;  R.  Warner's  Epistolary  Curiosities,  i.  ser. ; 
Reid's  works,  edited  by  Sir  William  Hamilton;  National  Review, 
xxxv.  661  (Leslie  Stephen) ;  Locke's  Essay  on  Human  Understand- 
ing; Wood,  Alh.  Oxon.  (Bliss),  iii.  239;  Gentleman's  Magazine 
(1816),  i.  201  (print  of  remains  of  his  birthplace);  Lord  Herbert's 
Poems,  ed.  by  J.  Churton  Collins  (1881) ;  Aubrey's  Lives  of  Eminent 
Men ;  also  works  quoted  under  DEISM. 

HERBERT  OF  LEA,  SIDNEY  HERBERT,  IST  BARON  (1810- 
1861),  English  statesman,  was  the  younger  son  of  the  nth  earl 
of  Pembroke.  Educated  at  Harrow  and  Oriel,  Oxford,  he 
made  a  reputation  at  the  Oxford  Union  as  a  speaker,  and  entered 
the  House  of  Commons  as  Conservative  member  for  a  division 
of  Wiltshire  in  1832.  Under  Peel  he  held  minor  offices,  and  in 
1845  was  included  in  the  cabinet  as  secretary  at  war,  and  again 
held  this  office  in  1852-1855,  being  responsible  for  the  War 
Office  during  the  Crimean  difficulties,  and  in  1859.  It  was 
Sidney  Herbert  who  sent  Florence  Nightingale  out  to  the  Crimea, 
and  he  led  the  movement  for  War  Office  reform  after  the  war, 


342 


HERBERTON— HERCULANEUM 


the  hard  work  entailed  causing  his  breakdown  in  health,  so  that 
in  July  1861,  having  been  created  a  baron,  he  had  to  resign  office, 
and  died  on  the  2nd  of  August  1861.  His  statue  was  placed 
in  front  of  the  War  Office  in  Pall  Mall.  He  was  succeeded  in  the 
title  by  his  eldest  son,  who  later  became  I3th  earl  of  Pembroke, 
and  the  barony  is  now  merged  in  that  earldom;  his  second  son 
became  i4th  earl.  Another  son,  the  Hon.  Michael  Herbert 
(1857-1904),  was  British  Ambassador  at  Washington  in  succes- 
sion to  Lord  Pauncefote. 

A  life  of  Lord  Herbert  by  Lord  Stanmore  was  published  in  1906. 

HERBERTON,  a  mining  town  of  Cardwell  county,  Queensland, 
Australia,  55  m.  S.W.  of  Cairns.  Pop.  (1901)  2806.  Tin  was 
discovered  in  the  locality  in  1879,  and  to  this  mineral  the  town 
chiefly  owes  its  prosperity,  though  copper,  bismuth  and  some 
silver  and  gold  are  also  found.  Atherton,  12  m.  from  the  town, 
is  served  by  rail  from  Cairns,  which  is  the  port  for  the  Herberton 
district. 

HERCULANEUM,  an  ancient  city  of  Italy,  situated  about 
two-thirds  of  a  mile  from  the  Portici  station  of  the  railway  from 
Naples  to  Pompeii.  The  ruins  are  less  frequently  visited  than 
those  of  Pompeii,  not  only  because  they  are  smaller  in  extent 
and  of  less  obvious  interest,  but  also  because  they  are  more 
difficult  of  access.  The  history  of  their  discovery  and  explora- 
tion, and  the  artistic  and  literary  relics  which  they  have  yielded, 
are  worthy,  however,  of  particular  notice.  The  small  part  of 
the  city,  which  was  investigated  at  the  spot  called  Gli  scavi 
nuovi  (the  new  excavations)  was  discovered  in  the  1  9th  century. 
But  the  more  important  works  were  executed  in  the  i8th  century; 
and  of  the  buildings  then  explored  at  a  great  depth,  by  means  of 
tunnels,  none  is  visible  except  the  theatre,  the  orchestra  of 
which  lies  85  ft.  below  the  surface. 

The  brief  notices  of  the  classical  writers  inform  us  that  Hercu- 
laneum1  was  a  small  city  of  Campania  between  Neapolis  and 
Pompeii,  that  it  was  situated  between  two  streams  at  the  foot 
of  Vesuvius  on  a  hill  overlooking  the  sea,  and  that  its  harbour 
was  at  all  seasons  safe.  With  regard  to  its  earlier  history  nothing 
is  known.  The  account  given  by  Dionysius  repeats  a  tradition 
which  was  most  natural  for  a  city  bearing  the  name  of  Hercules. 
Strabo  follows  up  the  topographical  data  with  a  few  brief 
historical  statements  —  "Oencoi  (l\ov  Kal  ravrriv  Kal  rriv*  £<£e£ijs 
HonTnjiav  .  .  .  (ITO.  Tvpprjvol  Kai  IIeXatr7oi,  utra  TO.VTO.  ZawTrai. 
But  leaving  the  questions  suggested  by  these  names  (see  ETRURIA, 
&c.),2  as  well  as  those  which  relate  to  the  origin  of  Pompeii  (<?.».), 
it  is  sufficient  here  to  say  that  the  first  historical  record  about 
Herculaneum  has  been  handed  down  by  Livy  (viii.  25),  where  he 
relates  how  the  city  fell  under  the  power  of  Rome  during  the 
Samnite  wars.  It  remained  faithful  to  Rome  for  a  long  time,  but 
it  joined  the  Italian  allies  in  the  Social  .War.  Having  submitted 
anew  in  June  of  the  year  665  (88  B.C.),  it  appears  to  have  been  less 
severely  treated  than  Pompeii,  and  to  have  escaped  the  imposition 
of  a  colony  of  Sulla's  veterans,  although  Zumpt  has  suspected 
the  contrary  (Comm.  epigr.  i.  259).  It  afterwards  became  a 
municipium,  and  enjoyed  great  prosperity  towards  the  close  of 
the  republic  and  in  the  earlier  times  of  the  empire,  since  many 
noble  families  of  Rome  selected  this  pleasant  spot  for  the  con- 
struction of  splendid  villas,  one  of  which  indeed  belonged  to 
the  imperial  house(  Seneca,  De  ira,  iii.),  and  another  to  the 

1  A  fragment  of  L.  Sisenna  calls  it  "  Oppidum  tumulo  in  excelso 
'oco  propter  mare,  parvis  moenibus,  inter  duas  fluvias,  infra  Vesuviura 
collocatum  "  (lib.  iv.,  fragm.  53,  Peters).  Of  one  of  these  rivers  this 
historian  again  makes  mention  in  the  passage  where  probably  he 
related  the  capture  of  Herculaneum  by  Minatius  Magius  and  T.  Didius 
(Velleius  Paterculus  ii.  16).  Further  topographical  details  are  sup- 
plied by  Strabo,  who,  after  speaking  about  Naples,  continues  — 
Ixbuwo"  &  <t>po<jpibv  karat  'HpaK\(toi>  tKKtiiikvriv  «is  TI)I>  OAXaTTav  (jipav 
%Xovi  KaraTfvtbfj,€vov  At/3t  0aujua<rru>$  £306*  vyi€ivr)v  irotftv  rj\v  KaroiKlav. 
Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  relates  that  Heracles,  in  the  place  where 
he  stopped  with  his  fleet  on  the  return  voyage  from  Iberia,  founded 
a  little  city  (vo\lxyrtv),  to  which  he  gave  his  own  name;  and  he  adds 
that  this  city  was  in  his  time  inhabited  by  the  Romans,  and  that, 
situated  between  Neapolis  and  Pompeii,  it  had  Xt^tcpas  tv  travrl 
/3t/3cucus  (i.  44). 


2  See  also  Niebuhr,  Hist,  of  Rome,  i.  76,  and  Mpmmsen,  Die 
unteritalischen  Dialekte  (1850),  p.  314;  for  later  discussions  see 
OSCA  LINGUA,  PELAGIANS. 


family  of  Calpurnius  Piso.  By  means  of  the  Via  Campana  it 
had  easy  communication  north-westward  with  Neapolis,  Puteoli 
and  Capua,  and  thence  by  the  Via  Appia  with  Rome;  and 
southwards  with  Pompeii  and  Nuceria,  and  thence  with  Lucania 
and  the  Bruttii.  In  the  year  A.D.  63  it  suffered  terribly  from 
the  earthquake  which,  according  to  Seneca,  "  Campaniam 
nunquam  securam  huius  mali,  indemnem  tamen,  et  toties 
defunctam  metu  magna  strage  vastavit.  Nam  et  Herculanensis 
oppidi  pars  ruit  dubieque  slant  etiam  quae  relicta  sunt  "  (Nat. 
quaest.vi.  i).  Hardly  had  Herculaneum  completed  the  restora- 
tion of  some  of  its  principal  buildings  (cf.  Mommsen,  I.N.  n. 
2384;  Catalogo  del  Museo  Nazionale  di  Napoli,  n.  1151)  when 
it  fell  beneath  the  great  eruption  of  the  year  79,  described  by 
Pliny  the  younger  (Ep.  vi.  16,  20),  in  which  Pompeii  also  was 
destroyed,  with  other  flourishing  cities  of  Campania.  According 
to  the  commonest  account,  on  the  23rd  of  August  of  that  year 
Pliny  the  elder,  who  had  command  of  the  Roman  fleet  at  Misenum, 
set  out  to  render  assistance  to  a  young  lady  of  noble  family 
named  Rectina  and  others  dwelling  on  that  coast,  but,  as  there 
was  no  escape  by  sea,  the  little  harbour  having  been  on  a  sudden 
filled  up  so  as  to  be  inaccessible,  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  to  their 
fate  those  people  of  Herculaneum  who  had  managed  to  flee  from 
their  houses,  overwhelmed  in  a  moment  by  the  material  poured 
forth  by  Vesuvius.  But  the  text  of  Pliny  the  younger,  where 
this  account  is  given,  has  been  subjected  to  various  interpreta- 
tions; and  from  the  comparison  of  other  classical  testimonies 
and  the  study  of  the  excavations  it  has  been  concluded  that  it  is 
impossible  to  determine  the  date  of  the  catastrophe,  though 
there  are  satisfactory  arguments  to  justify  the  statement  that 
the  event  took  place  in  the  autumn.  The  opinion  that  immedi- 
ately after  the  first  outbreak  of  Vesuvius  a  torrent  of  lava 
was  ejected  over  Herculaneum  was  refuted  by  the  scholars  of 
the  i8th  century,  and  their  refutation  is  confirmed  by  Beule 
(Le  Drame  du  Vfsuve,  p.  240  seq.).  And  the  last  recensions  of 
the  passage  quoted  from  Pliny,  aided  by  an  inscription,3  prove 
that  Rectina  cannot  have  been  the  name  of  the  harbour  described 
by  Beule  (ib.  pp.  122,  247),  but  the  name  of  a  lady  who  had 
implored  succour,  the  wife  of  Caesius  Bassus,  or  rather  Tascius 
(cf.  Pliny,  ed.  Keil,  Leipzig,  1870;  Aulus  Persius,  ed.  Jahn, 
Sat.  vi.).  The  shore,  moreover,  according  to  the  accurate  studies 
of  the  engineer  Michele  Ruggiero,  director  of  the  excavations,  was 
not  altered  by  the  causes  adduced  by  Beule  (p.  125),  but  by  a 
simpler  event.  "  It  is  certain,"  he  says  (Pompei  e  la  regione 
sotterrata  dal  Vesuvio  I'anno  79,  Naples,  1879,  p.  21  seq.),  "  that 
the  districts  between  the  south  and  west,  and  those  between  the 
south  and  east,  were  overwhelmed  in  two  quite  different  ways. 
From  Torre  Annunziata  (which  is  believed  to  be  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Oplontii)  to  San  Giovanni  a  Teduccio,  for  a  distance  of 
about  9  m.,  there  flowed  a  muddy  eruption  which  in  Herculaneum 
and  the  neighbouring  places,  where  it  was  most  abundant, 
raised  the  level  of  the  country  more  than  65  ft.  The  matter 
transported  consisted  of  soil  of  various  kinds — sand,  ashes, 
fragments  of  lava,  pozzolana  and  whitish  pumice,  enclosing 
grains  of  uncalcined  lime,  similar  in  every  respect  to  those  of 
Pompeii.  In  the  part  of  Herculaneum  already  excavated  the 
corridors  in  the  upper  portions  of  the  theatre  are  compactly 
filled,  up  to  the  head  of  the  arches,  with  pozzolana  and  pumice 
transformed  into  tufa  (which  proves  that  the  formation  of  this 
stone  may  take  place  in  a  comparatively  short  time).  Tufa  is 
also  found  in  the  lowest  part  of  the  city  towards  the  sea  in  front 
of  the  few  houses  that  have  been  discovered;  and  in  the  very 
high  banks  that  surround  them,  as  also  in  the  lowest  part  of  the 
theatre,  there  are  plainly  to  be  seen  earth,  sand,  ashes,  fragments 

*  C.I.L.  ii.  No.  3866.  This  Spanish  inscription  refers  to  a  Rectina 
who  died  at  the  age  of  18  and  was  the  wife  of  Voconius  Romanus. 
It  is  quite  possible  that  she  was  the  Rectina  whom  Pliny  the  elder 
wished  to  assist  during  the  disaster  of  Vesuvius,  for  her  husband, 
Voconius  Romanus,  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Pliny  the  younger. 
The  latter  addressed  four  letters  to  Voconius  (i.  5,  ii.  I,  iii.  13,  ix.  28), 
in  another  letter  commended  him  to  the  emperor  Trajan  (x.  3), 
and  in  another  (ii.  13)  says  of  him:  "  Hunc  ego  cum  simul  studere- 
mus  arte  familiariterque  dilexi;  [lie  meus  in  urbe,  ille  in  secessu 
contubernalis ;  cum  hoc  seria  et  jocos  miscui." 


HERCULANEUM 


343 


of  lava  and  pumice,  with  little  distinction  of  strata,  almost 
always  confused  and  mingled  together,  and  varying  from  spot 
to  spot  in  degree  of  compactness.  It  is  clear  that  this  immense 
congeries  of  earth  and  stones  could  not  flow  in  a  dry  state  over 
those  5  m.  of  country  (in  the  beginning  very  steep,  and  at 
intervals  almost  level),  where  certainly  it  would  have  been 
arrested  and  all  accumulated  in  a  mound;  but  it  must  have 
been  borne  along  by  a  great  quantity  of  water,  the  effects  of 
which  may  be  distinctly  recognized,  not  only  in  the  filling  and 
choking  up  even  of  the  most  narrow,  intricate  and  remote 
parts  of  the  buildings,  but  also  in  the  formation  of  the  tufa,  in 
which  water  has  so  great  a  share;  for  it  cannot  be  supposed 
that  enough  of  it  has  filtered  through  so  great  a  depth  of  earth. 
The  torrent  ran  in  a  few  hours  to  the  sea,  and  formed  that  shallow 
or  lagoon  called  by  Pliny  Subilum  Vadum,  which  prevented  the 
ships  approaching  the  shores."  Hence  it  is  that,  while  many 
made  their  escape  from  Pompeii  (which  was  overwhelmed  by 
the  fall  of  the  small  stones  and  afterwards  by  the  rain  of  ashes), 
comparatively  few  can  have  managed  to  escape  from  Hercu- 
laneum,  and  these,  according  to  the  interpretation  given  to  the 
inscription  preserved  in  the  National  Museum  (Mommsen, 
I.N.  n.  2455),  found  shelter  in  the  neighbouring  city  of  Neapolis, 
where  they  inhabited  a  quarter  called  that  of  the  buried  city 
(Suetonius,  Titus,  8;  C.I.L.  x.  No.  1492,  in  Naples:  "  Regio 
primaria  splendidissima  Herculanensium ").  The  name  of 
Herculaneum,  which  for  some  time  remained  attached  to  the 
site  of  the  disaster,  is  mentioned  in  the  later  itineraries;  but 
in  the  course  of  the  middle  ages  all  recollection  of  it  perished. 

In  1719,  while  Prince  Elbeuf  of  the  house  of  Lorraine,  in  command 
of  the  armies  of  Charles  VI.,  was  seeking  crushed  marble  to  make 
plaster  for  his  new  villa  near  Portici,  he  learned  from  the  peasants 
that  there  were  in  the  vicinity  some  pits  from  which  they  not  only 
quarried  excellent  marble,  but  had  extracted  many  statues  in  the 
course  of  years  (see  Jorio,  Notizia  degli  scavi  d'  Ercolano,  Naples, 
1827).  In  1738,  while  Colonel  D.  Rocco  de  Alcubierre  was  directing 
the  works  for  the  construction  of  the  "  Reali  Delizie  "  at  Portici, 
he  received  orders  from  Charles  IV.  (later,  Charles  III.  of  Spain) 
to  begin  excavations  on  the  spot  where  it  had  been  reported  to  the 
king  that  the  Elbeuf  statues  had  been  found.  At  first  it  was  believed 
that  a  temple  was  being  explored,  but  afterwards  the  inscriptions 
proved  that  the  building  was  a  theatre.  This  discovery  excited  the 
greatest  commotion  among  the  scholars  of  all  nations;  and  many  of 
them  hastened  to  Naples  to  see  the  marvellous  statues  of  the  Balbi 
and  the  paintings  on  the  walls.  But  everything  was  kept  private, 
as  the  government  wished  to  reserve  to  itself  the  right  of  illustrating 
the  monuments.  First  of  all  Monsignor  Bayardi  was  brought  from 
Rome  and  commissioned  to  write  about  the  antiquities  which  were 
being  collected  in  the  museum  at  Portici  under  the  care  of  Camillo 
Paderni,  and  when  it  was  recognized  that  the  prelate  had  not  suffi- 
cient learning,  and  by  the  progress  of  the  excavations  other  most 
abundant  material  was  accumulated,  about  which  at  once  scholars 
and  courtiers  were  anxious  to  be  informed,  Bernardo  Tanucci, 
having  become  secretary  of  state  in  1755,  founded  the  Accademia 
Ercolanese,  which  published  the  principal  works  on  Herculaneum 
(Le  Pilture  ed  i  bronzi  d'  Ercolano,  8  vols.,  1757,  1792;  Disserta- 
tionis  isagogicae  ad  Herculanensium  voluminum  explanationem  pars 
prima,  1797).  The  criterion  which  guided  the  studies  of  the 
academicians  was  far  from  being  worthy  of  unqualified  praise,  and 
consequently  their  work  did  not  always  meet  the  approval  of  the 
best  scholars  who  had  the  opportunity  of  seeing  the  monuments. 
Among  these  was  Winckelmann,  who  in  his  letters  gave  ample 
notices  of  the  excavations  and  the  antiquities  which  he  was  able  to 
visit  on  several  occasions.  Other  notices  were  furnished  by  Gori, 
Symbolae  litterariae  Florentinae  (1748,  1751),  by  Marcello  Venuti, 
Descrizione  delle  prime  scoperte  d'  Ercolano  (Rome,  1 748) ,  and  Scipione 
Maffei,  Tre  lettere  intorno  alle  scoperte  d'  Ercolano  (Verona,  1748). 
The  excavations,  which  continued  for  more  than  forty  years  (1738- 
1780),  were  executed  at  first  under  the  immediate  direction  of 
Alcubierre  (1738-1741),  and  then  with  the  assistance  of  the  engineers 
Rorro  and  Bardet  (1741-1745),  Carl  Weber  (1750-1764),  and 
Francesco  La  Vega.  After  the  death  of  Alcubierre  (1780)  the 
last-named  was  appointed  director-in-chief  of  the  excayations;  but 
from  that  time  the  investigations  at  Herculaneum  were  intermitted, 
and  the  researches  at  Pompeii  were  vigorously  carried  on.  Resumed 
in  1827,  the  excavations  at  Herculaneum  were  shortly  after  sus- 
pended, nor  were  the  new  attempts  made  in  1866  with  the  money 
bestowed  by  King  Victor  Emmanuel  attended  with  success,  being 
impeded  by  the  many  dangers  arising  from  the  houses  built  overhead. 
The  meagreness  of  the  results  obtained  by  the  occasional  works 
executed  m  the  last  century,  and  the  fact  that  the  investigators  were 
unfortunate  enough  to  strike  upon  places  already  explored,  gave 
rise  to  the  opinion  that  the  whole  area  of  the  city  had  been  crossed 
by  tunnels  in  the  time  of  Charles  III.  and  in  the  beginning  of  the 


reign  of  Ferdinand  IV.  And  although  it  is  recognized  that  the  works 
had  not  been  prosecuted  with  the  caution  that  they  required,  yet 
in  view  of  the  serious  difficulties  that  would  attend  the  collection 
of  the  little  that  had  been  left  by  the  first  excavators,  every  proposal 
for  new  investigations  has  been  abandoned.  But  in  a  memoir  which 
Professor  Barnabei  read  in  the  Reale  Accademia  dei  Lincei  (Atti 
delta  R.  Ac.  series  iii.  vol.  ii.  p.  751)  he  undertook  to  prove  that 
the  researches  made  by  the  government  in  the  1 8th  century  did  not 
cover  any  great  area.  The  antiquities  excavated  at  Herculaneum 
in  that  century  (i.e.  the  l8th)  form  a  collection  of  the  highest  scientific 
and  artistic  value.  They  come  partly  from  the  buildings  of  the  ancient 
city  (theatre,  basilica,  houses  and  forum),  and  partly  from  the 
private  villa  of  a  great  Roman  famijy  (cf.  Comparetti  and  de  Petra, 
La  Villa  Ercolanese  dei  Pisoni,  Turin,  1883).  From  the  city  come, 
among  many  other  marble  statues,  the  two  equestrian  statues  of 
the  Balbi  (Museo  Borbonico,  vol.  ii.  pi.  xxxviii.-xxxix.),  and  the  great 
imperial  and  municipal  bronze  statues.  Mural  paintings  of  extra- 
ordinary beauty  were  also  discovered  here,  such  as  those  that  repre- 
sent Theseus  after  the  slaughter  of  the  Minotaur  (Helbig,  Wandge- 
malde,  Leipzig,  1878,  No.  1214),  Chiron  teaching  Achilles  the  art 
of  playing  on  the  lyre  (ibid.  No.  1291),  and  Hercules  finding  Telephus 
who  is  being  suckled  by  the  hind  (ibid.  No.  1 143). 

Notwithstanding  subsequent  discoveries  of  stupendous  paintings 
in  the  gardens  of  the  Villa  Farnesina  on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber,  the 
monochromes  of  Herculaneum  remain  among  the  finest  specimens 
of  the  exquisite  taste  and  consummate  skill  displayed  by  the  ancient 
artists.  Among  the  best  preserved  is  Leto  and  Niobe,  which  has 
been  the  subject  of  so  many  studies  and  so  many  publications  (ibid. 
No.  1706).  There  is  also  a  considerable  number  of  lapidary  inscrip- 
tions edited  in  vol.  ii.  of  the  epigraphic  collection  of  the  Cat.  del 
Mus.  Naz.  di  Napoli.  The  Villa  Suburbana  has  given  us  a  good 
number  of  marble  busts,  and  the  so-called  statue  of  Aristides,  but 
above  all  that  splendid  collection  of  bronze  statues  and  busts  mostly 
reproductions  of  famous  Greek  works  now  to  be  found  in  the  Naples 
Museum.  It  is  thence  that  we  have  obtained  the  reposing  Hermes, 
the  drunken  Silenus,  the  sleeping  Faunus,  the  dancing  girls,  the 
bust  called  Plato's,  that  believed  to  be  Seneca's,  the  two  quoit- 
throwers  or  discoboli,  and  so  many  masterpieces  more,  figured  by 
the  academicians  in  their  volume  on  the  bronzes.  But  a  still  further 
discovery  made  in  the  Villa  Suburbana  contributed  to  magnify  the 
greatness  of  Herculaneum;  within  its  walls  was  found  the  famous 
library,  of  which,  counting  both  entire  and  fragmentary  volumes,  1 803 
papyri  are  preserved.  Among  the  nations  which  took  the  greatest 
interest  in  the  discovery  of  the  Herculaneum  library,  the  most 
honourable  rank  belongs  to  England,  which  sent  Hayter  and  other 
scholars  to  Naples  to  solicit  the  publication  of  the  volumes.  Of  the 
341  papyri  which  have  been  unrolled,  195  have  been  published 
(Herculanensium  voluminum  quae  supersunt  (Naples,  1793-1809); 
Collectio_  altera,  1862-1876).  They  contain  works  by  Epicurus, 
Demetrius,  Polystratus,  Colotes,  Chrysippus,  Carniscus  and  Philo- 
demus.  The  names  of  the  authors  are  in  themselves  sufficient  to 
show  that  the  library  belonged  to  a  person  whose  principal  study 
was  the  Epicurean  philosophy.  But  of  the  great  master  of  this 
school  only  a  few  works  have  been  found.  Of  his  treatise  Hipl  <t>y<?eas, 
divided  into  37  books,  it  is  known  that  there  were  three  copies  in  the 
library  (Coll.  alt.  vi.).  Professor  Comparetti,  studying  the  first 
fasciculus  of  volume  xi.  of  the  same  new  collection,  recognized  most 
important  fragments  of  the  Ethics  of  Epicurus,  and  these  he  published 
in  1879  in  Nos.  ix.  and  xi.  of  the  Rivista  di  jUologia  e  d'  istruzione 
classica  (Turin).  Even  the  other  authors  above  mentioned  are  but 
poorly  represented,  with  the  exception  of  Philodemus,  of  whom 
26  different  treatises  have  been  recognized.  Hut  all  these  philosophic 
discussions,  belonging  for  the  most  part  to  an  author  less  than 
secondary  among  the  Epicureans,  fall  short  of  the  high  expectations 
excited  by  the  first  discovery  of  the  library.  Among  the  many 
volumes  unrolled  only  a  few  are  of  historical  importance — that 
edited  by  Biicheler,  which  treats  of  the  philosophers  of  the  academy 
(Acad.  phil.  index  Hercul.,  Greifswald,  1859),  and  that  edited  by 
Comparetti,  which  deals  with  the  Stoics  ("Papiro  ercolanese  inedito. 


in  Rivista  difil.  e  d'  ist.  class,  anno  iii.  fasc.  x.-xii.).  To  appreciate  the 
value  of  the  volumes  unrolled  but  not  yet  published  (for  146  vols. 
were  only  copied  and  not  printed)  the  student  must  read  Cpm- 
paretti's  paper,  "  Relazione  sui  papiri  ercolanesi."  Contributions 
of  some  value  have  been  made  to  the  study  of  Herculaneum  frag- 
ments by  Spengel  ("  Die  hercul.  Rollen,"  in  Philologus,  1863,  suppl. 
vol.),  and  Gomperz  (Hercul.  Studien,  Leipzig,  1 865-1 866,  cf.Zeitschr. 
f.  osterr.  Gymn.,  1867-1872).  There  are  in  the  library  some  volumes 
written  in  Latin,  which,  according  to  Boot  (Notice  sur  les  manuscrits 
trouves  d.  Herculaneum,  Amsterdam,  1845),  were  found  tied  up  in  a 
bundle  apart.  Of  these  we  know  18,  but  they  are  all  so  damaged 
that  hardly  any  of  them  can  be  deciphered.  One  with  verses 
relating  to  the  battle  of  Actium  is  believed  to  belong  to  a  poem  of 
Rabirius.  The  numerical  preponderance  of  the  works  of  Philodemus 
led  some  people  to  believe  that  this  had  been  the  library  of  that 
philosopher.  Professor  Comparetti  has  thrown  out  a  conjecture 
(cf.  Comparetti  and  de  Petra,  op.  cit.)  that  the  library  was  collected 
by  Lucius  Piso  Caesoninus  (see  Regione  sotterrata  dal  Vesuvio, 
Naples,  1879,  p.  159  sq.),  but  this  conjecture  has  not  found  many 
supporters.  Professor  de  Petra  (in  the  same  work)  has  also  published 
the  official  notices  upon  the  antiquities  unearthed  in  the  sumptuous 


344 


HERCULANO  DE  CARVALHO  E  ARAUJO 


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villa,  giving  the  plan  executed  by  Weber  and  recovered  by  chance 
by  the  director  of  excavations,  Michele  Ruggiero.  This  plan,  which 
is  here  reproduced  from  de  Petra  *  is  the  only  satisfactory  document 
for  the  topography  of  Herculaneum;  for  the  plan  of  the  theatre 
published  in  the  Bullettino  archeologico  italiano  (Naples,  1861,  i. 
p.  53,  tab.  iii.)  was  executed  in  1747,  when  the  excavations  were  not 
completed.  And  even  for  the  history  of  the  "  finds  "  made  in  the 
Villa  Suburbana  the  necessity  for  further  studies  makes  itself  felt, 
since  there  is  a  lack  of  agreement  between  the  accounts  given  by 
Alcubierre  and  Weber  and  those  communicated  to  the  Philosophical 
Transactions  (London,  vol.  x.)  by  Camillo  Paderni,  conservator  of 
the  Portici  Museum. 

Among  the  older  works  relating  to  Herculaneum,  in  addition  to 
those  already  quoted,  may  be  mentioned  de  Brosses,  Lettre  sur 
I'etat  actuel  de  la  ville  souterraine  d'Heradea  (Paris,  1750);  Seigneux 
de  Correvon,  Lettre  sur  la  decouyerte  de  I'ancienne  mile  d'Herculane 
(Yverdon,  1770);  David,  Les  Antiquites  d' Herculaneum  (Paris,  1780); 
D'  Ancora  Gaetano,  Frospetto  stprico-fisico  degli  scan  d'  Ercolano  e 
di  Pompei  (Naples,  1803) ;  Venuti,  Prime  Scoverte  di  Ercolano  (Rome, 
1748);  and  Romanelli,  Viaggio  ad  Ercolano  (Naples,  1811).  A  full 
list  will  be  found  in  vol.  i.  of  Museo  Borbonico  (Naples,  1824),  pp.  i-i  i. 

The  most  important  reference  work  is  C.  Waldstein  and  L.  Shoo- 
bridge,  Herculaneum,  Past,  Present  and  Future  (London,  1908);  it 
contains  full  references  to  the  history  and  the  explorations,  and  to 
the  buildings  and  objects  found  (with  illustrations).  Miss  E.  R. 
Barker's  Buried  Herculaneum  (1908)  is  exceedingly  useful. 

In  1904  Professor  Waldstein  expounded  both  in  Europe  and  in 
America  an  international  scheme  for  thorough  investigation  of  the 
site.  Negotiations  of  a  highly  complex  character  ensued  with  the 
Italian  government,  which  ultimately  in  1908  decided  that  the  work 
should  be  undertaken  by  Italian  scholars  with  Italian  funds.  The 
work  was  begun  in  the  autumn  of  1908,  but  financial  difficulties  with 
property  owners  in  Resina  immediately  arose  with  the  result  that 
progress  was  practically  stopped.  (F.  B.) 

HERCULANO  DE  CARVALHO  E  ARAUJO,  ALEXANDRE 
(1810-1877),  Portuguese  historian,  was  born  in  Lisbon  of  humble 
stock,  his  grandfather  having  been  a  foreman  stonemason  in  the 
royal  employ.  He  received  his  early  education,  comprising 
Latin,  logic  and  rhetoric,  at  the  Necessidades  Monastery,  and 
spent  a  year  at  the  Royal  Marine  Academy  studying  mathematics 
with  the  intention  of  entering  on  a  commercial  career.  In  1828 
Portugal  fell  under  the  absolute  rule  of  D.  Miguel,  and  Herculano, 
becoming  involved  in  the  unsuccessful  military  pronunciamento 
of  August  1831,  had  to  leave  Portugal  clandestinely  and  take 
refuge  in  England  and  France.  In  1832  he  accompanied  the 
Liberal  expedition  to  Terceira  as  a  volunteer,  and  was  one  of 
D.  Pedro's  famous  army  of  7500  men  who  landed  at  the  Mindello 
and  occupied  Oporto.  He  took  part  in  all  the  actions  of  the  great 
siege,  and  at  the  same  time  served  as  a  librarian  in  the  city 
archives.  He  published  his  first  volume  of  verses,  A  Voz  de 
Propheta,  in  1832,  and  two  years  later  another  entitled  A  Harpa 
do  Crente.  Privation  had  made  a  man  of  him,  and  in  these 
little  books  he  proves  himself  a  poet  of  deep  feeling  and  consider- 
able power  of  expression.  The  stirring  incidents  in  the  political 
emancipation  of  Portugal  inspired  his  muse,  and  he  describes 
the  bitterness  of  exile,  the  adventurous  expedition  to  Terceira, 
the  heroic  defence  of  Oporto,  and  the  final  combats  of  liberty. 
In  1837  he  founded  the  Panorama  in  imitation  of  the  English 
Penny  Magazine,  and  there  and  in  Illustra^do  he  published  the 
historical  tales  which  were  afterwards  collected  into  Lendas  e 
Narratives;  in  the  same  year  he  became  royal  librarian  at  the 
Ajuda  Palace,  which  enabled  him  to  continue  his  studies 
of  the  past.  The  Panorama  had  a  large  circulation  and  in- 
fluence, and  Herculano's  biographical  sketches  of  great  men 
and  his  articles  of  literary  and  historical  criticism  did  much  to 
educate  the  middle  class  by  acquainting  them  with  the  story 
of  their  nation,  and  with  the  progress  of  knowledge  and  the 
state  of  letters  in  foreign  countries.  On  entering  parliament 
in  1840  he  resigned  the  editorship  to  devote  himself  to  history, 
but  he  still  remained  its  most  important  contributor. 

Up  to  the  age  of  twenty-five  Herculano  had  been  a  poet,  but 
he  then  abandoned  poetry  to  Garrett,  and  after  several  essays 
in  that  direction  he  definitely  introduced  the  historical  novel 
into  Portugal  in  1844  by  a  book  written  in  imitation  of  Walter 
Scott.  Eurico  treats  of  the  fall  of  the  Visigothic  monarchy 
and  the  beginnings  of  resistance  in  the  Asturias  which  gave 

1  The  diagram  shows  the  arrangement  and  proportions  of  the  Villa 
Ercolanese.  The  dotted  lines  show  the  course  taken  by  the  excava- 
tions, which  began  at  the  lower  part  of  the  plan. 


HERCULES 


345 


fcirth  to  the  Christian  kingdoms  of  the  Peninsula,  while  the 
Monge  de  Cister,  published  in  1848,  describes  the  time  of  King 
John  I.,  when  the  middle  class  and  the   municipalities   first 
asserted  their  power  and  elected  a  king  in  opposition  to  the 
nobility.     From  an  artistic  standpoint,  these  stories  are  rather 
laboured   productions,    besides   being   ultra-romantic   in    tone; 
but  it  must  be  remembered  that  they  were  written  mainly  with 
an  educational  object,  and,  moreover,  they  deserve  high  praise 
for   their  style.     Herculano   had   greater  book  learning   than 
Scott,  but  lacked  descriptive  talent  and  skill  in  dialogue.     His 
touch  is  heavy,  and  these  novels  show  no  dramatic  power,  which 
accounts  for  his  failure  as  a  playwright,  but  their  influence  was 
as  great  as  their  followers  were  many,  and  they  still  find  readers. 
These  and  editions  of  two  old  chronicles,  the  Chronica  de  D. 
Sebastiao  (1839)  and  the  Annaes  del  rei  D.  Joao  III  (1844), 
prepared  Herculano  for  his  life's  work,  and  the  year  1846  saw 
the  first  volume  of  his  History  of  Portugal  from  the  Beginning 
of  the  Monarchy  to  the  end  of  the  Reign  of  Ajfonso  III.,  a  book 
written  on  critical  lines  and  based  on  documents.     The  difficulties 
he  encountered  in  producing  it  were  very  great,  for  the  founda- 
tions had  been  ill-prepared  by  his  predecessors,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  be  artisan  and  architect  at  the  same  time.     He  had  to 
collect  MSS.  from  all  parts  of  Portugal,  decipher,  classify  and 
weigh  them  before  he  could  begin  work,  and  then  he  found  it 
necessary  to    break  with    precedents    and    destroy  traditions. 
Serious  students  in  Portugal  and  abroad  welcomed  the  book 
as  an  historical  work  of  the  first  rank,  for  its  evidence  of  careful 
research,  its  able  marshalling  of  facts,  its  learning  and  its  painful 
accuracy,  while  the  sculptural  simplicity  of  the  style  and  the 
correctness  of  the  diction  have  made  it  a  Portuguese  classic. 
The  first  volume,  however,  gave  rise  to  a  celebrated  controversy, 
because  Herculano  had  reduced  the  famous  battle  of  Ourique, 
which  was  supposed  to  have  seen  the  birth  of  the  Portuguese 
monarchy,  to  the  dimensions  of  a  mere  skirmish,  and  denied  the 
apparition  of  Christ  to  King  Affonso,  a  fable  first  circulated  in 
the  i  sth  century.     Herculano  was  denounced  from  the  pulpit 
and  the  press  for  his  lack  of  patriotism  and  piety,  and  after 
bearing  the  attack  for  some  time  his  pride  drove  him  to  reply. 
In  a  letter  to  the  cardinal  patriarch  of  Lisbon  entitled  Eu  e  o 
Clero  (1850),  he  denounced  the  fanaticism  and  ignorance  of  the 
clergy  in  plain  terms,  and  this  provoked  a  fierce  pamphlet  war 
marked  by  much  personal  abuse.     The  professor  of  Arabic  in 
Lisbon  intervened  to  sustain  the  accepted  view  of  the  battle, 
and    charged    Herculano    and    his    supporter    Gayangos    with 
ignorance  of  the  Arab  historians  and  of  their  language.     The 
conduct  of  the  controversy,  which,  lasted  some  years,  did  credit 
to  none  of  the  contending  parties,  but  Herculano's  statement 
of  the  facts  is  now  universally  accepted  as  correct.     The  second 
volume  of  his  history  appeared  in  1847,  the  third  in  1849  and  the 
fourth  in  1853.     In  his  youth,  the  excesses  of  absolutism  had 
made  Herculano  a  Liberal,  and  the  attacks  on  his  history  turned 
this  man,  full  of  sentiment  and  deep  religious  conviction,  into  an 
anti-clerical  who  began  to  distinguish  between  political  Catho- 
licism and  Christianity.     His  History  of  the  Origin  and  Establish- 
ment of  the  Inquisition  (1854-1855),  relating  the  thirty  years' 
struggle  between  King  John  III.  and  the  Jews — he  to  establish 
the  tribunal  and  they  to  prevent  him— was  compiled,  as  the 
preface  showed,  to  stem  the  Ultramontane  reaction,  but  none 
the  less  carried  weight  because  it  was  a  recital  of  events  with 
little  or  no  comment  or  evidence  of  passion  in  its  author.     Next 
to  these  two  books  his  study,  Do  Eslado  das  classes  servas  na 
Peninsula  desde  o  VII.  ate  o  XII.  seculo,  is  Herculano's  most 
valuable  contribution  to  history.     In  1856  he  began  editing  a 
series  of  Portugalliae  monumenta  historica,  but  personal  differ- 
ences between  him  and  the  keeper  of  the  Archive  office,  which 
he  was  forced  to  frequent,  caused  him  to  interrupt  his  historical 
studies,  and  on  the  death  of  his  friend  King  Pedro  V.  he  left  the 
Ajuda  and  retired  to  a  country  house  near  Santarem. 

Disillusioned  with  men  and  despairing  of  the  future  of  his 
country,  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  devoted  to  agricultural 
pursuits,  and  rarely  emerged  from  his  retirement;  when  he 
did  so,  it  was  to  fight  political  and  religious  reaction.  Once  he 


lad  defended  the  monastic  orders,  advocating  their  reform  and 
not  their  suppression,  supported  the  rural  clergy  and  idealized 
the  village  priest  in  his  Parocho  da  Aldeia,  after  the  manner  of 
Goldsmith  in  the  Vicar  of  Wakefield.  Unfortunately,  however, 
the  brilliant  epoch  of  the  alliance  of  Liberalism  and  Catholicism, 
represented  on  its  literary  side  by  Chateaubriand  and  byLamar- 
tine,  to  whose  poetic  school  Herculano  had  belonged,  was  past, 
and  fanatical  attacks  and  the  progress  of  events  drove  this 
Former  champion  of  the  Church  into  conflict  with  the  ecclesiastical 
authorities.  His  protest  against  the  Concordat  of  the  zist  of 
February  1857  between  Portugal  and  the  Holy  See,  regulating 
the  Portuguese  Padroado  in  the  East,  his  successful  opposition 
to  the  entry  of  foreign  religious  orders,  and  his  advocacy  of  civil 
marriage,  were  the  chief  landmarks  in  his  battle  with  Ultra- 
montanism,  and  his  Esludos  sobre  o  Casamento  Civil  were  put  on 
the  Index.  Finally  in  1871  he  attacked  the  dogmas  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception  and  papal  infallibility,  and  fell  into 
line  with  the  Old  Catholics.  In  the  domain  of  letters  he  remained 
until  his  death  a  veritable  pontiff,  and  an  article  or  book  of  his 
was  an  event  celebrated  from  one  end  of  Portugal  to  the  other. 
The  nation  continued  to  look  up  to  him  for  mental  leadership, 
but,  in  his  later  years,  lacking  hope  himself,  he  could  not  stimulate 
others  or  use  to  advantage  the  powers  conferred  upon  him.  In 
politics  he  remained  a  constitutional  Liberal  of  the  old  type, 
and  for  him  the  people  were  the  middle  classes  in  opposition  to 
the  lower,  which  he  saw  to  have  been  the  supporters  of  tyranny 
in  all  ages,  while  he  considered  Radicalism  to  mean  a  return  via 
anarchy  to  absolutism.  However,  though  he  conducted  a  political 
propaganda  in  the  newspaper  press  in  his  early  days,  Herculano 
never  exercised  much  influence  in  politics.  Grave  as  most  of 
his  writings  are,  they  include  a  short  description  of  a  crossing 
from  Jersey  to  Granville,  in  which  he  satirizes  English  character 
and  customs,  and  reveals  an  unexpected  sense  of  humour. 
A  rare  capacity  for  tedious  work,  a  dour  Catonian  rectitude,  a 
passion  for  truth,  pride,  irritability  at  criticism  and  independence 
of  character,  are  the  marks  of  Herculano  as  a  man.  He  could 
be  broken  but  never  bent,  and  his  rude  frankness  accorded 
with  his  hard,  sombre  face,  and  alienated  men's  sympathies 
though  it  did  not  lose  him  their  respect.  His  lyrism  is  vigorous, 
feeling,  austere  and  almost  entirely  subjective  and  personal, 
while  his  pamphlets  are  distinguished  by  energy  of  conviction, 
strength  of  affirmation,  and  contempt  for  weaker  and  more 
ignorant  opponents.  His  History  of  Portugal  is  a  great  but 
incomplete  monument.  A  lack  of  imagination  and  of  the 
philosophic  spirit  prevented  him  from  penetrating  or  drawing 
characters,  but  his  analytical  gift,  joined  to  persevering  toil 
and  honesty  of  purpose  enabled  him  to  present  a  faithful  account 
of  ascertained  facts  and  a  satisfactory  and  lucid  explanation 
of  political  and  economic  events.  His  remains  lie  in  a  majestic 
tomb  in  the  Jeronymos  at  Belem,  near  Lisbon,  which  was  raised 
by  public  subscription  to  the  greatest  modern  historian  of 
Portugal  and  of  the  Peninsula.  His  more  important  works  have 
gone  through  many  editions  and  his  name  is  still  one  to  conjure 
with. 

.  AUTHORITIES. — Antonio  de  Serpa  Pimentel,  Alexandre  Herculano 
e  o  sen  tempo  (Lisbon,  1881);  A.  Romero  Ortiz,  La  Litteratura 
Portuguesa  en  el  siglo  XIX.  (Madrid,  1869);  Moniz  Barreto,  Revista 
de  Portugal  (July  1889).  (E.  PR.) 

HERCULES  (0.  Lat.  Hercoles,  Hercles),  the  latinized  form 
of  the  mythical  Heracles,  the  chief  national  hero  of  Hellas. 
The  name  'HpaicXrjsC'Hpa,  and  xXeos  =  glory)  is  explained  as  "  re- 
nowned through  Hera  "  (i.e.  in  consequence  of  her  persecution) 
or  "  the  glory  of  Hera  "  i.e.  of  Argos.  The  thoroughly  national 
character  of  Heracles  is  shown  by  his  being  the  mythical  ancestor 
of  the  Dorian  dynastic  tribe,  while  revered  by  Ionian  Athens, 
Lelegian  Opus  and  Aeolo-Phoenician  Thebes,  and  closely 
associated  with  the  Achaean  heroes  Peleus  and  Telamon.  The 
Perseid  Alcmena,  wife  of  Amphitryon  of  Tiryns,  was  Hercules' 
mother,  Zeus  his  father.  After  his  father  he  is  often  called 
Amphitryoniades,  and  also  Alcides,  after  the  Perseid  Alcaeus, 
father  of  Amphitryon.  His  mother  and  her  husband  lived  at 
Thebes  in  exile  as  guests  of  King  Creon.  By  the  craft  of  Hera, 


34-6 


HERCULES 


his  foe  through  life,  his  birth  was  delayed,  and  that  of  Eurystheus, 
son  of  Sthenelus  of  Argos,  hastened,  Zeus  having  in  effect  sworn 
that  the  elder  of  the  two  should  rule  the  realm  of  Perseus.  Hera 
sent  two  serpents  to  destory  the  new-born  Hercules,  but  he 
strangled  them.  He  was  trained  in  all  manly  accomplishments 
by  heroes  of  the  highest  renown  in  each,  until  in  a  transport 
of  anger  at  a  reprimand  he  slew  Linus,  his  instructor  in  music, 
with  the  lyre.  Thereupon  he  was  sent  to  tend  Amphitryon's 
oxen,  and  at  this  period  slew  the  lion  of  Mount  Cithaeron.  By 
freeing  Thebes  from  paying  tribute  to  the  Minyansof  Orchomenus 
he  won  Creon's  daughter,  Megara,  to  wife.  Her  children  by  him 
he  killed  in  a  frenzy  induced  by  Hera.  After  purification  he 
was  sent  by  the  Pythia  to  serve  Eurystheus.  Thus  began  the 
cycle  of  the  twelve  labours. 

1.  Wrestling  with  the  Neraean  lion. 

2.  Destruction  of  the  Lernean  hydra. 

3.  Capture  of  the  Arcadian  hind  (a  stag  in  art). 

4.  Capture  of  the  boar  of  Erymanthus,  while  chasing  which  he 
fought  the  Centaurs  and  killed  his  friends  Chiron  and  Pholus,  this 
homicide  leading  to  Demeter's  institution  of  mysteries. 

5.  Cleansing  of  the  stables  of  Augeas. 

6.  Shooting  the  Stymphalian  birds. 

7.  Capture  of  the  Cretan  bull  subsequently  slain  by  Theseus  at 
Marathon. 

8.  Capture  of  the  man-eating  mares  of  the  Thracian  Diomedes. 

9.  Seizure  of  the  girdle  of  Hippolyte,  queen  of  the  Amazons. 

10.  Bringing  the  oxen  of  Geryones  from  Erythia  in  the  far  west, 
which  errand  involved  many  adventures  in  the  coast  lands  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  the  setting  up  of  the  "  Pillars  of  Hercules  "  at 
the  Straits  of  Gibraltar. 

11.  Bringing  the  golden  apples  from  the  garden  of  the  Hesperides. 

12.  Carrying  Cerberus  from  Hades  to  the  upper  world. 

Most  of  the  labours  lead  to  various  adventures  called  wapepya. 
On  Hercules'  return  to  Thebes  he  gave  his  wife  Megara  to  his 
friend  and  charioteer  lolaus,  son  of  Iphicles,  and  by  beating 
Eurytus  of  Oechalia  and  his  sons  in  a  shooting  match  won  a 
claim  to  the  hand  of  his  daughter  lole,  whose  family,  however, 
except  her  brother  Iphitus,  withheld  their  consent  to  the  union. 
Iphitus  persuaded  Hercules  to  search  for  Eurytus'  lost  oxen, 
but  was  killed  by  him  at  Tiryns  in  a  frenzy.  He  consulted  the 
Pythia  about  a  cure  for  the  consequent  madness,  but  she  declined 
to  answer  him.  Whereupon  he  seized  the  oracular  tripod, 
and  so  entered  upon  a  contest  with  Apollo,  which  Zeus  stopped 
by  sending  a  flash  of  lightning  between  the  combatants.  The 
Pythia  then  sent  him  to  serve  the  Lydian  queen  Omphale.  He 
then,  with  Telamon,  Peleus  and  Theseus,  took  Troy.  He  next 
helped  the  gods  in  the  great  battle  against  the  giants.  He 
destroyed  sundry  sea-monsters,  set  free  the  bound  Prometheus, 
took  part  in  the  Argonautic  voyage  and  the  Calydonian  boar 
hunt,  made  war  against  Augeas,  and  against  Nestor  and  the 
Pylians,  and  restored  Tyndareus  to  the  sovereignty  of  Lacedae- 
mon.  He  sustained  many  single  combats,  one  very  famous 
struggle  being  the  wrestling  with  the  Libyan  Antaeus,  son  of 
Poseidon  and  Ge  (Earth),  who  had  to  be  held  in  the  air,  as  he 
grew  stronger  every  time  he  touched  his  mother,  Earth. 
Hercules  withstood  Ares,  Poseidon  and  Hera,  as  well  as  Apollo. 
The  close  of  his  career  is  assigned  to  Aetolia  and  Trachis.  He 
wrestles  with  Achelous  for  Deianeira  ("  destructive  to  husband  "), 
daughter  of  Oeneus,  king  of  Calydon,  vanquishes  the  river 
god,  and  breaks  off  one  of  his  horns,  which  as  a  horn  of  plenty 
is  found  as  an  attribute  of  Hercules  in  art.  Driven  from  Calydon 
for  homicide,  he  goes  with  Deianeira  to  Trachis.  On  the  way 
he  slays  the  centaur  Nessus,  who  persuades  Deianeira  that 
his  blood  is  a  love-charm.  From  Trachis  he  wages  successful 
war  against  the  Dryopes  and  Lapithae  as  ally  of  Aegimius,  king 
of  the  Dorians,  who  promised  him  a  third  of  his  realm,  and  after 
his  death  adopted  Hyllus,  his  son  by  Deianeira.  Finally  Hercules 
attacks  Eurytus,  takes  Oechalia  and  carries  off  lola.  Thereupon 
Deianeira,  prompted  by  love  and  jealousy,  sends  him  a  tunic 
dipped  in  the  blood  of  Nessus,  and  the  unsuspecting  hero  puts 
it  on  just  before  sacrificing  at  the  headland  of  Cenaeum  in 
Euboea.  (So  far  the  dithyramb  of  Bacchylides  xv.  [xvi.], 
agrees  with  Sophocles'  Trachiniae  as  to  the  hero's  end.)  Mad 
with  pain,  he  seizes  Lichas,  the  messenger  who  had  brought 
the  fatal  garment,  and  hurls  him  on  the  rocks;  and  then  he 


wanders  in  agony  to  Mount  Oeta,  where  he  mounts  a  pyre,  which, 
however,  no  one  will  kindle.  At  last  Poeas,  father  of  Philoctetes, 
takes  pity  on  him,  and  is  rewarded  with  the  gift  of  his  bow  and 
arrows.  The  immortal  part  of  Hercules  passes  to  Olympus, 
where  he  is  reconciled  to  Hera  and  weds  her  daughter  Hebe. 
This  account  of  the  hero's  principal  labours,  exploits  and  crimes 
is  derived  from  the  mythologists  Apollodorus  and  Diodorus, 
who  probably  followed  the  Heradeia  by  Peisander  of  Rhodes 
as  to  the  twelve  labours  or  that  of  Panyasis  of  Halicarnassus, 
but  sundry  variations  of  order  and  incident  are  found  in  classical 
literature. 

In  one  aspect  Hercules  is  clearly  a  sun-god,  being  identified, 
especially  in  Cyprus  and  in  Thasos  (as  Makar),  with  the  Tyrian 
Melkarth.  The  third  and  twelfth  labours  may  be  solar,  the  horned 
hind  representing  the  moon,  and  the  carrying  of  Cerberus  to  the 
upper  world  an  eclipse,  while  the  last  episode  of  the  hero's  tragedy 
is  possibly  a  complete  solar  myth  developed  at  Trachis.  The 
winter  sun  is  seen  rising  over  the  Cenaean  promontory  to  toil 
across  to  Mount  Oeta  and  disappear  over  it  in  a  bank  of  fiery 
cloud.  But  more  important  and  less  speculative  is  the  hero's  aspect 
as  a  national  type  or  an  amalgamation  of  tribal  types  of  physical 
force,  of  dauntless  effort  and  endurance,  of  militant  civilization, 
and  of  Hellenic  enterprise,  "  stronger  than  everything  except 
his  own  passions,"  and  "  at  once  above  and  below  the  noblest 
type  of  man  "  (Jebb).  The  fifth  labour  seems  to  symbolize 
some  great  improvement  in  the  drainage  of  Elis.  Strenuous 
devotion  to  the  deliverance  of  mankind  from  dangers  and 
pests  is  the  "  virtue  "  which,  in  Prodicus'  famous  apologue  on 
the  Choice  of  Hercules,  the  hero  preferred  to  an  easy  and  happy 
life.  Ethically,  Hercules  symbolizes  the  attainment  of  glory 
and  immortality  by  toil  and  suffering. 

The  Old-Dorian  Hercules  is  represented  in  three  cycles  of 
myth,  the  Argive,  the  Boeotian  and  the  Thessalian;  the  legends 
of  Arcadia,  Aetolia,  Lydia,  &c.,  and  Italy  are  either  local  or 
symbolical  and  comparatively  late.  The  fatality  by  which 
Hercules  kills  so  many  friends  as  well  as  foes  recalls  the  destroying 
Apollo;  while  his  career  frequently  illustrates  the  Delphic  views 
on  blood-guiltiness  and  expiation.  As  Apollo's  champion 
Hercules  is  Daphnephoros,  and  fights  Cycnus  and  Amyntor 
to  keep  open  the  sacred  way  from  Tempe  to  Delphi.  As  the 
Dorian  tutelar  he  aids  Tyndareus  and  Aegimius.  As  patron 
of  maritime  adventure  (riyftiovios)  he  struggles  with  Nereus 
and  Triton,  slays  Eryx  and  Busiris,  and  perhaps  captures  the 
wild  horses  and  oxen,  which  may  stand  for  pirates.  As  a  god  of 
athletes  he  is  often  a  wrestler  (iraXai^coi') ,  and  founds  the  Olympian 
games.  In  comedy  and  occasionally  in  myths  he  is  depicted 
as  voracious  (/3ou<£d7oj).  He  is  also  represented  as  the  com- 
panion of  Dionysus,  especially  in  Asia  Minor.  The  "  Resting  " 
(avaTravonevos)  Hercules  is,  as  at  Thermopylae  and  near  Himera, 
the  natural  tutelar  of  hot  springs  in  conjunction  with  his 
protectress  Athena,  who  is  usually  depicted  attending  him  on 
ancient  vases.  The  glorified  Hercules  was  worshipped  both 
as  a  god  and  a  hero.  In  the  Attic  deme  Melita  he  was  invoked 
as  dXe£tKo.Kos  ("Helper  in  ills"),  at  Olympia  as  KaXXw/cos 
("  Nobly-victorious  "),  in  the  rustic  worship  of  the  Oetaeans 
as  Kopvoviuv  (Kopvoices,  "  locusts "),  by  the  Erythraeans  of 
Ionia  as  ITTOKTOVOS  ("  Canker-worm-slayer  ").  He  was  oxorijp 
("  Saviour "),  i.e.  a  protector  of  voyagers,  at  Thasos  and 
Smyrna.  Games  in  his  honour  were  held  at  Thebes  and  Marathon 
and  annual  festivals  in  every  deme  of  Attica,  in  Sicyon  and 
Agyrium  (Sicily).  His  guardian  goddess  was  Athena  (Homer, 
//.  viii.  638;  Bacchylides  v.  91  f.).  In  early  poetry,  as  often 
in  art,  he  is  an  archer,  afterwards  a  club-wielder  and  fully- 
armed  warrior.  In  early  art  the  adult  Hercules,  is  bearded, 
but  not  long-haired.  Later  he  is  sometimes  youthful  and  beard- 
less, always  with  short  curly  hair  and  thick  neck,  the  lower 
part  of  the  brow  prominent.  A  lion's  skin  is  generally  worn 
or  carried.  Lysippus  worked  out  the  finest  type  of  sculptured 
Hercules,  of  which  the  Farnese  by  Glycon  is  a  grand  specimen. 
The  infantine  struggle  with  serpents  was  a  favourite  subject. 

Quite  distinct  was  the  Idaean  Hercules,  a  Cretan  Dactyl  con- 
nected with  the  cult  of  Rhea  or  Cybele.  The  Greeks  recognized 


HERCULES— HERDER 


347 


Hercules  in  an  Egyptian  deity  Chons  and  an  Indian  Dorsanes, 
not  to  mention  personages  of  other  mythologies. 

Hercules  is  supposed  to  have  visited  Italy  on  his  return  from 
Erythia,  when  he  slew  Cacus,  son  of  Vulcan,  the  giant  of  the 
Aventine  mount  of  Rome,  who  had  stolen  his  oxen.  To  this 
victory  was  assigned  the  founding  of  the  Ara  maxima  by  Evander. 
His  worship,  introduced  from  the  Greek  colonies  in  Etruria 
and  in  the  south  of  Italy,  seems  to  have  been  established  in  Rome 
from  the  earliest  times,  as  two  old  Patrician  genles  were  associated 
with  his  cult  and  the  Fabii  claimed  him  as  their  ancestor.  The 
tithes  vowed  to  him  by  Romans  and  men  of  Sora  and  Reate, 
for  safety  on  journeys  and  voyages,  furnished  sacrifices  and  (in 
Rome)  public  entertainment  (polluctum).  Tibur  was  a  special 
seat  of  his  cult.  In  Rome  he  was  patron  of  gladiators,  as  of 
athletes  in  Greece.  With  respect  to  the  Roman  relations  of 
the  hero,  it  is  manifest  that  the  native  myths  of  Recaranus, 
or  Sancus,  or  Dius  Fidius,  were  transferred  to  the  Hellenic 
Hercules.  (C.  A.  M.  F.) 

See  L.  Preller,  Griechische  Mythologie  (4th  ed.,  Berlin,  1900) ; 
W.  H.  Roscher,  Ausfuhrliches  Lexikon  der  griechischen  und  romischen 
Mythologie  (1884);  Sir  R.  C.  Jebb,  Trachiniae  of  Sophocles  (Introd.), 
(1892);  Ch.  Daremberg  and  E.  Saglio,  Dictionnaire  des  antiyuites 
grecques  el  romaines;  Br6al,  Hercule  et  Cacus,  1863;  J.  G.  Winter, 
Myth  of  Hercules  at  Rome  (New  York,  1910). 

In  the  article  GREEK  ART,  fig.  16  represents  Heracles  wrestling 
with  the  river-god  Achelous;  fig.  20  (from  a  small  pediment,  possibly 
of  a  shrine  of  the  hero)  the  slaying  of  the  Hydra;  fig.  35  Heracles 
holding  up  the  sky  on  a  cushion. 

Hercules  was  a  favourite  figure  in  French  medieval  literature. 
In  the  romance  of  Alexander  the  tent  of  the  hero  is  decorated  with 
incidents  from  his  adventures.  In  the  prose  romance  Les  Prouesscs 
et  vaillances  du  preux  Hercule  (Paris,  1500),  the  hero's  labours  are 
represented  as  having  been  performed  in  honour  of  a  Boeotian 
princess;  Pluto  is  a  king  dwelling  in  a  dismal  castle;  the  Fates  are 
duennas  watching  Proserpine;  the  entrance  to  Pluto's  castle  is 
watched  by  the  giant  Cerberus.  Hercules  conquers  Spain  and  takes 
Merida  from  Geryon.  The  book  is  translated  into  English  as  Hercules 
of  Greece  (n.  d.).  Fragments  of  a  French  poem  on  the  subject  will 
be  found  in  the  Bulletin  de  la  soc.  des  anciens  textes  franfais  (1877). 
Don  Enrique  de  Villena  took  from  Les  Prouesses  his  prose  Los  Doze 
Trabaips  de  Hercules  (Zamora,  1483  and  1499),  and  Fernandez  de 
Heredia  wrote  Trabajos  y  afanes  de  Hercules  (Madrid,  1682),  which 
belies  its  title,  being  a  collection  of  adages  and  allegories.  Le  Fatiche 
d'  Ercole  (1475)  is  a  romance  in  poetic  prose  by  Pietro  Bassi,  and  the 
Dodeci  Travagli  di  Ercole  (1544)  a  poem  by  J.  Perillos. 

HERCULES,  in  astronomy,  a  constellation  of  the  northern 
hemisphere,  mentioned  by  Eudoxus  (4th  century  B.C.)  and 
Aratus  (3rd  century  B.C.)  and  catalogued  by  Ptolemy  (29  stars) 
and  Tycho  Brahe  (28  stars).  Represented  by  a  man  kneeling, 
this  constellation  was  first  known  as  "  the  man  on  his  knees," 
and  was  afterwards  called  Cetheus,  Theseus  and  Hercules 
by  the  ancient  Greeks.  Interesting  objects  in  this  constellation 
are:  a  Herculis,  a  fine  coloured  double  star,  composed  of  an 
orange  star  of  magnitude  2|,  and  a  blue  star  of  magnitude  6; 
f  Herculis,  a  binary  star,  discovered  by  Sir  William  Herschel 
in  1782;  one  component  is  a  yellow  star  of  the  third  magnitude, 
the  other  a  bluish,  which  appears  to  vary  from  red  to  blue,  of 
magnitude  6;  g  and  u  Herculis,  irregularly  variable  stars; 
and  the  cluster  M .  ij  Herculis,  the  finest  globular  cluster  in  the 
northern  hemisphere,  containing  at  least  5000  stars  and  of  the 
1000  determined  only  2  are  variable. 

HERD  (a  word  common  to  Teutonic  languages;  the  O.  Eng. 
form  was  heard;  cf.  Ger.  Herde,  Swed.  and  Dan.  hjord;  the 
Sans,  ca'rdhas,  which  shows  the  pre-Teutonic  form,  means 
a  troop),  a  number  of  animals  of  one  kind  driven  or  fed  together, 
usually  applied  to  cattle  as  "  flock  "  is  to  sheep,  but  used  also 
of  whales,  porpoises,  &c.,  and  of  birds,  as  swans,  cranes  and 
curlews.  A  "  herd-book  "  is  a  book  containing  the  pedigree 
and  other  information  of  any  breed  of  cattle  or  pigs,  like  the 
"  flock-book  "  for  sheep  or  "  stud-book  "  for  horses.  Formerly 
the  word  "  herdwick  "  was  applied  to  the  pasture  ground  under 
the  care  of  a  shepherd,  and  it  is  now  used  of  a  special  hardy 
breed  of  sheep  in  Cumberland  and  Westmorland.  The  word 
"  herd  "  is  also  applied  in  a  disparaging  sense  to  a  company  of 
people,  a  mob  or  rabble,  as  "  the  vulgar  herd."  As  the  name 
for  a  keeper  of  a  herd  or  flock  of  domestic  animals,  the  herdsman, 
it  is  usually  qualified  to  denote  the  kind  of  animal  under  his 


protection,  as  swine-herd,  shepherd,  &c.,  but  in  Ireland,  Scotland 
and  the  north  of  England,  "  herd  "  alone  is  commonly  used. 

HERDER,  JOHANN  GOTTFRIED  VON  (1744-1803),  one  of 
the  most  prolific  and  influential  writers  that  Germany  has  pro- 
duced, was  born  in  Mohrungen,  a  small  town  in  East  Prussia, 
on  the  25th  of  August  1744.  Like  his  contemporary  Lessing, 
Herder  had  throughout  his  life  to  struggle  against  adverse 
circumstances.  His  father  was  poor,  having  to  put  together  a 
subsistence  by  uniting  the  humble  offices  of  sexton,  choir-singer 
and  petty  schoolmaster.  After  receiving  some  rudimentary 
instruction  from  his  father,  the  boy  was  sent  to  the  grammar 
school  of  his  native  town.  The  mode  of  discipline  practised 
by  the  pedantic  and  irritable  old  man  who  stood  at  the  head  of 
this  institution  was  not  at  all  to  the  young  student's  liking, 
and  the  impression  made  upon  him  stimulated  him  later  on  to 
work  out  his  projects  of  school  reform.  The  hardships  of  his 
early  years  drove  him  to  introspection  and  to  solitary  communion 
with  nature,  and  thus  favoured  a  more  than  proportionate 
development  of  the  sentimental  and  poetic  side  of  his  mind. 
When  quite  young  he  expressed  a  wish  to  become  a  minister 
of  the  gospel,  but  his  aspirations  were  discouraged  by  the 
local  clergyman.  In  1762,  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  he  went  up 
to  Konigsberg  with  the  intention  of  studying  medicine,  but 
finding  himself  unequal  to  the  operations  of  the  dissecting-room, 
he  abandoned  this  object,  and,  by  the  help  of  one  or  two  friends 
and  his  own  self-supporting  labours,  followed  out  his  earlier 
idea  of  the  clerical  profession  by  joining  the  university.  There 
he  came  under  the  influence  of  Kant,  who  was  just  then  passing 
from  physical  to  metaphysical  problems.  Without  becoming 
a  disciple  of  Kant,  young  Herder  was  deeply  stimulated  to  fresh 
critical  inquiry  by  that  thinker's  revolutionary  ideas  in  philo- 
sophy. To  Kant's  lectures  and  conversations  he  further  owed 
something  of  his  large  interest  in  cosmological  and  anthropolo- 
gical problems.  Among  the  writers  whom  he  most  carefully  read 
were  Plato,  Hume,  Shaftesbury,  Leibnitz,  Diderot  and  Rousseau. 
Another  personal  influence  under  which  he  fell  at  Konigsberg, 
and  which  was  destined  to  be  far  more  permanent,  was  that  of 
J.  G.  Hamann,  "  the  northern  Mage."  This  writer  had  already 
won  a  name,  and  in  young  Herder  he  found  a  mind  well  fitted 
to  be  the  receptacle  and  vehicle  of  his  new  ideas  on  literature. 
From  this  vague,  incoherent,  yet  gifted  writer  our  author  acquired 
some  of  his  strong  feeling  for  the  naive  element  in  poetry,  and  for 
the  earliest  developments  of  national  literature.  Even  before 
he  went  to  Konigsberg  he  had  begun  to  compose  verses,  and  at 
the  age  of  twenty  he  took  up  the  pen  as  a  chief  occupation. 
His  first  published  writings  were  occasional  poems  and  reviews 
contributed  to  the  Konigsbergische  Zeitung.  Soon  after  this  he 
got  an  appointment  at  Riga,  as  assistant  master  at  the  cathedral 
school,  and  a  few  years  later,  became  assistant  pastor.  In 
this  busy  commercial  town,  in  somewhat  improved  pecuniary 
and  social  circumstances,  he  developed  the  main  ideas 
of  his  writings.  In  the  year  1767  he  published  his  first 
considerable  work  Fragmenle  uber  die  neuere  deutsche  Literatur, 
which  at  once  made  him  widely  known  and  secured  for  him  the 
favourable  interest  of  Lessing.  From  this  time  he  continued 
to  pour  forth  a  number  of  critical  writings  on  literature,  art,  &c. 
His  bold  ideas  on  these  subjects,  which  were  a  great  advance 
even  on  Lessing's  doctrines,  naturally  excited  hostile  criticism, 
and  in  consequence  of  this  opposition,  which  took  the  form  of 
aspersions  on  his  religious  orthodoxy,  he  resolved  to  leave 
Riga.  He  was  much  carried  away  at  this  time  by  the  idea  of 
a  radical  reform  of  social  life  in  Livonia,  which  (after  the  example 
of  Rousseau)  he  thought  to  effect  by  means  of  a  better  method 
of  school-training.  With  this  plan  in  view  he  began  (1769)  a 
tour  through  France,  England,  Holland,  &c.,  for  the  purpose  of 
collecting  information ,  respecting  their  systems  of  education. 
It  was  during  the  solitude  of  his  voyage  to  France,  when  on  deck 
at  night,  that  he  first  shaped  his  idea  of  the  genesis  of  primitive 
poetry,  and  of  the  gradual  evolution  of  humanity.  Having 
received  an  offer  of  an  appointment  as  travelling  tutor  and  chap- 
lain to  the  young  prince  of  Eutin-Holstein,  he  abandoned  his 
somewhat  visionary  scheme  of  a  social  reconstruction  of  a 


348 


HERDER 


Russian  province.  He  has,  however,  left  a  curious  sketch  of 
his  projected  school  reforms.  His  new  duties  led  him  to  Strass- 
burg,  where  he  met  the  young  Goethe,  on  whose  poetical  develop- 
ment he  exercised  so  potent  an  influence.  At  Darmstadt  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Caroline  Flachsland,  to  whom  he  soon 
became  betrothed,  and  who  for  the  rest  of  his  life  supplied  him 
with  that  abundance  of  consolatory  sympathy  which  his  sensitive 
and  rather  querulous  nature  appeared  to  require.  The  engage- 
ment as  tutor  did  not  prove  an  agreeable  one,  and  he  soon  threw 
it  up  (1771)  in  favour  of  an  appointment  as  court  preacher 
and  member  of  the  consistory  at  Biickeburg.  Here  he  had  to 
encounter  bitter  opposition  from  the  orthodox  clergy  and  their 
followers,  among  whom  he  was  regarded  as  a  freethinker.  His 
health  continued  poor,  and  a  fistula  in  the  eye,  from  which  he 
had  suffered  from  early  childhood,  and  to  cure  which  he  had 
undergone  a  number  of  painful  operations,  continued  to  trouble 
him.  Further,  pecuniary  difficulties,  from  which  he  never 
long  managed  to  keep  himself  free,  by  delaying  his  marriage, 
added  to  his  depression.  Notwithstanding  these  trying  circum- 
stances he  resumed  literary  work,  which  his  travels  had  inter- 
rupted. For  some  time  he  had  been  greatly  interested  by  the 
poetry  of  the  north,  more  particularly  Percy's  Reliques,  the 
poems  of  "  Ossian  "  (in  the  genuineness  of  which  he  like  many 
others  believed)  and  the  works  of  Shakespeare.  Under  the 
influence  of  this  reading  he  now  finally  broke  with  classicism 
and  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  new  Sturm  und  Drang 
movement.  He  co-operated  with  a  band  of  young  writers  at 
Darmstadt  and  Frankfort,  including  Goethe,  who  in  a  journal 
of  their  own  sought  to  diffuse  the  new  ideas.  His  marriage  took 
place  in  1773.  In  1776  he  obtained  through  Goethe's  influence 
the  post  of  general  superintendent  and  court  preacher  at  Weimar, 
where  he  passed  the  rest  of  his  life.  There  he  enjoyed  the  society 
of  Goethe,  Wieland,  Jean  Paul  (who  came  to  Weimar  in  order 
to  be  near  Herder),  and  others,  the  patronage  of  the  court,  with 
whom  as  a  preacher  he  was  very  popular,  and  an  opportunity 
of  carrying  out  some  of  his  ideas  of  school  reform.  Yet  the  social 
atmosphere  of  the  place  did  not  suit  him.  His  personal  relations 
with  Goethe  again  and  again  became  embittered.  This,  added 
to  ill-health,  served  to  intensify  a  natural  irritability  of  tempera- 
ment, and  the  history  of  his  later  Weimar  days  is  a  rather 
dreary  page  in  the  chronicles  of  literary  life.  He  had  valued 
more  than  anything  else  a  teacher's  influence  over  other  minds, 
and  as  he  began  to  feel  that  he  was  losing  it  he  grew  jealous  of 
the  success  of  those  who  nad  outgrown  this  influence.  Yet 
while  presenting  these  unlovely  traits,  Herder's  character  was 
on  the  whole  a  worthy  and  attractive  one.  This  seems  to  be 
sufficiently  attested  by  the  fact  that  he  was  greatly  liked  and 
esteemed,  not  only  in  the  pulpit  but  in  private  intercourse, 
by  cultivated  women  like  the  countess  of  Buckeburg,  the  duchess 
of  Weimar  and  Frau  von  Stein,  and,  what  perhaps  is  more, 
was  exceedingly  popular  among  the  gymnasium  pupils,  in  whose 
education  he  took  so  lively  an  interest.  While  much  that  Herder 
produced  after  settling  in  Weimar  has  little  value,  he  wrote 
also  some  of  his  best  works,  among  others  his  collection  of  popular 
poetry  on  which  he  had  been  engaged  for  many  years,  Stimmen 
der  Volker  in  Liedern  (1778-1779);  his  translation  of  the  Spanish 
romances  of  the  Cid  (1805);  his  celebrated  work  on  Hebrew 
poetry,  Vom  Geist  der  hebraiscken  Poesie  (1782-1783);  and  his 
opus  magnum,  the  Ideen  zur  Philosophic  der  Geschichte  der 
Menschheit  (1784-1791).  Towards  the  close  of  his  life  he  occupied 
himself,  like  Lessing,  with  speculative  questions  in  philosophy 
and  theology.  The  boldness  of  some  of  his  ideas  cost  him  some 
valuable  friendships,  as  that  of  Jacobi,  Lavater  and  even  of 
his  early  teacher  Hamann.  He  died  on  the  i8th  of  December 
1803,  full  of  new  literary  plans  up  to  the  very  last. 

Herder's  writings  were  for  a  long  time  regarded  as  of  temporary 
value  only,  and  fell  into  neglect.  Recent  criticism,  however, 
has  tended  very  much  to  raise  their  value  by  tracing  out  their 
wide  and  far-reaching  influence.  His  works  are  very  voluminous, 
and  to  a  large  extent  fragmentary  and  devoid  of  artistic  finish; 
nevertheless  they  are  nearly  always  worth  investigating  for  the 
brilliant  suggestions  in  which  they  abound.  His  place  in  German 


literature  has  already  been  indicated  in  tracing  his  mental 
development.  Like  Lessing,  whose  work  he  immediately 
continued,  he  was  a  pioneer  of  the  golden  age  of  this  literature. 
Lessing  had  given  the  first  impetus  to  the  formation  of  a  national 
literature  by  exposing  the  folly  of  the  current  imitation  of 
French  writers.  But  in  doing  this  he  did  not  so  much  call  his 
fellow-countrymen  to  develop  freely  their  own  national  senti- 
ments and  ideas  as  send  them  back  to  classical  example  and 
principle.  Lessing  was  the  exponent  of  German  classicism; 
Herder,  on  the  contrary,  was  a  pioneer  of  the  romantic  movement. 
He  fought  against  all  imitation  as  such,  and  bade  German 
writers  be  true  to  themselves  and  their  national  antecedents. 
As  a  sort  of  theoretic  basis  for  this  adhesion  to  national  type 
in  literature,  he  conceived  the  idea  that  literature  and  art, 
together  with  language  and  national  culture  as  a  whole,  are 
evolved  by  a  natural  process,  and  that  the  intellectual  and 
emotional  life  of  each  people  is  correlated  with  peculiarities  of 
physical  temperament  and  of  material  environment.  In  this 
way  he  became  the  originator  of  that  genetic  or  historical 
method  which  has  since  been  applied  to  all  human  ideas  and 
institutions.  Herder  was  thus  an  evolutionist,  but  an  evolutionist 
still  under  the  influence  of  Rousseau.  That  is  to  say,  in  tracing 
back  the  later  acquisitions  of  civilization  to  impulses  which  are 
as  old  as  the  dawn  of  primitive  culture,  he  did  not,  as  the  modern 
evolutionist  does,  lay  stress  on  the  superiority  of  the  later  to 
the  earlier  stages  of  human  development,  but  rather  became 
enamoured  of  the  simplicity  and  spontaneity  of  those  early 
impulses  which,  since  they  are  the  oldest,  easily  come  to  look 
like  the  most  real  and  precious.  Yet  even  in  this  way  he  helped 
to  found  the  historical  school  in  literature  and  science,  for  it  was 
only  after  an  excessive  and  sentimental  interest  in  primitive 
human  culture  had  been  awakened  that  this  subject  would 
receive  the  amount  of  attention  which  was  requisite  for  the 
genetic  explanation  of  later  developments.  This  historical  idea 
was  carried  by  Herder  into  the  regions  of  poetry,  art,  religion, 
language,  and  finally  into  human  culture  as  a  whole.  It  colours 
all  his  writings,  and  is  intimately  connected  with  some  of  the 
most  characteristic  attributes  of  his  mind,  a  quick  sympathetic 
imagination,  a  fine  feeling  for  local  differences,  and  a  scientific 
instinct  for  seizing  the  sequences  of  cause  and  effect. 

Herder's  works  may  be  arranged  in  an  ascending  series,  corre- 
sponding to  the  way  in  which  the  genetic  or  historical  idea  was 
developed  and  extended.  First  come  the  works  on  poetic  literature, 
art,  language  and  religion  as  special  regions  of  development. 
Secondly,  we  have  in  the  Ideen  a  general  account  of  the  process  of 
human  evolution.  Thirdly,  there  are  a  number  of  writings  which, 
though  inferior  in  interest  to  the  others,  may  be  said  to  supply  the 
philosophic  basis  of  his  leading  ideas. 

1.  In  the  region  of  poetry  Herder  sought  to  persuade  his  country- 
men, both  by  example  and  precept,  to  return  to  a  natural  and 
spontaneous  form  of  utterance.     His  own  poetry  has  but  little  value ; 
Herder  was  a  skilful  verse-maker  but  hardly  a  creative  poet.     He 
was  most  successful  in  his  translation  of  popular  song,  in  which  he 
shows  a  rare  sympathetic  insight  into  the  various  feelings  and  ideas 
of  peoples  as  unlike  as  Greenlanders  and  Spaniards,  Indians  and 
Scots.     In  the  Fragmente  he  aims  at  nationalizing  German  poetry 
and  freeing  it  from  all  extraneous  influence.     He  ridicules  the  ambi- 
tion of  German  writers  to  be  classic,  as  Lessing  had  ridiculed  their 
eagerness  to  be  French.     He  looked  at  poetry  as  a  kind  of  "  proteus 
among  the  people,  which  changes  its  form  according  to  language, 
manners,  habits,  according  to  temperament  and  climate,  nay,  even 
according  to  the  accent  of  different  nations."     This  fact  of  the 
idiosyncrasy  of  national  poetry  he  illustrated  with  great  fulness  and 
richness  in  the  case  of  Homer,  the  nature  of  whose  works  he  was  one 
of  the  first  to  elucidate,  the  Hebrew  poets,  and  the  poetry  of  the 
north  as  typified  in  "  Ossian."     This  same  idea  of  necessary  relation 
to  national  character  and  circumstance  is  also  applied  to  dramatic 
poetry,  and  more  especially  to  Shakespeare.     Lessing  had  done  much 
to  make  Shakespeare  known  to  Germany,  but  he  had  regarded  him 
in  contrast  to  the  French  dramatists  with  whom  he  also  contrasted 
the  Greek  dramatic  poets,  and  accordingly  did  not  bring  out  his 
essentially  modern  and  Teutonic  character.     Herder  does  this,  and 
in  doing  so  shows  a  far  deeper  understanding  of  Shakespeare's 
genius  than  his  predecessor  had  shown. 

2.  The  views  on  art  contained  in  Herder's  Kritische  Wdlder  (1769), 
Plastik  (1778),  &c.,  are  chiefly  valuable  as  a  correction  of  the  excesses 
into  which  reverence  for  Greek  art  had  betrayed  Winckelmann  and 
Lessing,  by  help  of  his  fundamental  idea  of  national  idiosyncrasy. 
He  argues  against  the  setting  up  of  classic  art  as  an  unchanging  type, 


HEREDIA 


349 


valid  for  all  peoples  and  all  times.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  bring  to 
light  the  characteristic  excellences  of  Gothic  art.  Beyond  this,  he 
eloquently  pleaded  the  cause  of  painting  as  a  distinct  art,  whicl 
Lessing  in  his  desire  to  mark  off  the  formative  arts  from  poetry  am 
music  had  confounded  with  sculpture.  He  regarded  this  as  the  art 
of  the  eye,  while  sculpture  was  rather  the  art  of  the  organ  of  touch 
Painting  being  less  real  than  sculpture,  because  lacking  the  thirc 
dimension  of  space,  and  a  kind  of  dream,  admitted  of  much  greater 
freedom  of  treatment  than  this  last.  Herder  had  a  genuine  apprecia- 
tion for  early  German  painters,  and  helped  to  awaken  the  modern 
interest  in  Albrecht  Dilrer. 

3.  By  his  work  on  language  Uber  den  Ursprung  der  Sprache  (1772). 
Herder  may  be  said  to  have  laid  the  first  rude  foundations  of  the 
science  of  comparative  philology  and  that  deeper  science  of  the  ulti- 
mate nature  and  origin  of  language.     It  was  specially  directed  against 
the  supposition  of  a  divine  communication  of  language  to  man 
Its  main  argument   is  that  speech  is  a  necessary  outcome  of  thai 
special  arrangement  of  mental  forces  which  distinguishes  man,  and 
more  particularly  from  his  habits  of  reflection.     "  If,"  Herder  says, 
"  it  is  incomprehensible  to  others  how  a  human  mind  could  invent 
language,  it  is  as  incomprehensible  to  me  how  a  human  mind  could 
be  what  it  is  without  discovering  language  for  itself."     The  writer 
does  not  make  that  use  of  the  fact  of  man's  superior  organic  endow- 
ments which  one  might  expect  from  his  general  conception  of  the 
relation  of  the  physical  and  the  mental  in  human  development. 

4.  Herder's  services  in  laying  the  foundations  of  a  comparative 
science  of  religion  and  mythology  are  even  of  greater  value  than  his 
somewhat  crude  philological  speculations.     In  opposition  to  the 
general  spirit  of  the  l8th  century  he  saw,  by  means  of  his  historic 
sense,  the  naturalness  of  religion,  its  relation  to  man's  wants  and 
impulses.     Thus  with  respect  to  early  religious  beliefs  he  rejected 
Hume's  notion  that  religion  sprang  out  of  the  fears  of  primitive 
men,  in  favour  of  the  theory  that  it  represents  the  first  attempts  of 
our  species  to  explain  phenomena.     He  thus  intimately  associated 
religion  with  mythology  and  primitive  poetry.     As  to  later  forms  of 
religion,  he  appears  to  have  held  that  they  owe  their  vitality  to  their 
embodiment   of   the   deep-seated   moral   feelings   of   our   common 
humanity.     His  high  appreciation  of  Christianity,  which  contrasts 
with  the  contemptuous  estimate  of  the  contemporary  rationalists, 
rested  on  a  firm  belief  in  its  essential  humanity,  to  which  fact,  and 
not  to  conscious  deception,  he  attributes  its  success.     His  exposition 
of  this  religion  in  his  sermons  and  writings  was  simply  an  unfolding 
of  its  moral  side.     In  his  later  life,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  he  found 
his  way  to  a  speculative  basis  for  his  religious  beliefs. 

5.  Herder's  masterpiece,  the  Ideen  zur  Philosophic  der  Geschichte, 
has  the  ambitious  aim  of  explaining  the  whole  of  human  development 
in  close  connexion  with  the  nature  of  man's  physical  environment. 
Man  is  viewed  as  a  part  of  nature,  and  all  his  widely  differing  forms 
of  development  as  strictly  natural  processes.     It  thus  stands  in  sharp 
contrast  to  the  anthropology  of  Kant,  which  opposes  human  develop- 
ment conceived  as  the  gradual  manifestation  of  a  growing  faculty 
of  rational  free  will  to  the  operations  of  physical  nature.     Herder 
defines  human  history  as  "  a  pure  natural  history  of  human  powers, 
actions  and  propensities,  modified  by  time  and  place."     The  Ideen 
shows  us  that  Herder  is  an  evolutionist  after  the  manner  of  Leibnitz, 
and  not  after  that  of  more  modern  evolutionists.     The  lower  forms 
of  life  prefigure  man  in  unequal  degrees  of  imperfection;  they  exist 
for  his  sake,  but  they  are  not  regarded  as  representing  necessary 
antecedent  conditions  of  human  existence.      The  genetic  method  is 
applied  to  varieties  of  man,  not  to  man  as  a  whole.     It  is  worth 
noting,  however,  that  Herder  in  his  provokingly  tentative  way  of 
thinking  comes  now  and  again  very  near  ideas  made  familiar  to  us  by 
Spencer  and  Darwin.     Thus  in  a  passage  in  book  xv.  chap,  ii.,  which 
unmistakably  foreshadows  Darwin's  idea  of  a  struggle  for  existence, 
we  read:  "Among  millions  of  creatures  whatever  could  preserve 
jtself  abides,  and  still  after  the  lapse  of  thousands  of  years  remains 
in  the  great  harmonious  order.     Wild  animals  and  tame,  carnivorous 
and  graminivorous,  insects,  birds,  fishes  and  man  are  adapted  to  each 
other."     With  this  may  be  compared  a  passage  in  the  Ursprung  der 
Sprache,  where  there  is  a  curious  adumbration  of  Spencer's  idea  that 
intelligence,  as  distinguished  from  instinct,  arises  from  a  growing 
complexity  of  action,  or,  to  use  Herder's  words,  from  the  substitution 
of  a  more  for  a  less  contracted  sphere.     Herder  is  more  successful 
in  tracing  the  early  developments  of  particular  peoples  than  in  con- 
structing a  scientific  theory  of  evolution.     Here  he  may  be  said  to  have 
laid  the  foundations  of  the  science  of  primitive  culture  as  a  whole. 
His  account  of  the  first  dawnings  of  culture,  and  of  the  ruder  Oriental 
civilizations,  is  marked  by  genuine  insight.     On  the  other  hand  the 
development  of  classic  culture  is  traced  with  a  less  skilful  hand. 
Altogether  this  work  is  rich  in  suggestion  to  the  philosophic  historian 
and  the  anthropologist,  though  marked  by  much  vagueness  of  con- 
ception and  hastiness  of  generalization. 

6.  Of  Herder's  properly  metaphysical  speculations  little  needs  to 
be  said.  He  was  too  much  under  the  sway  of  feeling  and  concrete 
imagination  to  be  capable  of  great  things  in  abstract  thought.  It  is 
generally  admitted  that  he  had  no  accurate  knowledge  either  of 
Spinoza,  whose  monism  he  advocated,  or  of  Kant,  whose  critical 
philosophy  he  so  fiercely  attacked.  Herder's  Spinozism,  which  is 
set  forth  in  his  little  work,  Vom  Erkennen  und  Empfinden  der 
menschlichen  Seele  (1778),  is  much  less  logically  conceived  than 


Lessing's.  It  is  the  religious  aspect  of  it  which  attracts  him,  the 
presentation  in  God  of  an  object  which  at  once  satisfies  the  feelings 
and  the  intellect.  With  respect  to  his  attacks  on  the  critical  philo- 
sophy in  the  Metakritik  (1799),  it  is  easy  to  understand  how  his 
concrete  mind,  ever  alive  to  the  unity  of  things,  instinctively  rebelled 
against  that  analytic  separation  of  the  mental  processes  which  Kant 
attempted.  However  crude  and  hasty  this  critical  investigation,  it 
helped  to  direct  philosophic  reflection  to  the  unity  of  mind,  and  so 
to  develop  the  post-Kantian  line  of  speculation.  Herder  was  much 
attracted  by  Schelling's  early  writings,  but  appears  to  have  disliked 
Hegelianism  because  of  the  atheism  it  seemed  to  him  to  involve. 
In  the  Kalligone  (1800),  work  directed  against  Kant's  Kritik  der 
Urteilskraft,  Herder  argues  for  the  close  connexion  of  the  beautiful 
and  the  good.  To  his  mind  the  content  of  art,  which  he  conceived 
as  human  feeling  and  human  life  in  its  completeness,  was  much  more 
valuable  than  the  form,  and  so  he  was  naturally  led  to  emphasize 
the  moral  element  in  art.  Thus  his  theoretic  opposition  to  the 
Kantian  aesthetics  is  but  the  reflection  of  his  practical  opposition 
to  the  form-idolatry  of  the  Weimar  poets.  (J.  S.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.— An  edition  of  Herder's  Sdmtliche  Werke  in  45 
vols.  was  published  after  his  death  by  his  widow  (1805-1820);  a 
second  in  60  vols.  followed  in  1827-1830;  a  third  in  40  vols.  in  1852- 
1854.  There  is  also  an  edition  by  H.  Duntzer  (24  vols.,  1869-1879). 
But  these  have  all  been  superseded  by  the  monumental  critical 
edition  by  B.  Suphan  (32  vols.,  1877  sqq.).  Of  the  many  "  selected 
works,"  mention  may  be  made  of  those  by  B.  Suphan  (4  vols., 
1884-1887);  by  H.  Lambel,  H.  Meyer  and  E.  Kuhnemann  in 
Kurschner's  Deutsche  Nationalliteratur  (10  vols.,  1885-1894). 
For  Herder's  correspondence,  see  Aus  Herders  Nachlass  (3  vols., 
1856-1857),  Herders  Reise  nach  Ilalien  (1859),  Von  und  an  Herder: 
Ungedruckte  Briefe  (3  vols.,  1861-1862) — all  three  works  edited  by 
H.  Duntzer  and  F.  G.  von  Herder.  Herder's  Briejwechsel  mil  Nicolai 
and  his  Briefe  an  Hamann  have  been  edited  by  O.  Hoffmann  (1887 
and  1889).  For  biography  and  criticism,  see  Erinnerungen  aus 
dem  Leben  Herders,  by  his  wife,  edited  by  J.  G.  Muller  (2  vols.,  1820) ; 
J.  G.  von  Herders  Lebensbild  (with  his  correspondence),  by  his  son, 
E.  G.  von  Herder  (6  vols.,  1846);  C.  Joret,  Herder  et  la  renaissance 
liUeraire  en  Allemagne  au  XVIII'  siecle  (1875);  F.  von  Barenbach, 
Herder  als  Vorganger  Darwins  (1877) ;  R.  Haym,  Herder  nach  seinem 
Leben  und  seinen  Werken  (2  vols.,  1880-1885);  H.  Nevinson,  A 
Sketch  of  Herder  and  his  Times  (1884);  M.  Kronenberg,  Herders 
Philosophic  nach  ihrem  Entwicklungsgang  (1889) ;  E.Kiihnemann,  Her- 
ders Leben  (1895) ;  R.  Burkner,  Herder,  sein  Lebenund  Wirken  (1904). 

HEREDIA,  JOSE  MARIA  DE  (1842-1905),  French  poet,  the 
modern  master  of  the  French  sonnet,  was  born  at  Fortuna 
Cafeyere,  near  Santiago  de  Cuba,  on  the  22nd  of  November  1842, 
being  in  blood  part  Spanish  Creole  and  part  French.  At  the 
age  of  eight  he  came  from  the  West  Indies  to  France,  returning 
thence  to  Havana  at  seventeen,  and  finally  making  France  his 
home  not  long  afterwards.  He  received  his  classical  education 
with  the  priests  of  Saint  Vincent  at  Senlis,  and  after  a  visit  to 
Havana  he  studied  at  the  Ecole  des  Chartes  at.  Paris.  In  the 
later  'sixties,  with  Francois  Coppee,  Sully-Prudhomme,  Paul 
Verlaine  and  others  less  distinguished,  he  made  one  of  the  band 
of  poets  who  gathered  round  Leconte  de  Lisle,  and  received  the 
name  of  Parnassiens.  To  this  new  school,  form — the  technical 
side  of  their  art — was  of  supreme  importance,  and,  in  reaction 
against  the  influence  of  Mussel,  they  rigorously  repressed  in  their 
work  the  expression  of  personal  feeling  and  emotion.  "  True 
poetry,"  said  M.  de  Heredia  in  his  discourse  on  entering  the 
Academy — "  true  poetry  dwells  in  nature  and  in  humanity, 
which  are  eternal,  and  not  in  the  heart  of  the  creature  of  a  day, 
lowever  great."  M.  de  Heredia's  place  in  the  movement  was 
soon  assured.  He  wrote  very  little,  and  published  even  less, 
jut  his  sonnets  circulated  in  MS.,  and  gave  him  a  reputation 
acfore  they  appeared  in  1893,  together  with  a  few  longer  poems, 
as  a  volume,  under  the  title  of  Les  Trophees.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Academy  on  the  22nd  of  February  1894,  in  the  place  of 
iouis  de  Mazade-Percin  the  publicist.  Few  purely  literary 
men  can  have  entered  the  Academy  with  credentials  so  small  in 
quantity.  A  small  volume  of  verse — a  translation,  with  intro- 
duction, of  Diaz  del  Castillo's  History  of  the  Conquest  of  New 
Spain  (1878-1881) — a  translation  of  the  life  of  the  nun  Alferez 
1894),  de  Quincey's  "  Spanish  Military  Nun" — and  one  or  two 
ihort  pieces  of  occasional  verse,  and  an  introduction  or  so — this 
s  but  small  literary  baggage,  to  use  the  French  expression. 
But  the  sonnets  are  of  their  kind  among  the  most  superb  in 
modern  literature.  "  A  Legende  des  siecles  in  sonnets "  M. 
'rancois  Coppee  called  them.  Each  presents  a  picture,  striking, 
>rilliant,  drawn  with  unfaltering  hand — the  picture  of  some 


350 


HEREDIA  Y  CAMPUZANO— HEREDITY 


characteristic  scene  in  man's  long  history.  The  verse  is  flawless, 
polished  like  a  gem;  and  its  sound  has  distinction  and  fine 
harmony.  If  one  may  suggest  a  fault,  it  is  that  each  picture 
is  sometimes  too  much  of  a  picture  only,  and  that  the  poetical 
line,  like  that  of  M.  de  Heredia's  master,  Leconte  de  Lisle 
himself,  is  occasionally  overcrowded.  M.  de  Heredia  was  none 
the  less  one  of  the  most  skilful  craftsmen  who  ever  practised 
the  art  of  verse.  In  1901  he  became  librarian  of  the  BibUotheque 
de  l'Ars6nal  at  Paris.  He  died  at  the  Chateau  de  Bourdonne 
(Seine-et-Oise)  on  the  3rd  of  October  1905,  having  completed 
his  critical  edition  of  Andre  Chenier's  works. 

HEREDIA  Y  CAMPUZANO,  JOSfi  MARIA  (1803-1839), 
Cuban  poet,  was  born  at  Santiago  de  Cuba  on  the  3ist  of 
December  1803,  studied  at  the  university  of  Havana,  and  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1823.  In  the  autumn  of  1823  he  was  arrested 
on  a  charge  of  conspiracy  against  the  Spanish  government,  and 
was  sentenced  to  banishment  for  life.  He  took  refuge  in  the 
United  States,  published  a  volume  of  verses  at  New  York  in 
1825,  and  then  went  to  Mexico,  where,  becoming  naturalized,  he 
obtained  a  post  as  magistrate.  In  1832  a  collection  of  his  poems 
was  issued  at  Toluca,  and  in  1836  he  obtained  permission  to  visit 
Cuba  for  two  months.  Disappointed  in  his  political  ambitions, 
and  broken  in  health,  Heredia  returned  to  Mexico  in  January 
1837,  and  died  at  Toluca  on  the  2ist  of  May  1839.  Many  of  his 
earlier  pieces  are  merely  clever  translations  from  French,  English 
and  Italian;  but  his  originality  is  placed  beyond  doubt  by  such 
poems  as  the  Himno  del  deslerrado,  the  epistle  to  Emilia,  Desen- 
gaiios,  and  the  celebrated  ode  to  Niagara.  Bello  may  be  thought 
to  excel  Heredia  in  execution,  and  a  few  lines  of  Olmedo's  Canto 
&  Junin  vibrate  with  a  virile  passion  to  which  the  Cuban  poet 
rarely  attained;  but  the  sincerity  of  his  patriotism  and  the 
sublimity  of  his  imagination  have  secured  for  Heredia  a  real 
supremacy  among  Spanish-American  poets. 

The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  published  at  Paris  in  1893 
with  a  preface  by  Elias  Zerolo. 

HEREDITAMENT  (from  Lat.  hereditare,  to  inherit,  heres, 
heir),  in  law,  every  kind  of  property  that  can  be  inherited. 
Hereditaments  are  divided  into  corporeal  and  incorporeal; 
corporeal  hereditaments  are  "  such  as  affect  the  senses,  and  may 
be  seen  and  handled  by  the  body;  incorporeal  are  not  the 
subject  of  sensation,  can  neither  be  seen  nor  handled,  are  creatures 
of  the  mind,  and  exist  only  in  contemplation  "  (Blackstone, 
Commentaries).  An  example  of  a  corporeal  hereditament  is  land 
held  in  freehold,  of  incorporeal  herditaments,  tithes,  advowsons, 
pensions,  annuities,  rents,  franchises,  &c.  It  is  still  used  in  the 
phrase  "  lands,  tenements  and  hereditaments "  to  describe 
property  in  land,  as  distinguished  from  goods  and  chattels  or 
movable  property. 

HEREDITY,  in  biological  science,  the  name  given  to  the 
generalization,  drawn  from  the  observed  facts,  that  animals 
and  plants  closely  resemble  their  progenitors.  (That  the 
resemblance  is  not  complete  involves  in  the  first  place  the 
subject  of  variation  (see  VARIATION  AND  SELECTION);  but  it 
must  be  clearly  stated  that  there  is  no  adequate  ground  for  the 
current  loose  statements  as  to  the  existence  of  opposing  "  laws  " 
or  "  forces  "  of  heredity  and  variation.)  In  the  simplest  cases 
there  seems  to  be  no  separate  problem  of  heredity.  When  a 
creeping  plant  propagates  itself  by  runners,  when  a  Nais  or 
Myrianida  breaks  up  into  a  series  of  similar  segments,  each  of 
which  becomes  a  worm  like  the  parent,  we  have  to  do  with  the 
general  fact  that  growing  organisms  tend  to  display  a  symmetrical 
repetition  of  equivalent  parts,  and  that  reproduction  by  fission 
is  simply  a  special  case  of  metamerism.  When  we  try  to  answer 
the  question  why  the  segments  of  an  organism  resemble  one 
another,  whether  they  remain  in  association  to  form  a  segmented 
animal,  or  break  into  different  animals,  we  come  to  the  conclusion, 
which  at  least  is  on  the  way  to  an  answer,  that  it  is  because  they 
are  formed  from  pieces  of  the  same  protoplasm,  growing  under 
similar  conditions.  It  is  apparently  a  fundamental  property 
of  protoplasm  to  be  able  to  multiply  by  division  into  parts, 
the  properties  of  which  are  similar  to  each  other  and  to  those 
of  the  parent. 


This  leads  us  directly  to  the  cases  of  reproduction  where  there 
is  an  obvious  problem  of  heredity.  In  the  majority  of  cases 
among  animals  and  plants  the  new  organisms  arise  from  portions 
of  living  matter,  separated  from  the  parents,  but  different  from 
the  parents  in  size  and  structure.  These  germs  of  the  new 
organisms  may  be  spores,  reproductive  cells,  fused  reproductive 
cells  or  multicellular  masses  (see  REPRODUCTION).  For  the 
present  purpose  it  is  enough  to  state  that  they  consist  of  portions 
of  the  parental  protoplasm.  These  pass  through  an  embryo- 
logical  history,  in  which  by  growth,  multiplication  and  specializa- 
tion they  form  structures  closely  resembling  the  parents.  Now, 
if  it  could  be  shown  that  these  reproductive  masses  arose  directly 
from  the  reproductive  masses  which  formed  the  parent  body, 
the  problems  of  heredity  would  be  extremely  simplified.  If  the 
first  division  of  a  reproductive  cell  set  apart  one  mass  to  lie 
dormant  for  a  time  and  ultimately  to  form  the  reproductive 
cells  of  the  new  generation,  while  the  other  mass,  exactly  of  the 
same  kind,  developed  directly  into  the  new  organism,  then 
heredity  would  simply  be  a  delayed  case  of  what  is  called  organic 
symmetry,  the  tendency  of  similar  living  material  to  develop 
in  similar  ways  under  the  stimulus  of  similar  external  conditions. 
The  cases  in  which  this  happens  are  very  rare.  In  the  Diptera 
the  first  division  of  the  egg-cell  separates  the  nuclear  material 
of  the  subsequent  reproductive  cells  from  the  material  that  is 
elaborated  into  the  new  organism  to  contain  these  cells.  In  the 
Daphnidae  and  in  Sagitta  a  similar  separation  occurs  at  slightly 
later  stages;  in  vertebrates  it  occurs  much  later;  while  in  some 
hydroids  the  germ-cells  do  not  arise  in  the  individual  which  is 
developed  from  the  egg-cell  at  all,  but  in  a  much  later  generation, 
which  is  produced  from  the  first  by  budding.  However,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  dismiss  the  fertile  idea  of  what  Moritz  Nussbaum 
and  August  Weismann,  who  drew  attention  to  it,  called  "  con- 
tinuity of  the  germ-plasm."  Weismann  has  shown  that  an 
actual  series  of  organic  forms  might  be  drawn  up  in  which  the 
formation  of  germ-cells  begins  at  stages  successively  more  remote 
from  the  first  division  of  the  egg-cell.  He  has  also  shown 
evidence,  singularly  complete  in  the  case  of  the  hydroids,  for 
the  existence  of  an  actual  migration  of  the  place  of  formation 
of  the  germ-cells,  the  migration  reaching  farther  and  farther 
from  the  egg-cell.  He  has  elaborated  the  conception  of  the 
germ-track,  a  chain  of  cell  generations  in  the  development 
of  any  creature  along  which  the  reproductive  material  saved 
over  from  the  development  of  one  generation  for  the  germ-cells 
of  the  next  generation  is  handed  on  in  a  latent  condition  to  its 
ultimate  position.  And  thus  he  supposes  a  real  continuity  of 
the  germ-plasm,  extending  from  generation  to  generation  in 
spite  of  the  apparent  discontinuity  in  the  observed  cases.  The 
conception  certainly  ranks  among  the  most  luminous  and  most 
fertile  contributions  of  the  igth  century  to  biological  thought, 
and  it  is  necessary  to  examine  at  greater  length  the  superstructure 
which  Weismann  has  raised  upon  it. 

V/eismann's  Theory  of  the  Germ-plasm. — A  living  being  takes 
its  individual  origin  only  where  there  is  separated  from  the  stock 
of  the  parent  a  little  piece  of  the  peculiar  reproductive  plasm, 
the  so-called  germ-plasm.  In  sexless  reproduction  one  parent 
is  enough;  in  sexual  reproduction  equivalent  masses  of  germ- 
plasm  from  each  parent  combine  to  form  the  new  individual. 
The  germ-plasm  resides  in  the  nucleus  of  cells,  and  Weismann 
identifies  it  with  the  nuclear  material  named  chromatin.  Like 
ordinary  protoplasm,  of  which  the  bulk  of  cell  bodies  is  composed, 
germ-plasm  is  a  living  material,  capable  of  growing  in  bulk 
without  alteration  of  structure  when  it  is  supplied  with  appro- 
priate food.  But  it  is  a  living  material  much  more  complex 
than  protoplasm.  In  the  first  place,  the  mass  of  germ-plasm 
which  is  the  starting-point  of  a  new  individual  consists  of  several, 
sometimes  of  many,  pieces  named  "  idants,"  which  are  either 
the  chromosomes  into  a  definite  number  of  which  the  nuclear 
material  of  a  dividing  cell  breaks  up,  or  possibly  smaller  units 
named  chromomeres.  These  idants  are  a  collection  of  "  ids," 
which  Weismann  tentatively  identifies  with  the  microsomata 
contained  in  the  chromosomes,  which  are  visible  after  treatment 
with  certain  reagents.  Each  id  contains  all  the  possibilities — 


HEREDITY 


generic,  specific,  individual  —  of  a  new  organism,  or  rather 
the  directing  substance  which  in  appropriate  surroundings  of 
food,  &c.,  forms  a  new  organism.  Each  id  is  a  veritable  micro- 
cosm, possessed  of  an  historic  architecture  that  has  been  elaborated 
slowly  .through  the  multitudinous  series  of  generations  that 
stretch  backwards  in  time  from  every  living  individual.  This 
microcosm,  again,  consists  of  a  number  of  minor  vital  units 
called  "  determinants,"  which  cohere  according  to  the  architec- 
ture of  the  whole  id.  The  determinants  are  hypothetical  units 
corresponding  to  the  number  of  parts  of  the  organism  inde- 
pendently variable.  Lastly,  each  determinant  consists  of  a 
number  of  small  hypothetical  units,  the  "  biophores."  These 
are  adaptations  of  a  conception  of  H.  deVries,  and  are  supposed 
to  become  active  by  leaving  the  nucleus  of  the  cell  in  which  they 
lie,  passing  out  into  the  general  protoplasm  of  the  cell  and  ruling 
its  activities.  Each  new  individual  begins  life  as  a  nucleated 
cell,  the  nucleus  of  which  contains  germ-plasm  of  this  complex 
structure  derived  from  the  parent.  The  reproductive  cell  gives 
rise  to  the  new  individual  by  continued  absorption  of  food,  by 
growth,  cell-divisions  and  cell-specializations.  The  theory 
supposes  that  the  first  divisions  of  the  nucleus  are  "  doubling," 
or  homogeneous  divisions.  The  germ-plasm  has  grown  in 
bulk  without  altering  its  character  in  any  respect,  and,  when  it 
divides,  each  resulting  mass  is  precisely  alike.  From  these 
first  divisions  a  chain  of  similar  doubling  divisions  stretches 
along  the  "  germ-tracks,"  so  marshalling  unaltered  germ-plasm 
to  the  generative  organs  of  the  new  individual,  to  be  ready  to 
form  the  germ-cells  of  the  next  generation.  In  this  mode  the 
continuity  of  the  germ-plasm  from  individual  to  individual  is 
maintained.  This  also  is  the  immortality  of  the  germ-cells, 
or  rather  of  the  germ-plasm,  the  part  of  the  theory  which  has 
laid  so  large  a  hold  on  the  popular  imagination,  although  it  is 
really  no  more  than  a  reassertion  in  new  terms  of  biogenesis. 
With  this  also  is  connected  the  celebrated  denial  of  the  inheritance 
of  acquired  characters.  It  seemed  a  clear  inference  that,  if  the 
hereditary  mass  for  the  daughters  were  separated  off  from  the 
hereditary  mass  that  was  to  form  the  mother,  at  the  very  first, 
before  the  body  of  the  mother  was  formed,  the  daughters  were 
in  all  essentials  the  sisters  of  their  mother,  and  could  take  from 
her  nothing  of  any  characters  that  might  be  impressed  on  her 
body  in  subsequent  development.  In  the  later  elaboration  of  his 
theory  Weismann  has  admitted  the  possibility  of  some  direct 
modification  of  the  germ-plasm  within  the  body  of  the  individual 
acting  as  its  host. 

The  mass  of  germ-plasm  which  is  not  retained  in  unaltered 
form  to  provide  for  the  generative  cells  is  supposed  to  be  employed 
for  the  elaboration  of  the  individual  body.  It  grows,  dividing 
and  multiplying,  and  forms  the  nuclear  matter  of  the  tissues  of 
the  individual,  but  the  theory  supposes  this  process  to  occur  in 
a  peculiar  fashion.  The  nuclear  divisions  are  what  Weismann 
calls  "  differentiating  "  or  heterogeneous  divisions.  In  them 
the  microcosms  of  the  germ-plasm  are  not  doubled,  but  slowly 
disintegrated  in  accordance  with  the  historical  architecture 
of  the  plasm,  each  division  differentiating  among  the  determinants 
and  marshalling  one  set  into  one  portion,  another  into  another 
portion.  There  are  differences  in  the  observed  facts  of  nuclear 
division  which  tend  to  support  the  theoretical  possibility  of  two 
sorts  of  division,  but  as  yet  these  have  not  been  correlated 
definitely  with  the  divisions  along  the  germ-tracks  and  the 
ordinary  divisions  of  embryological  organogeny.  The  theoretical 
conception  is,  that  when  the  whole  body  is  formed,  the  cells 
contain  only  their  own  kind  of  determinants,  and  it  would  follow 
from  this  that  the  cells  of  the  tissues  cannot  give  rise  to  structures 
containing  germ-plasm  less  disintegrated  than  their  own  nuclear 
material,  and  least  of  all  to  reproductive  cells  which  must  contain 
the  undisintegrated  microcosms  of  the  germ-plasm.  Cases  of 
bud-formation  and  of  reconstructions  of  lost  parts  (see  RE- 
GENERATION or  LOST  PARTS)  are  regarded  as  special  adaptations 
made  possible  by  the  provision  of  latent  groups  of  accessory 
determinants,  to  become  active  only  on  emergency. 

It  is  to  be  noticed  that  Weismann 's  conception  of  the  processes 
of  ontogeny  is  strictly  evolutionary,  and  in  so  far  is  a  reversion 


to  the  general  opinion  of  biologists  of  the  I7th  and  i8th  centuries. 
These  supposed  that  the  germ-cell  contained  an  image-in-little 
of  the  adult,  and  that  the  process  of  development  was  a  mere 
unfolding  or  evolution  of  this,  under  the  influence  of  favouring 
and  nutrient  forces.  Hartsoeker,  indeed,  went  so  far  as  to 
figure  the  human  spermatozoon  with  a  mannikin  seated  within 
the  "  head,"  and  similar  extremes  of  imagination  were  indulged 
in  by  other  writers  for  the  spermatozoon  or  ovum,  according 
to  the  view  they  took  of  the  relative  importance  of  these  two 
bodies.  C.  F.  Wolff,  in  his  Theoria  generationis  (1759),  was 
the  first  distinguished  anatomist  to  make  assault  on  these 
evolutionary  views,  but  his  direct  observations  on  the  process 
of  development  were  not  sufficient  in  bulk  nor  in  clarity  of 
interpretation  to  convince  his  contemporaries.  Naturally  the 
improved  methods  and  vastly  greater  knowledge  of  modern 
days  have  made  evolution  in  the  old  sense  an  impossible  con- 
ception; we  know  that  the  egg  is  morphologically  unlike  the 
adult,  that  various  external  conditions  are  necessary  for  its 
subsequent  progress  through  a  slow  series  of  stages,  each  of 
which  is  unlike  the  adult,  but  gradually  approaching  it  until 
the  final  condition  is  reached.  None  the  less,  Weismann's 
theory  supposes  that  the  important  determining  factor  in  these 
gradual  changes  lies  in  the  historical  architecture  of  the  germ- 
plasm,  and  from  the  theoretical  point  of  view  his  theory  remains 
strictly  an  unfolding,  a  becoming  manifest  of  hidden  complexity. 

Hertwig's  View. — The  chief  modern  holder  of  the  rival  view, 
and  the  writer  who  has  put  together  in  most  cogent  form  the 
objections  to  Weismann's  theory,  is  Oscar  Hertwig.  He  points 
out  that  there  is  no  direct  evidence  for  the  existence  of  differ- 
entiating as  opposed  to  doubling  divisions  of  the  nuclear  matter, 
and,  moreover,  he  thinks  that  there  is  very  generally  diffused 
evidence  as  to  the  universality  of  doubling  division.  In  the  first 
place,  there  is  the  fundamental  fact  that  single-celled  organisms 
exhibit  only  doubling  division,  as  by  that  the  persistence  of 
species  which  actually  occurs  alone  is  possible.  In  the  case  of 
higher  plants,  the  widespread  occurrence  of  tissues  with  power 
of  reproduction,  the  occurrence  of  budding  in  almost  any  part 
of  the  body  in  lower  animals  and  in  plants,  and  the  widespread 
powers  of  regeneration  of  lost  parts,  are  easily  intelligible  if 
every  cell  like  the  egg-cell  has  been  formed  by  doubling  division, 
and  so  contains  the  germinal  material  for  every  part  of  the 
organism,  and  thus,  on  the  call  of  special  conditions,  can  become 
a  germ-cell  again.  He  lays  special  stress  on  those  experiments  in 
which  the  process  of  development  has  been  interfered  with  in 
various  ways  at  various  stages,  as  showing  that  the  cells  which 
arise  from  the  division  of  the  egg-cell  were  not  predestined 
unalterably  for  a  particular  r61e,  according  to  a  predetermined 
plan.  He  dismisses  Weismann's  suggestion  of  the  presence  of 
accessory  determinants  which  remain  latent  unless  they  happen 
to  be  required,  as  being  too  complicated  a  supposition  to  be 
supported  without  exact  evidence,  a  view  in  which  he  has 
received  strong  support  from  those  who  have  worked  most  at 
the  experimental  side  of  the  question.  From  consideration  of  a 
large  number  of  physiological  facts,  such  as  the  results  of  grafting, 
transplantations  of  tissues  and  transfusions  of  blood,  he  con- 
cludes that  the  cells  of  an  organism  possess,  in  addition  to  their 
patent  microscopical  characters,  latent  characters  peculiar  to 
the  species,  and  pointing  towards  a  fundamental  identity  of  the 
germinal  substance  in  every  cell. 

The  Nuclear  Matter. — Apart  from  these  two  characteristic 
protagonists  of  extreme  and  opposing  views,  the  general  consensus 
of  biological  opinion  does  not  take  us  very  far  beyond  the  plainest 
facts  of  observation.  The  resemblances  of  heredity  are  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  new  organism  takes  its  origin  from  a  definite 
piece  of  the  substance  of  its  parent  or  parents.  This  piece  always 
contains  protoplasm,  and  as  the  protoplasm  of  every  animal 
and  plant  appears  to  have  its  own  specific  reactions,  we  cannot 
exclude  this  factor;  indeed  many,  following  the  views  of 
M.  Verworn,  and  seeing  in  the  specific  metabolisms  of  proto- 
plasm a  large  part  of  the  meaning  of  life,  attach  an  increasing 
importance  to  the  protoplasm  in  the  hereditary  mass.  Next, 
it  always  contains  nuclear  matter,  and,  in  view  of  the  extreme 


352 


HEREDITY 


specialization  of  the  nuclear  changes  in  the  process  of  matura- 
tion and  fertilization  of  the  generative  cells,  there  is  more  than 
sufficient  reason  for  believing  that  the  nuclear  substance,  if  not 
actually  the  specific  germ-plasm,  is  of  vast  importance  in  heredity. 
The  theory  of  its  absolute  dominance  depends  on  a  number  of 
experiments,  the  interpretation  of  which  is  doubtful.  Moritz 
Nussbaum  showed  that  in  Infusoria  non-nucleated  fragments 
of  a  cell  always  died,  while  nucleated  fragments  were  able  to 
complete  themselves;  but  it  may  be  said  with  almost  equal 
confidence  that  nuclei  separated  from  protoplasm  also  invariably 
die — at  least,  all  attempts  to  preserve  them  have  failed.  Hertwig 
and  others,  in  their  brilliant  work  on  the  nature  of  fertilization, 
showed  that  the  process  always  involved  the  entrance  into  the 
female  cell  of  the  nucleus  of  the  male  cell,  but  we  now  know 
that  part  of  the  protoplasm  of  the  spermatozoon  also  enters. 
T.  Boveri  made  experiments  on  the  cross-fertilization  of  non- 
nucleated  fragments  of  the  eggs  of  Sphaerechinus  granularis 
with  spermatozoa  of  Echinus  microtuberculatus,  and  obtained 
dwarf  larvae  with  only  the  paternal  characters;  but  the  nature 
of  his  experiments  was  not  such  as  absolutely  to  exclude  doubt. 
Finally,  in  addition  to  the  nucleus  and  the  protoplasm,  another 
organism  of  the  cell,  the  centrosome,  is  part  of  the  hereditary 
mass.  In  sum,  while  most  of  the  evidence  points  to  a  pre- 
ponderating importance  of  the  nuclear  matter,  it  cannot  be  said 
to  be  an  established  proposition  that  the  nuclear  matter  is  the 
germ-plasm.  Nor  are  we  yet  definitely  in  a  position  to  say  that 
the  germinal  mass  (nuclear  matter,  protoplasm,  &c.,  of  the  repro- 
ductive cells)  differs  essentially  from  the  general  substance  of 
the  organism — whether,  in  fact,  there  is  continuity  of  germ-plasm 
as  opposed  to  continuity  of  living  material  from  individual 
to  individual.  The  origin  of  sexual  cells  from  only  definite  places, 
in  the  vast  majority  of  cases,  and  such  phenomena  as  the  phylo- 
genetic  migration  of  their  place  of  origin  amcng  the  Hydro- 
medusae,  tell  strongly  in  favour  of  Weismann's  conception. 
Early  experiments  on  dividing  eggs,  in  which,  by  separation  or 
transposition,  cells  were  made  to  give  rise  to  tissues  and  parts 
of  the  organism  which  in  the  natural  order  they  would  not  have 
produced,  tell  strongly  against  any  profound  separation  between 
germ-plasm  and  body-plasm.  It  is  also  to  be  noticed  that  the 
failure  of  germ-cells  to  arise  except  in  specific  places  may  be 
only  part  of  the  specialized  ordering  of  the  whole  body,  and  does 
not  necessarily  involve  the  interpretation  that  reproductive 
material  is  absolutely  different  in  kind. 

Amphimixis. — Hitherto  we  have  considered  the  material 
bearer  of  heredity  apart  from  the  question  of  sexual  union,  and 
we  find  that  the  new  organism  takes  origin  from  a  portion  of 
living  matter,  forming  a  material  which  may  be  called  germ- 
plasm,  in  which  resides  the  capacity  to  correspond  to  the  same 
kind  of  surrounding  forces  as  stimulated  the  parent  germ-plasm 
by  growth  of  the  same  fashion.  In  many  cases  (e.g.  asexual 
spores)  the  piece  of  germ-plasm  comes  from  one  parent,  and 
from  an  organ  or  tissue  not  associated  with  sexual  reproduction; 
in  other  cases  (parthenogenetic  eggs)  it  comes  from  the  ovary 
of  a  female,  and  may  have  the  apparent  characters  of  a  sexual 
egg,  except  that  it  develops  without  fertilization;  here  also  are 
to  be  included  the  cases  where  normal  female  ova  have  been 
induced  to  develop,  not  by  the  entrance  of  a  spermatozoon,  but 
by  artificial  chemical  stimulation.  In  such  cases  the  problem 
of  heredity  does  not  differ  fundamentally  from  the  symmetrical 
repetition  of  parts.  In  most  of  the  higher  plants  and  animals, 
however,  sexual  reproduction  is  the  normal  process,  and  from 
our  present  point  of  view  the  essential  feature  of  this  is  that  the 
germ-plasm  which  starts  the  new  individual  (the  fertilized  egg) 
is  derived  from  the  male  (the  spermatozoon)  and  from  the  female 
parent  (the  ovum).  Although  it  cannot  yet  be  set  down  sharply 
as  a  general  proposition,  there  is  considerable  evidence  to  show 
that  in  the  preparation  of  the  ovum  and  spermatozoon  for 
fertilization  the  nuclear  matter  of  each  is  reduced  by  half  (reduc- 
ing division  of  the  chromosomes),  and  that  fertilization  means 
the  restoration  of  the  normal  bulk  in  the  fertilized  cell  by  equal 
contributions  from  male  and  female.  So  far  as  the  known  facts 
of  this  process  of  union  of  germ-plasms  go,  they  take  us  no 


farther  than  to  establish  such  a  relation  between  the  offspring 
and  two  parents  as  exists  between  the  offspring  and  one  parent 
in  the  other  cases.  Amphimixis  has  a  vast  importance  in  the 
theory  of  evolution  (Weismann,  for  instance,  regards  it  as  the 
chief  factor  in  the  production  of  variations) ;  for  its  relation  to 
heredity  we  are  as  yet  dependent  on  empirical  observations. 

Heredity  and  Development. — The  actual  process  by  which  the 
germinal  mass  slowly  assumes  the  characters  of  the  adult- — that 
is,  becomes  like  the  parent— depends  on  the  interaction  of  two 
sets  of  factors:  the  properties  of  the  germinal  material  itself, 
and  the  influences  of  substances  and  conditions  external  to  the 
germinal  material.  Naturally,  as  K.  W.  von  Nageli  and  Hertwig 
in  particular  have  pointed  out,  there  is  no  perpetual  sharp 
contrast  between  the  two  sets  of  factors,  for,  as  growth  proceeds, 
the  external  is  constantly  becoming  the  internal;  the  results 
of  influences,  which  were  in  one  stage  part  of  the  environment, 
are  in  the  next  and  subsequent  stages  part  of  the  embryo.  The 
differences  between  the  exponents  of  evolution  and  epigenesis 
offer  practical  problems  to  be  decided  by  experiment.  Every 
phenomenon  in  development  that  is  proved  the  direct  result  of 
epigenetic  factors  can  be  discounted  from  the  complexity  of  the 
germinal  mass.  If,  for  instance,  as  H.  Driesch  and  Hertwig  have 
argued,  much  of  the  differentiation  of  cells  and  tissues  is  a 
function  of  locality  and  is  due  to  the  action  of  different  external 
forces  on  similar  material,  then  just  so  much  burden  is  removed 
from  what  evolutionists  have  to  explain.  That  much  remains 
cannot  be  doubted.  Two  eggs  similar  in  appearance  develop 
side  by  side  in  the  same  sea-water,  one  becoming  a  mollusc,  the 
other  an  Amphioxus.  Hertwig  would  say  that  the  slight  differ- 
ences in  the  original  eggs  would  determine  slight  differences  in 
metabolism  and  so  forth,  with  the  result  that  the  segmentation 
of  the  two  is  slightly  different;  in  the  next  stage  the  differences 
in  metabolisms  and  other  relations  will  be  increased,  and  so  on 
indefinitely.  But  in  such  cases  c'est  le  premier  pas  qui  co&te,  and 
the  absolute  cost  in  theoretical  complexity  of  the  germinal 
material  can  be  estimated  only  after  a  prolonged  course  of 
experimental  wprk  in  a  field  which  is  as  yet  hardly  touched. 

Empirical  Study  of  Heredity. — The  fundamental  basis  of 
heredity  is  the  separation  of  a  mass  from  the  parent  (germ-plasm) 
which  under  certain  conditions  grows  into  an  individual  resem- 
bling the  parent.  The  goal  of  the  study  of  heredity  will  be 
reached  only  when  all  the  phenomena  can  be  referred  to  the 
nature  of  the  germ-plasm  and  of  its  relations  to  the  conditions 
under  which  it  grows,  but  we  have  seen  how  far  our  knowledge 
is  from  any  attempt  at  such  references.  In  the  meantime,  the 
empirical  facts,  the  actual  relations  of  the  characters  in  the 
offspring  to  the  characters  of  the  parents  and  ancestors,  are 
being  collected  and  grouped.  In  this  inquiry  it  at  once  becomes 
obvious  that  every  character  found  in  a  parent  may  or  may  not 
be  present  in  the  offspring.  When  any  character  occurs  in  both, 
it  is  generally  spoken  of  as  transmissible  and  of  having  been 
transmitted.  In  this  broad  sense  there  is  no  character  that  is 
not  transmissible.  In  all  kinds  of  reproduction,  the  characters 
of  the  class,  family,  genus,  species,  variety  or  race,  and  of  the 
actual  individual,  are  transmissible,  the  certainty  with  which 
any  character  appears  being  almost  in  direct  proportion  to  its 
rank  in  the  descending  scale  from  order  to  individual.  The 
transmitted  characters  are  anatomical,  down  to  the  most  minute 
detail;  physiological,  including  such  phenomena  as  diatheses, 
timbre  of  voice  and  even  compound  phenomena,  such  as  gau- 
cherie  and  peculiarity  of  handwriting;  psychological;  patho- 
logical; teratological,  such  as  syndactylism  and  all  kinds  of 
individual  variations.  Either  sex  may  transmit  characters 
which  in  themselves  are  necessarily  latent,  as,  for  instance,  a 
bull  may  transmit  a  good  milking  strain.  In  forms  of  asexual 
reproduction,  such  as  division,  budding,  propagation  by  slips  and 
so  forth,  every  character  of  the  parent  may  appear  in  the 
descendant,  and  apparently  even  in  the  descendants  produced 
from  that  descendant  by  the  ordinary  sexual  processes.  In 
reproduction  by  spore  formation,  in  parthenogenesis  and  in 
ordinary  sexual  modes,  where  there  is  an  embryological  history 
between  the  separated  mass  and  the  new  adult,  it  is  necessary 


HEREDITY 


353 


to  attempt  a  difficult  discrimination  between  acquired  and  innate 
characters. 

Acquired  Characters. — Every  character  is  the  result  of  two 
sets  of  factors,  those  resident  in  the  germinal  material  and  those 
imposed  from  without.  Our  knowledge  has  taken  us  far  beyond 
any  such  idea  as  the  formation  of  a  germinal  material  by  the 
collection  of  particles  from  the  adult  organs  and  tissues  (gem- 
mules  of  C.  Darwin).  The  inheritance  of  any  character  means 
the  transmission  in  the  germinal  material  of  matter  which, 
brought  under  the  necessary  external  conditions,  develops  into 
the  character  of  the  parent.  There  is  necessarily  an  acquired 
or  epigenetic  side  to  every  character;  but  there  is  nothing  in 
our  knowledge  of  the  actual  processes  to  make  necessary  or 
even  probable  the  supposition  that  the  result  of  that  factor  in 
one  generation  appears  in  the  germ-plasm  of  the  subsequent 
generations,  in  those  cases  where  an  embryological  development 
separates  parent  and  offspring.  The  development  of  any  normal, 
so-called  "  innate,"  character,  such  as,  say,  the  assumption  of 
the  normal  human  shape  and  relations  of  the  frontal  bone, 
requires  the  co-operation  of  many  factors  external  to  the  develop- 
ing embryo,  and  the  absence  of  abnormal  distorting  factors. 
When  we  say  that  such  an  innate  character  is  transmitted,  we 
mean  only  that  the  germ-plasm  has  such  a  constitution  that, 
in  the  presence  of  the  epigenetic  factors  and  the  absence  of 
abnormal  epigenetic  factors,  the  bone  will  appear  in  due  course 
and  in  due  form.  If  an  abnormal  epigenetic  factor  be  applied 
during  development,  whether  to  the  embryo  in  utero,  to  the 
developing  child,  or  in  after  life,  abnormality  of  some  kind  will 
appear  in  the  bone,  and  such  an  abnormality  is  a  good  type  of 
what  is  spoken  of  as  an  "  acquired  "  character.  Naturally  such 
a  character  varies  with  the  external  stimulus  and  the  nature  of 
the  material  to  which  the  stimulus  is  applied,  and  probability 
and  observation  lead  us  to  suppose  that  as  the  germ-plasm  of 
the  offspring  is  similar  to  that  of  the  parent,  being  a  mass 
separated  from  the  parent,  abnormal  epigenetic  influences 
would  produce  results  on  the  offspring  similar  to  those  which 
they  produced  on  the  parent.  Scrutiny  of  very  many  cases 
of  the  supposed  inheritance  of  acquired  characters  shows  that 
they  may  be  explained  in  this  fashion — that  is  to  say,  that  they 
do  not  necessarily  involve  any  feature  different  in  kind  from 
what  we  understand  to  occur  in  normal  development.  The 
effects  of  increased  use  or  of  disuse  on  organs  or  tissues,  the 
reactions  of  living  tissues  to  various  external  influences,  to 
bacteria,  to  bacterial  or  other  toxins,  or  to  different  conditions 
of  respiration,  nutrition  and  so  forth,  we  know  empirically  to 
be  different  in  the  case  of  different  individuals,  and  we  may 
expect  that  when  the  living  matter  of  a  parent  responds  in  a 
certain  way  to  a  certain  external  stimulus,  the  living  matter  of 
the  descendant  will  respond  to  similar  circumstances  in  a  similar 
fashion.  The  operation  of  similar  influences  on  similar  material 
accounts  for  a  large  proportion  of  the  facts.  In  the  important 
case  of  the  transmission  of  disease  from  parent  to  offspring  it  is 
plain  that  three  sets  of  normal  factors  may  operate,  and  other 
cases  of  transmission  must  be  subjected  to  similar  scrutiny: 
(i)  a  child  may  inherit  the  anatomical  and  physiological  con- 
stitution of  either  parent,  and  with  that  a  special  liability  of 
failure  to  resist  the  attacks  of  a  wide-spread  disease;  (2)  the 
actual  bacteria  may  be  contained  in  the  ovum  or  possibly  in  the 
spermatozoon;  (3)  the  toxins  of  the  disease  may  have  affected 
the  ovum,  or  the  spermatozoon,  or  through  the  placenta  the 
growing  embryo.  Obviously  in  the  first  two  cases  the  offspring 
cannot  be  said  in  any  strict  sense  to  have  inherited  the  disease; 
in  the  last  case,  the  theoretical  nomenclature  is  more  doubtful, 
but  it  is  at  least  plain  that  no  inexplicable  factor  is  involved. 

It  is  to  be  noticed,  however,  that  "  Lamarckians  "and  "  Neo- 
Lamarckians  "  in  their  advocacy  of  an  inheritance  of  "  acquired 
characters  "  make  a  theoretical  assumption  of  a  different  kind, 
which  applies  equally  to  "  acquired  "  and  to  "  innate  "  char- 
acters. They  suppose  that  the  result  of  the  epigenetic  factors 
is  reflected  on  the  germ-plasm  in  such  a  mode  that  in  develop- 
ment the  products  would  display  the  same  or  a  similar  character 
without  the  co-operation  of  the  epigenetic  factors  on  the  new 

XIII.   12 


individual,  or  would  display  the  result  in  an  accentuated  form 
if  with  the  renewed  co-operation  of  the  external  factors.  Such 
an  assumption  presents  its  greatest  theoretical  difficulty  if,  with 
Weismann,  we  suppose  the  germ-plasm  to  be  different  in  kind 
from  the  general  soma-plasm,  and  its  least  theoretical  difficulty 
if,  with  Hertwig,  we  suppose  the  essential  matter  of  the  repro- 
ductive cells  to  be  similar  in  kind  to  the  essential  substance  of 
the  general  body  cells.  But,  apart  from  the  differences  between 
such  theories,  it  supposes,  in  all  cases  where  an  embryological 
development  lies  between  parent  and  descendant,  the  existence 
of  a  factor  towards  which  our  present  knowledge  of  the  actual 
processes  gives  us  no  assistance.  The  separated  hereditary 
mass  does  not  contain  the  organs  of  the  adult;  the  Lamarckian 
factor  would  involve  the  translation  of  the  characters  of  the  adult 
back  into  the  characters  of  the  germ-cell  in  such  a  fashion  that 
when  the  germ-cell  developed  these  characters  would  be  re- 
translated again  into  those  which  originally  had  been  produced 
by  co-operation  between  germ-plasm  characters  and  epigenetic 
factors.  In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  the  theoretical 
difficulty  is  not  fatal  to  the  Lamarckian  supposition;  it  does 
no  more  than  demand  a  much  more  careful  scrutiny  of  the 
supposed  cases.  Such  a  scrutiny  has  been  going  on  since  Weismann 
first  raised  the  difficulty,  and  the  present  result  is  that  no  known 
case  has  appeared  which  cannot  be  explained  without  the 
Lamarckian  factor,  and  the  vast  majority  of  cases  have  been 
resolved  without  any  difficulty  into  the  ordinary  events  of  which 
we  have  full  experience.  Taking  the  ehipirical  data  in  detail, 
it  would  appear  first  that  the  effects  of  single  mutilations  are 
not  inherited.  The  effects  of  long-continued  mutilations  are 
not  inherited,  but  Darwin  cites  as  a  possible  case  the  Mahom- 
medans  of  Celebes,  in  whom  the  prepuce  is  very  small.  C.  E. 
Brown-S6quard  thought  that  he  had  shown  in  the  case  of  guinea- 
pigs  the  inheritance  of  the  results  of  nervous  lesions,  but  analyses 
of  his  results  leave  the  question  extremely  doubtful.  The 
inheritance  of  the  effects  of  use  and  disuse  is  not  proved.  The 
inheritance  of  the  effects  of  changed  conditions  of  life  is  quite 
uncertain.  Nageli  grew  Alpine  plants  at  Munich,  but  found 
that  the  change  was  produced  at  once  and  was  not  increased 
in  a  period  of  thirteen  years.  Alphonse  de  Candolle  starved 
plants,  with  the  result  of  producing  better  blooms,  and  found 
that  seedlings  from  these  were  also  above  the  average  in  luxuri- 
ance of  blossom,  but  in  these  experiments  the  effects  of  selection 
during  the  starvation,  and  of  direct  effect  on  the  nutrition  of  the 
seeds,  were  not  eliminated.  Such  results  are  typical  of  the 
vast  number  of  experiments  and  observations  recorded.  The 
empirical  issue  is  doubtful,  with  a  considerable  balance  against 
the  supposed  inheritance  of  acquired  characters. 

Empirical  Study  of  Effects  of  Amphimixis. — Inheritance  is 
theoretically  possible  from  each  parent  and  from  the  ancestry 
of  each.  In  considering  the  total  effect  it  is  becoming  customary 
to  distinguish  between  "  blended  "  inheritance,  where  the  off- 
spring appears  in  respect  of  any  character  to  be  intermediate 
between  the  conditions  in  the  parents;  "  prepotent  "  inheritance, 
where  one  parent  is  supposed  to  be  more  effective  than  the  other 
in  stamping  the  offspring  (thus,  for  instance,  Negroes,  Jews 
and  Chinese  are  stated  to  be  prepotent  in  crosses);  "  exclusive" 
inheritance,  where  the  character  of  the  offspring  is  definitely 
that  of  one  of  the  parents.  Such  a  classification  depends  on  the 
interpretation  of  the  word  character,  and  rests  on  no  certain 
grounds.  An  apparently  blended  character  or  a  prepotent 
character  may  on  analysis  turn  out  to  be  due  to  the  inheritance 
of  a  certain  proportion  of  minuter  characters  derived  exclusively 
from  either  parent.  H.  de  Vries  and  later  on  a  number  of  other 
biologists  have  advanced  the  knowledge  of  heredity  in  crosses 
by  carrying  out  further  the  experimental  and  theoretical  work 
of  Gregor  Mendel  (see  MENDELISM  and  HYBRIDISM),  and  results 
of  great  practical  importance  to  breeders  have  already  been 
obtained.  These  experiments  and  results,  however,  appear 
to  relate  exclusively  to  sexual  reproduction  and  almost  entirely 
to  the  crossing  of  artificial  varieties  of  animals  and  plants.  So 
far  as  they  go,  they  point  strongly  to  the  occurrence  of  alternate 
inheritance  instead  of  blended  inheritance  in  the  case  of  artificial 


354 


HEREFORD 


varieties.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  case  of  natural  varieties 
it  appears  that  blended  inheritance  predominates.  The  diffi- 
culty of  the  interpretation  of  the  word  "  character  "  still  remains 
and  the  Mendelian  interpretation  cannot  be  dismissed  with  regard 
to  the  behaviour  of  any  "  character  "  in  inheritance  until  it  is 
certain  that  it  is  a  unit  and  not  a  composite.  There  is  another 
fundamental  difficulty  in  making  empirical  comparisons  between 
the  characters  of  parents  and  offspring.  At  first  sight  it  seems 
as  if  this  mode  of  work  were  sufficiently  direct  and  simple,  and 
involved  no  more  than  a  mere  collection  of  sufficient  data.  The 
cranial  index,  or  the  height  of  a  human  being  and  of  so  many 
of  his  ancestors  being  given,  it  would  seem  easy  to  draw  an 
inference  as  to  whether  or  no  in  these  cases  brachycephaly  or 
stature  were  inherited.  But  our  modern  conceptions  of  the 
individual  and  the  race  make  it  plain  that  the  problems  are  not 
so  simple.  With  regard  to  any  character,  the  race  type  is  not  a 
particular  measurement,  but  a  curve  of  variations  derived  from 
statistics,  and  any  individual  with  regard  to  the  particular 
character  may  be  referable  to  any  point  of  the  curve.  A  tall 
race  like  the  modern  Scots  may  contain  individuals  of  any  height 
within  the  human  limits;  a  dolichocephalic  race  like  the  modern 
Spaniards  may  contain  extremely  round-headed  individuals. 
What  is  meant  by  saying  that  one  race  is  tall  or  the  other  dolicho- 
cephalic, is  merely  that  if  a  sufficiently  large  number  be  chosen 
at  random,  the  average  height  of  the  one  race  will  be  great, 
the  cranial  index  of  the  other  low.  It  follows  that  the  study 
of  variation  must  be  associated  with,  or  rather  must  precede, 
the  empirical  study  of  heredity,  and  we  are  beginning  to  know 
enough  now  to  be  certain  that  in  both  cases  the  results  to  be 
obtained  are  practically  useless  for  the  individual  case,  and  of 
value  only  when  large  masses  of  statistics  are  collected.  No 
doubt,  when  general  conclusions  have  been  established,  they  must 
be  acted  on  for  individual  cases,  but  the  results  can  be  predicted 
not  for  the  individual  case,  but  only  for  the  average  of  a  mass 
of  individual  cases.  It  is  impossible  within  the  limits  of  this 
article  to  discuss  the  mathematical  conceptions  involved  in  the 
formation  and  applications  of  the  method,  but  it  is  necessary 
to  insist  on  the  fact  that  these  form  an  indispensable  part  of  any 
valuable  study  of  empirical  data.  One  interesting  conclusion, 
which  may  be  called  the  "  ancestral  law  "  of  heredity,  with  regard 
to  any  character,  such  as  height,  which  appears  to  be  a  blend 
of  the  male  and  female  characters,  whether  or  no  the  apparent 
blend  is  really  due  to  an  exclusive  inheritance  of  separate  com- 
ponents, may  be  given  from  the  work  of  F.  Gallon  and  K.  Pearson. 
Each  parent,  on  the  average,  contributes  j  or  (o-s)2,  each  grand- 
parent iV  or  (o-s)4,  and  each  ancestor  of  nth  place  (o^)2".  But 
this,  like  all  other  deductions,  is  applicable  only  to  the  mass 
of  cases  and  not  to  any  individual  case. 

Regression. — An  important  result  of  quantitative  work  brings 
into  prominence  the  steady  tendency  to  maintain  the  type 
which  appears  to  be  one  of  the  most  important  results  of  am- 
phimixis. In  the  tenth  generation  a  man  has  1024  tenth  grand- 
parents, and  is  thus  the  product  of  an  enormous  population, 
the  mean  of  which  can  hardly  differ  from  that  of  the  general 
population.  Hence  this  heavy  weight  of  mediocrity  produces 
regression  or  progression  to  type.  Thus  in  the  case  of  height, 
a  large  number  of  cases  being  examined,  it  was  found  that 
fathers  of  a  stature  of  72  in.  had  sons  with  a  mean  stature  of 
70-8  in.,  a  regression  towards  the  normal  stature  of  the  race. 
Fathers  with  a  stature  of  66  in.  had  sons  with  a  mean  of  68-3  in., 
a  progression  towards  the  normal.  It  follows  from  this  that  where 
there  is  much  in-and-in  breeding  the  weight  of  mediocrity  will 
be  less,  and  the  peculiarities  of  the  breed  will  be  accentuated. 

Atavism. — Under  this  name  a  large  number  of  ordinary  cases 
of  variation  are  included.  A  tall  man  with  very  short  parents 
would  probably  be  set  down  as  a  case  of  atavism  if  the  existence 
of  a  very  tall  ancestor  were  known.  He  would,  however,  simply 
be  a  case  of  normal  variation,  the  probability  of  which  may  be 
calculated  from  a  table  of  stature  variations  in  his  race.  Less 
marked  cases  set  down  to  atavism  may  be  instances  merely 
of  normal  regression.  Many  cases  of  more  abnormal  structure, 
which  are  really  due  to  abnormal  embryonic  or  post-embryonic 


development,  are  set  down  to  atavism,  as,  for  instance,  the 
cervical  fistulae,  which  have  been  regarded  as  atavistic  per- 
sistences of  the  gill  clefts.  It  is  also  used  to  imply  the  reversion 
that  takes  place  when  domestic  varieties  are  set  free  and  when 
species  or  varieties  are  crossed  (see  HYBRIDISM).  Atavism  is, 
in  fact,  a  misleading  name  covering  a  number  of  very  different 
phenomena. 

Telegony  is  the  name  given  to  the  supposed  fact  that  offspring 
of  a  mother  to  one  sire  may  inherit  characters  from  a  sire  with 
which  the  mother  had  previously  bred.  Although  breeders 
of  stock  have  a  strong  belief  in  the  existence  of  this,  there  are 
no  certain  facts  to  support  it,  the  supposed  cases  being  more 
readily  explained  as  individual  variations  of  the  kind  generally 
referred  to  as  "  atavism."  None  the  less,  two  theoretical 
explanations  have  been  suggested:  (i)  that  spermatozoa,  or 
portions  of  spermatozoa,  from  the  first  sire  may  occasionally 
survive  within  the  mother  for  an  abnormally  long  period;  (2) 
that  the  body,  or  the  reproductive  cells  of  the  mother,  may  be 
influenced  by  the  growth  of  the  embryo  within  her,  so  that 
she  acquires  something  of  the  character  of  the  sire.  The  first 
supposition  has  no  direct  evidence  to  support  it,  and  is  made 
highly  improbable  from  the  fact  that  a  second  impregnation  is 
always  necessary.  Against  the  second  supposition  Pearson 
brings  the  cogent  empirical  evidence  that  the  younger  children 
of  the  same  sire  show  no  increased  tendency  to  resemble  him. 
(See  TELEGONY.) 

AUTHORITIES. — The  following  books  contain  a  fair  proportion 
of  the  new  and  old  knowledge  on  this  subject :— W.Bateson,  Materials 
for  the  Study  of  Variation  (1894);  Y.  Delage,  La  Structure  du  proto- 
plasma  et  les  theories  sur  I  her&dite  (a  very  full  discussion  and  list  of 
literature) ;  G.  H.  T.  Eimer,  Organic  Evolution,  Eng.  trans,  by 
Cunningham  (1890) ;  J.  C.  Ewart,  The  Penycuik  Experiments  (1899) ; 
F.  Gallon,  Natural  Inheritance  (1887);  O.  Hertwig,  Evolution  or 
Epigenesis?  Eng.  trans,  by  P.  C.  Milchell  (1896);  K.  Pearson,  The 
Grammar  of  Science  (1900) ;  Verworn,  General  Physiology,  Eng.  Irans. 
(1899);  A.  Weisraann,  The  Germ  Plasm,  Eng.  Irans.  by  Parker 
(1893).  Lists  of  separate  papers  are  given  in  the  annual  volumes  of 
the  Zoological  Record  under  heading  "  General  Subject."  (P.C.M.) 

HEREFORD,  a  city  and  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough, 
and  the  county  town  of  Herefordshire,  England,  on  the  river 
Wye,  144  m.  W.N.W.  of  London,  on  the  Worcester-Cardiff  line 
of  the  Great  Western  railway  and  on  the  wesl-and-norlh  joint 
line  of  that  company  and  the  North- Weslern.  It  is  connected 
with  Ross  and  Gloucester  by  a  branch  of  the  Great  Western, 
and  is  the  terminus  of  a  line  from  the  west  worked  by  the  Mid- 
land and  Neath  &  Brecon  companies.  Pop.  (1901)  21,382.  It  is 
mainly  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  which  here  traverses  a 
broad  valley,  well  wooded  and  pleasant.  The  cathedral  of  St 
Elhelberl  exemplifies  all  slyles  from  Norman  lo  Perpendicular. 
The  see  was  delached  from  Lichfield  in  676,  Pulla  being  ils  first 
bishop;  and  the  modern  diocese  covers  most  of  Herefordshire,  a 
considerable  part  of  Shropshire,  and  small  portions  of  Worcester- 
shire, Staffordshire  and  Monmouthshire;  extending  also  a  short 
distance  across  the  Welsh  border.  The  removal  of  murdered 
Aethelbert's  body  from  Marden  lo  Hereford  led  lo  ihe  foundalion 
of  a  superior  church,  reconslrucled  by  Bishop  Athelstane,  and 
burnt  by  the  Welsh  in  1055.  Begun  again  in  1079  by  Bishop 
Robert  Losinga,  it  was  carried  on  by  Bishop  Reynelm  and 
completed  in  1148  by  Bishop  R.  de  Betun.  In  1786  Ihe  great 
western  tower  fell  and  carried  with  it  the  west  front  and  the  first 
bay  of  the  nave,  when  the  church  suffered  much  from  unhappy 
restoration  by  James  Wyatl,  bul  his  errors  were  parlly  corrected 
by  the  further  work  of  Lewis  Cottingham  and  Sir  Gilbert  Scott 
in  1841  and  1863  respectively,  while  the  presenl  wesl  fronl  is 
a  reconslruclion  compleled  in  1905.  The  lotal  length  of  the 
cathedral  outside  is  342  ft.,  inside  327  ft.  5  in.,  the  nave  being 
158  ft.  6  in.,  the  choir  from  screen  to  reredos  75  ft.  6  in.  and 
the  lady  chapel  93  ft.  5  in.  Without,  the  principal  features  are 
the  central  lower,  of  Decoraled  work  wilh  ball-flower  ornamenl, 
formerly  surmounted  by  a  timber  spire;  and  the  north  porch, 
rich  Perpendicular  with  parvise.  The  lady  chapel  has  a  bold 
east  end  wilh  five  narrow  lancel  windows.  The  bishop's  clcislers, 
of  which  only  Iwo  walks  remain,  are  Perpendicular  of  curious 
design,  with  heavy  tracery  in  the  bays.  A  picluresque  tower 


HEREFORDSHIRE 


355 


at  the  south-east  corner,  in  the  same  style,  is  called  the  "  Lady 
Arbour,"  but  the  origin  of  the  name  is  unknown.  Of  the  former 
fine  decagonal  Decorated  chapter-house,  only  the  doorway  and 
slight  traces  remain.  Within,  the  nave  has  Norman  arcades, 
showing  the  wealth  of  ornament  common  to  the  work  of  this 
period  in  the  church.  Wyatt  shortened  it  by  one  bay,  and  the 
clerestory  is  his  work.  There  is  a  fine  late  Norman  font,  springing 
from  a  base  with  the  rare  design  of  four  lions  at  the  corners. 
The  south  transept  is  also  Norman,  but  largely  altered  by  the 
introduction  of  Perpendicular  work.  The  north  transept  was 
wholly  rebuilt  in  1287  to  contain  the  shrine  of  St  Thomas  de 
Cantilupe,  bishop  of  Hereford,  of  which  there  remains  the 
magnificent  marble  pedestal  surmounted  by  an  ornate  arcade. 
The  fine  lantern,  with  its  many  shafts  and  vaulting,  was  thrown 
open  to  the  floor  of  the  bell-chamber  by  Cottingham.  The  choir 
screen  is  a  florid  design  by  Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  in  light  wrought 
iron,  with  a  wealth  of  ornament  in  copper,  brass,  mosaic  and 
polished  stones.  The  dark  choir  is  Norman  in  the  arcades  and 
the  stage  above,  with  Early  English  clerestory  and  vaulting. 
At  the  east  end  is  a  fine  Norman  arch,  blocked  until  1841  by 
a  Grecian  screen  erected  in  1717.  The  choir  stalls  are  largely 
Decorated.  The  organ  contains  original  work  by  the  famous 
builder  Renatus  Harris,  and  was  the  gift  of  Charles  II.  to  the 
cathedral.  The  small  north-east  and  south-east  transepts  are 
Decorated  but  retain  traces  of  the  Norman  apsidal  terminations 
eastward.  The  eastern  lady  chapel,  dated  about  1220,  shows 
elaborate  Early  English  work.  On  the  south  side  opens  the 
little  Perpendicular  chantry  of  Bishop  Audley  (1492-1502). 
In  the  north  choir  aisle  is  the  beautiful  fan-vaulted  chantry 
of  Bishop  Stanbury  (1470).  The  crypt  is  remarkable  as  being, 
like  the  lady  chapel,  Early  English,  and  is  thus  the  only  cathedral 
crypt  in  England  of  a  later  date  than  the  nth  century.  The 
ancient  monastic  library  remains  in  the  archive  room,  with  its 
heavy  oak  cupboards.  Deeds,  documents  and  several  rare 
manuscripts  and  relics  are  preserved,  and  several  of  the  precious 
books  are  still  secured  by  chains.  But  the  most  celebrated  relic 
is  in  the  south  choir  aisle.  This  is  the  Map  of  the  World,  dating 
from  about  1314,  the  work  of  a  Lincolnshire  monk,  Richard  of 
Haldingham.  It  represents  the  world  as  surrounded  by  ocean, 
and  embodies  many  ideas  taken  from  Herodotus,  Pliny  and  other 
writers,  being  filled  with  grotesque  figures  of  men,  beasts,  birds 
and  fishes,  together  with  representations  of  famous  cities  and 
scenes  of  scriptural  classical  story,  such  as  the  Labyrinth  of 
Crete,  the  Egyptian  pyramids,  Mount  Sinai  and  the  journeyings 
of  the  Israelites.  The  map  is  surmounted  by  representations  of 
Paradise  and  the  Day  of  Judgment. 

From  the  south-east  transept  of  the  cathedral  a  cloister  leads 
to  the  quadrangular  college  of  the  Vicars-Choral,  a  beautiful 
Perpendicular  building.  On  this  side  of  the  cathedral,  too, 
the  bishop's  palace,  originally  a  Norman  hall,  overlooks  the  Wye, 
and  near  it  lies  the  castle  green,  the  site  of  the  historic  castle, 
which  is  utterly  effaced.  There  is  here  a  column  (1809)  com- 
memorating the  victories  of  Nelson.  The  church  of  All  Saints 
is  Early  English  and  Decorated,  and  has  a  lofty  spire.  Both 
this  and  St  Peter's  (originally  Norman)  have  good  carved  stalls, 
but  the  fabric  of  both  churches  is  greatly  restored.  One  only  of 
the  six  gates  and  a  few  fragments  of  the  old  walls  are  still  to  be 
seen,  but  there  are  ruins  of  the  Black  Friars'  Monastery  in 
Widemarsh,  and  a  mile  out  of  Hereford  on  the  Brecon  Road, 
the  White  Cross,  erected  in  1347  by  Bishop  Louis  Charlton,  and 
restored  by  Archdeacon  Lord  Saye  and  Sele,  commemorates 
the  departure  of  the  Black  Plague.  Of  domestic  buildings  the 
"  Old  House  "  is  a  good  example  of  the  picturesque  half-timbered 
style,  dating  from  1621,  and  the  Coningsby  Hospital  (almshouses) 
date  from  1614.  The  inmates  wear  a  remarkable  uniform  of 
red,  designed  by  the  founder,  Sir  T.  Coningsby.  St  Ethelbert's 
hospital  is  an  Early  English  foundation.  Old-established  schools 
are  the  Cathedral  school  (1384)  and  the  Blue  Coat  school  (1710); 
there  is  also  the  County  College  (1880).  The  public  buildings 
are  the  shire  hall  in  St  Peter's  Street,  in  the  Grecian  Doric  style, 
with  a  statue  in  front  of  it  of  Sir  George  Cornewall  Lewis,  who 
represented  the  county  in  parliament  from  1847  to  1852,  the 


town  hall  (1904),  the  corn-exchange  (1858),  the  free  library  and 
museum  in  Broad  Street;  the  guildhall  and  mansion  house. 
A  musical  festival  of  the  choirs  of  Hereford,  Gloucester  and 
Worcester  cathedrals  is  held  annually  in  rotation  at  these  cities. 

The  government  is  in  the  hands  of  a  municipal  council  con- 
sisting of  a  mayor,  6  aldermen  and  18  councillors.  Area, 
5031  acres. 

Hereford  (Herefortuna),  founded  after  the  crossing  of  the 
Severn  by  the  West  Saxons  early  in  the  7th  century,  had  a 
strategic  importance  due  to  its  proximity  to  the  Welsh  March. 
The  foundation  of  the  castle  is  ascribed  to  Earl  Harold,  afterwards 
Harold  II.  The  castle  was  successfully  besieged  by  Stephen, 
and  was  the  prison  of  Prince  Edward  during  the  Barons'  Wars. 
The  pacification  of  Wales  deprived  Hereford  of  military  signifi- 
cance until  it  became  a  Royalist  stronghold  during  the  Civil  Wars. 
It  surrendered  easily  to  Waller  in  1643;  but  was  reoccupied 
by  the  king's  troops  and  received  Rupert  on  his  march  to  Wales 
after  Naseby.  It  was  besieged  by  the  Scots  during  August 
1645  and  relieved  by  the  king.  It  fell  to  the  Parliamentarians 
in  this  year.  In  1086  the  town  included  fees  of  the  bishop,  the 
dean  and  chapter,  and  the  Knights  Hospitallers,  but  was  other- 
wise royal  demesne.  Richard  I.  in  1189  sold  their  town  to 
the  citizens  at  a  fee  farm  rent,  which  grant  was  confirmed  by 
John,  Henry  III.,  Edward  II.,  Edward  III.,  Richard  II.,  Henry 
IV.  and  Edward  IV.  Incorporation  was  granted  to  the  mayor, 
aldermen  and  citizens  in  1597,  and  confirmed  in  1620  and 
1697-1698.  Hereford  returned  two  members  to  parliament 
from  1295  until  1885,  when  the  Redistribution  Act  deprived  it  of 
one  representative.  In  1116-1117  a  fair  beginning  on  St  Ethel- 
berta's  day  was  conferred  on  the  bishop,  the  antecedent  of  the 
modern  fair  in  the  beginning  of  May.  A  fair  beginning  on  St 
Denis'  day,  granted  to  the  citizens  in  1226-1227,  is  represented 
by  that  held  in  October.  The  fair  of  Easter  Wednesday  was 
granted  in  1682.  In  1792  the  existing  fairs  of  Candlemas  week 
and  the  beginning  of  July  were  held.  Market  days  were,  under 
Henry  VIII.  and  in  1792,  Wednesday,  Friday  and  Saturday; 
the  Friday  market  was  discontinued  before  1835.  Hereford  was 
the  site  of  a  provincial  mint  in  1086  and  later.  A  grant  of  an 
exclusive  merchant  gild,  in  1215-1216,  was  several  times  con- 
firmed. The  trade  in  wool  was  important  in  1202,  and  eventually- 
responsible  for  gilds  of  tailors,  drapers,  mercers,  dyers,  fullers, 
cloth  workers,  weavers  and  haberdashers;  it  brought  into  the 
market  Welsh  friezes  and  white  cloth;  but  declined  in  the  i6th 
cenfury,  although  it  existed  in  1835.  The  leather  trade  was 
considerable  in  the  I3th  century.  In  1835  the  glove  trade  had 
declined.  The  city  anciently  had  an  extensive  trade  in  bread 
with  Wales.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  David  Garrick,  the  actor, 
in  1716,  and  probably  of  Nell  Gwyn,  mistress  of  Charles  II.,  to 
whose  memory  a  tablet  was  erected  in  1883,  marking  the  supposed 
site  of  her  house. 

See  R.  Johnson,  Ancient  Customs  of  Hereford  (London,  1882); 
J.  Duncumbe,  History  of  Hereford  (Hereford,  1882);  Journal  of 
Brit.  Arch.  Assoc.  xxvi. 

HEREFORDSHIRE,  an  inland  county  of  England  on  the 
south  Welsh  border,  bounded  N.  by  Shropshire,  E.  by  Worcester- 
shire, S.  by  Monmouthshire  and  Gloucestershire,  and  W.  by 
Radnorshire  and  Brecknockshire.  The  area  is  839-6  sq.  m. 
The  county  is  almost  wholly  drained  by  the  Wye  and  its  tribu- 
taries, but  on  the  north  and  east  includes  a  small  portion  of  the 
Severn  basin.  The  Wye  enters  Herefordshire  from  Wales  at  Hay, 
and  with  a  sinuous  and  very  beautiful  course  crosses  the  south- 
western part  of  the  county,  leaving  it  close  above  the  town  of 
Monmouth.  Of  its  tributaries,  the  Lugg  enters  in  the  north-west 
near  Presteign,  and  has  a  course  generally  easterly  to  Leominster, 
where  it  turns  south,  receives  the  Arrow  from  the  west,  and 
joins  the  Wye  6  m.  below  Hereford,  the  Frome  flowing  in  from 
the  east  immediately  above  the  junction.  The  Monnow  rising 
in  the  mountains  of  Brecknockshire  forms  the  boundary  between 
Herefordshire  and  Monmouthshire  over  one-half  of  its  course 
(about  20  m.),  but  it  joins  the  main  river  at  Monmouth.  Its 
principal  tributary  in  Herefordshire  is  the  Dore,  which  traverses 
the  picturesque  Golden  Valley.  The  Wye  is  celebrated  for  its 


356 


HEREFORDSHIRE 


salmon  fishing,  which  is  carefully  preserved,  while  the  Lugg, 
Arrow  and  Frome  abound  in  trout  and  grayling,  as  does  the 
Teme.  This  last  is  a  tributary  of  the  Severn,  and  only  two  short 
reaches  lie  within  this  county  in  the  north,  while  it  also  forms 
parts  of  the  northern  and  eastern  boundary.  The  Leddon,  also 
flowing  to  the  Severn,  rises  in  the  east  of  the  county  and  leaves 
it  in  the  south-east,  passing  the  town  of  Ledbury.  High  ground, 
of  an  elevation  from  500  to  800  ft.,  separates  the  various  valleys, 
while  on  the  eastern  boundary  rise  the  Malvern  Hills,  reaching 
1194  ft.  in  the  Herefordshire  Beacon,  and  1395  ft.  in  the 
Worcestershire  Beacon,  and  on  the  boundary  with  Brecknock- 
shire the  Black  Mountains  exceed  2000  ft.  The  scenery  of  the 
Wye,  with  its  wooded  and  often  precipitous  banks,  is  famous, 
the  most  noteworthy  point  in  this  county  being  about  Symond's 
Yat,  on  the  Gloucestershire  border  below  Ross. 

Geology. — The  Archean  or  Pre-Cambrian  rocks,  the  most  ancient 
in  the  county,  emerge  from  beneath  the  newer  deposits  in  three  small 
isolated  areas.  On  the  western  border,  Stanner  Rock,  a  picturesque 
craggy  hill  near  Kington,  consists  of  igneous  materials  (granitoid 
rock,  felstone,  dolerite  and  gabbro),  apparently  of  intrusive  origin 
and  possibly  of  Uriconian  age.  In  Brampton  Bryan  Park,  a  few 
miles  to  the  north-east,  some  ancient  conglomerates  emerge  and  may 
be  of  Longmyndian  age.  On  the  east  of  the  county  the  Herefordshire 
Beacon  in  the  Malvern  chain  consists  of  gneisses  and  schists  and 
Uriconian  volcanic  rocks;  these  have  been  thrust  over  various 
members  of  the  Cambrian  and  Silurian  systems,  and  owing  to  their 
hard  and  durable  nature  they  form  the  highest  ground  in  the  county. 
The  Cambrian  rocks  (Tremadoc  Beds)  come  next  in  order  of  age  and 
consist  of  quartzites,  sandstones  and  shales,  well  exposed  at  the 
southern  end  of  the  Malvern  chain  and  also  at  Pedwardine  near 
Brampton  Bryan.  The  Silurian  rocks  are  well  developed  in  the 
north-west  part  of  the  county,  between  Presteign  and  Ludlow;  also 
along  the  western  flanks  of  the  Malvern  Hills  and  in  the  eroded  dome 
of  Woolhope.  Smaller  patches  come  to  light  at  Westhide  east  of 
Hereford  and  at  May  Hill  near  Newent.  They  consist  of  highly 
fossiliferous  sandstones,  mudstones,  shales  and  limestones,  known 
as  the  Llandovery,  Wenlock  and  Ludlow  Series;  the  Woolhope, 
Wenlock  and  Aymestry  Limestones  are  famed  for  their  rich  fossil 
contents.  The  remainder  and  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  county 
is  occupied  by  the  Old  Red  Sandstone,  through  which  the  rocks 
above  described  project  in  detached  areas.  The  Old  Red  Sandstone 
consists  of  a  great  thickness  of  red  sandstones  and  marls,  with 
impersistent  bands  of  impure  concretionary  limestone  known  as 
cornstones,  which  by  their  superior  hardness  give  rise  to  scarps  and 
rounded  ridges;  they  have  yielded  remains  of  fishes  and  crustaceans. 
Some  of  the  upper  beds  are  conglomeratic.  On  its  south-eastern 
margin  the  county  just  reaches  the  Carboniferous  Limestone  cliffs 
of  the  Wye  Valley  near  Ross.  Glacial  deposits,  chiefly  sand  and 
gravel,  are  found  in  the  lower  ground  along  the  river-courses,  while 
caves  in  the  Carboniferous  Limestone  have  yielded  remains  of  the 
hyena,  cave-lion,  rhinoceros,  mammoth  and  reindeer. 

Agriculture  and  Industries. — The  soil  is  generally  marl  and 
clay,  but  in  various  parts  contains  calcareous  earth  in  mixed 
proportions.  Westward  the  soil  is  tenacious  and  retentive  of 
water;  on  the  east  it  is  a  stiff  and  often  reddish  clay.  In  the 
south  is  found  a  light  sandy  loam.  More  than  four-fifths  of  the 
total  area  of  the  county  is  under  cultivation  and  about  two-thirds 
of  this  is  in  permanent  pasture.  Ash  and  oak  coppices  and 
larch  plantations  clothe  its  hillsides  and  crests.  The  rich  red 
soil  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  formation  is  famous  for  its  pear 
and  apple  orchards,  the  county,  notwithstanding  its  much 
smaller  area,  ranking  in  this  respect  next  to  Devonshire.  The 
apple  crop,  generally  large,  is  enormous  one  year  out  of  four. 
Twenty  hogsheads  of  cider  have  been  made  from  an  acre  of 
orchard,  twelve  being  the  ordinary  yield.  Cider  is  the  staple 
beverage  of  the  county,  and  the  trade  in  cider  and  perry  is  large. 
Hops  are  another  staple  of  the  county,  the  vines  of  which  are 
planted  in  rows  on  ploughed  land.  As  early  as  Camden's  day  a 
Herefordshire  adage  coupled  Weobley  ale  with  Leominster 
bread,  indicating  the  county's  capacity  to  produce  fine  wheat 
and  barley,  as  well  as  hops. 

Herefordshire  is  also  famous  as  a  breeding  county  for  its 
cattle  of  bright  red  hue,  with  mottled  or  white  faces  and  sleek 
silky  coats.  The  Herefords  are  stalwart  and  healthy,  and, 
though  not  good  milkers,  put  on  more  meat  and  fat  at  an  early 
age,  in  proportion  to  food  consumed,  than  almost  any  other 
variety.  They  produce  the  finest  beef,  and  are  more  cheaply 
fed  than  Devons  or  Durhams,  with  which  they  are  advantageously 
crossed.  As  a  dairy  county  Herefordshire  does  not  rank  high. 


Its  small,  white-faced,  hornless,  symmetrical  breed  of  sheep- 
known  as  "  the  Ryelands,"  from  the  district  near  Ross,  where 
it  was  bred  in  most  perfection,  made  the  county  long  famous 
both  for  the  flavour  of  its  meat  and  the  merino-like  texture  of 
its  wool.  Fuller  says  of  this  that  it  was  best  known  as  "  Lempster 
ore,"  and  the  finest  in  all  England.  In  its  original  form  the 
breed  is  extinct,  crossing  with  the  Leicester  having  improved 
size  and  stamina  at  the  cost  of  the  fleece,  and  the  chief  breeds 
of  sheep  on  Herefordshire  farms  at  present  are  Shropshire 
Downs,  Cotswolds  and  Radnors,  with  their  crosses.  Agricultural 
horses  of  good  quality  are  bred  in  the  north,  and  saddle  and 
coach  horses  may  be  met  with  at  the  fairs.  Breeders'  names 
from  the  county  are  famous  at  the  national  cattle  shows,  and 
the  number,  size  and  quality  of  the  stock  are  seen  in  their  supply 
of  the  metropolitan  and  other  markets.  Prize  Herefords  are 
constantly  exported  to  the  colonies. 

Manufacturing  enterprise  is  small.  There  are  some  iron 
foundries  and  factories  for  agricultural  implements,  and  some 
paper  is  made.  There  are  considerable  limestone  quarries,  as 
near  Ledbury. 

Communications. — Hereford  is  an  important  railway  centre. 
The  Worcester  and  Cardiff  line  of  the  Great  Western  railway, 
entering  on  the  east,  runs  to  Hereford  by  Ledbury  and  then 
southward.  The  joint  line  of  the  Great  Western  and  North- 
Western  companies  runs  north  from  Hereford  by  Leominster, 
proceeding  to  Shrewsbury  and  Crewe.  At  Leominster  a  Great 
Western  branch  crosses,  connecting  Worcester,  Bromyard  and 
New  Radnor.  From  Hereford  a  Great  Western  branch  follows 
the  Wye  south  to  Ross,  and  thence  to  the  Forest  of  Dean  and 
to  Gloucester;  a  branch  connects  Ledbury  with  Gloucester, 
and  the  Golden  Valley  is  traversed  by  a  branch  from  Pontrilas 
on  the  Worcester-Cardiff  line.  From  Hereford  the  Midland  and 
Neath  and  Brecon  line  follows  the  Wye  valley  westward.  None 
of  the  rivers  is  commercially  navigable  and  the  canals  are  out 
of  use. 

Population  and  Administration. — The  area  of  the  ancient 
county  is  537,363  acres,  with  a  population  in  1891  of  115,949 
and  in  1901  of  114,380.  The  area  of  the  administrative  county 
is  538,921  acres.  The  county  contains  12  hundreds.  It  is 
divided  into  two  parliamentary  divisions,  Leominster  (N.)  and 
Ross  (S.),  and  it  also  includes  the  parliamentary  borough  of 
Hereford,  each  returning  one  member.  There  are  two  municipal 
boroughs — Hereford  (pop.  21,382)  and  Leominster  (5826). 
The  other  urban  districts  are  Bromyard  (1663),  Kington  (1944), 
Ledbury  (3259)  and  Ross  (3303).  The  county  is  in  the  Oxford 
circuit,  and  assizes  are  held  at  Hereford.  It  has  one  court  of 
quarter  sessions  and  is  divided  into  1 1  petty  sessional  divisions. 
The  boroughs  of  Hereford  and  Leominster  have  separate  com- 
missions of  the  peace,  and  the  borough  of  Hereford  has  in 
addition  a  separate  court  of  quarter  sessions.  There  are  260 
civil  parishes.  The  ancient  county,  which  is  almost  entirely 
in  the  diocese  of  Hereford,  with  small  parts  in  those  of  Gloucester, 
Worcester  and  Llandaff,  contains  222  ecclesiastical  parishes  or 
districts,  wholly  or  in  part. 

History. — At  some  time  in  the  7th  century  the  West  Saxons 
pushed  their  way  across  the  Severn  and  established  themselves 
in  the  territory  between  Wales  and  Mercia,  with  which  kingdom 
they  soon  became  incorporated.  The  district  which  is  now 
Herefordshire  was  occupied  by  a  tribe  the  Hecanas,  who  con- 
gregated chiefly  in  the  fertile  area  about  Hereford  and  in  the 
mining  districts  round  Ross.  In  the  8th  century  Offa  extended 
the  Mercian  frontier  to  the  Wye,  securing  it  by  the  earthwork 
known  as  Offa's  dike,  portions  of  which  are  visible  at  Knighton 
and  Moorhampton  in  this  county.  In  91 5  the  Danes  made  their 
way  up  the  Severn  to  the  district  of  Archenfield,  where  they 
took  prisoner  Cyfeiliawg  bishop  of  Llandaff,  and  in  921  they 
besieged  Wigmore,  which  had  been  rebuilt  in  that  year  by  Edward. 
From  the  time  of  its  first  settlement  the  district  was  the  scene 
of  constant  border  warfare  with  the  Welsh,  and  Harold,  whose 
earldom  included  this  county,  ordered  that  any  Welshman 
caught  trespassing  over  the  border  should  lose  his  right  hand. 
In  the  period  preceding  the  Conquest  much  disturbance  was 


HEREFORDSHIRE 


357 


caused  by  the  outrages  of  the  Norman  colony  planted  in  this 
county  by  Edward  the  Confessor.  Richard's  castle  in  the  north 
of  the  county  was  the  first  Norman  fortress  erected  on  English 
soil,  and  Wigmore,  Ewyas  Harold,  Clifford,  Weobley,  Hereford, 
Donnington  and  Caldecot  were  all  the  sites  of  Norman  strong- 
holds. The  conqueror  entrusted  the  subjugation  of  Hereford- 
shire to  William  FitzOsbern,  but  Edric  the  Wild  in  conjunction 
with  the  Welsh  prolonged  resistance  against  him  for  two  years. 

In  the  wars  of  Stephen's  reign  Hereford  and  Weobley  castles 
were  held  against  the  king,  but  were  captured  in  1 138.  Edward, 
afterwards  Edward  I.,  was  imprisoned  in  Hereford  Castle,  and 
made  his  famous  escape  thence  in  1265.  In  1326  the  parliament 
assembled  at  Hereford  which  deposed  Edward  II.  In  the  i4th 
and  isth  centuries  the  forest  of  Deerfold  gave  refuge  to  some 
of  the  most  noted  followers  of  Wycliffe.  During  the  Wars  of 
the  Roses  the  influence  of  the  Mortimers  led  the  county  to 
support  the  Yorkist  cause,  and  Edward,  afterwards  Edward 
IV.,  raised  23,000  men  in  this  neighbourhood.  The  battle 
of  Mortimer's  Cross  was  fought  in  1461  near  Wigmore.  Before 
the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  of  the  i7th  century,  complaints 
of  illegal  taxation  were  rife  in  Herefordshire,  but  a  strong  anti- 
puritan  feeling  induced  the  county  to  favour  the  royalist  cause. 
Hereford,  Goodrich  and  Ledbury  all  endured  sieges. 

The  earldom  of  Hereford  was  granted  by  William  I.  to  William 
FitzOsbern,  about  1067,  but  on  the  outlawry  of  his  son  Roger 
in  1074  the  title  lapsed  until  conferred  on  Henry  de  Bohun 
about  1199.  It  remained  in  the  possession  of  the  Bohuns  until 
the  death  of  Humphrey  de  Bohun  in  1373;  in  1397  Henry, 
earl  of  Derby,  afterwards  King  Henry  IV.,  who  had  married 
Mary  Bohun,  was  created  duke  of  Hereford.  Edward  VI. 
created  Walter  Devereux,  a  descendant  of  the  Bohun  family, 
Viscount  Hereford,  in  1550,  and  his  grandson,  the  famous  earl 
of  Essex,  was  born  in  this  county.  Since  this  date  the  viscounty 
has  been  held  by  the  Devereux  family,  and  the  holder  ranks 
as  the  premier  viscount  of  England.  The  families  of  Clifford, 
Giffard  and  Mortimer  figured  prominently  in  the  warfare  on 
the  Welsh  border,  and  the  Talbots,  Lacys,  Crofts  and  Scuda- 
mores  abo  had  important  seats  in  the  county,  Sir  James  Scuda- 
more  of  Holme  Lacy  being  the  original  of  the  Sir  Scudamore  of 
Spenser's  Faery  Queen.  Sir  John  Oldcastle,  the  leader  of  the 
Lollards,  was  sheriff  of  Herefordshire  in  1406. 

Herefordshire  probably  originated  as  a  shire  in  the  time  of 
.lEthelstan,  and  is  mentioned  in  the  Saxon  Chroncile  in  1051. 
In  the  Domesday  Survey  parts  of  Monmouthshire  and  Radnor- 
shire are  assessed  under  Herefordshire,  and  the  western  and 
southern  borders  remained  debatable  ground  until  with  the 
incorporation  of  the  Welsh  marches  in  1535  considerable  territory 
was  restored  to  Herefordshire  and  formed  into  the  hundreds  of 
Wigmore,  Ewyas  Lacy  and  Huntingdon,  while  Ewyas  Harold 
was  united  to  Webtree.  At  the  time  of  the  Domesday  Survey 
the  divisions  of  the  county  were  very  unsettled.  As  many  as 
nineteen  hundreds  are  mentioned,  but  these  were  of  varying 
extent,  some  containing  only  one  manor,  some  from  twenty 
to  thirty.  Of  the  twelve  modern  hundreds,  only  Greytree, 
Radlow,  Stretford,  Wolphy  and  Wormelow  retain  Domesday 
names.  Herefordshire  has  been  included  in  the  diocese  of 
Hereford  since  its  foundation  in  676.  In  1291  it  comprised  the 
deaneries  of  Hereford,  Weston,  Leominster,  Weobley,  Frome, 
Archenfield  and  Ross  in  the  archdeaconry  of  Hereford,  and  the 
deaneries  of  Burford,  Stottesdon,  Ludlow,  Pontesbury,  Clun 
and  Wenlock,  in  the  archdeaconry  of  Shropshire.  In  1877  the 
name  of  the  archdeaconry  of  Shropshire  was  changed  to  Ludlow, 
and  in  1899  the  deaneries  of  Abbey  Dore,  Bromyard,  Kingsland, 
Kington  and  Ledbury  were  created  in  the  archdeaconry  of 
Hereford. 

Herefordshire  was  governed  by  a  sheriff  as  early  as  the  reign 
of  Edward  the  Confessor,  the  shire-court  meeting  at  Hereford 
where  later  the  assizes  and  quarter  sessions  were  also  held.  In 
1606  an  act  was  passed  declaring  Hereford  free  from  the  juris- 
diction of  the  council  of  Wales,  but  the  county  was  not  finally 
relieved  from  the  interference  of  the  Lords  Marchers  until  the 
reign  of  William  and  Mary. 


Herefordshire  has  always  been  esteemed  an  exceptionally 
rich  agricultural  area,  the  manufactures  being  unimportant, 
with  the  sole  exception  of  the  woollen  and  the  cloth  trade  which 
flourished  soon  after  the  Conquest .  Iron  was  worked  in  Wormelow 
hundred  in  Roman  times,  and  the  Domesday  Survey  mentions 
iron  workers  in  Marcle.  At  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  the  towns 
had  become  much  impoverished,  and  Elizabeth  in  order  to 
encourage  local  industries,  insisted  on  her  subjects  wearing 
English-made  caps  from  the  factory  of  Hereford.  Hops  were 
grown  in  the  county  soon  after  their  introduction  into  England 
in  1524.  In  1580  and  again  in  1637  the  county  was  severely 
visited  by  the  plague,  but  in  the  i7th  century  it  had  a  flourishing 
timber  trade  and  was  noted  for  its  orchards  and  cider. 

Herefordshire  was  first  represented  in  parliament  in  1295, 
when  it  returned  two  members,  the  boroughs  of  Ledbury,  Here- 
ford, Leominster  and  Weobley  being  also  represented.  Hereford 
was  again  represented  in  1299,  and  Bromyard  and  Ross  in  1304, 
but  the  boroughs  made  very  irregular  returns,  and  from  1306 
until  Weobley  regained  representation  in  1627,  only  Hereford 
and  Leominster  were  represented.  Under  the  act  of  1832  the 
county  returned  three  members  and  Weobley  was  disfranchised. 
The  act  of  1868  deprived  Leominster  of  one  member,  and  under 
the  act  of  1885  Leominster  was  disfranchised,  and  Hereford 
lost  one  member. 

Antiquities. — There  are  remains  of  several  of  the  strongholds 
which  Herefordshire  possessed  as  a  march  county,  some  of  which 
were  maintained  and  enlarged,  after  the  settlement  of  the  border, 
to  serve  in  later  wars.  To  the  south  of  Ross  are  those  of  Wilton 
and  Goodrich,  commanding  the  Wye  on  the  right  bank,  the 
latter  a  ruin  of  peculiar  magnificence,  and  both  gaining  pictur- 
esqueness  from  their  beautiful  situations.  Of  the  several  castles 
in  the  valleys  of  the  boundary-river  Monnow  and  its  tributaries, 
those  in  this  county  include  Pembridge,  Kilpeck  and  Longtown; 
of  which  the  last  shows  extensive  remains  of  the  strong  keep  and 
thick  walls.  In  the  north  the  finest  example  is  Wigmore, 
consisting  of  a  keep  on  an  artificial  mound  within  outer  walls, 
the  seat  of  the  powerful  family  of  Mortimer. 

Beside  the  cathedral  of  Hereford,  and  the  fine  churches  of 
Ledbury,  Leominster'  and  Ross,  described  under  separate 
headings,  the  county  contains  some  churches  of  almost  unique 
interest.  In  that  of  Kilpeck  remarkable  and  unusual  Norman 
work  is  seen.  It  consists  of  the  three  divisions  of  nave,  choir 
and  chancel,  divided  by  ornate  arches,  the  chancel  ending  in 
an  apse,  with  a  beautiful  and  elaborate  west  end  and  south 
doorway.  The  columns  of  the  choir  arch  are  composed  of 
figures.  A  similar  plan  is  seen  in  Peterchurch  in  the  Golden 
Valley,  and  in  Moccas  church,  on  the  Wye  above  Hereford. 
Among  the  large  number  of  churches  exhibiting  Norman  details 
that  at  Bromyard  is  noteworthy.  At  Abbey  Dore,  the  Cistercian 
abbey  church,  still  in  use,  is  a  large  and  beautiful  specimen  of 
Early  English  work,  and  there  are  slight  remains  of  the  monastic 
buildings.  At  Madley,  south  of  the  Wye  5  m.  W.  of  Hereford, 
is  a  fine  Decorated  church  (with  earlier  portions),  with  the 
rare  feature  of  a  Decorated  apsidal  chancel  over  an  octagonal 
crypt.  Of  the  churches  in  mixed  styles  those  in  the  larger 
towns  are  the  most  noteworthy,  together  with  that  of  Weobley. 

The  half-timbered  style  of  domestic  architecture,  common  in 
the  west  and  midlands  of  England  in  the  i6th  and  i7th  centuries, 
beautifies  many  of  the  towns  and  villages.  Among  country 
houses,  that  of  Treago,  9  m.  W.  of  Ross,  is  a  remarkable  example 
of  a  fortified  mansion  of  the  i3th  century,  in  a  condition  little 
altered.  Rudhall  and  Sufton  Court,  between  Ross  and  Hereford, 
are  good  specimens  of  15th-century  work,  and  portions  of 
Hampton  Court,  8  m.  N.  of  Hereford,  are  of  the  same  period, 
built  by  Sir  Rowland  Lenthall,  a  favourite  of  Henry  IV.  Holme 
Lacy,  5  m.  S.E.  of  Hereford,  is  a  fine  mansion  of  the  latter  part 
of  the  1 7th  century,  with  picturesque  Dutch  gardens,  and  much 
wood-carving  by  Grinling  Gibbons  within.  This  was  formerly 
the  seat  of  the  Scudamores,  from  whom  it  was  inherited  by 
the  Stanhopes,  earls  of  Chesterfield,  the  gth  earl  of  Chester- 
field taking  the  name  of  Scudamore-Stanhope.  His  son,  the 
loth  earl,  has  recently  (1909)  sold  Holme  Lacy  to  Sir  Robert 


HERERO— HERESY 


Lucas-Tooth,  Bart.  Downton  Castle  possesses  historical  interest 
in  having  been  designed  in  1774,  in  a  strange  mixture  of  Gothic 
and  Greek  styles,  by  Richard  Payne  Knight  (1750-1824),  a 
famous  scholar,  numismatist  and  member  of  parliament  for  Leo- 
minster  and  Ludlow;  while  Eaton  Hall,  now  a  farm,  was  the 
seat  of  the  family  of  the  famous  geographer  Richard  Hakluyt. 

See  Victoria  County  History,  Herefordshire;  ].  Duncomb,  Collec- 
tions towards  the  History  and  Antiquities  of  the  County  of  Hereford 
(Hereford,  1804-1812);  John  Allen,  Bibliotheca Herefordiensis  (Here- 
ford, 1821);  John  Webb,  Memorials  of  the  Civil  War  between  Charles 
I.  and  the  Parliament  of  England  as  it  affected  Herefordshire  and  the 
adjacent  Counties  (London,  1879);  R.  Cooke,  Visitation  of  Hereford- 
shire, 1569  (Exeter,  1886);  F.  T.  Havergal,  Herefordshire  Words 
and  Phrases  (Walsall,  1887);  J.  Hutchinson,  Herefordshire  Bio- 
graphies (Hereford1,  1890). 

KERERO,  or  OVAHERERO  ("  merry  people  "),  a  Bantu  people 
of  German  South- West  Africa,  living  in  the  region  known  as 
Damaraland  or  Hereroland.  They  call  themselves  Ovaherero 
and  their  language  Otshi-herero.  Sometimes  they  are  described 
as  Cattle  Damara  or  "  Damara  of  the  Plains  "  in  distinction 
from  the  Hill  Damara  who  are  of  mixed  blood  and  Hottentots 
in  language.  The  Herero,  whose  main  occupation  is  that  of 
cattle-rearing,  are  a  warlike  race,  possessed  of  considerable  mili- 
tary skill,  as  was  shown  in  their  campaigns  of  1904-5  against 
the  Germans.  (See  further  GERMAN  SOUTH-WEST  AFRICA.) 

HERESY,  the  English  equivalent  of  the  Greek  word  oXpecris 
which  'is  used  in  the  Septuagint  for  "  free  choice,"  in  later 
classical  literature  for  a  philosophical  school  or  sect  as  "  chosen  " 
by  those  who  belong  to  it,  in  Philo  for  religion,  in  Josephus  for 
a  religious  party  (the  Sadducees,  the  Pharisees  and  the  Essenes). 

It  is  in  this  last  sense  that  the  term  is  used  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, usually  with  an  implicit  censure  of  the  factious  spirit  to 
which  such  divisions  are  due.  The  term  is  applied 
Testa-  to  tne  Sadducees  (Acts  v.  17)  and  Pharisees  (Acts  xv. 
meat.  5,  xxvi.  5).  From  the  standpoint  of  opponents, 
Christianity  is  itself  so  described  (Acts  xxiv.  14,  xxviii. 
22).  In  the  Pauline  Epistles  it  is  used  with  severe  condemnation 
of  the  divisions  within  the  Christian  Church  itself.  Heresies 
with  "  enmities,  strife,  jealousies,  wraths,  factions,  divisions, 
envyings "  are  reckoned  among  "  the  works  of  the  flesh " 
(Gal.  v.  20).  Such  divisions,  proofs  of  a  carnal  mind,  are  censured 
in  the  church  of  Corinth  (i  Cor.  iii.  3,  4);  and  the  church  of 
Rome  is  warned  against  those  who  cause  them  (Rom.  xvi.  17). 
The  term  "  schism,"  afterwards  distinguished  from  "  heresy," 
is  also  used  of  these  divisions  (i  Cor.  i.  10).  The  estrangements 
of  the  rich  and  the  poor  in  the  church  at  Corinth,  leading  to 
a  lack  of  Christian  fellowship  even  at  the  Lord's  Supper,  is 
described  as  "  heresy  "  (i  Cor.  xi.  10).  Breaches  of  the  law  of 
love,  not  errors  about  the  truth  of  the  Gospel,  are  referred  to  in 
these  passages.  But  the  first  step  towards  the  ecclesiastical 
use  of  the  term  is  found  already  in  2  Peter  ii.  i,  "  Among  you 
also  there  shall  be  false  teachers  who  shah1  privily  bring  in 
destructive  heresies  (R.V.  margin  "  sects  of  perdition  "),  denying 
even  the  Master  that  bought  them,  bringing  upon  themselves 
swift  destruction."  The  meaning  here  suggested  is  "  falsely 
chosen  or  erroneous  tenets.  Already  the  emphasis  is  moving 
from  persons  and  their  temper  to  mental  products — from  the 
sphere  of  sympathetic  love  to  that  of  objective  truth  "  (Bartlet, 
art.  "Heresy,"  Hastings's  Bible  Dictionary).  As  the  parallel 
passage  in  Jude,  verse  4,  shows,  however,  that  these  errors  had 
immoral  consequences,  the  moral  reference  is  not  absent  even 
from  this  passage.  The  first  employment  of  the  term  outside 
the  New  Testament  is  also  its  first  use  for  theological  error. 
Ignatius  applies  it  to  Docetism  (Ad  Trail.  6).  As  doctrine  came 
to  be  made  more  important,  heresy  was  restricted  to  any  de- 
parture from  the  recognized  creed.  Even  Constantine  the  Great 
describes  the  Christian  Church  as  "  the  Catholic  heresy,"  "  the 
most  sacred  heresy  "  (Eusebius,  Ecclesiastical  History,  x.  c.  5, 
the  letter  to  Chrestus,  bishop  of  Syracuse);  but  this  use  was 
very  soon  abandoned,  and  the  Catholic  Church  distinguished 
itself  from  the  dissenting  minorities,  which  it  condemned  as 
"  heresies."  The  use  of  the  term  heresy  in  the  New  Testament 
cannot  be  regarded  as  defining  the  attitude  of  the  Christian 


Gnostic- 
ism, 


Church,  even  in  the  Apostolic  age,  towards  errors  in  belief. 
The  Apostolic  writings  show  a  vehement  antagonism  towards  all 
teaching  opposed  to  the  Gospel.  Paul  declares  anathema  the 
Judaizer,  who  required  the  circumcision  of  the  Gentiles  (Gal.  i.  8), 
and  even  calls  them  the  "  dogs  of  the  concision  "  and  "  evil 
workers "  (Phil.  iii.  2).  The  elders  of  Ephesus  are  warned 
against  the  false  teachers  who  would  appear  in  the  church  after 
the  apostle's  death  as  "  grievous  wolves  not  sparing  the  flock  " 
(Acts  xx.  29) ;  and  the  speculations  of  the  Gnostics  are  denounced 
as  "  seducing  spirits  and  doctrines  of  devils  "  (i  Tim.  iv.  i),  as 
"  profane  babblings  and  oppositions  of  the  knowledge  which  is 
falsely  so  called  "  (vi.  20).  John's  warnings  are  as  earnest  and 
severe.  Those  who  deny  the  fact  of  the  Incarnation  are  described 
as  "  antichrist,"  and  as  "  deceivers  "  (i  John  iv.  3;  2  John  7). 
The  references  to  heretics  in  2  Peter  and  Jude  have  already  been 
dealt  with.  This  antagonism  is  explicable  by  the  character  of 
the  heresies  that  threatened  the  Christian  Church  in  the  Apostolic 
age.  Each  of  these  heresies  involved  such  a  blending  of  the 
Gospel  with  either  Jewish  or  pagan  elements,  as  would  not  only 
pollute  its  purity,  but  destroy  its  power.  In  each  of  these  the 
Gospel  was  in  danger  of  being  made  of  none  effect  by  the  environ- 
ment, which  it  must  resist  in  order  that  it  might  transform  (see 
Burton's  Bampton  Lectures  on  The  Heresies  of  the  Apostolic  Age). 

These  Gnostic  heresies,  which  threatened  to  paganize  the 
Christian  Church,  were  condemned  in  no  measured  terms  by  the 
fathers.  These  false  teachers  are  denounced  as 
"  servants  of  Satan,  beasts  in  human  shape,  dealers 
in  deadly  poison,  robbers  and  pirates."  Polycarp, 
Ignatius,  Justin  Martyr,  Irenaeus,  Hippolytus,  Tertullian  and 
even  Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Origen  are  as  severe  in  con- 
demnation as  the  later  fathers  (cf.  Matt.  xiii.  35-43;  Tertullian, 
Praescr.  31).  While  the  necessity  of  the  heresies  is  admitted  in 
accordance  with  i  Cor.  xi.  19,  yet  woe  is  pronounced  on  those 
who  have  introduced  them,  according  to  Matt,  xviii.  7.  (This 
application  of  these  passages,  however,  is  of  altogether  doubtful 
validity.)  "  It  was  necessary,"  says  Tertullian  (ibid.  30),  "  that 
the  Lord  should  be  betrayed;  but  woe  to  the  traitor."  The 
very  worst  motives,  "  pride,  disappointed  ambition,  sensual 
lust,  and  avarice,"  are  recklessly  imputed  to  the  heretics;  and 
no  possibility  of  morally  innocent  doubt,  difficulty  or  difference 
in  thought  is  admitted.  Origen  and  Augustine  do,  however, 
recognize  that  even  false  teachers  may  have  good  motives. 
.While  we  must  admit  that  there  was  a  very  serious  peril  to  the 
thought  and  life  of  the  Christian  Church  in  the  teaching  thus 
denounced,  yet  we  must  not  forget  that  for  the  most  part  these 
teachers  are  known  to  us  only  in  the  ex  parte  representation  that 
their  opponents  have  given  of  them;  and  we  must  not  assume 
that  even  their  doctrines,  still  less  their  characters,  were  so  bad 
as  they  are  described. 

The  attitude  of  the  church  in  the  post-Nicene  period  differs 
from  that  in  the  ante-Nicene  in  two  important  respects,  (i) 
As  has  already  been  indicated,  the  earlier  heresies  threatened  to 
introduce  Jewish  or  pagan  elements  into  the  faith  of  the  church, 
and  it  was  necessary  that  they  should  be  vigorously  resisted 
if  the  church  was  to  retain  its  distinctive  character.  Many  of 
the  later  heresies  were  differences  in  the  interpretation  of  Christian 
truth,  which  did  not  in  the  same  way  threaten  the  very  life  of 
the  church.  No  vital  interest  of  Christian  faith  justified  the 
extravagant  denunciations  in  which  theological  partisanship 
so  recklessly  and  ruthlessly  indulged.  (2)  In  the  ante-Nicene 
period  only  ecclesiastical  penalties,  such  as  reproof,  deposition 
or  excommunication,  could  be  imposed.  In  the  post-Nicene  the 
union  of  church  and  state  transformed  theological  error  into 
legal  offence  (see  below). 

We  must  now  consider  the  definition  of  heresy  which  was 
gradually  reached  in  the  Christian  Church.  It  is  "  a  religious 
error  held  in  wilful  and  persistent  opposition  to  the 
truth  after  it  has  been  defined  and  declared  by  the 
church  in  an  authoritative  manner,"  or  "  pertinax 
defensio  dogmatis  ecclesiae  universalis  judicio  con- 
demnati "  (Schaff's  Ante-Nicene  Christianity,  ii.  512-516). 
(i.)  It  "  denotes  an  opinion  antagonistic  to  a  fundamental 


HERESY 


359 


article  of  the  Christian  faith,"  due  to  the  introduction  of  "  foreign 
elements  "  and  resulting  in  a  perversion  of  Christianity,  and  an 
amalgamation  with  it  of  ideas  discordant  with  its  nature  (Fisher's 
History  of  Christian  Doctrine,  p.  9).  It  has  been  generally 
assumed  that  the  ecclesiastical  authority  was  always  competent 
to  determine  what  are  the  fundamental  articles  of  the  Christian 
faith,  and  to  detect  any  departures  from  them;  but  it  is  necessary 
to  admit  the  possibility  that  the  error  was  in  the  church,  and  the 
truth  was  with  the  heresy,  (ii.)  There  cannot  be  any  heresy 
where  there  is  no  orthodoxy,  and,  therefore,  in  the  definition 
it  is  assumed  that  the  church  has  declared  what  is  the  truth 
or  the  error  in  any  matter.  Accordingly  "  heresy  is  to  be 
distinguished  from  defective  stages  of  Christian  knowledge. 
For  example,  the  Jewish  believers,  including  the  Apostles 
themselves,  at  the  outset  required  the  Gentile  believers  to  be 
circumcised.  They  were  not  on  this  account  chargeable  with 
heresy.  Additional  light  must  first  come  in,  and  be  rejected, 
before  that  earlier  opinion  could  be  thus  stigmatized.  Moreover, 
heresies  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  tentative  and  faulty 
hypotheses  broached  in  a  period  prior  to  the  scrutiny  of  a  topic 
of  Christian  doctrine,  and  before  that  scrutiny  has  led  the  general 
mind  to  an  assured  conclusion.  Such  hypotheses — for  example, 
the  idea  that  in  the  person  of  Christ  the  Logos  is  substituted 
for  a  rational  human  spirit — are  to  be  met  with  in  certain  early 
fathers  "  (ibid.  p.  10).  Origen  indulged  in  many  speculations 
which  were  afterwards  condemned,  but,  as  these  matters  were 
still  open  questions  in  his  day,  he  was  not  reckoned  a  heretic, 
(iii.)  In  accordance  with  the  New  Testament  use  of  the  term 
heresy,  it  is  assumed  that  moral  defect  accompanies  the  intel- 
lectual error,  that  the  false  view  is  held  pertinaciously,  in  spite 
of  warning,  remonstrance  and  rebuke;  aggressively  to  win 
over  others,  and  so  factiously,  to  cause  division  in  the  church, 
a  breach  in  its  unity. 

A  distinction  is  made  between  "  heresy  "  and  "  schism  " 
(from  Gr.  crxifeii',  rend  asunder,  divide).  "  The  fathers 
Schism.  commonly  use  '  heresy  '  of  false  teaching  in  opposition 
to  Catholic  doctrine,  and  '  schism  '  of  a  breach  of 
discipline,  in  opposition  to  Catholic  government  "  (Schaff).  But 
as  the  claims  of  the  church  to  be  the  guardian  through  its 
episcopate  of  the  apostolic  tradition,  of  the  Christian  faith 
itself,  were  magnified,  and  unity  in  practice  as  well  as  in  doctrine 
came  to  be  regarded  as  essential,  this  distinction  became  a 
theoretical  rather  than  a  practical  one.  While  severely  condemn- 
ing, both  Irenaeus  and  Tertullian  distinguished  schismatics 
from  heretics.  "  Though  we  are  by  no  means  entitled  to  say 
that  they  acknowledged  orthodox  schismatics  they  did  not  yet 
venture  to  reckon  them  simply  as  heretics.  If  it  was  desired 
to  get  rid  of  these,  an  effort  was  made  to  impute  to  them  some 
deviation  from  the  rule  of  faith;  and  under  this  pretext  the 
church  freed  herself  from  the  Montanists  and  the  Monarchians. 
Cyprian  was  the  first  to  proclaim  the  identity  of  heretics  and 
schismatics  by  making  a  man's  Christianity  depend  on  his 
belonging  to  the  great  episcopal  church  confederation.  But 
in  both  East  and  West,  this  theory  of  his  became  established 
only  by  very  imperceptible  degrees,  and  indeed,  strictly  speaking, 
the  process  was  never  completed.  The  distinction  between 
heretics  and  schismatics  was  preserved  because  it  prevented  a 
public  denial  of  the  old  principles,  because  it  was  advisable 
on  political  grounds  to  treat  certain  schismatic  communities 
with  indulgence,  and  because  it  was  always  possible  in  case  of 
need  to  prove  heresy  against  the  schismatics."  (Harnack's 
History  of  Dogma,  ii.  92-93). 

There  was  considerable  controversy  in  the  early  church  as 
to  the  validity  of  heretical  baptism.  As  even  "  the  Christian 
„  ,  ,  virtues  of  the  heretics  were  described  as  hypocrisy 

Heretical  „  ' 

baptism  an"  'ove  °*  ostentation,  so  no  value  whatever  was 
attached  by  the  orthodox  party  to  the  sacraments 
performed  by  heretics.  Tertullian  declares  that  the  church 
can  have  no  communion  with  the  heretics,  for  there  is  nothing 
common;  as  they  have  not  the  same  God,  and  the  same  Christ, 
so  they  have  not  the  same  baptism  (De  bapt.  15).  Cyprian 
agreed  with  him.  The  validity  of  heretical  baptism  was  denied 


" 


by  the  church  of  Asia  Minor  as  well  as  of  Africa;  but  the  practice 
of  the  Roman  Church  was  to  admit  without  second  baptism 
heretics  who  had  been  baptized  with  the  name  of  Christ,  or  of 
the  Holy  Trinity.  Stephen  of  Rome  attempted  to  force  the 
Roman  practice  on  the  whole  church  in  253.  The  controversy 
his  intolerance  provoked  was  closed  by  Augustine's  controversial 
treatise  De  Baplismo,  in  which  the  validity  of  baptism  ad- 
ministered by  heretics  is  based  on  the  objectivity  of  the  sacra- 
ment. Whenever  the  name  of  the  three-one  God  is  used,  the 
sacrament  is  declared  valid  by  whomsoever  it  may  be  performed. 
This  was  a  triumph  of  sacramentarianism,  not  of  charity. 

Three  types  of  heresy  have  appeared  in  the  history  of  the 
Christian  Church.1  The  earliest  may  be  called  the  syncretic; 
it  is  the  fusion  of  Jewish  or  pagan  with  Christian 
elements.  Ebionitism  asserted  "  the  continual  obliga- 
tion  to  observe  the  whole  of  the  Mosaic  law,"  and 
"  outran  the  Old  Testament  monotheism  by  a  barren  monarchian- 
ism  that  denied  the  divinity  of  Christ  "  (Kurtz,  Church  History, 
i.  120).  Gnosticism  was  the  result  of  the  attempt  to  blend 
with  Christianity  the  religious  notions  of  pagan  mythology, 
mysterology,  theosophy  and  philosophy  "  (p.  98).  The  Judaizing 
and  the  paganizing  tendency  were  combined  in  Gnostic  Ebionitism 
which  was  prepared  for  in  Jewish  Essenism.  In  the  later  heresy 
of  Manichaeism  there  were  affinities  to  Gnosticism,  but  it  was 
a  mixture  of  many  elements,  Babylonian-Chaldaic  theosophy, 
Persian  dualism  and  even  Buddhist  ethics  (p.  126). 

The  next  type  of  heresy  may  be  called  evolutionary  orformatory. 
When  the  Christian  faith  is  being  formulated,  undue  emphasis 
may  be  put  on  one  aspect,  and  thus  so  partial  a  statement  of 
truth  may  result  in  error.  Thus  when  in  the  ante-Nicene  age 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  was  under  discussion,  dynamic 
Monarchianism  "  regarded  Christ  as  a  mere  man,  who,  like  the 
prophets,  though  in  a  much  higher  measure,  had  been  endued 
with  divine  wisdom  and  power  ";  modal  Monarchianism  saw 
in  the  Logos  dwelling  in  Christ  "  only  a  mode  of  the  activity  of 
the  Father  ";  Palripassianism  identified  the  Logos  with  the 
Father;  and  Sabellianism  regarded  Father,  Son  and  Spirit 
as  "the  roles  which  the  God  who  manifests  Himself  in  the  world 
assumes  in  succession"  (Kurtz,  Church  History,  i.  175-181). 
When  Arius  asserted  the  subordination  of  the  Son  to  the  Father, 
and  denied  the  eternal  generation,  Athanasius  and  his  party 
asserted  the  Homoousia,  the  cosubstantiality  of  the  Father  and 
the  Son.  This  assertion  of  the  divinity  of  Christ  triumphed, 
but  other  problems  at  once  emerged.  How  was  the  relation 
of  the  humanity  to  the  divinity  in  Christ  to  be  conceived? 
Apollinaris  denied  the  completeness  of  the  human  nature,  and 
substituted  the  divine  Logos  for  the  reasonable  soul  of  man. 
Nestorius  held  the  two  natures  so  far  apart  as  to  appear  to  sacrifice 
the  unity  of  the  person  of  Christ.  Eutyches  on  the  contrary 
"  taught  not  only  that  after  His  incarnation  Christ  had  only 
one  nature,  but  also  that  the  body  of  Christ  as  the  body  of  God 
is  not  of  like  substance  with  our  own  "  (Kurtz,  Church  History, 
i.  330-334).  The  Church  in  the  Creed  of  Chalcedon  in  A.D.  451 
affirmed  "  that  Christ  is  true  God  and  true  man,  according  to 
His  Godhead  begotten  from  eternity  and  like  the  Father  in 
everything,  only  without  sin;  and  that  after  His  incarnation 
the  unity  of  the  person  consists  in  two  natures  which  are  con- 
joined without  confusion,  and  without  change,  but  also  without 
rending  and  without  separation."  The  problem  was  not  solved, 
but  the  inadequate  solutions  were  excluded,  and  the  data  to  be 
considered  in  any  adequate  solution  were  affirmed.  After  this 
decision  the  controversies  about  the  Person  of  Christ  degenerated 
into  mere  hair-splitting;  and  the  interference  of  the  imperial 
authority  from  time  to  time  in  the  dispute  was  not  conducive 
to  the  settlement  of  the  questions  in  the  interests  of  truth  alone. 
This  problem  interested  the  East  for  the  most  part;  in  the 
West  there  was  waged  a  theological  warfare  around  the  nature 
of  man  and  the  work  of  Christ.  To  Augustine's  doctrine  of  man's 
total  depravity,  his  incapacity  for  any  good,  and  the  absolute 
sovereignty  of  the  divine  grace  in  salvation  according  to  the 
divine  election,  Pelagius  opposed  the  view  that  "  God's  grace 
1  For  fuller  details  see  separate  articles. 


36° 


HERESY 


is  destined  for  all  men,  but  man  must  make  himself  worthy 
of  it  by  honest  striving  after  virtue  "  (Kurtz,  Church  History, 
i.  348).  While  Pelagius  was  condemned,  it  was  only  a  modified 
Augustinianism  which  became  the  doctrine  of  the  church.  It  is 
not  necessary  in  illustration  of  the  second  type  of  heresy — that 
which  arises  when  the  contents  of  the  Christian  faith  are  being 
defined — to  refer  to  the  doctrinal  controversies  of  the  middle 
ages.  It  may  be  added  that  after  the  Reformation  Arianism 
was  revived  in  Socinianism,  and  Pelagianism  in  Arminianism; 
but  the  conception  of  heresy  in  Protestantism  demands  sub- 
sequent notice. 

The  third  type  of  heresy  is  the  revolutionary  or  reformatory. 
This  is  not  directed  against  doctrine  as  such,  but  against  the 
church,  its  theory  and  its  practice.  Such  movements  of  antagon- 
ism to  the  errors  or  abuses  of  ecclesiastical  authority  may  be 
so  permeated  by  defective  conceptions  and  injurious  influences 
as  by  their  own  character  to  deserve  condemnation.  But  on 
the  other  hand  the  church  in  maintaining  its  place  and  power 
may  condemn  as  heretical  genuine  efforts  at  reform  by  a  return, 
though  partial,  to  the  standard  set  by  the  Holy  Scriptures  or  the 
Apostolic  Church.  On  the  one  hand  there  were  during  the 
middle  ages  sects,  like  the  Catharists  and  Albigenses,  whose 
"opposition  as  a  rule  developed  itself  from  dualistic  or  panthe- 
istic premises  (surviving  effects  of  old  Gnostic  or  Manichaean 
views)  "  and  who  "  stood  outside  of  ordinary  Christendom, 
and  while  no  doubt  affecting  many  individual  members  within 
it,  had  no  influence  on  church  doctrine."  On  the  other  hand 
there  were  movements,  such  as  the  Waldensian,  the  Wycliffite 
and  Hussite,  which  are  of  ten  described  as  "  reformations  anticipat- 
ing the  Reformation  "  which  "  set  out  from  the  Augustinian 
conception  of  the  Church,  but  took  exception  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  conception,"  and  were  pronounced  by  the  medieval 
church  as  heretical  foT  (i)  "  contesting  the  hierarchical  gradation 
of  the  priestly  order;  or  (2)  giving  to  the  religious  idea  of  the 
Church  implied  in  the  thought  of  predestination  a  place  superior 
to  the  conception  of  the  empirical  Church;  or  (3)  applying  to 
the  priests,  and  thereby  to  the  authorities  of  the  Church,  the 
test  of  the  law  of  God,  before  admitting  their  right  to  exercise, 
as  holding  the  keys,  the  power  of  binding  and  loosing  "  (Harnack's 
History  of  Dogma,  vi.  136-137).  The  Reformation  itself  was 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  heresy  and 
schism. 

"  In  the  present  divided  state  of  Christendom,"  says  Schaff 
(Ante-Nicens  Christianity,  ii.  513-514),  "  there  are  different 
kinds  of  orthodoxy  and  heresy.  Orthodoxy  is  con- 
n°der"  formity  to  the  recognized  creed  or  standard  of  public 
"term.  '  doctrine;  heresy  is  a  wilful  departure  from  it.  The 
Greek  Church  rejects  as  heretical,  because  contrary 
to  the  teaching  of  the  first  seven  ecumenical  councils,  the  Roman 
dogmas  of  the  papacy,  of  the  double  procession  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  the  immaculate  conception  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  the 
infallibility  of  the  Pope.  The  Roman  Church  anathematized, 
in  the  council  of  Trent,  all  the  distinctive  doctrines  of  the  Pro- 
testant Reformation.  Among  Protestant  churches  again  there 
are  minor  doctrinal  differences,  which  are  held  with  various 
degrees  of  exclusiveness  or  liberality  according  to  the  degree 
of  departure  from  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Luther,  for 
instance,  would  not  tolerate  Zwingli's  view  on  the  Lord's  Supper, 
while  Zwingli  was  willing  to  fraternize  with  him  notwithstanding 
this  difference."  At  the  colloquy  of  Marburg  "  Zwingli  offered 
his  hand  to  Luther  with  the  entreaty  that  they  be  at  least 
Christian  brethren,  but  Luther  refused  it  and  declared  that  the 
Swiss  were  of  another  spirit.  He  expressed  surprise  that  a  man 
of  such  views  as  Zwingli  should  wish  brotherly  relations  with  the 
Wittenberg  reformers"  (Walker,  The  Reformation,  p.  174). 
A  difference  of  opinion  on  the  question  of  the  presence  of  Christ 
in  the  elements  at  the  Lord's  Supper  was  thus  allowed  to  divide 
and  to  weaken  the  forces  of  the  Reformation.  On  the  problem 
of  divine  election  Lutheranism  and  Calvinism  remained  divided. 
The  Formula  of  Concord  (1577), which  gave  to  the  whole  Lutheran 
Church  of  Germany  a  common  doctrinal  system,  declined  to 
accept  the  Calvinistic  position  that  man's  condemnation  as  well 


as  his  salvation  is  an  object  of  divine  predestination.  Within 
Calvinism  itself  Pelagianism  was  revived  in  Arminianism, 
which  denied  the  irresistibility,  and  affirmed  the  universality 
of  grace.  This  heresy  was  condemned  by  the  synod  of  Dort 
(1619).  The  standpoint  of  the  Reformed  churches  was  the 
substitution  of  the  authority  of  the  Scriptures  for  the  authority 
of  the  church.  Whatever  was  conceived  as  contrary  to  the 
teaching  of  the  Bible  was  regarded  as  heresy.  The  position  is 
well  expressed  in  the  Scotch  Confession  (1559).  "Protesting, 
that  if  any  man  will  note  in  this  our  Confession  any  article  or 
sentence  repugning  to  God's  Holy  Word,  that  it  would  please 
him,  of  his  gentleness,  and  for  Christian  charity's  sake,  to  ad- 
monish us  of  the  same  in  writ,  and  we  of  our  honour  and  fidelity 
do  promise  unto  him  satisfaction  from  the  mouth  of  God;  that 
is,  from  His  Holy  Scripture,  or  else  reformation  of  that  which 
he  shall  prove  to  be  amiss.  In  God  we  take  to  record  in  our 
consciences  that  from  our  hearts  we  abhor  all  sects  of  heresy, 
and  all  teachers  of  erroneous  doctrines;  and  that  with  all 
humility  we  embrace  purity  of  Christ's  evangel,  which  is  the  only 
food  of  our  souls  "  (Preface). 

Although  subsequently  to  the  Reformation  period  the  Pro- 
testant churches  for  the  most  part  relapsed  into  the  dogmatism 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  were  ever  ready  with 
censure  for  every  departure  from  orthodoxy  —  yet  to-day  a  spirit 
of  diffidence  in  regard  to  one's  own  beliefs,  and  of  tolerance 
towards  the  beliefs  of  others,  is  abroad.  The  enlargement  of 
the  horizon  of  knowledge  by  the  advance  of  science,  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  only  relative  validity  of  human  opinions  and  beliefs  as 
determined  by  and  adapted  to  each  stage  of  human  development, 
which  is  due  to  the  growing  historical  sense,  the  alteration  of 
view  regarding  the  nature  of  inspiration,  and  the  purpose  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  the  revolt  against  all  ecclesiastical  authority, 
and  the  acceptance  of  reason  and  conscience  as  alone  authorita- 
tive, the  growth  of  the  spirit  of  Christian  charity,  the  clamorous 
demand  of  the  social  problem  for  immediate  attention,  all  com- 
bine in  making  the  Christian  churches  less  anxious  about  the 
danger,  and  less  zealous  in  the  discovery  and  condemnation 
of  heresy. 

Having  traced  the  history  of  opinion  in  the  Christian  churches 
on  the  subject  of  heresy,  we  must  now  return  to  resume  a  sub- 
ject already  mentioned,  the  persecution  of  heretics. 
According  to  the  Canon  Law,  which  "  was  the  ecclesi- 

11  T-.  •  r 

astical  law  of  medieval  Europe,  and  is  still  the  law  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,"  heresy  was  defined  as 
"  error  which  is  voluntarily  held  in  contradiction  to  a  doctrine 
which  has  been  clearly  stated  in  the  creed,  and  has  become  part 
of  the  defined  faith  of  the  church,"  and  which  is  "  persisted  in  by 
a  member  of  the  church."  It  was  regarded  not  only  as  an  error, 
but  also  as  a  crime  to  be  detected  and  punished.  As  it  belongs, 
however,  to  a  man's  thoughts  and  not  his  deeds,  it  often  can  be 
proved  only  from  suspicions.  The  canonists  define  the  degrees 
of  suspicion  as  "  light  "  calling  for  vigilance,  "  vehement  " 
demanding  denunciation,  and  "  violent  "  requiring  punishment. 
The  grounds  of  suspicion  have  been  formulated  "  Pope  Innocent 
III.  declared  that  to  lead  a  solitary  life,  to  refuse  to  accommodate 
oneself  to  the  prevailing  manners  of  society,  and  to  frequent 
unauthorized  religious  meetings  were  abundant  grounds  of 
suspicion;  while  later  canonists  were  accustomed  to  give  lists 
of  deeds  which  made  the  doers  suspect:  a  priest  who  did  not 
celebrate  mass,  a  layman  who  was  seen  in  clerical  robes,  those 
who  favoured  heretics,  received  them  as  guests,  gave  them  safe 
conduct,  tolerated  them,  trusted  them,  defended  them,  fought 
under  them  or  read  their  books  were  all  to  be  suspect  "  (T.M. 
Lindsay  in  article  "  Heresy,"  Ency.  Brit,  gth  edition).  That 
the  dangers  of  heresy  might  be  avoided,  laymen  were  forbidden 
to  argue  about  matters  of  faith  by  Pope  Alexander  IV.,  an  oath 
"  to  abjure  every  heresy  and  to  maintain  in  its  completeness 
the  Catholic  faith  "  was  required  by  the  council  of  Toledo  (1129), 
the  reading  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  vulgar  tongue  was  not  allowed 
to  the  laity  by  Pope  Pius  IV.  The  reading  of  books  was  restricted 
and  certain  books  were  prohibited.  Regarding  heresy  as  a  crime, 
the  church  was  not  content  with  inflicting  its  spiritual  penalties, 


heretics. 


HERESY 


361 


such  as  excommunication  and  such  civil  disabilities  as  its  own 
organization  allowed  it  to  impose  (e.g.  the  heretics  were  forbidden 
to  give  evidence  in  ecclesiastical  courts,  fathers  were  forbidden 
to  allow  a  son  or  a  daughter  to  marry  a  heretic,  and  to  hold 
social  intercourse  with  a  heretic  was  an  offence).  It  regarded 
itself  as  justified  in  invoking  the  power  of  the  state  to  suppress 
heresy  by  civil  pains  and  penalties,  including  even  torture  and 
death. 

The  story  of  the  persecution  of  heretics  by  the  state  must  be 
briefly  sketched. 

As  long  as  the  Christian  Church  was  itself  persecuted  by  ,the 
pagan  empire,  it  advocated  freedom  of  conscience,  and  insisted 
that  religion  could  be  promoted  only  by  instruction  and  per- 
suasion (Justin  Martyr,  Tertullian,  Lactantius);  but  almost 
immediately  after  Christianity  was  adopted  as  the  religion  of 
the  Roman  empire  the  persecution  of  men  for  religious  opinions 
began.  While  Constantine  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign  (313) 
declared  complete  religious  liberty,  and  kept  on  the  whole  to 
this  declaration,  yet  he  confined  his  favours  to  the  orthodox 
hierarchical  church,  and  even  by  an  edict  of  the  year  326  formally 
asserted  the  exclusion  from  these  of  heretics  and  schismatics. 
Arianism,  when  favoured  by  the  reigning  emperor,  showed  itself 
even  more  intolerant  than  Catholic  Orthodoxy.  Theodosius 
the  Great,  in  380,  soon  after  his  baptism,  issued,  with  his  co- 
emperors,  the  following  edict:  "  We,  the  three  emperors,  will 
that  all  our  subjects  steadfastly  adhere  to  the  religion  which  was 
taught  by  St  Peter  to  the  Romans,  which  has  been  faithfully 
preserved  by  tradition,  and  which  is  now  professed  by  the  pontiff 
Damasus  of  Rome,  and  Peter,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  a  man  of 
apostolic  holiness.  According  to  the  institution  of  the  Apostles, 
and  the  doctrine  of  the  Gospel,  let  us  believe  in  the  one  Godhead 
of  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  of  equal  majesty 
in  the  Holy  Trinity.  We  order  that  the  adherents  of  this  faith 
be  called  Catholic  Christians;  we  brand  all  the  senseless  followers 
of  the  other  religions  with  the  infamous  name  of  heretics,  and 
forbid  their  conventicles  assuming  the  name  of  churches.  Besides 
the  condemnation  of  divine  justice,  they  must  expect  the  heavy 
penalties  which  our  authority,  guided  by  heavenly  wisdom, 
shall  think  proper  to  inflict  "  (Schaff's  Nicene  and  Post-Nicene 
Christianity,  i.  142).  The  fifteen  penal  laws  which  this  emperor 
issued  in  as  many  years  deprived  them  of  all  right  to  the  exercise 
of  their  religion,  "  excluded  them  from  all  civil  offices,  and 
threatened  them  with  fines,  confiscation,  banishment  and  even 
in  some  cases  with  death."  In  385  Maximus,  his  rival  and 
colleague,  caused  seven  heretics  to  be  put  to  death  at  Treves 
(Trier).  Many  bishops  approved  the  act,  but  Ambrose  of  Milan 
and  Martin  of  Tours  condemned  it.  While  Chrysostom  dis- 
approved of  the  execution  of  heretics,  he  approved  "  the  pro- 
hibition of  their  assemblies  and  the  confiscation  of  their  churches." 
Jerome  by  an  appeal  to  Deut.  xiii.  6-10  appears  to  defend  even 
the  execution  of  heretics.  Augustine  found  a  justification  for 
these  penal  measures  in  the  "  compel  them  to  come  in  "  of 
Luke  xiv.  23,  although  his  personal  leanings  were  towards 
clemency.  Only  the  persecuted  themselves  insisted  on  toleration 
as  a  Christian  duty.  In  the  middle  ages  the  church  showed  no 
hesitation  about  persecuting  unto  death  all  who  dared  to  con- 
tradict her  doctrine,  or  challenge  her  practice,  or  question  her 
authority.  The  instruction  and  persuasion  which  St  Bernard 
favoured  found  little  imitation.  Even  the  Dominicans,  who 
began  as  a  preaching  order  to  convert  heretics,  soon  became 
persecutors.  In  the  Albigensian  Crusade  (A.D.  1209-1229) 
thousands  were  slaughtered.  As  the  bishops  were  not  zealous 
enough  in  enforcing  penal  laws  against  heretics,  the  Tribunal  of 
the  Inquisition  was  founded  in  1232  by  Gregory  IX.,  and  was 
entrusted  to  the  Dominicans  who  "  as  Domini  canes  subjected 
to  the  most  cruel  tortures  all  on  whom  the  suspicion  of  heresy 
fell,  and  ah1  the  resolute  were  handed  over  to  the  civil  authorities, 
who  readily  undertook  their  execution  "  (Kurtz,  Church  History, 
«•  137-138). 

At  the  Reformation  Luther  laid  down  the  principle  that  the 
civil  government  is  concerned  with  the  province  of  the  external 
and  temporal  life,  and  has  nothing  to  do  with  faith  and  conscience. 


"  How  could  the  emperor  gain  the  right,"  he  asks,  "  to  rule  my 
faith?"  With  that  only  the  Word  of  God  is  concerned. 
"  Heresy  is  a  spiritual  thing,"  he  says,  "  which  one  cannot  hew 
with  any  iron,  burn  with  any  fire,  drown  with  any  water.  The 
Word  of  God  alone  is  there  to  do  it."  Nevertheless  Luther 
assigned  to  the  state,  which  he  assumes  to  be  Christian,  the 
function  of  maintaining  the  Gospel  and  the  Word  of  God  in 
public  life.  He  was  not  quite  consistent  in  carrying  out  his 
principle  (see  Luthard's  Geschichte  der  chrisllichen  Ethik,  ii. 
33).  In  the  Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg  the  principle  "  cujus 
regio  ejus  religio  "  was  accepted;  by  it  a  ruler's  choice  between 
Catholicism  and  Lutheranism  bound  his  subjects,  but  any 
subject  unwilling  to  accept  the  decision  might  emigrate  without 
hindrance. 

In  Geneva  under  Calvin,  while  the  Consistoire,  or  ecclesiastical 
court,  could  inflict  only  spiritual  penalties,  yet  the  medieval 
idea  of  the  duty  of  the  state  to  co-operate  with  the  church  to 
maintain  the  religious  purity  of  the  community  in  matters  of 
belief  as  well  as  of  conduct  so  far  survived  that  the  civil  authority 
was  sure  to  punish  those  whom  the  ecclesiastical  had  censured. 
Calvin  consented  to  the  death  of  Servetus,  whose  views  on  the 
Trinity  he  regarded  as  most  dangerous  heresy,  and  whose  denial 
of  the  full  authority  of  the  Scriptures  he  dreaded  as  overthrow- 
ing the  foundations  of  all  religious  authority.  Protestantism 
generally,  it  is  to  be  observed,  quite  approved  the  execution  of 
the  heretic.  The  Synod  of  Dort  (1619)  not  only  condemned 
Arminianism,  but  its  defenders  were  expelled  from  the  Nether- 
lands; only  in  1625  did  they  venture  to  return,  and  not  till  1630 
were  they  allowed  to  erect  schools  and  churches.  In  modern 
Protestantism  there  is  a  growing  disinclination  to  deal  even  with 
errors  of  belief  by  ecclesiastical  censure;  the  appeal  to  the  civil 
authority  to  inflict  any  penalty  is  abandoned.  During  the 
course  of  the  igth  century  in  Scottish  Presbyterianism  the 
affirmation  of  Christ's  atoning  death  for  all  men,  the  denial  of 
eternal  punishment,  the  modification  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
inspiration  of  the  Scriptures  by  acceptance  of  the  results  of  the 
Higher  Criticism,  were  all  censured  as  perilous  errors. 

The  subject  cannot  be  left  without  a  brief  reference  to  the 
persecution  of  witches.  To  the  beginning  of  the  i3th  century 
the  popular  superstitions  regarding  sorcery,  witchcraft  and 
compacts  with  the  devil  were  condemned  by  the  ecclesiastical 
authorities  as  heathenish,  sinful  and  heretical.  But  after  the 
establishment  of  the  Inquisition  "  heresy  and  sorcery  were 
regarded  as  correlates,  like  two  agencies  resting  on  and  service- 
able to  the  demoniacal  powers,  and  were  therefore  treated  in 
the  same  way  as  offences  to  be  punished  with  torture  and  the 
stake  "  (Kurtz,  Church  History,  ii.  195).  While  the  Franciscans 
rejected  the  belief  in  witchcraft,  the  Dominicans  were  most 
zealous  in  persecuting  witches.  In  the  i  $th  century  this  delusion , 
fostered  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  took  possession  of  the 
mind  of  the  people,  and  thousands,  mostly  old  women,  but  also 
a  number  of  girls,  were  tortured  and  burned  as  witches.  Pro- 
testantism took  over  the  superstition  from  Catholicism.  It 
was  defended  by  James  I.  of  England.  As  late  as  the  i8th 
century  death  was  inflicted  in  Germany  and  Switzerland  on  men, 
women  and  even  children  accused  of  this  crime.  This  superstition 
dominated  Scotland.  Not  till  1736  were  the  statutes  against 
witchcraft  repealed;  an  act  which  the  Associate  Presbytery 
at  Edinburgh  in  1743  declared  to  be  "  contrary  to  the  express 
law  of  God,  for  which  a  holy  God  may  be  provoked  in  a  way  of 
righteous  judgment." 

The   recognition   and   condemnation   of   errors   in   religious 
belief  is  by  no  means  confined  to  the  Christian  Church.     Only 
a  few  instances  of  heresy  in  other  religions  can  be 
given.     In  regard  to  the  fetishism  of  the  Gold  Coast     rioa~ 
of    Africa,    Jevons    (Introduction  to  the    History    of    religions. 
Religion,  pp.  165-166)  maintains  that  "  public  opinion 
does  not  approve  of  the  worship  by  an  individual  of  a  suhman, 
or  private  tutelary  deity,  and  that  his  dealings  with  it  are 
regarded  in  the  nature  of  '  black  art '  as  it  is  not  a  god  of 
the  community."     In  China  there  is  a  "  classical  or  canonical, 
primitive   and    therefore   alone   orthodox    (tsching)    and    true 


362 


HERESY 


religion,"  Confucianism  and  Taoism,  while  the  "  heterodox 
(sic),"  Buddhism  especially,  is  "  partly  tolerated,  but  generally 
forbidden,  and  even  cruelly  persecuted "  (Chantepie  de  la 
Saussaye,  Religionsgeschichte,  i.  57).  In  Islam  "  according 
to  an  unconfirmed  tradition  Mahomet  is  said  to  have  foretold 
that  his  community  would  split  into  seventy-three  sects  (see 
MAHOMMEDAN  RELIGION,  §  Sects),  of  which  only  one  would 
escape  the  flames  of  hell."  The  first  split  was  due  to  uncertainty 
regarding  the  principle  which  should  rule  the  succession  to  the 
Caliphate.  The  Arabic  and  orthodox  party  (i.e.  the  Sunnites, 
who  held  by  the  Koran  and  tradition)  maintained  that  this 
should  be  determined  by  the  choice  of  the  community.  The 
Persian  and  heterodox  party  (the  Shiites)  insisted  on  heredity. 
But  this  political  difference  was  connected  with  theological 
differences.  The  sect  of  the  Mu'tazilites  which  affirmed  that  the 
Koran  had  been  created,  and  denied  predestination,  began  to 
be  persecuted  by  the  government  in  the  pth  century,  and 
discussion  of  religious  questions  was  forbidden  (see  CALIPHATE, 
sections  B  and  C).  The  mystical  tendency  in  Islam,  Sufism,  is 
also  regarded  as  heretical  (see  Kuenen's  Hibbert  Lecture,  pp. 
45-50).  Buddhism  is  a  wide  departure  in  doctrine  and  practice 
from  Brahmanism,  and  hence  after  a  swift  unfolding  and  quick 
spread  it  was  driven  out  of  India  and  had  to  find  a  home  in 
other  lands.  Essenism  from  the  standpoint  of  Judaism  was 
heterodox  in  two  respects,  the  abandonment  of  animal  sacrifices 
and  the  adoration  of  the  sun. 

Although  in  Greece  there  was  generally  wide  tolerance,  yet 
in  399  B.C.  Socrates  "  was  indicted  as  an  irreligious  man,  a 
corrupter  of  youth,  and  an  innovator  in  worship." 

Besides  the  works  quoted  above,  see  Gottfried  Arnold's  Unpar- 
teiische  Kitchen-  und  Ketzer-Historie  (1699-1700;  ed.  Schaffhausen, 
1740).  A  very  good  list  of  writers  on  heresy,  ancient  and  medieval, 
is  given  in  Burton's  Bampton  Lectures  on  Heresies  of  the  Apostolic  Age 
(1829).  The  various  Trinitarian  and  Christological  heresies  may  be 
studied  in  Dorner's  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Person  of  C&m«(i  845- 
1856;  Eng.  trans.,  1861-1862) ;  the  Gnostic  and  Manichaean  heresies 
in  the  works  of  Mansel,  Matter  and  Beausobre ;  the  medieval  heresies 
in  Hahn's  Geschichte  der  Ketzer  im  Mittelalter  (1846-1850),  and 
Preger's  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Mystik  (1875) ;  Quietism  in  Heppe's 
Geschichte  der  quietistischen  Mystik  (1875);  the  Pietist  sects  in 
Palmer's  Gemeinschaften  und  Secten  Wilrttembergs  (1875);  the 
Reformation  and  17th-century  heresies  and  sects  in  the  Anabaptis- 
ticum  et  enthusiasticum  Pantheon  und  geistliches  Rust-Haus  (1702). 
Bohmer's  Jus  ecclesiasticum  Protestantium  (1714-1723),  and  van 
Espen's  Jus  ecclesiasticum  (1702)  detail  at  great  length  the  relations 
of  heresy  to  canon  and  civil  law.  On  the  question  of  the  baptism 
of  heretics  see  Smith  and  Cheetham's  Diet,  of  Eccl.  Antiquities, 
"  Baptism,  Iteration  of  ";  and  on  that  of  the  readmission  of  heretics 
into  the  church,  compare  Martene,  De  ritibus,  and  Morinus,  De 
poenilentia.  (A.  E.  G.*) 

Heresy  according  to  the  Law  of  England. — The  highest  point  reached 
by  the  ecclesiastical  power  in  England  was  in  the  Act  De  Haeretico 
comburendo  (2  Henry  IV.  c.  15).  Some  have  supposed  that  a  writ 
of  that  name  is  as  old  as  the  common  law,  but  its  execution  might 
be  arrested  by  a  pardon  from  the  crown.  The  Act  of  Henry  IV. 
enabled  the  diocesan  alone,  without  the  co-operation  of  a  synod, 
to  pronounce  sentence  of  heresy,  and  required  the  sheriff  to  execute 
it  by  burning  the  offender,  without  waiting  for  the  consent  of  the 
crown.1  A  large  number  of  penal  statutes  were  enacted  in  the 
following  reigns,  and  the  statute  I  Eliz.  c.  I  is  regarded  by  lawyers  as 
limiting  for  the  first  time  the  description  of  heresy  to  tenets  declared 
heretical  either  by  the  canonical  Scripture  or  by  the  first  four  general 
councils,  or  such  as  should  thereafter  be  so  declared  by  parliament 
with  theassent  of  Convocation.  The  writ  was  abolished  by  29  Car.II. 
c.  9,  which  reserved  to  the  ecclesiastical  courts  their  jurisdiction  over 
heresy  and  similar  offences,  and  their  power  of  awarding  punishments 
not  extending  to  death.  Heresy  became  henceforward  a  purely 
ecclesiastical  offence,  although  disabling  laws  of  various  kinds 
continued  to  be  enforced  against  Jews,  Catholics  and  other  dissenters. 
The  temporal  courts  have  no  knowledge  of  any  offence  known  as 
heresy,  although  incidentally  (e.g.  in  questions  of  copyright)  they 
have  refused  protection  to  persons  promulgating  irreligious  or 
blasphemous  opinions.  As  an  ecclesiastical  offence  it  would  at  this 
moment  be  almost  impossible  to  say  what  opinion,  in  the  case  of  a 
layman  at  least,  would  be  deemed  heretical.  Apparently,  if  a  proper 
case  could  be  made  out,  an  ecclesiastical  court  might  still  sentence 
a  layman  to  excommunication  for  heresy,  but  by  no  other  means 
could  his  opinions  be  brought  under  censure.  The  last  case  on  the 
subject  (Jenkins  v.  Cook,  L.R.  I  P.D.  80)  leaves  the  matter  in  the 
same  uncertainty.  In  that  case  a  clergyman  refused  the  communion 


1  Stephen's  Commentaries,  bk.  iv.  ch.  7. 


to  a  parishioner  who  denied  the  personality  of  the  devil.  The  judicial 
committee  held  that  the  rights  of  the  parishioners  are  expressly 
defined  in  the  statute  of  I  Edw.  VI.  c.  i,  and,  without  admitting  that 
the  canons  of  the  church,  which  are  not  binding  on  the  laity,  could 
specify  a  lawful  cause  for  rejection,  held  that  no  lawful  cause  within 
the  meaning  of  either  the  canons  or  the  rubric  had  been  shown. 
It  was  maintained  at  the  bar  that  the  denial  of  the  most  fundamental 
doctrines  of  Christianity  would  not  be  a  lawful  cause  for  such 
rejection,  but  the  judgment  only  queries  whether  a  denial  of  the 
personality  of  the  devil  or  eternal  punishment  is  consistent  with 
membership  of  the  church.  The  right  of  every  layman  to  the  offices 
of  the  church  is  established  by  statute  without  reference  to  opinions, 
and  it  is  not  possible  to  say  what  opinions,  if  any,  would  operate  to 
disqualify  him. 

The  case  of  clergymen  is  entirely  different.  The  statute  13  Eliz. 
c.  12,  §  2,  enacts  that  "  if  any  person  ecclesiastical,  or  which  shall 
have  an  ecclesiastical  living,  shall  advisedly  maintain  or  affirm  any 
doctrine  directly  contrary  or  repugnant  to  any  of  the  said  articles, 
and  by  conventicle  before  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  or  the  ordinary, 
or  before  the  queen's  highness's  commissioners  in  matters  ecclesiasti- 
cal, shall  persist  therein  or  not  revoke  his  error,  or  after  such  revoca- 
tion eftsoons  affirm  such  untrue  doctrine,"  he  shall  be  deprived  of 
his  ecclesiastical  promotions.  The  act  it  will  be  observed  applies 
only  to  clergymen,  and  the  punishment  is  strictly  limited  to  depriva- 
tion of  benefice.  The  judicial  committee  of  the  privy  council,  as 
the  last  court  of  appeal,  has  on  several  occasions  pronounced  judg- 
ments by  which  the  scope  of  the  act  has  been  confined  to  its  narrowest 
legal  effect.  The  court  will  construe  the  Articles  of  Religion  and 
formularies  according  to  the  legal  rules  for  the  interpretation  of  statutes 
and  written  instruments.  No  rule  of  doctrine  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the 
church  which  is  not  distinctly  and  expressly  stated  or  plainly  involved 
in  the  written  law  of  the  Church,  and  where  there  is  no  rule,  a  clergy- 
man may  express  his  opinion  without  fear  of  penal  consequences. 
In  the  Essays  and  Reviews  cases  (Williams  v.  the  Bishop  of  Salisbury, 
and  Wilson  v.  Kendall,  2  Moo.  P.C.C.,  -N.S.  375)  it  was  held  to  be 
not  penal  fora  clergyman  to  speak  of  merit  by  transfer  as  a  "  fiction," 
or  to  express  a  hope  of  the  ultimate  pardon  of  the  wicked,  or  to 
affirm  that  any  part  of  the  Old  or  New  Testament,  however  uncon- 
nected with  religious  faith  or  moral  duty,  was  not  written  under 
the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  In  the  case  of  Noble  v.  Voysey 
(L.R.  3  P.C.  357)  in  1871  the  committee  held  that  it  was  not  bound 
to  affix  a  meaning  to  articles  of  really  dubious  import,  as  it 
would  have  been  in  cases  affecting  property.  At  the  same  time 
any  manifest  contradiction  of  the  Articles,  or  any  obvious  evasion 
of  them,  would  subject  the  offender  to  the  penalties  of  deprivation. 
In  some  of  the  cases  the  question  has  been  raised  how  far  the  doctrine 
of  the  church  could  be  ascertained  by  reference  to  the  opinions 
generally  expressed  by  divines  belonging  to  its  communion.  Such 
opinions,  it  would  seem,  might  be  taken  into  account  as  showing  the 
extent  of  liberty  which  had  been  in  practice,  claimed  and  exercised 
on  the  interpretation  of  the  articles,  but  would  certainly  not  be 
allowed  to  increase  their  stringency.  It  is  not  the  business  of  the 
court  to  pronounce  upon  the  absolute  truth  or  falsehood  of  any  given 
opinion,  but  simply  to  say  whether  it  is  formally  consistent  with  the 
legal  doctrines  of  the  Church  of  England.  Whether  Convocation 
has  any  jurisdiction  in  cases  of  heresy  is  a  question  which  has 
occasioned  some  difference  of  opinion  among  lawyers.  Hale,  as 
quoted  by  Phillimore  (Ecc.  Law) ,  say s  that  before  the  time  of  Richard 
II.,  that  is,  before  any  acts  of  Parliament  were  made  about  heretics, 
it  is  without  question  that  in  a  convocation  of  the  clergy  or  provincial 
synod  "  they  might  and  frequently  did  here  in  England  proceed  to 
the  sentencing  of  heretics."  But  later  writers,  while  adhering  to  the 
statement  that  Convocation  might  declare  opinions  to  be  heretical, 
doubted  whether  it  could  proceed  to  punish  the  offender,  even  when 
he  was  a  clerk  in  orders.  Phillimore  states  that  there  is  no  longer 
any  doubt,  even  apart  from  the  effect  of  the  Church  Discipline  Act 
1840,  that  Convocation  has  no  power  to  condemn  clergymen  for 
heresy.  The  supposed  right  of  Convocation  to  stamp  heretical 
opinions  with  its  disapproval  was  exercised  on  a  somewhat  memorable 
occasion.  In  1864  the  Convocation  of  the  province  of  Canterbury, 
having  taken  the  opinion  of  two  of  the  most  eminent  lawyers  of  the 
day  (Sir  Hugh  Cairns  and  Sir  John  Roll),  passed  judgment  upon 
the  volume  entitled  Essays  and  Reviews.  The  judgment  purported 
to  "  synodically  condemn  the  said  volume  as  containing  teaching 
contrary  to  the  doctrine  received  by  the  United  Church  of  England 
and  Ireland,  in  common  with  the  whole  Catholic  Church  of  Christ." 
These  proceedings  were  challenged  in  the  House  of  Lords  by  Lord 
Houghton,  and  the  lord  chancellor  (Westbury),  speaking  on  behalf 
of  the  government,  stated  that  if  there  was  any  "synodical  judgment" 
it  would  be  a  violation  of  the  law,  subjecting  those  concerned  in  it 
to  the  penalties  of  a  praemunire,  but  that  the  sentence  in  question 
was  "  simply  nothing,  literally  no  sentence  at  all."  It  is  thus  at 
least  doubtful  whether  Convocation  has  a  right  even  to  express  an 
opinion  unless  specially  authorized  to  do  so  by  the  crown,  and  it  is 
certain  that  it  cannot  do  anything  more.  Heresy  or  no  heresy,  in 
the  last  resort,  like  all  other  ecclesiastical  questions,  is  decided  by 
the  judicial  committee  of  the  council. 

The  English  lawyers,  following  the  Roman  law,  distinguish 
between  heresy  and  apostasy.  The  latter  offence  is  dealt  with  by  an 
act  which  still  stands  on  the  statute  book,  although  it  has  long  been 


HEREWARD— HERIOT,  G. 


363 


virtually  obsolete— the  o  &  10  Will.  III.  c.  35.  If  any  person  who  has 
been  educated  in  or  has  professed  the  Christian  religion  shall,  by  writing, 
printing,  teaching,  or  advised  speaking,  assert  or  maintain  that  there 
are  more  Gods  than  one,  or  shall  deny  any  of  the  persons  of  the  Holy 
Trinity  to  be  God,  or  shall  deny  the  Christian  religion  to  be  true  or  the 
Holy  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  to  be  ot  divine 
authority,  he  shall  for  the  first  offence  be  declared  incapable  of 
holding  any  ecclesiastical,  civil,  or  military  office  or  employment, 
and  for  the  second  incapable  of  bringing  any  action,  or  of  being 
guardian,  executor,  legatee,  or  grantee,  and  shall  suffer  three  years' 
imprisonment  without  bail.  Unitarians  were  saved  from  these 
atrocious  penalties  by  a  later  act  (53  Geo.  III.  c.  160),  which  permits 
Christians  to  deny  any  of  the  persons  in  the  Trinity  without  penal 
consequences. 

HEREWARD,  usually  but  erroneously  styled  "  the  Wake  " 
(an  addition  of  later  days),  an  Englishman  famous  for  his  re- 
sistance to  William  the  Conqueror.  It  is  now  established  that 
he  was  a  tenant  of  Peterborough  Abbey,  from  which  he  held 
lands  at  Witham-on-the-Hill  and  Barholme  with  Stow  in  the 
south-western  corner  of  Lincolnshire,  and  of  Crowland  Abbey 
at  Rippingale  in  the  neighbouring  fenland.  His  first  authentic 
act  is  the  storm  and  sacking  of  Peterborough  in  1070,  in  company 
with  outlaws  and  Danish  invaders.  The  next  year  he  took  part 
in  the  desperate  stand  against  the  Conqueror's  rule  made  in 
the  isle  of  Ely,  and,  on  its  capture  by  the  Normans,  escaped 
with  his  followers  through  the  fens.  That  his  exploits  made 
an  exceptional  impression  on  the  popular  mind  is  certain  from 
the  mass  of  legendary  history  that  clustered  round  his  name; 
he  became,  says  Mr  Davis,  "  in  popular  eyes  the  champion  of 
the  English  national  cause."  The  Hereward  legend  has  been 
fully  dealt  with  by  him  and  by  Professor  Freeman,  who  observed 
that  "  with  no  name  has  fiction  been  more  busy." 

See  E.  A.  Freeman,  History  of  the  Norman  Conquest,  vol.  iv. ; 
J.  H.  Round,  Feudal  England;  H.  W.  C.  Davis,  England  under  the 
Normans  and  Angevins.  (J-  H.  R.) 

HERFORD,  a  town  in  the  Prussian  province  of  Westphalia, 
situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Werre  and  Aa,  on  the  Minden 
&  Cologne  railway,  9  m.  N.E.  of  Bielefeld,  and  at  the  junction 
of  the  railway  to  Detmold  and  Altenbeken.  Pop.  (1885)  15,902; 
(1905)  24,821.  It  possesses  six  Evangelical  churches,  notably  the 
Munsterkirche,  a  Romanesque  building  with  a  Gothic  apse  of  the 
1 5th  century;  the  Marienkirche,  in  the  Gothic  style;  and  the 
Johanniskirche,  with  a  steeple  280  ft.  high.  The  other  principal 
buildings  are  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  the  synagogue,  the 
gymnasium  founded  in  1540,  the  agricultural  school  and  the 
theatre.  There  is  a  statue  of  Frederick  William  of  Brandenburg. 
The  industries  include  cotton  and  flax-spinning,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  linen  cloth,  carpets,  furniture,  machinery,  sugar, 
tobacco  and  leather. 

Herford  owes  its  origin  to  a  Benedictine  nunnery  which  is 
said  to  have  been  founded  in  832,  and  was  confirmed  by  the 
emperor  Louis  the  Pious  in  839.  From  the  emperor  Frederick 
I.  the  abbess  obtained  princely  rank  and  a  seat  in  the  imperial 
diet.  Among  the  abbesses  was  the  celebrated  Elizabeth  (1618- 
1680),  eldest  daughter  of  the  elector  palatine  Frederick  V.,  who 
was  a  philosophical  princess,  and  a  pupil  of  Descartes.  Under 
her  rule  the  sect  of  the  Labadists  settled  for  some  time  in  Herford. 
The  foundation  was  secularized  in  1803.  Herford  was  a  member 
of  the  Hanseatic  League,  and  its  suzerainty  passed  in  1 547  from 
the  abbesses  to  the  dukes  of  Juliers.  In  1631  it  became  a  free 
imperial  town,  but  in  1647  it  was  subjugated  by  the  elector  of 
Brandenburg.  It  came  into  the  possession  of  Westphalia  in 
1807,  and  in  1813  into  that  of  Prussia. 

See  L.  Holscher,  Reformationsgeschichte  der  Stadt  Herford  (Guters- 
loh,  1888). 

HERGENROTHER,  JOSEPH  VON  (1824-1890),  German 
theologian,  was  born  at  Wiirzburg  in  Bavaria  on  the  isth  of 
September  1824.  He  studied  at  Wiirzburg  and  at  Rome. 
After  spending  a  year  as  parish  priest  at  Zellingen,  near  bis 
native  city,  he  went,  in  1850,  at  his  bishop's  command,  to  the 
university  of  Munich,  where  he  took  his  degree  of  doctor  of 
theology  the  same  year,  becoming  in  1851  Privatdozent,  and  in 
1855  professor  of  ecclesiastical  law  and  history.  At  Munich 
he  gained  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the  most  learned 
theologians  on  the  Ultramontane  side  of  the  Infallibility  question, 


which  had  begun  to  be  discussed;  and  in  1868  he  was  sent  to 
Rome  to  arrange  the  proceedings  of  the  Vatican  Council.  He 
was  a  stanch  supporter  of  the  infallibility  dogma;  and  in  1870 
ic  wrote  Anti- Janus,  an  answer  to  The  Pope  and  the  Council, 
"  Janus  "  (Dollinger  and  J.  Friedrich),  which  made  a  great 
sensation  at  the  time.  In  1877  he  was  made  prelate  of  the 
sapal  household;  he  became  cardinal  deacon  in  1879,  and  was 
afterwards  made  curator  of  the  Vatican  archives.  He  died  in 
Rome  on  the  3rd  of  October  1890. 

Hergenrother's  first  published  work  was  a  dissertation  on  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  according  to  Gregory  Nazianzen  (Regensburg, 
1850),  and  from  this  time  onward  his  literary  activity  was  immense. 
After  several  articles  and  brochures  on  Hippolytus  and  the  question 
of  the  authorship  of  the  Philosophumena,  he  turned  to  the  study  of 
Photius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  the  history  of  the  Greek 
schism.  For  twelve  years  he  was  engaged  upon  this  work,  the 
result  being  his  monumental  Photius,  Patriarch  von  Constantinopel. 
Sein  Leben,  seine  Schriften  und  das  griechische  Schisma  (3  vols., 
Regensburg,  1867-1869);  an  additional  volume  (1869)  gave,  under 
;he  title  Monumenta  Graeca  ad  Photium  .  .  .  pertinentia,  a  collection 
of  the  unpublished  documents  on  which  the  work  was  largely  based. 
3f  Hergenrother's  other  works,  the  most  important  are  his  history 
of  the  Papal  States  since  the  Revolution  (Der  Kirchenstaat  seit  der 
'ranzosischen  Revolution,  Freiburg  i.  B.,  1860;  Fr.  trans.,  Leipzig, 
1 860),  his  great  work  on  the  relations  of  church  and  state  (Katholische 
Kirche  und  christlicher  Stoat  in  ihrer  geschichtlichen  Entwickelung 
und  in  Beziehung  auf  Fragen  der  Gegenwart,  2  parts,  Freiburg  i.  B., 
1872;  2nd  ed.  expanded,  1876;  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1876,  Balti- 
more, 1889),  and  his  universal  church  history  (Handbuch  der  allge- 
meinen  Kirchengeschichte,  3  vols.,  Freiburg  i.  B.,  1876-1880;  2nd 
ed.,  1879,  &c.;  3rd  ed.,  1884-1886;  4th  ed.,  by  Peter  Kirsch, 
1902,  &c.;  French  trans.,  Paris,  1880,  &c.).  He  also  found  time 
for  a  while  to  edit  the  new  edition  of  Wetzer  and  Welte's  Kirchen- 
lexikon  (1877),  to  superintend  the  publication  of  part  of  the  Regesta 
of  Pope  Leo  X.  (Freiburg  i.  B.,  1884-1885),  and  to  add  two  volumes  to 
Hefele's  Conciliengeschichte  (ib.,  1887  and  1890). 

HERINGSDORF,  a  seaside  resort  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian 
province,  of  Pomerania,  on  the  north  coast  of  the  island  of 
Usedom,  5  m.  by  rail  N.W.  of  Swinemiinde.  It  is  surrounded  by 
beech  woods,  and  is  perhaps  the  most  popular  seaside  resort 
on  the  German  shore  of  the  Baltic,  being  frequented  by  some 
12,000  visitors  annually 

HERIOT,  GEORGE  (1563-1623),  the  founder  of  Heriot's 
Hospital,  Edinburgh,  was  descended  from  an  old  Haddington 
family;  his  father,  a  goldsmith  in  Edinburgh,  represented 
the  city  in  the  Scottish  parliament.  George  was  born  in  1563, 
and  after  receiving  a  good  education  was  apprenticed  to  his 
father's  trade.  In  1586  he  married  the  daughtes  of  a  deceased 
Edinburgh  merchant,  and  with  the  assistance  of  her  patrimony 
set  up  in  business  on  his  own  account.  At  first  he  occupied  a 
small  "  buith  "  at  the  north-east  corner  of  St  Giles's  church, 
and  afterwards  a  more  pretentious  shop  at  the  west  end  of  the 
building.  To  the  business  of  a  goldsmith  he  joined  that  of  a 
money-lender,  and  in  1597  he  had  acquired 'such  a  reputation 
that  he  was  appointed  goldsmith  to  Queen  Anne,  consort  of 
James  VI.  In  1601  he  became  jeweller  to  the  king,  and  followed 
him  to  London,  occupying  a  shop  opposite  the  Exchange.  Heriot 
was  largely  indebted  for  his  fortune  to  the  extravagance  of  the 
queen,  and  the  imitation  of  this  extravagance  by  the  nobility. 
Latterly  he  had  such  an  extensive  business  as  a  jeweller  that 
on  one  occasion  a  government  proclamation  was  issued  calling 
upon  all  the.  magistrates  of  the  kingdom  to  aid  him  in  securing 
the  workmen  he  required.  He  died  in  London  on  the  loth  of 
February  1623.  In  1608,  having  some  time  previously  lost  his 
first  wife,  he  married  Alison  Primrose,  daughter  of  James 
Primrose,  grandfather  of  the  first  earl  of  Rosebery,  but  she  died 
in  1612;  by  neither  marriage  had  he  any  issue.  The  surplus 
of  his  estate,  after  deducting  legacies  to  his  nearest  relations 
and  some  of  his  more  intimate  friends,  was  bequeathed  to  found 
a  hospital  for  the  education  of  freemen's  sons  of  the  town  of 
Edinburgh;  and  its  value  afterwards  increased  so  greatly  as  to 
supply  funds  for  the  erection  of  several  Heriot  foundation 
schools  in  different  parts  of  the  city. 

Heriot  takes  a  leading  part  in  Scott's  novel,  The  Fortunes  of  Nigel 
(see  also  the  Introduction).  A  History  of  Heriot's  Hospital,  with 
a  Memoir  of  the  Founder,  by  William  Steven,  D.D.,  appeared  in 
1827;  2nd  ed.  1859. 


364 


HERIOT— HERLEN 


HERIOT,  by  derivation  the  arms  and  equipment  (geatwa)  of  a 
soldier  or  army  (here);  the  O.  Eng.  word  is  thus  here-geatwa. 
The  lord  of  a  fee  provided  his  tenant  with  arms  and  a  horse, 
either  as  a  gift  or  loan,  which  he  was  to  use  in  the  military 
service  paid  by  him.  On  the  death  of  the  tenant  the  lord  claimed 
the  return  of  the  equipment.  When  by  the  loth  century  land 
was  being  given  instead  of  arms,  the  heriot  was  still  paid,  but 
more  in  the  nature  of  a  "  relief  "  (<?.».).  There  seems  to  have 
been  some  connexion  between  the  payment  of.  the  heriot  and 
the  power  of  making  a  will  (F.  W.  Maitland,  Domesday  Book 
and  Beyond,  p.  298).  By  the  I3th  century  the  payment  was 
made  either  in  money  or  in  kind  by  the  handing  over  of  the  best 
beast  or  of  the  best  other  chattel  of  the  tenant  (see  Pollock  and 
Maitland,  History  of  English  Law,  i.  270  sq.).  For  the 
manorial  law  relating  to  heriots,  see  COPYHOLD. 

HERISAU,  the  largest  town  in  the  entire  Swiss  canton  of 
Appenzell,  built  on  the  Glatt  torrent,  and  by  light  railway 
7  m.  south-west  of  St  Gall  or  135  m.  north  of  Appenzell.  In 
1900  it  had  13,497  inhabitants,  mainly  Protestant  and  German- 
speaking.  The  lower  portion  of  the  massive  tower  of  the  parish 
church  (Protestant)  dates  from  the  nth  century  or  even  earlier. 
It  is  a  prosperous  little  industrial  town  in  the  Ausser  Rhoden 
half  of  the  canton,  especially  busied  with  the  manufacture  of 
embroidery  by  machinery,  and  of  muslins.  Near  it  is  the 
goats'  whey  cure  establishment  of  Heinrichsbad,  and  the  two 
castles  of  Rosenberg  and  Rosenburg,  ruined  in  1403  when  the 
land  rose  against  its  lord,  the  abbot  of  St  Gall.  About  5  m. 
to  the  south-east  is  Hundwil,  a  village  of  1523  inhabitants, 
where  the  Landsgemeinde  of  Ausser  Rhoden  meets  in  the  odd 
years  (in  other  years  at  Trogen)  on  the  last  Sunday  in  April. 

HERITABLE  JURISDICTIONS,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  grants 
of  jurisdiction  made  to  a  man  and  his  heirs.  They  were  a  usual 
accompaniment  to  feudal  tenures,  and  the  power  which  they 
conferred  on  great  families,  being  recognized  as  a  source  of 
danger  to  the  state,  led  to  frequent  attempts  being  made  by 
statute  to  restrict  them,  both  before  and  after  the  Union.  They 
were  all  abolished  in  1746. 

HERKIMER,  a  village  and  the  county-seat  of  Herkimer 
county,  New  York,  U.S.A.,  in  the  township  of  the  same  name, 
on  the  Mohawk  river,  about  15  m.  S.E.  of  Utica.  Pop.  (1900) 
5555  (724  being  foreign-born);  (1905,  state  census)  6596;  (1910) 
7520.  It  is  served  by  the  New  York  Central  &  Hudson  River 
railway,  a  branch  of  which  (the  Mohawk  &  Malone  railway) 
extends  through  the  Adirondacks  to  Malone,  N.Y. ;  by  inter- 
urban  electric  railway  to  Little  Falls,  Syracuse,  Richfield  Springs, 
Cooperstown  and  Oneonta,  and  by  the  Erie  canal.  The  village 
has  a  public  library,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  Foils  Mission  Institute 
(opened  1893),  a  training  school  for  young  women,  controlled 
by  the  Women's  .Foreign  Missionary  Society  o'f  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church.  Herkimer  is  situated  in  a  rich  dairying 
region,  and  has  various  manufactures.  The  municipality  owns 
and  operates  its  water-supply  system  and  electric-lighting 
plant.  Herkimer,  named  in  honour  of  General  Nicholas  Herkimer 
(c.  1728-1777),  who  was  mortally  wounded  in  the  Battle  cf 
Oriskany,  and  in  whose  memory  there  is  a  monument  (unveiled 
on  the  6th  of  August  1907)  in  the  village,  was  settled  about  1725 
by  Palatine  Germans,  who  bought  from  the  Mohawk  Indians 
a  large  tract  of  land  including  the  present  site  of  the  village 
and  established  thereon  several  settlements  which  became 
known  collectively  as  the  "  German  Flats."  In  1756  a  stone 
house,  built  in  1740  by  General  Herkimer's  father,  John  Jost 
Herkimer  (d.  1775) — apparently  one  of  the  original  group  of 
settlers — a  stone  church,  and  other  buildings,  standing  within 
what  is  now  Herkimer  village,  were  enclosed  in  a  stockade  and 
ditch  fortifications  by  Sir  William  Johnson,  and  this  post,  at 
first  known  as  Fort  Kouari  (the  Indian  name),  was  subsequently 
called  Fort  Herkimer.  Another  fort  (Ft.  Dayton)  was  built 
within  the  limits  of  the  present  village  in  1776  by  Colonel  Elias 
Dayton  (1737-1807),  who  later  became  a  brigadier-general 
(1783)  and  served  in  the  Confederation  Congress  in  1787-1788. 
During  the  French  and  Indian  War  the  settlement  was  attacked 
(i2th  November  1757)  and  practically  destroyed,  many  of  the 


settlers  being  killed  or  taken  prisoners;  and  it  was  again  attacked 
on  the  3oth  of  April  1758.  In  the  War  of  Independence  General 
Herkimer  assembled  here  the  force  which  on  the  6th  of  August 
1777  was  ambushed  near  Oriskany  on  its  march  from  Ft.  Dayton 
to  the  relief  of  Ft.  Schuyler  (see  ORISKANY);  and  the  settlement 
was  attacked  by  Indians  and  "  Tories  "  in  September  1778  and 
in  June  1782.  The  township  of  Herkimer  was  organized  in  1788, 
and  in  1807  the  village  was  incorporated. 

See  Nathaniel  I.  Benton,  History  of  Herkimer  County  (Albany, 
1856) ;  and  Phoebe  S.  Cowen,  The  Herkimer s  and  Schuylers,  1903). 

HERKOMER,  SIR  HUBERT  VON  (1840-  ),  British  painter, 
was  born  at  Waal,  in  Bavaria,  and  eight  years  later  was  brought 
to  England  by  his  father,  a  wood-carver  of  great  ability.  He 
lived  for  some  time  at  Southampton  and  in  the  school  of  art 
there  began  his  art  training;  but  in  1866  he  entered  upon  a 
more  serious  course  of  study  at  the  South  Kensington  Schools, 
and  in  1869  exhibited  for  the  first  time  at  the  Royal  Academy. 
By  his  picture,  "  The  Last  Muster,"  at  the  Academy  in  1875,  he 
definitely  established  his  position  as  an  artist  of  high  distinction. 
He  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Academy  in  1879,  and  academi- 
cian in  1890;  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Painters  in 
Water  Colours  in  1893,  and  a  full  member  in  1894;  and  in  1885 
he  was  appointed  Slade  professor  at  Oxford.  He  exhibited  a 
very  large  number  of  memorable  portraits,  figure  subjects  and 
landscapes,  in  oil  and  water  colour ;  he  achieved  marked  success 
as  a  worker  in  enamel,  as  an  etcher,  mezzotint  engraver  and 
illustrative  draughtsman;  and  he  exercised  wide  influence  upon 
art  education  by  means  of  the  Herkomer  School  (Incorporated), 
at  Bushey,  which  he  founded  in  1883  and  directed  gratuitously 
until  I9P4  ,when  he  retired.  It  was  then  voluntarily  wound  up,  and 
is  now  conducted  privately.  Two  of  his  pictures,  "  Found  "  (1885) 
and  "The  Chapel  of  the  Charterhouse  "  (1889) , are  in  the  National 
Gallery  of  British  Art.  In  the  year  1 907  he  received  the  honorary 
degree  of  D.C.L.  at  Oxford,  and  a  knighthood  was  conferred  upon 
him  by  the  king  in  addition  to  the  commandership  of  the  Royal 
Victorian  Order  with  which  he  was  already  decorated. 

See  Hubert  von  Herkomer,  R.A.,  a  Study  and  a  Biography,  by 
A.  L.  Baldry  (London,  1901);  Professor  Hubert  Herkomer,  Royal 
Academician,  His  Life  and  Work,  by  W.  L.  Courtney  (London,  1892). 

HERLEN  (or  HERLIN),  FRITZ,  of  Nordlingen,  German  artist  of 
the  early  Swabian  school,  in  the  isth  century.  The  date  and 
place  of  his  birth  are  unknown,  but  his  name  is  on  the  roll  of  the 
tax-gatherers  of  Ulm  in  1449;  and  in  1467  he  was  made  citizen 
and  town  painter  at  Nordlingen,  "  because  of  his  acquaintance 
with  Flemish  methods  of  painting."  One  of  the  first  of  his 
acknowledged  productions  is  a  shrine  on  one  of  the  altars  of 
the 'church  of  Rothenburg  on  the  Tauber,  the  wings  of  which 
were  finished  in  1466,  with  seven  scenes  from  the  lives  of 
Christ  and  the  Virgin  Mary.  In  the  town-hall  of  Rothenburg  is  a 
Madonna  and  St  Catherine  of  1467;  and  in  the  choirof  Nordlingen 
cathedral  a  triptych  of  1488,  representing  the  "  Nativity  "  and 
"  Christ  amidst  the  Doctors,"  at  the  side  of  a  votive  Madonna 
attended  by  St  Joseph  and  St  Margaret  as  patrons  of  a  family. 
In  each  of  these  works  the  painter's  name  certifies  the  picture, 
and  the  manner  is  truly  that  of  an  artist  "  acquainted  with 
Flemish  methods."  We  are  not  told  under  whom  Herlen 
laboured  in  the  Netherlands,  but  he  probably  took  the  same 
course  as  Schongauer  and  Hans  Holbein  the  elder,  who  studied  in 
the  school  of  van  der  Weyden.  His  altarpiece  at  Rothenburg 
contains  groups  and  figures,  as  well  as  forms  of  action  and  drapery, 
which  seem  copied  from  those  of  van  der  Weyden's  or  Memlinc's 
disciples,  and  the  votive  Madonna  of  1488,  whilst  characterized 
by  similar  features,  only  displays  such  further  changes  as  may 
be  accounted  for  by  the  master's  constant  later  contact  with 
contemporaries  in  Swabia.  Herlen  had  none  of  the  genius  of 
Schongauer.  He  failed  to  acquire  the  delicacy  even  of  the 
second-rate  men  who  handed  down  to  Matsys  the  traditions  of  the 
1 5th  century;  but  his  example  was  certainly  favourable  to  the 
development  of  art  in  Swabia.  By  general  consent  critics  have 
assigned  to  him  a  large  altar-piece,  with  scenes  from  the  gospels 
and  figures  of  St  Florian  and  St  Floriana,  and  a  Crucifixion,  the 
principal  figure  of  which  is  carved  in  high  relief  on  the  surface  of 


HERMAE— HERMAN  DE  VALENCIENNES 


365 


a  large  panel  in  the  church  of  DinkelsbUhl.  A  Crucifixion,  with 
eight  scenes  from  the  New  Testament,  is  shown  as  his  in  the 
cathedral,  a  "  Christ  in  Judgment,  with  Mary  and  John,"  and  the 
"  Resurrection  of  Souls  "  in  the  town-hall  of  Nordlingen.  A  small 
Epiphany,  once  in  the  convent  of  the  Minorites  of  Ulm,  is  in 
the  Holzschuher  collection  at  Augsburg,  a  Madonna  and  Circum- 
cision in  the  National  Museum  at  Munich.  Herlen's  epitaph, 
preserved  by  Rathgeber,  states  that  he  died  on  the  I2th  of 
October  1491,  and  was  buried  at  Nordlingen. 

HERMAE,  in  Greek  antiquities,  quadrangular  pillars,  broader 
above  than  at  the  base,  surmounted  by  a  head  or  bust,  so  called 
either  because  the  head  of  Hermes  was  most  common  or  from 
their  etymological  connexion  with  the  Greek  word  'ipnara  (blocks 
of  stone),  which  originally  had  no  reference  to  Hermes  at  all.     In 
the  oldest  times  Hermes,  like  other  divinities,  was  worshipped  in 
the  form  of  a  heap  of  stones  or  of  an  amorphous  block  of  wood  or 
stone,  which  afterwards  took  the  shape  of  a  phallus,  the  symbol 
of  productivity.     The  next  step  was  the  addition  01  a  nead  to  this 
phallic  column  which  became  quadrangular  (the  number  4  was 
sacred  to  Hermes,  who  was  born  on  the  fourth  day  of  the  month), 
with  the  significant  indication  of  sex  still  prominent.    In  this 
shape  the  number  of  herms  rapidly  increased,  especially  those  of 
Hermes,  for  which  the  distinctive  name  of  Hermhermae  has  been 
suggested.     In  Athens  they  were  found  at  the  corners  of  streets; 
before  the  gates  and  in  the  courtyards  of  houses,  where  they 
were  worshipped  by  women  as  having  the  power  to  make  them 
prolific;  before  the  temples;  in  the  gymnasia  and  palaestrae.     On 
each  side  of  the  road  leading  from  the  Stoa  Poikile  to  the  Stoa 
Basileios,  rows  of  Hermae  were  set  up  in  such  numbers  by  the 
piety  of  private  individuals  or  public  corporations,  that  the  Stoa 
Basileios  was  called  the  Stoa  of  the  Hermae.    The  function  of 
Hermes  as  protector  of  the  roads,  of  merchants  and  of  commerce, 
explains  the  number  of  Hermae  that  served  the  purpose  of  sign- 
posts on  the  roads  outside  the  city.     It  is  stated  in  the  pseudo- 
Platonic  Hipparchus  that  the  son  of  Peisistratus  had  set  up 
marble  pillars  at  suitable  places  on  the  roads  leading  from  the 
different  country  districts  to  Athens,  having  the  places  connected 
with  the  roads  inscribed  on  the  one  side  in  a  hexameter  verse, 
and  on  the  other  a  pentameter  containing  a  short  proverb  or 
moral  precept  for  the  edification  of  travellers.     Sometimes  they 
bore  inscriptions  celebrating  the  valour  of  those  who  had  fought 
for  their  country.    Just  as  it  was  customary  for  the  passer-by  to 
show  respect  to  the  rudest  form  of  the  god  (the  heap  of  stones)  by 
contributing  a  stone  to  the  heap  or  anointing  it  with  oil,  in  like 
manner  small  offerings,  generally  of  dried  figs,  were  deposited 
near  the  Hermae,  to  appease  the  hunger  of  the  necessitous  way- 
farer.    Garlands  of  flowers  were  also  suspended  on  the  two  arm- 
like  tenons  projecting  from  either  side  of  the  column  at  the  top 
(for  the  oracle  at  Pharae  see  HERMES).    These  pillars  were  also 
used  to  mark  the  frontier  boundaries  or  the  limits  of  different 
estates.     The  great  respect  attaching  to  them  is  shown  by  the 
excitement  caused  in  Athens  by  the  "  Mutilation  of  the  Hermae  " 
just  before  the  departure  of  the  Sicilian  expedition  (May  41 5  B.C.). 
They  formed  the  object  of  a  special  industry,  the  makers  of  them 
being  called  Hermoglyphi.     The  surmounting  heads  were  not, 
however,  confined  to  those  of  Hermes;  those  of  other  gods  and 
heroes,   and  even  of  distinguished   mortals,   were  of  frequent 
occurrence.    In  this  case  a  compound  was  formed:  Hermathena 
(a  herm  of  Athena),  Hermares,  Hermaphroditus,  Hermanubis, 
Hermalcibiades,  and  so  on.     In  the  case  of  these  compounds  it  is 
disputed  whether  they  indicated  a  herm  with  the  head  of  Athena, 
or  with  a  Janus-like  head  of  both  Hermes  and  Athena,  or  a 
figure   compounded   of   both   deities.     The   Romans   not   only 
borrowed  the  Hermes  pillars  for  their  deities  which  at  an  early 
period  they  assimilated  to  those  of  the  Greeks  (as  Heracles — 
Hercules)  but  also  for  the  indigenous  gods  who  preserved  their 
individuality.     Thus  herms  of  Jupiter  Terminalis  (the  hermae 
being  identified  with  the  Roman  termini)  and  of  Silvanus  occur. 
Under*  the  empire,  the  function  of  the  hermae  was  rather  archi- 
tectural than  religious.    They  were  used  to  keep  up  the  draperies 
in  the  interior  of  a  hous'e,  and  in  the  Circus  Maximus  they  were 
used  to  support  the  barriers. 


See  the  article  with  bibliography  by  Pierre  Paris  in  Daremberg 
and  Saglio's  Dictionnaire  des  antiquites-,  for  the  mutilation  of  the 
Hermae,  Thucydides  vi.  27;  Andocides,  De  mysteriis;  Grote, 
Hist,  of  Greece,  ch.  58;  H.  Weil,  Etudes  sur  I'antiquite  grecque  (1900); 
Burolt,  Griech.  Gesch.  (ed.  1904),  III.  ii.  p.  1287. 

HERMAGORAS,  of  Temnos,  Greek  rhetorician  of  the  Rhodian 
school  and  teacher  of  oratory  in  Rome,  flourished  during  the 
first  half  of  the  ist  century  B.C.  He  obtained  a  great  reputation 
among  a  certain  section  and  founded  a  special  school,  the  members 
of  which  called  themselves  Hermagorei.  His  chief  opponent 
was  Posidonius  of  Rhodes,  who  is  said  to  have  contended  with 
him  in  argument  in  the  presence  of  Pompey  (Plutarch,  Pompey, 
42).  Hermagoras  devoted  himself  particularly  to  the  branch  of 
rhetoric  known  as  oi/cowjuto.  (inventio),  and  is  said  to  have 
invented  the  doctrine  of  the  four  araatis  (status)  and  to  have 
arranged  the  parts  of  an  oration  differently  from  his  predecessors. 
Cicero  held  an  unfavourable  opinion  of  his  methods,  which  were 
approved  by  Quintilian,  although  he  considers  that  Hermagoras 
neglected  the  practical  side  of  rhetoric  for  the  theoretical. 
According  to  Suidas  and  Strabo,  he  was  the  author  of  rixvai 

TopiKai  (rhetorical  manuals)  and  of  other  works,  which  should 
perhaps  be  attributed  to  his  younger  namesake,  surnamed 
Carion,  the  pupil  of  Theodorus  of  Gadara. 

See  Strabo  xiii.  p.  621;  Cicero,  De  inventione,  i.  6.  8,  Brutus, 
76,  263.  78,  271;  Quintilian,  Instil,  iii.  I.  16,  3.  9,  n.  22; 
C.  W.  Piderit,  De  Hermagora  rhetore  (1839); G.  Thiele,  Hermagoras 
Ein  Beitrag  zur  Geschichte  der  Rlietorik  (1893). 

HERMANDAD  (from  hermano,  Lat.  germanus,  a  brother),  a 
Castiiian  word  meaning,  strictly  speaking,  a  brotherhood.  In 
the  Romance  language  spoken  on  the  east  coast  of  Spain  in 
Catalonia  it  is  written  germandat  or  germania.  In  the  form 
germania  it  has  acquired  the  significance  of  "  thieves'  Latin  " 
or  "  thieves'  cant,"  and  is  applied  to  any  jargon  supposed  to  be 
understood  only  by  the  initiated.  But  the  typical  "germania" 
is  a  mixture  of  slang  and  of  the  gipsy  language.  The  herman- 
dades  have  played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  history  of  Spain. 
The  first  recorded  case  of  the  formation  of  an  hermandad 
occurred  in  the  i2th  century  when  the  towns  and  the  peasantry 
of  the  north  united  to  police  the  pilgrim  road  to  Santiago  in 
Galicia,  and  protect  the  pilgrims  against  robber  knights. 
Throughout  the  middle  ages  such  alliances  were  frequently 
formed  by  combinations  of  towns  to  protect  the  roads  connecting 
them,  and  were  occasionally  extended  to  political  purposes. 
They  acted  to  some  extent  like  the  Fehmic  courts  of  Germany. 
The  Catholic  sovereigns,  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  adapted  an 
existing  hermandad  to  the  purpose  of  a  general  police  acting 
under  officials  appointed  by  themselves,  and  endowed  with 
large  powers  of  summary  jurisdiction  even  in  capital  cases. 
The  hermandad  became,  in  fact,  a  constabulary,  which,  however, 
fell  gradually  into  neglect.  In  Catalonia  and  Valencia  the 
"  germanias  "  were  combinations  of  the  peasantry  to  resist 
the  exactions  of  the  feudal  lords. 

HERMAN  DE  VALENCIENNES,  12th-century  French  poet, 
was  born  at  Valenciennes,  of  good  parentage.  His  father  and 
mother,  Robert  and  Herembourg,  belonged  to  Hainault,  and 
gave  him  for  god-parents  Count  Baldwin  and  Countess  Yoland — 
doubtless  Baldwin  IV.  of  Hainault  and  his  mother  Yoland. 
Herman  was  a  priest  and  the  author  of  a  verse  Histoire  de  la 
Bible,  which  includes  a  separate  poem  on  the  Assumption  of  the 
Virgin.  The  work  is  generally  known  as  Le  Roman  de  sapience, 
the  name  arising  from  a  copyist's  error  in  the  first  line  of  the 
poem: 

"  Comens  de  sapiense,  ce  est  la  cremors  de  Deu  " 
the  first  word  being  miswritten  in  one  MS.  Romens,  and  in 
another  Romanz.  His  work  has,  indeed,  the  form  of  an  ordinary 
romance,  and  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  translation.  He  selects 
such  stories  from  the  Bible  as  suit  his  purpose,  and  adds  freely 
from  legendary  sources,  displaying  considerable  art  in  the 
selection  and  use  of  his  materials.  This  scriptural  poem,  very 
popular  in  its  day,  mentions  Henry  II.  of  England  as  already 
dead,  and  must  therefore  be  assigned  to  a  date  posterior  to  1189. 
See  Notices  et  extraits  aes  manuscrits  (Paris,  vol.  34),  and  Jean 
Bonnard,  Les  Traductions  de  la  Bible  en  vers  fran$ais  au  may  en  age 
(1884). 


366 


HERMANN  I.—  HERMANN,  F.  B.  W.  VON 


HERMANN  I.  (d.  1217),  landgrave  of  Thuringia  and  count 
palatine  of  Saxony,  was  the  second  son  of  Louis  II.  the  Hard, 
landgrave  of  Thuringia,  and  Judith  of  Hohenstaufen,  sister  of 
the  emperor  Frederick  I.  Little  is  known  of  his  early  years, 
but  in  1 1  So  he  joined  a  coalition  against  Henry  the  Lion,  duke 
of  Saxony,  and  with  his  brother,  the  landgrave  Louis  III., 
suffered  a  short  imprisonment  after  his  defeat  at  Weissensee  by 
Henry.  About  this  time  he  received  from  his  brother  Louis  the 
Saxon  palatinate,  over  which  he  strengthened  his  authority  by 
marrying  Sophia,  sister  of  Adalbert,  count  of  Sommerschenburg, 
a  former  count  palatine.  In  1190  Louis  died  and  Hermann 
by  his  energetic  measures  frustrated  the  attempt  of  the  emperor 
Henry  VI.  to  seize  Thuringia  as  a  vacant  fief  of  the  Empire, 
and  established  himself  as  landgrave.  Having  joined  a  league 
against  the  emperor  he  was  accused,  probably  wrongly,  of  an 
attempt  to  murder  him.  Henry  was  not  only  successful  in 
detaching  Hermann  from  the  hostile  combination,  but  gained 
his  support  for  the  scheme  to  unite  Sicily  with  the  Empire.  In 
1197  Hermann  went  on  crusade.  When  Henry  VI.  died  in  1198 
Hermann's  support  was  purchased  by  the  late  emperor's  brother 
Philip,  duke  of  Swabia,  but  as  soon  as  Philip's  cause  appeared 
to  be  weakening  he  transferred  his  allegiance  to  Otto  of  Bruns- 
wick, afterwards  the  emperor  Otto  IV.  Philip  accordingly 
invaded  Thuringia  in  1204  and  compelled  Hermann  to  come  to 
terms  by  which  he  surrendered  the  lands  he  had  obtained  in  1198. 
After  the  death  of  Philip  and  the  recognition  of  Otto  he  was 
among  the  princes  who  invited  Frederick  of  Hohenstaufen, 
afterwards  the  emperor  Frederick  II.,  to  come  to  Germany  and 
assume  the  crown.  In  consequence  of  this  step  the  Saxons 
attacked  Thuringia,  but  the  landgrave  was  saved  by  Frederick's 
arrival  in  Germany  in  1212.  After  the  death  of  his  first  wife  in 
1195  Hermann  married  Sophia,  daughter  of  Otto  I.,  duke  of 
Bavaria.  By  her  he  had  four  sons,  two  of  whom,  Louis  arid 
Henry  Raspe,  succeeded  their  father  in  turn  as  landgrave. 
Hermann  died  at  Gotha  on  the  25th  of  April  1217,  and  was 
buried  at  Reinhardsbrunn.  He  was  fond  of  the  society  of  men 
of  letters,  and  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide  and  other  Minne- 
singers were  welcomed  to  his  castle  of  the  Wartburg.  In  this 
connexion  he  figures  in  Wagner's  Tannhauser. 

See  E.  Winkelmann,  Phttipp  von  Schwaben  und  Otto  IV.  von 
Braunschweig  (Leipzig,  1873—1878);  T.  Knochenhauer,  Geschichte 
Thiiringens  (Gotha,  1871);  and  F.  Wachter,  Thuringische  und  ober- 
sdchsische  Geschichte  (Leipzig,  1826). 

HERMANN  OF  REICHENAU  (HERIMANNUS  AUGIENSIS), 
commonly  distinguished  as  Hermannus  Contractus,  i.e.  the  Lame 
(1013-1054),  German  scholar  and  chronicler,  was  the  son  of 
Count  Wolferad  of  Alshausen  in  Swabia.  Hermann,  who 
became  a  monk  of  the  famous  abbey  of  Reichenau,  is  at  once  one 
of  the  most  attractive  and  one  of  the  most  pathetic  figures  of 
medieval  monasticism.  Crippled  and  distorted  by  gout  from 
his  childhood,  he  was  deprived  of  the  use  of  his  legs;  but,  in 
spite  of  this,  he  became  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time, 
and  exercised  a  great  personal  and  intellectual  influence  on  the 
numerous  band  of  scholars  he  gathered  round  him.  He  died  on 
the  24th  of  September  1054,  at  the  family  castle  of  Alshausen  near 
Biberach.  Besides  the  ordinary  studies  of  the  monastic  scholar, 
he  devoted  himself  to  mathematics,  astronomy  and  music, 
and  constructed  watches  and  instruments  of  various  kinds. 

His  chief  work  is  a  Chronicon  ad  annum  1054,  which  furnishes 
important  and  original  material  for  the  history  ofthe  emperor  Henry 
III.  The  first  edition,  from  a  MS.  no  longer  extant,  was  printed  by 
J.  Sichard  at  Basel  in  1529,  and  reissued  by  Heinrich  Peter  in  1549; 
another  edition  appeared  at  St  Blaise  in  1790  under  the  supervision 
of  Ussermann;  and  a  third,  as  a  result  of  the  collation  of  numerous 
MSS.,  forms  part  of  vol.  v.  of  Pertz's  Monumenta  Germaniae  historica. 
A  German  translation  of  the  last  is  contributed  by  K.  F.  A.  Nobbe 
to  Die  Geschichtsschreiber  der  deutschen  Vorzeit  (ist  ed.,  Berlin, 
1851;  2nd  ed.,  Leipzig,  1893).  The  separate  lives  of  Conrad  II. 
and  Henry  III.,  often  ascribed  to  Hermann:  appear  to  have  perished. 
His  treatises  De  mensura  astrolabii  and  De  utilitatibus  astrolabii 
(to  be  found,  on  the  authority  of  Salzburg  MSS.,  in  Pez,  Thesaurus 
anecdotorum  novissimus,  iii.)  being  the  first  contributions  of  moment 
furnished  by  a  European  to  this  subject,  Hermann  was  for  a  time 
considered  the  inventor  of  the  astrolabe.  A  didactic  poem  from  his 
pen,  De  octo  vitiis  principalibus,  is  printed  in  Haupt's  Zeitschrift 
fur  deutsches  Alterthum  (vol.  xiii.);  and  he  is  sometimes  credited 


with  the  composition  of  the  Latin  hymns  Veni  Sancte  Spiritus,  Salve 
Regina,  and  Alma  Redemptoris.  A  martyrologium  by  Hermann  was 
discovered  by  E.  Dummler  in  a  MS.  at  Stuttgart,  and  was  published 
by  him  in  "  Das  Martyrologium  Notkers  und  seine  Verwandten  " 
in  Forschungen  zur  deutschen  Geschichte,  xxv.  (Gottingen,  1885). 

See  H.  Hansjakob,  Herimann  der  Lahme  (Mainz,  1875) ;  Potthast, 
Bibliotlieca  nied.  aev.  s.  "  Herimannus  Augiensis." 

HERMANN  OF  WIED  (1477-1552),  elector  and  archbishop 
of  Cologne,  was  the  fourth  son  of  Frederick,  count  of  Wied 
(d.  1487),  and  was  born  on  the  i4th  of  January  1477.  Educated 
for  the  Church,  he  became  elector  and  archbishop  in  1515,  and 
ruled  his  electorate  with  vigour  and  intelligence,  taking  up  at 
first  an  attitude  of  hostility  towards  the  reformers  and  their 
teaching.  A  quarrel  with  the  papacy  turned,  or  helped  to  turn, 
his  thoughts  in  the  direction  of  Church  reform,  but  he  hoped 
this  would  come  from  within  rather  than  from  without,  and  with 
the  aid  of  his  friend  John  Cropper  (1503-1559),  began,  about 
1 536,  to  institute  certain  reforms  in  his  own  diocese.  One  step  led 
to  another,  and  as  all  efforts  at  union  failed  the  elector  invited 
Martin  Bucer  to  Cologne  in  1542.  Supported  by  the  estates 
of  the  electorate,  and  relying  upon  the  recess  of  the  diet  of 
Regensburg  in  1541,  he  encouraged  Bucer  to  press  on  with 
the  work  of  reform,  and  in  1543  invited  Melanchthon  to  his 
assistance.  His  conversion  was  hailed  with  great  joy  by  the 
Protestants,  and  the  league  of  Schmalkalden  declared  they  were 
resolved  to  defend  him;  but  the  Reformation  in  the  electorate 
received  checks  from  the  victory  of  Charles  V.  over  William, 
duke  of  Cleves,  and  the  hostility  of  the  citizens  of  Cologne. 
Summoned  both  before  the  emperor  and  the  pope,  the  elector 
was  deposed  and  excommunicated  by  Paul  III.  in  1546.  He 
resigned  his  office  in  February  1547,  and  retired  to  Wied. 
Hermann,  who  was  also  a  bishop  of  Paderborn  from  1532  to 
1547,  died  on  the  isth  of  August  1552. 

See  C.  Varrentrapp,  Hermann  von  Wied  (Leipzig,  1878). 

HERMANN,  FRIEDRICH  BENEDICT  WILHELM  VON  (1795- 
1868),  German  economist,  was  born  on  the  sth  of  December 
1795,  at  Dinkelsbiihl  in  Bavaria.  After  finishing  his  primary 
education  he  was  for  some  time  employed  in  a  draughtsman's 
office.  He  then  resumed  his  studies,  partly  at  the  gymnasium 
in  his  native  town,  partly  at  the  universities  of  Erlangen  and 
Wiirzburg.  In  1817  he  took  up  a  private  school  at  Nuremberg, 
where  he  remained  for  four  years.  After  filling  an  appointment 
as  teacher  of  mathematics  at  the  gymnasium  of  Erlangen,  he 
became  in  1823  Privatdozent  at  the  university  in  that  town. 
His  inaugural  dissertation  was  on  the  notions  of  political  economy 
among  the  Romans  (Dissertatio  exhibens  sententias  Romanorum 
ad  oeconomiam  politicam  pertinentes,  Erlangen,  1823).  He  after- 
wards acted  as  professor  of  mathematics  at  the  gymnasium 
and  polytechnic  school  in  Nuremberg,  where  he  continued  till 
1827.  During  his  stay  there  he  published  an  elementary 
treatise  on  arithmetic  and  algebra  (Lehrbuch  der  Arith.  u.  Algeb., 
1826),  and  made  a  journey  to  France  to  inspect  the  organization 
and  conduct  of  technical  schools  in  that  country.  The  results 
of  his  investigation  were  published  in  1826  and  1828  (Uber 
technische  Unterrichts-Anstalten).  Soon  after  his  return  from 
France  he  was  made  professor  extraordinarius  of  political 
science  of  the  university  of  Munich,  and  in  1833  he  was  advanced 
to  the  rank  of  ordinary  professor.  In  1832  appeared  the  first 
edition  of  his  great  work  on  political  economy,  Staatswirth- 
schaftliche  Untersuchungen.  In  1835  he  was  made  member  of  the 
Royal  Bavarian  Academy  of  Sciences.  From  the  year  1836  he 
acted  as  inspector  of  technical  instruction  in  Bavaria,  and  made 
frequent  journeys  to  Berlin  and  Paris  in  -order  to  study  the 
methods  there  pursued.  In  the  state  service  of  Bavaria,  to  which 
he  devoted  himself,  he  rose  rapidly.  In  1837  he  was  placed  on 
the  council  for  superintendence  of  church  and  school  work;  in 
1839  he  was  entrusted  with  the  direction  of  the  bureau  of 
statistics;  in  1845  he  was  one  of  the  councillors  for  the  interior; 
in  1848  he  sat  as  member  for  Munich  in  the  national  assembly 
at  Frankfort.  In  this  assembly  Hermann,  with  Johann  Heckscher 
and  others,  was  mainly  instrumental  in  organizing  the  so-called 
"  Great  German  "  party,  and  was  selected  as  one  of  the  represen- 
tatives of  their  views  at  Vienna.  Warmly  supporting  the  customs 


HERMANN,  J.  G.  J.— HERMAS,  SHEPHERD  OF 


367 


union  (Zollverein),  he  acted  in  1851  as  one  of  its  commissioners 
at  the  great  industrial  exhibition  at  London,  and  published 
an  elaborate  report  on  the  woollen  goods.  Three  years  later 
he  was  president  of  the  committee  of  judges  at  the  similar 
exhibition  at  Munich,  and  the  report  of  its  proceedings  was 
drawn  up  by  him.  In  1855  he  became  councillor  of  state,  the 
highest  honour  in  the  service.  From  1835  to  1847  he  contributed 
a  long  series  of  reviews,  mainly  of  works  on  economical  subjects, 
to  the  Miinchener  gelehrte  Anzeigen  and  also  wrote  for  Rau's 
Archiv  der  politischen  Okonomie  and  the  Augsburger  allgemeine 
Zeitung.  As  head  of  the  bureau  of  statistics  he  published  a 
series  of  valuable  annual  reports  (Beitrdge  zur  Statistik  des 
Konigreichs  Bayern,  Hefte  1-17,  1850-1867).  He  was  engaged 
at  the  time  of  his  death,  on  the  23rd  of  November  1868,  upon 
a  second  edition  of  his  Staatswirthschaflliche  Untersuchungen, 
which  was  published  in  1870. 

Hermann's  rare  technological  knowledge  gave  him  a  great 
advantage  in  dealing  with  some  economic  questions.  He 
reviewed  the  principal  fundamental  ideas  of  the  science  with 
great  thoroughness  and  acuteness.  "  His  strength,"  says 
Roscher,  "  lies  in  his  clear,  sharp,  exhaustive  distinction  between 
the  several  elements  of  a  complex  conception,  or  the  several 
steps  comprehended  in  a  complex  act."  For  keen  analytical 
power  his  German  brethren  compare  him  with  Ricardo.  But 
he  avoids  several  one-sided  views  of  the  English  economist. 
Thus  he  places  public  spirit  beside  egoism  as  an  economic  motor, 
regards  price  as  not  measured  by  labour  only  but  as  a  product 
of  several  factors,  and  habitually  contemplates  the  consumption 
of  the  labourer,  not  as  a  part  of  the  cost  of  production  to  the 
capitalist,  but  as  the  main  practical  end 'of  economics. 

See  Katitz,  Gesch.  Entwicklung  d.  National-Okonomik,  pp.  633-638 ; 
Roscher,  Gesch.  d.  Nat.-Okon.  in  Deutschland,  pp.  860-879. 

HERMANN,  JOHANN  GOTTFRIED  JAKOB  (1772-1848), 
German  classical  scholar  and  philologist,  was  born  at  Leipzig  on 
the  28th  of  November  1772.  Entering  the  university  of  his 
native  city  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  Hermann  at  first  studied  law, 
which  he  soon  abandoned  for  the  classics.  After  a  session  at 
Jena  in  1793-1794,  he  became  a  lecturer  on  classical  literature  in 
Leipzig,  in  1798  professor  exlraordinarius  of  philosophy  in  the 
university,  and  in  1803  professor  of  eloquence  (and  poetry,  1809). 
He  died  on  the  3ist  of  December  1848.  Hermann  maintained 
that  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages  was 
the  only  road  to  a  clear  understanding  of  the  intellectual  life  of  the 
ancient  world,  and  the  chief,  if  not  the  only,  aim  of  philology. 
As  the  leader  of  this  grammatico-critical  school,  he  came  into 
collision  with  A.  Bb'ckh  and  Otfried  Miiller,  the  representatives  of 
the  historico-antiquarian  school,  which  regarded  Hermann's  view 
of  philology  as  inadequate  and  one-sided. 

Hermann  devoted  his  early  attention  to  the  classical  poetical 
metres,  and  published  several  works  on  that  subject,  the  most 
important  being  Elementa  doctrinae  metricae  (1816),  in  which  he 
set  forth  a  scientific  theory  based  on  the  Kantian  categories. 
His  writings  on  Greek  grammar  are  also  valuable,  especially  De 
emendanda  ralione  Graecae  grammaticae  (1801),  and  notes  and 
excursus  on  Viger's  treatise  on  Greek  idioms.  His  editions  of 
the  classics  include  several  of  the  plays  of  Euripides;  the  Clouds 
of  Aristophanes  (1799);  Trinummus  of  Plautus  (1800);  Poetica 
of  Aristotle  (1802);  Orphica  (1805);  the  Homeric  Hymns 
(1806);  and  the  Lexicon  of  Photius  (1808).  In  1825  Hermann 
finished  the  edition  of  Sophocles  begun  by  Erfurdt.  His  edition 
of  Aeschylus  was  published  after  his  death  in  1852.  The  Opuscula, 
a  collection  of  his  smaller  writings  in  Latin,  appeared  in  seven 
volumes  between  1827  and  1839. 

See  monographs  by  O.  Jahn  (1849)  and  H.  Kochly  (1874);  C. 
Bursian,  Geschichte  der  klassischen  Philolpgie  in  Deutschland  (1883); 
art.  in  Allgem.  deutsche  Biog, ;  Sandys,  Hist.  Class.  Schol.  iii. 

HERMANN,  KARL  FRIEDRICH  (1804-1855),  German  classical 
scholar  and  antiquary,  was  born  on  the  4th  of  August  1804,  at 
Frankfort-on-Main.  Having  studied  at  the  universities  oi 
Heidelberg  and  Leipzig,  he  went  for  a  tour  in  Italy,  on  his  return 
from  which  he  lectured  as  Privatdozent  in  Heidelberg.  In  1832 
he  was  called  to  Marburg  as  professor  ordinarius  of  classical 


iterature;  and  in  1842  he  was  transferred  to  Gottingen  to  the 
chair  of  philology  and  archaeology,  vacant  by  the  death  of 
Otfried  Miiller.  He  died  at  Gottingen  on  the  3ist  of  December 
1855.  His  knowledge  of  all  branches  of  classical  learning  was 
Drofound,  but  he  was  chiefly  distinguished  for  his  works  on  Greek 
antiquities  and  ancient  philosophy.  Among  these  may  be 
mentioned  the  Lehrbuch  der  griechischen  Anliquitdten  (new  ed., 
1889)  dealing  with  political,  religious  and  domestic  antiquities; 
the  Geschichte  und  System  der  Platonischen  Philosophic  (1839), 
unfinished;  an  edition  of  the  Platonic  Dialogues  (6  vols.,  1851- 
1853);  and  Culturgeschichle  der  Griechen  und  Romer  (1857- 
1858),  published  after  his  death  by  C.  G.  Schmidt.  He  also 
;dited  the  text  of  Juvenal  and  Persius  (1854)  and  Lucian's 
De  conscribenda  historia  (1828).  A  collection  of  Abhandlungen 
und  Beilrage  appeared  in  1849. 

See  M.  Lechner,  Zur  Erinnerung  an  K.  F.  Hermann  (1864),  and 
article  by  C.  Halm  in  Allgemeine  deutsche  Biographie,  xii.  (1880). 

HERMAPHRODITUS,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  being,  partly  male, 
partly  female,  originally  worshipped  as  a  divinity.  The  conception 
undoubtedly  had  its  origin  in  the  East,  where  deities  of  a  similar 
dual  nature  frequently  occur.  The  oldest  traces  of  the  cult  in 
Greek  countries  are  found  in  Cyprus.  Here,  according  to 
Macrobius  (Saturnalia,  iii.  8)  there  was  a  bearded  statue  of  a 
male  aphrodite,  called  Aphrodites  by  Aristophanes  (probably  in 
his  Ntc/3os,  a  similar  variant).  Philochorus  in  his  Atlhis  (ap. 
Macrobius  loc.  cit.)  further  identified  this  divinity,  at  whose 
sacrifices  men  and  women  exchanged  garments,  with  the  moon. 
This  double  sex  also  attributed  to  Dionysus  and  Priapus — the 
union  in  one  being  of  the  two  principles  of  generation  and  con- 
ception— denotes  extensive  fertilizing  and  productive  powers. 
This  Cyprian  Aphrodite  is  the  same  as  the  later  Hermaphro- 
dites, which  simply  means  Aphrodites  in  the  form  of  a  herm 
(see  HERMAE),  and  first  occurs  in  the  Characteres  (16)  of 
Theophrastus.  After  its  introduction  at  Athens  (probably  in  the 
5th  century  B.C.),  the  importance  of  this  being  seems  to  have 
declined.  It  appears  no  longer  as  the  object  of  a  special  cult,  but 
limited  to  the  homage  of  certain  sects,  expressed  by  superstitious 
rites  of  obscure  significance.  The  still  later  form  of  the  legend,  a 
product  of  the  Hellenistic  period,  is  due  to  a  mistaken  etymology 
of  the  name.  In  accordance  with  this,  Hermaphroditus  is  the  son 
of  Hermes  and  Aphrodite,  of  whom  the  nymph  of  the  fountain  of 
Salmacis  in  Caria  became  enamoured  while  he  was  bathing.  When 
her  overtures  were  rejected,  she  embraced  him  and  entreated 
the  gods  that  she  might  be  for  ever  united  with  him.  The  result 
was  the  formation  of  a  being,  half  man,  half  woman.  This  story 
is  told  by  Ovid  (Metam.  iv.  285)  to  explain  the  peculiarly  enervat- 
ing qualities  of  the  water  of  the  fountain.  Strabo  (xiv.  p.  656) 
attributes  its  bad  reputation  to  the  attempt  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  country  to  find  some  excuse  for  the  demoralization  caused  by 
their  own  luxurious  and  effeminate  habits  of  life.  There  was  a 
famous  statue  of  Hermaphroditus  by  Polycles  of  Athens,  probably 
the  younger  of  the  two  statuaries  of  that  name.  In  later  Greek 
art  he  was  a  favourite  subject. 

See  articles  in  Daremberg  and  Saglio,  Dictionnaire  des  antiquites, 
and  Roscher's  Lexikon  der  Mythologie;  and  for  art,  A.  Baumeister, 
Denkmdler  des  klassischen  Altertums  (1884-1888). 

HERMAS,  SHEPHERD  OF,  one  of  the  works  representing  the 
Apostolic  Fathers  (q.v.),  a  hortatory  writing  which  "  holds  the 
mirror  up  "  to  the  Church  in  Rome  during  the  3rd  Christian 
generation.  This  is  the  period  indicated  by  the  evidence  of  the 
Muratorian  Canon,  which  assigns  it  to  the  brother  of  Pius, 
Roman  bishop  c.  139-154.  Probably  it  was  not  the  fruit  of  a 
single  effort  of  its  author.  Rather  its  contents  came  to  him 
piecemeal  and  at  various  stages  in  his  ministry  as  a  Christian 
"prophet,"  extending  over  a  period  of  years;  and,  like  certain 
Old  Testament  prophets,  he  shows  us  how  by  his  own  experiences 
he  became  the  medium  of  a  divine  message  to  his  church  and  to 
God's  "  elect  "  people  at  .large. 

In  its  present  form  it  falls  under  three  heads:  Visions,  Mandates, 
Similitudes.  But  these  divisions  are  misleading.  The  personal 
and  preliminary  revelation  embodied  in  Vision  i.  brings  the 
prophet  a  new  sense  of  sin  as  essentially  a  matter  of  the  heart, 


368 


HERMAS,  SHEPHERD  OF 


and  an  awakened  conscience  as  before  the  "  glory  of  God,"  the 
Creator  and  Upholder  of  all  things.  His  responsibility  also  for  the 
sad  state  of  religion  at  home  is  emphasized,  and  he  is  given  a 
mission  of  repentance  to  his  erring  children.  How  far  in  all  this 
and  in  the  next  vision  the  author  is  describing  facts,  and  how  far 
transforming  his  personal  history  into  a  type  (  after  the  manner  of 
Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress),  the  better  to  impress  his  moral 
upon  his  readers,  is  uncertain.  But  the  whole  style  of  the  work, 
with  its  use  of  conventional  apocalyptic  forms,  favours  the  more 
symbolic  view.  Vision  ii.  records  his  call  proper,  through  revela- 
tion of  his  essential  message,  to  be  delivered  both  to  his  wife  and 
children  and  to  "  all  the  saints  who  have  sinned  unto  this  day  " 
(2.  4).  It  contains  the  assurances  of  forgiveness  even  for  the 
gravest  sins  after  baptism  (save  blasphemy  of  the  Name  and 
betrayal  of  the  brethren,  Sim.  ix.  19),"  if  they  repent  with  their 
whole  heart  and  remove  doubts  from  their  minds.  For  the  Master 
hath  sworn  by  His  glory  ('  His  Son,'  below)  touching  His  elect, 
that  if  there  be  more  sinning  after  this  day  which  He  hath 
limited,  they  shall  not  obtain  salvation.  For  the  repentance  of 
the  righteous  hath  an  end;  the  days  of  repentance  for  all  saints 
are  fulfilled.  .  .  .  Stand  fast,  then,  ye  that  work  righteousness  and 
be  not  of  doubtful  mind.  .  .  .  Happy  are  all  ye  that  endure  the 
great  tribulation  which  is  to  come.  .  .  .  The  Lord  is  nigh  unto 
them  that  turn  to  Him,  as  it  is  written  in  the  book  of  Eldad  and 
Modad,  who  prophesied  to  the  people  in  the  wilderness." 

Here,  in  the  gist  of  the  "  booklet  "  received  from  the  hand  of 
a  female  figure  representing  the  Church,  we  have  in  germ  the 
message  of  The  Shepherd.  But  before  Hermas  announces  it  to  the 
Roman  Church,  and  through  "  Clement  "J  to  the  churches 
abroad,  there  are  added  two  Visions  (iii.  iv.)  tending  to  heighten 
its  impressiveness.  He  is  shown  the  "  holy  church  "  under  the 
similitude  of  a  tower  in  building,  and  the  great  and  final  tribu- 
lation (already  alluded  to  as  near  at  hand)  under  that  of  a 
devouring  beast,  which  yet  is  innocuous  to  undoubting  faith. 

Hermas  begins  to  deliver  the  message  of  Vis.  i.-iv.,  as  bidden. 
But  as  he  does  so,  it  is  added  to,  in  the  way  of  detail  and  illustra- 
tion, by  a  fresh  series  of  revelations  through  an  angel  in  the 
guise  of  a  Shepherd,  who  in  a  preliminary  interview  announces 
himselt  as  the  Angel  of  Repentance,  sent  to  administer  the 
special  "  repentance  "  which  it  was  Hermas's  mission  to  declare. 
This  interview  appears  in  our  MSS.  as  Vis.  v.,2  but  is  really  a 
prelude  to  the  Mandates  and  Similitudes  which  form  the  bulk  of 
the  whole  work,  hence  known  as  "  The  Shepherd."  The  relation  of 
this  second  part  to  Vis.  i.-iv.  is  set  forth  by  the  Shepherd  himself. 
"  I  was  sent,  quoth  he,  to  show  thee  again  all  that  thou  sawest 
before,  to  wit  the  sum  of  the  things  profitable  for  thee.  First  of 
all  write  thou  my  mandates  and  similitudes;  and  the  rtst,  as  I 
will  show  thee,  so  shalt  thou  write."  This  programme  is  fulfilled 
in  the  xii.  Mandates — perhaps  suggested  by  the  Teaching  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles  (see  DIDACHE),  which  Hermas  knows-— and 
Similitudes  i.-viii.,  while  Simil.  ix.  is  "  the  rest  "  and  constitutes 
a  distinct  "  book  "  (Sim.  ix.  i.  i,  x.  i.  i).  In  this  latter  the 
building  of  the  Tower,  already  shown  in  outline  in  Vis.  iii.,  is 
shown  "  more  carefully  "  in  an  elaborate  section  dealing  with  the 
same  themes.  One  may  infer  that  Sim.  ix.  represents  a  distinctly 
later  stage  in  Hermas's  ministry — during  the  whole  of  which  he 
seems  to  have  committed  to  writing  what  he  received  on  each 
occasion,3  possibly  for  recital  to  the  church  (cf.  Vis.  ii.  fin.). 
Finally  came  Sim.  x.,  really  an  epilogue  in  which  Hermas  is 
"  delivered  "  afresh  to  the  Shepherd,  for  the  rest  of  his  days. 
He  is  "  to  continue  in  this  ministry  "  of  proclaiming  the  Shepherd's 

1  More  than   one   interpretation,   typical   or   otherwise,   of   this 
"  Clement  "  is  possible;    but  none  justifies  us  in  assigning  even  to 
this  Vision  a  date  consistent  with  that  usually  given  to  the  tradi- 
tional bishop  of  this  name  (see  CLEMENT  I.).    Yet  we  may  have  to 
correct  the  dubious  chronology  of  the  first  Roman  bishops  by  this 
datum,  and  prolong  his  life  to  about  A.D.  no.    This  is  Harnack's 
date  for  the  nucleus  of  Vis.  ii.,  though  he  places  our  Vis.  i.-iii.  later 
in  Trajan's  reign,  and  thinks  Vis.  iv.  later  still. 

2  That  a  prior  vision  in  which  Hermas  was  "  delivered  "  to  the 
Shepherd's  charge,  has  dropped  out,  seems  implied  by  Vis.  v.  3  f., 
Sim.  x.  i.  I. 

*  Harnack  places  "  The  Shepherd  "  proper  mostly  under  Hadrian 
(117-138),  and  the  completed  work  c.  140-145. 


teaching,  "  so  that  they  who  have  repented  or  are  about  to  repent 
may  have  the  same  mind  with  thee,"  and  so  receive  a  good  report 
before  God  (Sim.  x.  2  2-4).  Only  they  must  "  make  haste  to  do 
aright,"  lest  while  they  delay  the  tower  be  finished  (4.  4),  and  the 
new  aeon  dawn  (after  the  final  tribulation:  cf.  Vis.  iv.  3.  5). 

The  relation  here  indicated  between  the  Shepherd's  instruction 
and  the  initial  message  of  one  definitive  repentance,  open  to  those 
believers  who  have  already  "broken"  their  "seal"  of  baptism  by 
deadly  sins,  as  announced  in  Visions  i.-iv.  is  made  yet  plainer  by 
Sim.  vi.  i.  3  f.  "  These  mandates  are  profitable  to  such  as  are 
about  to  repent;  for  except  they  walk  in  them  their  repentance 
is  in  vain."  Hermas  sees  that  mere  repentance  is  not  enough  to 
meet  the  backsliding  condition  in  which  so  many  Christians  then 
were,  owing  to  the  recoil  of  inveterate  habits  of  worldliness4 
entrenched  in  society  around  and  within.  It  is,  after  all,  too 
negative  a  thing  to  stand  by  itself  or  to  satisfy  God."  "  Cease, 
Hermas,"  says  the  Church,  "  to  pray  all  about  thy  sins.  Ask  for 
righteousness  also  "  (Vis.  iii.  i.  6).  The  positive  Christian  ideal 
which  "  the  saints  "  should  attain,  "  the  Lord  enabling,"  it  is  the 
business  of  the  Shepherd  to  set  forth. 

Here  lies  a  great  merit  of  Hermas's  book,  his  insight  into 
experimental  religion  and  the  secret  of  failure  in  Christians  about 
him,  to  many  of  whom  Christianity  had  come  by  birth  rather  than 
personal  conviction.  They  shared  the  worldly  spirit  in  its  various 
forms,  particularly  the  desire  for  wealth  and  the  luxuries  it 
affords,  and  for  a  place  in  "  good  society  " — which  meant  a  pagan 
atmosphere.  Thus  they  were  divided  in  soul  between  spiritual 
goods  and  worldly  pleasures,  and  were  apt  to  doubt  whether  the 
rewards  promised  by  God  to  the  life  of  "  simplicity  "  (all  Christ 
meant  by  the  childlike  spirit,  including  generosity  in  giving  and 
forgiving)  and  self-restraint,  were  real  or  not.  For  while  the 
expected  "  end  of  the  age  "  delayed,  persecutions  abounded. 
Such  "  doubled-souled  "  persons,  like  Mr  Facing-both-ways, 
inclined  to  say,  "  The  Christian  ideal  may  be  glorious,  but  is  it 
practicable?"  It  is  this  most  fatal  doubt  which  evokes  the 
Shepherd's  sternest  rebuke;  and  he  meets  it  with  the  ultimate 
religious  appeal,  viz.  to  "  the  glory  of  God."  He  who  made  man 
"  to  rule  over  all  things  under  heaven,"  could  He  have  given 
behests  beyond  man's  ability?  If  only  a  man  "  hath  the  Lord  in 
his  heart,"  he  "  shall  know  that  there  is  nothing  easier  nor 
sweeter  nor  gentler  than  these  mandates  "  (Mand.  xii.  3-4). 
So  in  the  forefront  of  the  Mandates  stands  the  secret  of  all: 
"  First  of  all  believe  that  there  is  one  God.  .  .  .  Believe  therefore 
in  Him,  and  fear  Him,  and  fearing  Him  have  self-mastery.  For 
the  fear  of  the  Lord  dwelleth  in  the  good  desire,"  and  to  "  put  on  " 
this  master-desire  is  to  possess  power  to  curb  "  evil  desire  "  in  all 
its  shapes  (Mand.  xii.  1-2).  Elsewhere  "  good  desire  "  is  analysed 
into  the  "spirits"  of  the  several  virtues,  which  yet  are  organically 
related,  Faith  being  mother,  and  Self-mastery  her  daughter,  and 
so  on  (Vis.  iii.  8.  3  seq.;  cf.  Sim.  ix.  15).  These  are  the  specific 
forms  of  the  Holy  Spirit  power,  without  whose  indwelling  the 
mandates  cannot  be  kept  (Sim.  x.  3;  cf.  ix.  13.  2,  24.  2). 

Thus  the  "  moralism  "  sometimes  traced  in  Hermas  is  apparent 
rather  than  real,  for  he  has  a  deep  sense  of  the  enabling  grace  of 
God.  His  defect  lies  rather  in  not  presenting  the  historic  Christ 
as  the  Christian's  chief  inspiration,  a  fact  which  connects  itself 
with  the  strange  absence  of  the  names  "  Jesus  "  and  "  Christ." 
He  uses  rather  "  the  Son  of  God,"  in  a  peculiar  Adoptianist 
sense,  which,  as  taken  for  granted  in  a  work  by  the  bishop's  own 
brother,  must  be  held  typical  of  the  Roman  Church  of  his  day. 
But  as  it  is  implicit  and  not  part  of  his  distinctive  message,  it  did 
not  hinder  his  book  from  enjoying  wide  quasi-canonical  honour 
during  most  of  the  Ante-Nicene  period. 

The  absence  of  the  historic  names,  "  Jesus  "  and  "  Christ,"  may 
be  due  to  the  form  of  the  book  as  purporting  to  quote  angelic  com- 
munications. This  would  also  explain  the  absence  of  explicit 
scriptural  citations  generally,  though  knowledge  both  of  the  Old 
Testament  and  of  several  New  Testament  books — including  the 
congenially  symbolic  Gospel  of  John — is  clear  (cf.  The  New  Testa- 
ment in  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  Oxford,  1905,  105  seq.).  The  one  excep- 
tion is  a  prophetic  writing,  the  apocryphal  Book  of  Eldad  and  Modad, 


4  A  careful  study  of  practical  Christian  ethics  at  Rome  as  implied 
in  the  Shepherd,  will  be  found  in  E.  von  Dobschiitz,  Christian  Life 
in  the  Primitive  Church  (1904). 


HERMENEUTICS— HERMES 


369 


which  is  cited  apparently  as  being  similar  in  the  scope  of  its  message. 
Among  its  non-scriptural  sources  may  be  named  the  allegoric  picture 
of  human  life  known  as  Tabula  Cebetis  (cf.  C.  Taylor,  as  below),  the 
Didache,  and  perhaps  certain  "  Sibylline  Oracles.  ' 

Hermas  regarded  Christians  as  "  justified  by  the  most  reverend 
Angel  "  (i.e.  the  pre-existent  Holy  Spirit  or  Son,  who  dwelt  in 
Christ's  "  flesh  "),  in  baptism,  the  "  seal  "  which  even  Old  Testament 
saints  had  to  receive  in  Hades  (Sim.  ix.  16.  3-7)  and  so  attain  to 
"  life."  Yet  the  degree  of  "  honour  "  (e.g.  that  of  martyrs,  Vis. 
iii.  2;  Sim.  ix.  28),  the  exact  place  in  the  kingdom  or  consummated 
church  (the  Tower),  is  given  as  reward  for  zeal  in  doing  God's  will 
beyond  the  minimum  requisite  in  all.  Here  comes  in  Hermas's 
doctrine  of  works  of  supererogation,  in  fulfilment  of  counsels  of 
perfection,  on  lines  already  seen  in  Did.  vi.  2,  cf.  i.  4,  and  reappearing 
in  the  two  types  of  Christian  recognized  by  Clement  and  Origen  and 
in  later  Catholicism.  Again  his  doctrine  of  fasting  is  a  spiritualizing 
of  a  current  opus  operatum  conception  on  Jewish  lines  as  though 
"  keeping  a  watch  "  (statio)  in  that  way  atoned  for  sins  (Sim.  v.). 
The  Shepherd  enjoins  instead,  first,  as  "  a  perfect  fast,"  a  fast 
"  from  every  evil  word  and  every  evil  desire,  .  .  .  from  all  the 
vanities  of  this  world-age  "  (3.  6;  cf.  Barn.  iii.  and  the  Oxyrhynchus 
Saying,  "  except  ye  fast  from  the  world  ");  and  next,  as  a  counsel 
of  perfection,  a  fast  to  yield  somewhat  for  the  relief  of  the  widow 
and  orphan,  that  this  extra  "  service "  may  be  to  God  for  a 
"  sacrifice." 

Generally  speaking,  Hermas's  piety,  especially  in  its  language, 
adheres  closely  to  Old  Testament  forms.  But  it  is  doubtful  (pace 
Spitta  and  Volter,  who  assume  a  Jewish  or  a  proselyte  basis)  whether 
this  means  more  than  that  the  Old  Testament  was  still  the  Scriptures 
of  the  Church.  In  this  respect,  too,  Hermas  faithfully  reflects  the 
Roman  Church  of  the  early  2nd  century  (cf.  the  language  of  I  Clem., 
esp.  the  liturgical  parts,  and  even  the  Roman  Mass).  Indeed  the 
prime  value  of  the  Shepherd  is  the  light  it  casts  on  Christianity  at 
Rome  in  the  otherwise  obscure  period  c.  110—140,  when  it  had  as 
yet  hardly  felt  the  influences  converging  on  it  from  other  centres 
of  tradition  and  thought.  Thus  Hermas's  comparatively  mild 
censures  on  Gnostic  teachers  in  Sim.  ix.  suggest  that  the  greater 
systems,  like  the  Valentinian  and  Marcionite,  had  not  yet  made  an 
impression  there,  as  Harnack  argues  that  they  must  have  done  by 
c.  145.  This  date,  then,  is  a  likely  lower  limit  for  Hermas's  revision 
of  his  earlier  prophetic  memoranda,  and  their  publication  in  a  single 
homogeneous  work,  such  as  the  Shepherd  appears  to  be.  Its  wider 
historic  significance — it  was  felt  by  its  author  to  be  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  the  Church  at  large,  and  was  generally  welcomed  as  such — 
is  great  but  hard  to  determine  in  detail.1  What  is  certain  is  its 
influence  on  the  development  of  the  Church's  policy  as  to  discipline 
in  grave  cases,  like  apostasy  and  adultery — a  burning  question  for 
some  generations  from  the  end  of  the  2nd  century,  particularly  in 
Rome  and  North  Africa.  Indirectly,  too,  Hermas  tended  to  keep 
alive  the  idea  of  the  Christian  prophet,  even  after  Montanism  had 
helped  to  discredit  it. 

LITERATURE. — The  chief  modern  edition  is  by  O.  von  Gebhardt 
and  A.  Harnack,  in  Fasc.  iii.  of  their  Pair,  apost.  opera  (Leipzig, 
1877);  it  is  edited  less  fully  by  F.  X.  Funk,  Pair,  apost.  (Tubingen, 
1901),  and  in  an  English  trans.,  with  Introduction  and  occasional 
notes,  by  Dr  C.  Taylor  (S.P.C.K.,  2  vols.,  1903-1906).  For  the  wide 
literature  of  the  subject,  see  the  two  former  editions,  also  Harnack's 
Chronologie  der  altchr.  Lit.  i.  257  seq.,  and  O.  Bardenhewer,  Gesch. 
der  altkirc.hl.  Lit.  i.  557  seq.  For  the  authorship  see  APOCALYPTIC 
'LITERATURE,  sect.  III.  (J.  V.  B.) 

HERMENEUTICS  (Gr.  (pwvevTiKri,  sc.  rkxvri,  Lat.  ars 
hermeneutica,  from  tpiaiveiittv,  to  interpret,  from  Hermes,  the 
messenger  of  the  gods),  the  science  or  art  of  interpretation  or 
explanation,  especially  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  (see  THEOLOGY). 

HERMES,  a  Greek  god,  identified  by  the  Romans  with 
Mercury.  The  derivation  of  his  name  and  his  primitive  character 
are  very  uncertain.  The  earliest  centres  of  his  cult  were  Arcadia, 
where  Mt.  Cyllene  was  reputed  to  be  his  birthplace,  the  islands 
of  Lemnos,  Imbros  and  Samothrace,  in  which  he  was  associated 
with  the  Cabeiri  and  Attica.  In  Arcadia  he  was  specially 
worshipped  as  the  god  of  fertility,  and  his  images  were  ithyphallic, 
as  also  were  the  "  Hermae  "  at  Athens.  Herodotus  (ii.  51) 
states  that  the  Athenians  borrowed  this  type  from  the  Pelasgians, 
thus  testifying  to  the  great  antiquity  of  the  phallic  Hermes.  At 
Cyllene  in  Elis  a  mere  phallus  served  as  his  emblem,  and  was 
highly  venerated  in  the  time  of  Pausanias  (vi.  26.  3).  Both  in 
literature  and  cult  Hermes  was  constantly  associated  with  the 
protection  of  cattle  and  sheep;  at  Tanagra  and  elsewhere  his 
title  was  Kpu>4>6pos,  the  ram-bearer.  As  a  pastoral  god  he  was 
often  closely  connected  with  deities  of  vegetation,  especially  Pan 
and  the  nymphs.  His  pastoral  character  is  recognized  in  the 

1  Note  the  prestige  of  martyrs  and  confessors,  the  ways  of  true  and 
false  prophets  in  Mand.  xi.,  and  the  different  types  of  evil  and  good 
"  walk  "  among  Christians,  e.g.  in  Vis.  iii.  5-7 ;  Mand.  viii. ;  Sim.  viii. 


Iliad  (xiv.  490)  and  the  later  epic  hymn  to  Hermes;  and  his 
Homeric  titles  dKafajra,  epiomos,  5amop  law,  probably  refer  to 
him  as  the  giver  of  fertility.  In  the  Odyssey,  however,  he  appears 
mainly  as  the  messenger  of  the  gods,  and  the  conductor  of  the 
dead  to  Hades.  Hence  in  later  times  he  is  often  represented  in 
art  and  mythology  as  a  herald.  The  conductor  of  souls  was 
naturally  a  chthonian  god;  at  Athens  there  was  a  festival  in 
honour  of  Hermes  and  the  souls  of  the  dead,  and  Aeschylus 
(Persae,  628)  invokes  Hermes,  with  Earth  and  Hades,  in  sum- 
moning a  spirit  from  the  underworld.  The  function  of  a  messenger- 
god  may  have  originated  the  conception  of  Hermes  as  a  dream- 
god;  he  is  called  the  "  conductor  of  dreams  "  (riyfiriap  bvdpuv), 
and  the  Greeks  offered  to  him  the  last  libation  before  sleep.  As  a 
messenger  he  may  also  have  become  the  god  of  roads  and  door- 
ways; he  was  the  protector  of  travellers  and  his  images  were 
used  for  boundary-marks  (see  HEEMAE).  It  was  a  custom  to 
make  a  cairn  of  stones  near  the  wayside  statues  of  Hermes,  each 
passer-by  adding  a  stone;  the  significance  of  the  practice, 
which  is  found  in  many  countries,  is  discussed  by  Frazer  (Golden 
Bough,  2nd  ed.,  iii.  rof.)  and  Hartland  (Legend  of  Perseus,  ii.  228). 
Treasure  found  in  the  road  (tpp.a.Lov)  was  the  gift  of  Hermes,  and 
any  stroke  of  good  luck  was  attributed  to  him;  but  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  his  patronage  of  luck  in  general  was  developed 
from  his  function  as  a  god  of  roads.  As  the  giver  of  luck  he 
became  a  deity  of  gain  and  commerce  (/cep5<5os,  0.70 polos),  an 
aspect  which  caused  his  identification  with  Mercury,  the  Roman 
god  of  trade.  From  this  conception  his  thievish  character  may 
have  been  evolved.  The  trickery  and  cunning  of  Hermes  is  a 
prominent  theme  in  literature  from  Homer  downwards,  although 
it  is  very  rarely  recognized  in  official  cult.2  In  the  hymn  to 
Hermes  the  god  figures  as  a  precocious  child  (a  type  familiar  in 
folk-lore),  who  when  a  new-born  babe  steals  the  cows  of  Apollo. 
In  addition  to  these  characteristics  various  other  functions  were 
assigned  to  Hermes,  who  developed,  perhaps,  into  the  most 
complete  type  of  the  versatile  Greek.  In  many  respects  he  was  a 
counterpart  of  Apollo,  less  dignified  and  powerful,  but  more 
human  than  his  greater  brother.  Hermes  was  a  patron  of  music, 
like  Apollo,  and  invented  the  cithara;  he  presided  over  the 
games,  with  Apollo  and  Heracles,  and  his  statues  were  common  in 
the  stadia  and  gymnasia.  He  became,  in  fact,  the  ideal  Greek 
youth,  equally  proficient  in  the  "  musical  "  and  "  gymnastic  " 
branches  of  Greek  education.  On  the  "  musical  "  side  he  was 
the  special  patron  of  eloquence  (Xo-yios) ;  in  gymnastic,  he  was 
the  giver  of  grace  rather  than  of  strength,  which  was  the  province 
of  Heracles.  Though  athletic,  he  was  one  of  the  least  militant  of 
the  gods;  a  title  Trpo^axos,  the  Defender,  is  found  only  in  con- 
nexion with  a  victory  of  young  men  ("  ephebes  ")  in  a  battle  at 
Tanagra.  A  further  point  of  contact  between  Hermes  and  Apollo 
may  here  be  noted:  both  had  prophetic  powers,  although 
Hermes  held  a  place  far  inferior  to  that  of  the  Pythian  god,  and 
possessed  no  famous  oracle.  Certain  forms  of  popular  divination 
were,  however,  under  his  patronage,  notably  the  world-wide 
process  of  divination  by  pebbles  (Opiai).  The  "  Homeric  "  Hymn 
to  Hermes  explains  these  minor  gifts  of  prophecy  as  delegated  by 
Apollo,  who  alone  knew  the  mind  of  Zeus.  Only  a  single  oracle  is 
recorded  for  Hermes,  in  the  market-place  of  Pharae  in  Achaea, 
and  here  the  procedure  was  akin  to  popular  divination.  An  altar, 
furnished  with  lamps,  was  placed  before  the  statue;  the  inquirer, 
after  lighting  the  lamps  and  offering  incense,  placed  a  coin  in  the 
right  hand  of  the  god;  he  then  whispered  his  question  into  the 
ear  of  the  statue,  and,  stopping  his  own  ears,  left  the  market 
place.  The  first  sound  which  he  heard  outside  was  an  omen. 

From  the  foregoing  account  it  will  be  seen  that  it  is  difficult  to 
derive  the  many-sided  character  of  Hermes  from  a  single  ele- 
mental conception.  The  various  theories  which  identified  him 
with  the  sun,  the  moon  or  the  dawn,  may  be  dismissed,,  as  they  do 
not  rest  on  evidence  to  which  value  would  now  be  attached.  The 
Arcadian  or  "  Pelasgic  "  Hermes  may  have  been  an  earth-deity, 
as  his  connexion  with  fertility  suggests;  but  his  symbol  at  Cyllene 

2  We  only  hear  of  a  Hermes  66\ios  at  Pellene  (Paus.  vii.  27.  i) 
and  of  the  custom  of  allowing  promiscuous  thieving  during  the 
festival  of  Hermes  at  Samos  (Plut.  Quaest.  Graec.  55). 


37° 


HERMES,  G.— HERMES  TRISMEGISTUS 


rather  points  to  a  mere  personification  of  reproductive  powers. 
According  to  Plutarch  the  ancients  "  set  Hermes  by  the  side  of 
Aphrodite,"  i.e.  the  male  and  female  principles  of  generation; 
and  the  two  deities  were  worshipped  together  in  Argos  and  else- 
where. But  this  phallic  character  does  not  explain  other  aspects 
of  Hermes,  as  the  messenger-god,  the  master-thief  or  the  ideal 
Greek  ephebe.  It  is  impossible  to  adopt  the  view  that  the 
Homeric  poets  turned  the  rude  shepherd-god  of  Arcadia  into  a 
messenger,  in  order  to  provide  him  with  a  place  in  the  Olympian 
circle.  To  their  Achaean  audience  Hermes  must  have  been  more 
than  a  phallic  god.  It  is  more  probable  that  the  Olympian 
Hermes  represents  the  fusion  of  several  distinct  deities.  Some 
scholars  hold  that  the  various  functions  of  Hermes  may  have 
originated  from  the  idea  of  good  luck  which  is  so  closely  bound  up 
with  his  character.  As  a  pastoral  god  he  would  give  luck  to  the 
flocks  and  herds;  when  worshipped  by  townspeople,  he  would 
give  luck  to  the  merchant,  the  orator,  the  traveller  and  the 
athlete.  But  though  the  notion  of  luck  plays  an  important  part 
in  early  thought,  it  seems  improbable  that  the  primitive  Greeks 
would  have  personified  a  mere  abstraction.  Another  theory, 
which  has  much  to  commend  it,  has  been  advanced  by  Roscher, 
who  sees  in  Hermes  a  wind-god.  His  strongest  arguments  are 
that  the  wind  would  easily  develop  into  the  messenger  of  the 
gods  (Atos  oCpos),  and  that  it  was  often  thought  to  promote 
fertility  in  crops  and  cattle.  Thus  the  two  aspects  of  Hermes 
which  seem  most  discordant  are  referred  to  a  single  origin.  The 
Homeric  epithet  'Ap7€i<^>6vr7)s,  which  the  Greeks  interpreted  as 
"  the  slayer  of  Argus,"  inventing  a  myth  to  account  for  Argus,  is 
explained  as  originally  an  epithet  of  the  wind  (d/xyeerrijs),  which 
clears  away  the  mists  (a/yyos,  <t>aiv<a).  The  uncertainty  of  the 
wind  might  well  suggest  the  trickery  of  a  thief,  and  its  whistling 
might  contain  the  germ  from  which  a  god  of  music  should  be 
developed.  But  many  of  Roscher's  arguments  are  forced,  and 
his  method  of  interpretation  is  not  altogether  sound.  For 
example,  the  last  argument  would  equally  apply  to  Apollo,  and 
would  lead  to  the  improbable  conclusion  that  Apollo  was  a 
wind-god.  It  must,  in  fact,  be  remembered  that  men  make 
their  gods  after  their  own  likeness;  and,  whatever  his  origin, 
Hermes  in  particular  was  endowed  with  many  of  the  qualities  and 
habits  of  the  Greek  race.  If  he  was  evolved  from  the  wind,  his 
character  had  become  so  anthropomorphic  that  the  Greeks 
had  practically  lost  the  knowledge  of  his  primitive  significance; 
nor  did  Greek  cult  ever  associate  him  with  the  wind. 

The  oldest  form  under  which  Hermes  was  represented  was  that 
of  the  Hermae  mentioned  above.  Alcamenes,  the  rival  or  pupil 
of  Pheidias,  was  the  sculptor  of  a  herm  at  Athens,  a  copy  of  which, 
dating  from  Roman  times,  was  discovered  at  Pergamum  in  1903. 
But  side  by  side  with  the  Hermae  there  grew  up  a  more  anthropo- 
morphic conception  of  the  god.  In  archaic  art  he  was  portrayed 
as  a  full-grown  and  bearded  man,  clothed  in  a  long  chiton,  and 
often  wearing  a  cap  (KVVTJ)  or  a  broad-brimmed  hat  (ireratros), 
and  winged  boots.  Sometimes  he  was  represented  in  his  pastoral 
character,  as  when  he  bears  a  sheep  on  his  shoulders;  at  other 
times  he  appears  as  the  messenger  or  herald  of  the  gods  with  the 
KijpvKeiov,  or  herald's  staff,  which  is  his  most  frequent  attribute. 
From  the  latter  part  of  the  5th  century  his  art-type  was  changed 
in  conformity  with  the  general  development  of  Greek  sculpture. 
He  now  became  a  nude  and  beardless  youth,  the  type  of  the 
young  athlete.  In  the  4th  century  this  type  was  probably  fixed 
by  Praxiteles  in  his  statue  of  Hermes  at  Olympia. 

AUTHORITIES. — F.  G.  Welcker,  Griech.  Gdttetl.  i.  342  f.  (Gottingen, 
1857-1863);  L.  Preller,  ed.  C.  Robert,  Griech.  Mythologie,  ii.  385  seq. 
(Berlin,  1894);  W.  H.  Roscher,  Lex.  der  griech.  u.  roin.  Mythologie, 
s.v.  (Leipzig,  1884-1886);  A.  Lang,  Myth,  Ritual  and  Religion, 
ii.  225  seq.  (London,  1887);  C.  Daremberg  and  E.  Saglio,  Diet,  des 
ant.  grecques  et  rom.;  Farnell,  Cults  v.  (1909);  O.  Gruppe,  Griech. 
Mythologie  ^.  Religionsgesch.  p.  1318  seq.  (Munich,  1906).  In  the 
article  GREEK  ART,  figs.  43  and  82  (Plate  VI.)  represent  the  Hermes 
of  Praxiteles;  fig.  57  (Plate  II.),  a  professed  copy  of  the  Hermes  of 
Alcamenes.  (E.  E.  S.) 

HERMES,  GEORG  (1775-1831),  German  Roman  Catholic 
theologian,  was  born  on  the  22nd  of  April  1775,  at  Dreyerwalde, 
in  Westphalia,  and  was  educated  at  the  gymnasium  and  univer- 
sity of  Munster,  in  both  of  which  institutions  he  afterwards 


taught.  In  1820  he  was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at 
Bonn,  where  he  died  on  the  26th  of  May  1831.  Hermes  had 
a  devoted  band  of  adherents,  of  whom  the  most  notable  was 
Peter  Josef  Elvenich  (1796-1886),  who  became  professor  at 
Breslau  in  1829,  and  in  1870  threw  in  his  lot  with  the  Old  Catholic 
movement.  His  works  were  Unlcrsitchungen  ilbcr  die  inncre 
Wahrheit  des  Christenthums  (Munster,  1805),  and  Einleitung  in 
die  christkalholische  Thcologie,  of  which  the  first  part,  a  philo- 
sophical introduction,  was  published  in  1819,  the  second  part, 
on  positive  theology,  in  1829.  The  Einleitung  was  never  com- 
pleted. His  Christkalholische  Dogmalik  was  published,  from 
his  lectures,  after  his  death  by  two  of  his  students,  Achterfeld 
and  Braun  (3  vols.,  1831 — 1834). 

The  Einleitung  is  a  remarkable  work,  both  in  itself  and  in  its 
effect  upon  Catholic  theology  in  Germany.  Few  works  of  modern 
times  have  excited  a  more  keen  and  bitter  controversy.  Hermes 
himself  was  very  largely  under  the  influence  of  the  Kantian  and 
Fichtean  ideas,  and  though  in  the  philosophical  portion  of  his 
Einleitung  he  criticizes  both  these  thinkers  severely,  rejects 
their  doctrine  of  the  moral  law  as  the  sole  guarantee  for  the 
existence  of  God,  and  condemns  their  restricted  view  of  the 
possibility  and  nature  of  revelation,  enough  remained  of  purely 
speculative  material  to  render  his  system  obnoxious  to  his  church. 
After  his  death,  the  contests  between  his  followers  and  their 
opponents  grew  so  bitter  that  the  dispute  was  referred  to  the 
papal  see.  The  judgment  was  adverse,  and  on  the  25th  of 
September  1835  a  papal  bull  condemned  both  parts  of  the 
Einleitung  and  the  first  volume  of  the  Dogmalik.  Two  months 
later  the  remaining  volumes  of  the  Dogmatik  were  likewise 
condemned.  The  controversy  did  not  cease,  and  in  1845  a 
systematic  attempt  was  made  anonymously  by  F.  X.  Werner  to 
examine  and  refute  the  Hermesian  doctrines,  as  contrasted  with 
the  orthodox  Catholic  faith  (Der  Hermesianismus,  1845).  In 
1847  the  condemnation  of  1835  was  confirmed  by  Pius  IX. 

See  K.  Werner,  Geschichte  der  kalholischen  Theologie  (1866), 
pp.  405  sqq. 

HERMES  TRISMEGISTUS  ("  the  thrice  greatest  Hermes  "), 
an  honorific  designation  of  the  Egyptian  Hermes,  i.e.  Thoth 
(<?.».),  the  god  of  wisdom.  In  late  hieroglyphic  the  name  of 
Thoth  often  has  the  epithet  "  the  twice  very  great,"  sometimes 
"  the  thrice  very  great  ";  in  the  popular  language  (demotic) 
the  corresponding  epithet  is  "  the  five  times  very  great,"  found 
as  early  as  the  3rd  century  B.C.  Greek  translations  give  6  piyas 
Kal  fj.eyas  and  jueyioros :  Tpiffpeyas  occurs  in  a  late  magical 
text.  6  TpLaniyio-Tos  has  not  yet  been  found  earlier  than  the 
2nd  century  A.D.,  but  there  can  now  be  no  doubt  of  its  origin  in 
the  above  Egyptian  epithets. 

Thoth  was  "  the  scribe  of  the  gods,"  "  Lord  of  divine  words," 
and  to  Hermes  was  attributed  the  authorship  of  all  the  strictly 
sacred  books  generally  called  by  Greek  authors  Hermetic. 
These,  according  to  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  our  sole  ancient 
authority  (Strom,  vi.  p.  268  et  seq.),  were  forty-two  in  number, 
and  were  subdivided  into  six  divisions,  of  which  the  first,  con- 
taining ten  books,  was  in  charge  of  the  "  prophet  "  and  dealt 
with  laws,  deities  and  the  education  of  priests;  the  second, 
consisting  of  the  ten  books  of  the  stolistes,  the  official  whose 
duty  it  was  to  dress  and  ornament  the  statues  of  the  gods, 
treated  of  sacrifices  and  offerings,  prayers,  hymns,  festive 
processions;  the  third,  of  the  "  hierogrammatist,"  also  in  ten 
books,  was  called  "  hieroglyphics,"  and  was  a  repertory  of 
cosmographical,  geographical  and  topographical  information; 
the  four  books  of  the  "  horoscopus  "  were  devoted  to  astronomy 
and  astrology;  the  two  books  of  the  "chanter"  contained 
respectively  a  collection  of  songs  in  honour  of  the  gods  and  a 
description  of  the  royal  life  and  its  duties;  while  the  sixth  and 
last  division,  consisting  of  the  six  books  of  the  "  pastophorus," 
was  medical.  Clemens's  statement  cannot  be  contradicted. 
Works  are  extant  in  papyri  and  on  temple  walls,  treating  of 
geography,  astronomy,  ritual,  myths,  medicine,  &c.  It  is 
probable  that  the  native  priests  would  have  been  ready  to 
ascribe  the  authorship  or  inspiration,  as  well  as  the  care  and 
protection  of  all  their  books  of  sacred  lore  to  Thoth,  although 


HERMESIANAX— HERMON 


371 


there  were  a  goddess  of  writing  (Seshit),  and  the  ancient  deified 
scribes  Imuthes  and  Amenophis,  and  later  inspired  doctors 
Petosiris,  Nechepso,  &c.,  to  be  reckoned  with;  there  are  indeed 
some  definite  traces  of  such  an  attribution  extant  in  individual 
cases.  Whether  a  canon  of  such  books  was  ever  established, 
even  in  the  latest  times,  may  be  seriously  doubted.  We  know, 
however,  that  the  vizier  of  Upper  Egypt  (at  Thebes)  in  the 
eighteenth  dynasty,  had  40  (not  42)  parchment  rolls  laid  before 
him  as  he  sat  in  the  hall  of  audience.  Unfortunately  we  have 
no  hint  of  their  contents.  Forty-two  was  the  number  of  divine 
assessors  at  the  judgment  of  the  dead  before  Osiris,  and  was 
the  standard  number  of  the  nomes  or  counties  in  Egypt. 

The  name  of  Hermes  seems  during  the  3rd  and  following 
centuries  to  have  been  regarded  as  a  convenient  pseudonym 
to  place  at  the  head  of  the  numerous  syncretistic  writings  in 
which  it  was  sought  to  combine  Neo-Platonic  philosophy, 
Philonic  Judaism  and  cabalistic  theosophy,  and  so  provide  the 
world  with  some  acceptable  substitute  for  the  Christianity 
which  had  even  at  that  time  begun  to  give  indications  of  the 
ascendancy  it  was  destined  afterwards  to  attain.  Of  these 
pseudepigraphic  Hermetic  writings  some  have  come  down  to 
us  in  the  original  Greek;  others  survive  in  Latin  or  Arabic 
translations;  but  the  majority  appear  to  have  perished.  That 
which  is  best  known  and  has  been  most  frequently  edited  is  the 
HoiiJ.d.v8prft  sive  De  potestate  et  sapientia  divina  (IIoi;uai'5p7js 
being  the  Divine  Intelligence,  minriv  avdpuv),  which  consists 
of  fifteen  chapters  treating  of  such  subjects  as  the  nature  of  God, 
the  origin  of  the  world,  the  creation  and  fall  of  man,  and  the 
divine  illumination  which  is  the  sole  means  of  his  deliverance. 
The  edilio  princeps  appeared  in  Paris  in  1554;  there  is  also 
an  edition  by  G.  Parthey  (1854);  the  work  has  also  been  trans- 
lated into  German  by  D.  Tiedemann  (1781).  Other  Hermetic 
writings  which  have  been  preserved,  and  which  have  been 
for  the  most  part  collected  by  Patricius  in  the  Nova  de  uni- 
versis  philosophia  (1593),  are  (in  Greek)  'laTpo^adi^aTiKa  irpos 
"KniJMva  MyvTTTiav,  Hepl  KaraMaews  VOVOVVTUV  irfpiyvutTTiKa., 
'E/c  rijs  nadrinaTiKrjs  en-lories  7rp6s"Aw«oi'a:  (in  Latin)  Aphorismi 
she  Centiloquium,  Cyranid.es  ;  (in  Arabic,  but  doubtless  from  a 
Greek  original)  an  address  to  the  human  soul,  which  has  been 
translated  by  H.  L.  Fleischer  (An  die  menschliche  Seek,  1870). 

The  connexion  of  the  name  of  Hermes  with  alchemy  will 
explain  what  is  meant  by  hermetic  sealing,  and  will  account  for 
the  use  of  the  phrase  "  hermetic  medicine  "  by  Paracelsus,  as 
also  for  the  so-called  "  hermetic  freemasonry  "  of  the  middle  ages. 

Besides  Thoth,  Anubis  (q.v.)  was  constantly  identified  with 
Hermes;  see  also  HORUS. 

See  Ursinus,  De  Zoroastre,  Hermete,  &c.  (Nuremberg,  1661); 
Nicolas  Lenglet-Dufresnoy,  L'Histoire  de  la  philosophic  hermetique 
(Paris,  1742);  Baumgarten-Crusius,  De  librorum  hermeticorum 
origine  atque  indole  (Jena,  1827);  B.  J.  Hilgers,  De  Hermetis  Trisme- 
gisli  Poemand.ro  (1855);  R.  M6nard,  Hermes  Trismegiste,  Iraduction 
complete,  precedee  d'une  etude  surl'  origine  des  livres  hermetiques  (1866) ; 
R.  Pietschmann,  Hermes  Trismegistus,  nach  agyptischen,  grie- 
chischen,  und  orientalischen  Uberlieferungen  (1875);  R.  Reitzenstein, 
Poimandres,  Studien  zur  griechisch-dgyptischen  und  fruhchrist- 
lichen  Literalur  (Leipzig,  1904);  G.  R.  S.  Mead,  Thrice  Greatest 
Hermes  (1907),  introduction  and  translation.  (F.  LL.  G.) 

HERMESIANAX,  of  Colophon,  elegiac  poet  of  the  Alexandrian 
school,  flourished  about  330  B.C.  His  chief  work  was  a  poem 
in  three  books,  dedicated  to  his  mistress  Leontion.  Of  this 
poem  a  fragment  of  about  one  hundred  lines  has  been  preserved 
by  Athenaeus  (xiii.  597).  Plaintive  in  tone,  it  enumerates 
instances,  mythological  and  historical,  of  the  irresistible  power 
of  love.  Hermesianax,  whose  style  is  characterized  by  alternate 
force  and  tenderness,  was  exceedingly  popular  in  his  own  times, 
and  was  highly  esteemed  even  in  the  Augustan  period. 

Many  separate  editions  have  been  published  of  the  fragment, 
the  text  of  which  is  in  a  very  unsatisfactory  condition:  by  F.  W. 
Schneidewin  (1838),  J.  Bailey  (1839,  with  notes,  glossary,  and 
Latin  and  English  versions),  and  others;  R.  Schulze  s  Quaestiones 
Hermesianacleae  (1858),  contains  an  account  of  the  life  and  writings 
of  the  poet  and  a  section  on  the  identity  of  Leontion. 

HERMIAS.  (i)  A  Greek  philosopher  of  the  Alexandrian 
school.  A  disciple  of  Proclus,  he  was  known  best  for  the  lucidity 
of  his  method  rather  than  for  any  original  ideas.  His  chief  works 


were  a  study  of  the  Isagoge  of  Porphyry  and  a  commentary  on 
Plato's  Phaedrus.  Unlike  the  majority  of  logicians  of  the  time,  he 
admitted  the  absolute  validity  of  the  second  and  third  figures  of 
the  syllogism. 

(2)  A  Christian  apologist  and  philosopher  who  flourished 
probably  in  the  4th  and  5th  centuries.  Nothing  is  known  about 
his  life,  but  there  has  been  preserved  of  his  writings  a  small  thesis 
entitled  Aiauupjuos  TUIV  e£w  <t>i\off6<jx*)v.  In  this  work  he  attacked 
pagan  philosophy  for  its  lack  of  logic  in  dealing  with  the  root 
problems  of  life,  the  soul,  the  cosmos  and  the  first  cause  or  vital 
principle.  There  is  an  edition  by  von  Otto  published  in  the 
Corpus  apologetarum  (Jena,  1872).  It  is  interesting,  but  without 
any  claim  to  profundity  of  reasoning. 

Two  minor  philosophers  of  the  same  name  are  known.  Of  these, 
one  was  a  disciple  of  Plato  and  a  friend  of  Aristotle;  he  became 
tyrant  of  Atarneus  and  invited  Aristotle  to  his  court.  Aristotle 
subsequently  married  Pythias,  who  was  either  niece  or  sister  of 
Hermias.  Another  Hermias  was  a  Phoenician  philosopher  of  the 
Alexandrian  school;  when  Justinian  closed  the  school  of  Athens, 
he  was  one  of  the  five  representatives  of  the  school  who  took  refuge 
at  the  Persian  court. 

HERMIPPUS,  "  the  one-eyed,"  Athenian  writer  of  the  Old 
Comedy,  flourished  during  the  Peloponnesian  War.  He  is  said 
to  have  written  40  plays,  of  which  the  titles  and  fragments 
of  nine  are  preserved.  He  was  a  bitter  opponent  of  Pericles, 
whom  he  accused  (probably  in  the  Molpcu)  of  being  a  bully  and  a 
coward,  and  of  carousing  with  his  boon  companions  while  the 
Lacedaemonians  were  invading  Attica.  He  also  accused  Aspasia 
of  impiety  and  offences  against  morality,  and  her  acquittal  was 
only  secured  by  the  tears  of  Pericles  (Plutarch,  Pericles,  32).  In 
the  'AproircoXito  ("  Bakeresses  ")  he  attacked  the  demagogue 
Hyperbolus.  The  4>op/io</i6poi  (Mat-carriers)  contains  many 
parodies  of  Homer.  Hermippus  also  appears  to  have  written 
scurrilous  iambic  poems  after  the  manner  of  Archilochus. 

Fragments  in  T.  Kock,  Comicorum  Atticorum  fragmenta,  i.  (1880), 
and  A.  Meineke,  Poetarum  Graecorum  comicorum  fragmenta  (1855). 

HERMIT,  a  solitary,  one  who  withdraws  from  all  intercourse 
with  other  human  beings  in  order  to  live  a  life  of  religious  con- 
templation, and  so  marked  off  from  a  "  coenobite  "  (  Gr.  KOIVOS, 
common,  and  ftios,  life),  one  who  shares  this  life  of  withdrawal 
with  others  in  a  community  (see  ASCETICISM  and  MONASTICISM). 
The  word  "  hermit  "  is  an  adaptation  through  the  O.  Fr.  ermite 
•or  hermite,  from  the  Lat.  form,  eremite,  of  the  Gr.  €pe/ur7;s,  a 
solitary,  from  ^prjfua,  a  desert.  The  English  form  "  eremite," 
which  was  used,  according  to  the  New  English  Dictionary,  quite 
indiscriminately  with  "  hermit  "  till  the  middle  of  the  i7th 
century,  is  now  chiefly  used  in  poetry  or  rhetorically,  except  with 
reference  to  the  early  hermits  of  the  Libyan  desert,  or  sometimes 
to  such  particular  orders  as  the  erejnites  of  St  Augustine  (see 
AUGUSTINIAN  HERMITS).  Another  synonym  is  "  anchoret  "  or 
"  anchorite."  This  comes  through  the  French  and  Latin  forms 
from  the  Gr.  avaxcaoriTris,  from  avaxuptw,  to  withdraw.  A 
form  nearer  to  the  Greek  original,  "  anachoret,"  is  sometimes 
used  of  the  early  Christian  recluses  in  the  East. 

HERMOGENES,  of  Tarsus,  Greek  rhetorician,  surnamed  Svarfip 
(the  polisher),  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius  (A.D. 
161-180).  His  precocious  ability  secured  him  a  public  appoint- 
ment as  teacher  of  his  art  while  as  yet  he  was  only  a  boy;  but 
at  the  age  of  twenty-five  his  faculties  gave  way,  and  he  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  long  life  in  a  state  of  intellectual  impotence. 
During  his  early  years,  however,  he  had  composed  a  series  of 
rhetorical  treatises,  which  became  popular  text-books,  and  the 
subject  of  subsequent  commentaries.  Of  his  Tex*"?  pVoptw?  we 
still  possess  the  sections  Ilepi  rSiv  arao-twv  (on  legal  issues), 
Ilepi  tvpto-ttas  (on  the  invention  of  arguments),  Ilepl  Ideuv  (on  the 
various  kinds  of  style)  Jlepi  ptBodov  otivbrriTos  (on  the  method  of 
speaking  effectively),  and  HpoyvtJ.va.o-ti.aTa  rhetorical  exercises). 

Editions  by  C.  Walz  (1832)*  and  by  L.  Spengel  (1854),  in  their 
Rhetores  Graeci;  bibliographical  note  on  the  commentaries  in 
W.  Christ,  Geschichte  der  griechischen  Literatur  (1898). 

HERMON,  the  highest  mountain  in  Syria  (estimated  at  9050 
to  9200  ft.),  an  outlier  of  the  Anti-Lebanon.  As  the  Hebrew  name 
(I110!?,  "  belonging  to  a  sanctuary,"  "  separate  ")  shows,  it  was 
always  a  sacred  mountain.  The  Sidonians  called  it  Sirion,  and  the 


372 


HERMSDORF— HERNIA 


Amorites  Shenir  (Deut.  iii.p).  According  to  one  theory  it  is  the 
<l  high  mountain  "  near  Caesarea  Philippi,  which  was  the  scene  of 
the  Transfiguration  (Mark  ix.  2).  A  curious  reference  in  Enoch 
vi.  6,  says  that  in  the  days  of  Jared  the  wicked  angels  descended 
on  the  summit  of  the  mountain  and  named  it  Hermon.  The 
modern  name  is  Jebel  es-Sheikh,  or  "  mountain  of  the  chief  or 
elder."  It  is  also  called  Jebel  eth-Thelj,  "  snowy  mountain." 
The  ridge  of  Hermon.  rising  into  a  dome-shaped  summit,  is  20  m. 
long,  extending  north-east  and  south-west.  The  formation  of  the 
lower  part  is  Nubian  sandstone,  that  of  the  upper  part  is  a  hard 
dark-grey  crystalline  limestone  belonging  to  the  Neocomian 
period,  and  full  of  fossils.  The  spurs  consist  in  some  cases  of 
white  chalk  covering  the  limestone,  and  on  the  south  there  are 
several  basaltic  outbreaks.  The  view  from  Hermon  is  very  ex- 
tensive, embracing  all  Lebanon  and  the  plains  east  of  Damascus, 
with  Palestine  as  far  as  Carmel  and  Tabor.  On  a  clear  day  Jaffa 
also  may  be  seen.  The  mountain  in  spring  is  covered  with  snow, 
but  in  autumn  there  is  occasionally  none  left,  even  in  the  ravines. 
To  the  height  of  500  ft.  it  is  clothed  with  oaks,  poplars  and 
brush,  while  luxuriant  vineyards  abound.  Foxes,  wolves  and 
Syrian  bears  are  not  infrequently  met  with,  and  there  is  a  heavy 
dew  or  night  mist.  Above  the  snow-limit  the  mountain  is  bare 
and  covered  with  fine  limestone  shingle.  The  summit  is  a 
plateau  from  which  three  rocky  knolls  rise  up,  that  on  the  west 
being  the  lowest,  that  on  the  south-east  the  highest.  On  the 
south  slope  of  the  latter  are  remains  of  a  small  temple  or  sacellum 
described  by  St  Jerome.  A  semicircular  dwarf  wall  of  good 
masonry  runs  round  this  peak,  and  a  trench  excavated  in  the 
rock  may  perhaps  indicate  the  site  of  an  altar.  On  the  plateau 
is  a  cave  about  25  ft.  sq.  with  the  entrance  on  the  east.  A  rock 
column  supports  the  roof,  and  a  building  (possibly  a  Mithraeum) 
once  stood  above.  Other  small  temples  are  found  on  the  sides  of 
Hermon,  of  which  twelve  in  all  have  been  explored.  They  face 
the  east  and  are  dated  by  architects  about  A.D.  200.  The  most 
remarkable  are  those  of  Deir  el  'Ashaiyir,  Hibbariyeh,  Hosn 
Niha  and  Tell  Thatha.  At  the  ruined  town  called  Rukleh  on  the 
northern  slopes  are  remains  of  a  temple,  the  stones  of  which  have 
been  built  into  a  church.  A  large  medallion,  5  ft.  in  diameter, 
with  a  head  supposed  to  represent  the  sun-god,  is  built  into  the 
wall.  Several  Greek  inscriptions  occur  among  these  ruins.  In 
the  1 2th  century  Psalm  Ixxxix.  12  was  supposed  to  indicate  the 
proximity  of  Hermon  to  Tabor.  The  conical  hill  immediately 
south  of  Tabor  was  thus  named  Little  Hermon,  and  is  still  so 
called  by  some  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  district. 

HERMSDORF,  a  village  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Silesia.  Pop.  (1900)  10,975.  There  are  coal  and  iron  mines 
and  lime  quarries  in  the  vicinity,  and  in  the  town  there  are  large 
iron-works.  Hermsdorf  is  known  as  Niederhermsdorf  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  other  places  of  the  same  name.  Perhaps  the 
most  noteworthy  of  these  is  a  village  in  Silesia  at  the  foot  of  the 
Riesengebirge,  chiefly  famous  for  the  ruins  of  the  castle  of  Kynast. 
This  castle,  formerly  the  seat  of  the  Schaffgotsch  family,  was 
destroyed  by  lightning  in  1675.  A  third  Hermsdorf  is  a  village 
in  Saxe-Altenburg,  where  porcelain  is  made. 

HERNE,  JAMES  A.  [originally  AHERNE]  (1840-1901),  American 
actor  and  playwright,  was  born  in  Troy,  New  York,  and  after 
theatrical  experiences  in  various  companies  produced  his  own 
first  play,  Hearts  of  Oak,  in  1878,  and  his  great  success  Shore 
Acres  in  1882.  It  was  in  rural  drama  that  his  humour  and  pathos 
found  their  proper  setting,  and  Shore  Acres  was  seen  throughout 
the  United  States  almost  continuously  for  six  seasons,  being 
followed  by  the  less  successful  Sag  Harbor,  190x3. 

HERNE,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Westphalia,  15  m.  by  rail  N.W.  of  Dortmund.  Pop.  (1905) 
33,258.  It  has  coal  mines,  boiler-works,  gunpowder  mills,  &c. 
Herne  was  made  a  town  in  1897.  • 

HERNE  BAY,  a  seaside  resort  in  the  St  Augustine's  parlia- 
mentary division  of  Kent,  England,  8  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Canterbury, 
on  the  South  Eastern  and  Chatham  railway.  Pop.  of  urban 
district  (1901)  6726.  It  has  grown  up  since  1830,  above  a 
sandy  and  pebbly  shore,  and  has  a  pier  f  m.  long.  The 
church  of  St  Martin  in  the  village  of  Herne,  15  m.  inland, 


is  Early  English  and  later;  the  living  was  held  by  Nicholas 
Ridley  (1538),  afterwards  Bishop  of  London.  At  Reculver, 
3  m.  E.  of  Herne  Bay  on  the  coast,  is  the  site  of  the  Roman 
station  of  Regulbium.  The  fortress  occupied  about  8  acres,  but 
only  traces  of  the  south  and  east  walls  remain.  In  Saxon  times 
it  was  converted  into  a  palace  by  King  Ethelbert,  and  in  669  a 
monastery  was  founded  here  by  Egbert.  The  Early  English 
church  was  taken  down  early  in  the  igth  century  owing  to  the 
encroachment  of  the  sea,  and  parts  of  its  fabric  were  preserved 
in  the  modern  church  of  St  Mary.  But  its  twin  towers,  known 
as  the  Sisters  from  the  tradition  that  they  were  built  by  a 
Benedictine  abbess  of  Faversham  in  memory  of  her  sister,  were 
preserved  by  Trinity  House  as  a  conspicuous  landmark. 

HERNE  THE  HUNTER,  a  legendary  huntsman  who  was  alleged 
to  haunt  Windsor  Great  Park  at  night,  especially  around  an 
aged  tree,  long  known  as  Herne's  oak,  said  to  be  nearly  700 
years  old.  This  was  blown  down  in  1863,  and  a  young  oak  was 
planted  by  Queen  Victoria  on  the  spot.  Herne  has  his  French 
counterpart  in  the  Grand  Veneur  of  Fontainebleau.  Mention 
is  made  of  Herne  in  The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor  and  in  Harrison 
Ainsworth's  Windsor  Castle.  Nothing  definite  is  known  of  the 
Herne  legend.  It  is  suggested  that  it  originated  in  the  life- 
story  of  some  keeper  of  the  forest;  but  more  probably  it  is  only 
a  variant  of  the  "  Wild  Huntsman"  myth  common  to  folk-lore, 
which  (E.  B.  Tylor,  Primitive  Culture,  4th  ed.  pp.  361-362)  is 
almost  certainly  the  modern  form  of  a  prehistoric  storm-myth. 

HERNIA  (Lat.  hernia,  perhaps  from  Gr.  tpvos,  a  sprout),  in 
surgery,  the  protrusion  of  a  viscus,  or  part  of  a  viscus,  from  its 
normal  cavity;  thus,  hernia  cerebri  is  a  protrusion  of  brain- 
substance,  hernia  pulmonum,  a  protrusion  of  a  portion  of  lung, 
and  hernia  iridis,  a  protrusion  of  some  of  the  iris  through  an 
aperture  in  the  cornea.  But,  used  by  itself,  hernia  implies  a 
protrusion  from  the  abdominal  cavity,  or,  in  common  language, 
a  "  rupture."  A  rupture  may  occur  at  any  weak  point  in  the 
abdominal  wall.  The  common  situations  are  the  groin  (inguinal 
hernia),  the  upper  part  of  the  thigh  (femoral' hernia),  and  the 
navel  (umbilical  hernia).  The  more  movable  the  viscus  the 
greater  the  liability  to  protrusion,  and  therefore  one  commonly 
finds  some  of  the  small  intestine,  or  of  the  fatty  apron  (omen turn), 
in  the  hernia.  The  tumour  may  contain  intestine  alone  (entero- 
cele),  omentum  alone  (epiplocele) ,  or  both  intestine  and  omentum 
(entero-epiplocele).  The  predisposing  cause  of  rupture  is 
abnormal  length  of  the  suspensory  membrane  of  the  bowel 
(the  mesentery),  or  of  the  omentum,  in  conjunction  with  some 
weak  spot  in  the  abdominal  wall,  as  in  an  inguinal  hernia,  which 
descends  along  the  canal  in  which  the  spermatic  cord  lies  in  the 
male  and  the  round  ligament  of  the  womb  in  the  female.  A 
femoral  hernia  comes  through  a  weak  spot  in  the  abdomen  to 
the  inner  side  of  the  great  femoral  vessels;  a  ventral  hernia  takes 
place  by  the  yielding  of  the  scar  tissue  left  after  an  operation 
for  appendicitis  or  ovarian  disease.  The  exciting  cause  of 
hernia  is  generally  some  over-exertion,  as  in  lifting  a  heavy 
weight,  jumping  off  a  high  wall,  straining  (as  in  difficult  micturi- 
tion), constipation  or  excessive  coughing.  The  pressure  of  the 
diaphragm  above  and  the  abdominal  wall  in  front  acting  on  the 
abdominal  viscera  causes  a  protrusion  at  the  weakest  point. 

Rupture  is  either  congenital  or  acquired.  A  child  may  be 
born  with  a  hernia  in  the  inguinal  or  umbilical  region,  the  result 
of  an  arrest  of  development  in  these  parts;  or  the  rupture  may 
be  acquired,  first  appearing,  perhaps,  in  adult  life  as  the  result 
of  a  strain  or  hurt.  Men  suffer  more  frequently  than  women, 
because  of  their  physical  labours,  because  they  are  more  liable 
to  accidents,  and  because  of  the  passage  for  the  spermatic  cord 
out  of  the  abdomen  being  more  spacious  than  that  for  the  round 
ligament  of  the  womb. 

At  first  the  rupture  is  small,  and  it  gradually  increases  in  bulk. 
It  varies  from  the  size  of  a  marble  to  a  child's  head.  The  swelling 
consists  of  three  parts— the  coverings,  sac  and  contents.  The 
"  coverings  "  are  the  structures  which  form  the  abdominal  wall 
at  the  part  where  the  rupture  occurs.  In  femoral  hernia  the 
coverings  are  the  structures  at  the  upper  part  of  the  thigh  which 
are  stretched,  thinned  and  matted  together  as  the  result  of 


HERNIA 


373 


pressure;  in  other  cases  there  is  an  increase  in  their  thickness, 
the  result  of  repeated  attacks  of  inflammation.  The  "  sac  "  is 
composed  of  the  peritoneum  or  membrane  lining  the  abdominal 
cavity;  in  some  rare  cases  the  sac  is  wanting.  The  neck  of  the 
sac  is  the  narrowed  portion  where  the  peritoneum  forming  the 
sac  becomes  continuous  with  the  general  peritoneal  cavity. 
The  neck  of  the  sac  is  often  thickened,  indurated  and  adherent 
to  surrounding  parts,  the  result  of  chronic  inflammation.  The 
"  contents  "  are  bowel,  omental  fat,  or,  in  children,  an  ovary. 

The  hernia  may  be  reducible,  irreducible  or  strangulated. 
A  "  reducible  "  hernia  is  one  in  which  the  contents  can  be 
pushed  back  into  the  abdomen.  In  some  cases  this  reduction  is 
effected  with  ease,  in  others  it  is  a  matter  of  great  difficulty. 
At  any  moment  a  reducible  hernia  may  become  "  irreducible," 
that  is  to  say,  it  cannot  be  pushed  back  into  the  abdominal 
cavity,  perhaps  because  of  inflammatory  adhesions  in  and 
around  the  fatty  contents,  or  because  of  extra  fullness  of  the 
bowel  in  the  sac.  A  "  strangulated  "  hernia  is  one  in  which  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  through  the  hernial  contents  is  interfered 
with,  by  the  pinching  at  the  narrowest  part  of  the  passage. 
The  interference  is  at  first  slight,  but  it  quickly  becomes  more 
pronounced;  the  pinched  bowel  in  the  hernial  sac  swells  as  a 
finger  does  when  a  string  is  tightly  wound  round  its  base.  At  first 
there  is  congestion,  and  this  may  go  on  to  inflammation,  to 
infection  by  micro-organisms  and  to  mortification.  The  rapidity 
with  which  the  change  from  simple  congestion  to  mortification 
takes  place  depends  on  the  tightness  of  the  constriction,  and  on 
the  virulence  of  the  bacterial  infection  fiom  the  bowel.  As  a 
rule,  the  more  rapidly  a  hernia  forms  the  greatei  the  rapidity 
of  serious  change  in  the  conditions  of  the  bowel  or  omentum, 
and  the  more  urgent  are  the  symptoms.  The  constricting  band 
may  be  one  of  the  structures  which  form  the  boundaries  of  the 
openings  through  which  the  hernia  has  travelled,  or  it  may  be 
the  neck  of  the  sac,  which  has  become  thickened  in  consequence 
of  inflammation — especially  is  this  the  case  in  an  inguinal  hernia. 

Reducible  Hernia. — With  a  reducible  hernia  there  is  a  soft 
compressible  tumour  (elastic  when  it  contains  intestine,  doughy 
when  it  contains  omentum),  its  size  increasing  in  the  erect,  and 
diminishing  in  the  horizontal  posture.  As  a  rule,  it  causes  no 
trouble  during  the  night.  It  gives  an  impulse  on  coughing,  and 
when  the  intestinal  contents  aie  pushed  back  into  the  abdomen 
a  gurgling  sensation  is  perceptible  by  the  fingers.  Such  a  tumour 
may  be  met  with  in  any  part  of  the  abdominal  wall,  but  the  chief 
situations  are  as  follows.  The  inguinal  region,  in  which  the  neck 
of  the  tumour  lies  immediately  above  Poupart's  ligament  (a 
cord-like  ligamentous  structure  which  can  be  felt  stretching 
from  the  front  of  the  hip-bone  to  a  ridge  of  bone  immediately 
above  the  genital  organs) ;  the  femoral  region,  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  thigh,  in  which  the  neck  of  the  sac  lies  immediately  below 
the  inner  end  of  Poupart's  ligament;  the  umbilical  region, 
in  which  the  tumour  appears  at  or  near  the  navel.  As  the 
inguinal  hernia  increases  in  size  it  passes  into  the  scrotum  in  the 
male,  into  the  labium  in  the  female;  while  the  femoral  hernia 
gradually  pushes  upwards  to  the  abdomen. 

The  palliative  treatment  of  a  reducible  hernia  consists  in 
pushing  back  the  contents  of  the  tumour  into  the  abdomen 
and  applying  a  truss  or  elastic  bandage  to  prevent  their  again 
escaping.  The  younger  the  patient  the  more  chance  there  is 
of  the  truss  acting  as  a  curative  agent.  The  truss  may  generally 
be  left  off  at  night,  but  it  should  be  put  on  in  the  morning 
before  the  patient  leaves  his  bed.  If,  after  the  hernia  has  been 
once  returned,  it  is  not  allowed  again  to  come  down,  there  is  a 
probability  of  an  actual  cure  taking  place;  but  if  it  is  allowed 
to  come  down  occasionally,  as  it  may  do,  even  during  the  night, 
in  consequence  of  a  cough,  or  from  the  patient  turning  suddenly 
in  bed,  the  weak  spot  is  again  opened  out,  and  the  improvement 
which  might  have  been  going  on  for  weeks  is  undone.  It  is 
sometimes  found  impossible  to  keep  up  a  hernia  by  means  of  a 
truss,  and  an  operation  becomes  necessary.  The  operation  is 
spoken  of  as  "  the  radical  treatment  of  hernia,"  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  so-called  "palliative  treatment"  by  means 
of  a  truss.  It  should  not  be  spoken  of  as  the  radical  cure,  for 


skilfully  as  the  operation  may  have  been  performed  it  is  not 
always  a  cure.  The  principles  involved  in  the  operation  are  the 
emptying  of  the  sac  and  its  entire  removal,  and  the  closure  of  the 
opening  into  the  abdomen  by  strong  sutures:  and,  in  this  way, 
great  advance  has  been  made  by  modern  surgery.  Without 
tiresome  delay,  and  the  tedious  and  sometimes  disappointing 
application  of  trusses,  the  weak  spot  in  the  abdominal  wall  is 
exposed,  the  sac  of  the  hernia  is  tied  and  removed,  and  the  canal 
by  which  the  rupture  descended  is  blockaded  by  buried  sutures, 
and  with  no  material  risk  to  life.  Thus  the  patient's  worries 
become  a  thing  of  the  past,  and  he  is  rendered  a  fit  and  normal 
member  of  society.  Experience  has  shown  that  very  few  ruptures 
are  unsuited  for  successful  treatment  by  operation.  No  boy 
should  now  be  sent  to  school  compelled  to  wear  a  truss,  and  so 
hindered  in  his  games  and  rendered  an  object  of  remark. 

Irreducible  Hernia. —  The  main  symptom  is  a  tumour  in  one 
of  the  situations  already  referred  to,  of  long  standing  and 
perhaps  of  large  size,  in  which  the  contents  of  the  tumour,  in 
whole  or  in  part,  cannot  be  pushed  back  into  the  abdomen. 
The  irreducibility  is  due  either  to  its  large  size  or  to  changes 
which  have  taken  place  by  indurations  or  adhesions.  Such  a 
tumour  is  a  constant  source  of  danger:  its  contents  are  liable, 
from  their  exposed  situation,  to  injury  from  external  violence; 
it  has  a  constant  risk  of  increase;  it  may  at  any  time  become 
strangulated,  or  the  contents  may  inflame,  and  strangulation 
may  occur  secondarily  to  the  inflammation.  It  gives  rise  to 
dragging  sensations  (referred  to  the  abdomen),  colic,  dyspepsia 
and  constipation,  which  may  lead  to  obstruction,  that  is  to  say,  a 
stoppage  may  occur  of  the  passage  of  the  contents  of  that  portion 
of  the  intestinal  canal  which  lies  in  the  hernia.  When  an  ir- 
reducible hernia  becomes  painful  and  tender,  a  local  peritonitis 
has  occurred,  which  resembles  in  many  of  its  symptoms  a  case 
of  strangulation,  and  must  be  regarded  with  suspicion  and 
anxiety.  Indeed,  the  only  safe  treatment  is  by  operation. 

The  treatment  of  irreducible  hernia  may  be  palliative;  a 
"  bag  truss  "  may  be  worn  in  the  hope  of  preventing  the  hernia 
getting  larger;  the  bowels  must  be  kept  open,  and  all  irregu- 
larities of  diet  avoided.  A  person  with  such  a  hernia  is  in  constant 
danger,  and  if  his  general  condition  does  not  centra-indicate  it 
he  should  be  submitted  to  operative  treatment.  That  is  to  say, 
the  surgeon  should  cut  down  on  the  hernia,  open  the  sac,  divide 
any  omental  adhesions,  tie  and  cut  away  indurated  omentum, 
return  the  bowel,  and  complete  the  radical  operation  by  closing 
the  aperture  by  strong  sutures. 

In  Strangulated  Hernia  the  bowel  or  omentum  is  being  nipped 
at  the  neck  of  the  sac,  and  the  flow  of  blood  into  and  from  the 
delicate  tissues  is  stopped.  The  symptoms  are — nausea,  vomiting 
of  bilious  matter,  and  after  a  time  of  faecal-smelling  matter; 
a  twisting,  burning  pain  generally  referred  to  the  region  of  the 
navel,  intestinal  obstruction;  a  quick,  wiry  pulse  and  pain  on 
pressure  over  the  tumour;  the  expression  grows  anxious,  the 
abdomen  becomes  tense  and  drum-like,  and  there  is  no  impulse 
in  the  tumour  on  coughing,  because  its  contents  are  practically 
pinched  off  from  the  general  abdominal  cavity.  Sometimes  there 
is  complete  absence  of  pain  and  tenderness  in  the  hernia  itself, 
and  in  an  aged  person  all  the  symptoms  may  be  very  slight. 
Sooner  or  later,  from  eight  hours  to  eight  days,  if  the  strangula- 
tion is  unrelieved,  the  tumour  becomes  livid,  crackling  with  gas, 
mortification  of  the  bowel  at  the  neck  of  the  sac  takes  place, 
followed  by  extravasation  of  the  intestinal  contents  into  the 
abdominal  cavity;  the  patient  has  hiccough;  he  becomes 
collapsed;  and  dies  comatose  from  blood-poisoning. 

The  treatment  of  a  strangulated  hernia  admits  of  no  delay; 
if  the  hernia  does  not  "  go  back  "  on  the  surgeon  trying  to  reduce 
it,  it  must  be  operated  on  at  once,  the  constriction  being  relieved, 
the  bowel  returned  and  the  opening  closed.  There  should  be 
no  treatment  by  hot-bath  or  ice-bag:  operation  is  urgently 
needed.  An  anaesthetic  should  be  administered,  and  perhaps 
one  gentle  attempt  to  return  the  contents  by  pressure  (termed 
"  taxis")  may  be  made,  but  no  prolonged  attempts  are  justi- 
fiable, because  the  condition  of  the  hernial  contents  may  be 
such  that  they  cannot  bear  the  pressure  of  the  fingers.  "  Think 


374 


HERNICI— HERO 


well  of  the  hernia,"  says  the  aphorism,  "  which  has  been  little 
handled." 

The  taxis  to  be  successful  should  be  made  in  a  direction 
opposite  to  the  one  in  which  the  hernia  has  come  down.  The 
inguinal  hernia  should  be  pressed  upwards,  outwards  and 
backwards,  the  femoral  hernia  downwards,  backwards  and 
upwards.  The  larger  the  hernia  the  greater  is  the  chance  of 
success  by  taxis,  and  the  smaller  the  hernia  the  greater  the  risk 
of  its  being  injured  by  manipulation  and  delay.  In  every  case 
the  handling  must  be  absolutely  gentle.  If  taxis  does  not  succeed 
the  surgeon  must  at  once  cut  down  on  the  tumour,  carefully 
dividing  the  different  coverings  until  he  reaches  the  sac.  The 
sac  is  then  opened,  the  constriction  divided,  care  being  taken 
not  to  injure  the  bowel.  The  bowel  must  be  examined  before  it 
is  returned  into  the  abdomen,  and  if  its  lustreless  appearance, 
its  dusky  colour,  or  its  smell,  suggests  that  it  is  mortified,  or  is 
on  the  point  of  mortifying,  it  must  not  be  put  back  or  perforation 
would  give  rise  to  septic  peritonitis  which  would  probably  have 
a  fatal  ending.  In  such  a  case  the  damaged  piece  of  bowel  must 
be  resected  and  the  healthy  ends  of  the  bowel  joined  together 
by  fine  suturing.  Matted  or  diseased  omeritum  must  be  tied  off 
and  removed.  Should  peritonitis  supervene  after  the  operation 
on  account  of  bacillary  infection,  the  bowels  should  be  quickly 
made  to  act  by  repeated  doses  of  Epsom  salts  in  hot  water. 

A  person  who  is  the  subject  of  a  reducible  hernia  should  take 
great  care  to  obtain  an  accurately  fitting  truss,  and  should 
remember  that  whenever  symptoms  resembling  in  any  degree 
those  of  strangulation  occur,  delay  in  treatment  may  prove 
fatal.  A  surgeon  should  at  once  be  communicated  with,  and  he 
should  come  prepared  to  operate.  (E.  O.*) 

HERNICI,  an  ancient  people  of  Italy,  whose  territory  was 
in  Latium  between  the  Fucine  Lake  and  the  Trerus,  bounded 
by  the  Volscian  on  the  S.,  and  by  the  Aequian  and  the  Marsian 
on  the  N.  They  long  maintained  their  independence,  and  in 
486  B.C.  were  still  strong  enough  to  conclude  an  equal  treaty 
with  the  Latins  (Dion.  Hal.  viii.  64  and  68).  They  broke  away 
from  Rome  in  362  (Livy  vii.  6  ff.)  and  in  306  (Livy  ix.  42),  when 
their  chief  town  Anagnia  (q.v.)  was  taken  and  reduced  to  a 
praefecture,  but  Ferentinum,  Aletrium  and  Verulae  were 
rewarded  for  their  fidelity  by  being  allowed  to  remain  free 
municipia,  a  position  which  at  that  date  they  preferred  to  the 
ciiiitas.  The  name  of  the  Hernici,  like  that  of  the  Volsci,  is 
missing  from  the  list  of  Italian  peoples  whom  Polybius  (ii.  24) 
describes  as  able  to  furnish  troops  in  225  B.C.;  by  that  date, 
therefore,  their  territory  cannot  have  been  distinguished  from 
Latium  generally,  and  it  seems  probable  (Beloch,  Ital.  Bund, 
p.  123)  that  they  had  then  received  the  full  Roman  citizenship. 
The  oldest  Latin  inscriptions  of  the  district  (from  Ferentinum, 
C.I.L.  x.  5837-5840)  are  earlier  than  the  Social  War,  and  present 

no  local  characteristic. 

For  further  details  of  their  history  see  C.I.L.  x.  572. 

There  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  the  Hernici  ever  spoke  a 
really  different  dialect  from  the  Latins;  but  one  or  two  glosses 
indicate  that  they  had  certain  peculiarities  of  vocabulary,  such 
as  might  be  expected  among  folk  who  clung  to  their  local  customs. 
Their  name,  however,  with  its  Co-termination,  classes  them 
along  with  the  Co-tribes,  like  the  Volsci,  who  would  seem  to  have 
been  earlier  inhabitants  of  the  west  coast  of  Italy,  rather  than 
with  the  tribes  whose  names  were  formed  with  the  JVo-suffix. 
On  this  question  see  VOLSCI  and  SABINI. 

See  Conway's  Italic  Dialects  (Camb.  Univ.  Press,  1897),  p.  306  ff., 
where  the  glosses  and  the  local  and  personal  names  of  the  district 
will  be  found.  (R-  S.  C.) 

HERNOSAND,  a  seaport  of  Sweden,  chief  town  of  the  district 
(liin)  of  Vesternorrland  on  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  Pop.  (1900) 
7890.  It  stands  on  the  island  of  Herno  (which  is  connected 
with  the  mainland  by  bridges)  near  the  mouth  of  the  Angerman 
river,  423  m.  N.  of  Stockholm  by  rail.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop 
and  possesses  a  fine  cathedral.  There  are  engine-works,  timber- 
yards  and  saw-mills.  The  harbour  is  good,  but  generally  ice- 
bound from  December  to  May.  Timber,  iron  and  wood-pulp  are 
exported.  There  are  a  school  of  navigation  and  an  institute  for 
pisciculture.  Hernosand  was  founded  in  1584,  and  received  its 


first  town-privileges  from  John  III.  in  1587.     It  was  the  first 
town  in  Europe  to  be  lighted  by  electricity  (1885).    The  poet' 
Franzen  (q.v.),  Bishop  of  Hernosand,  is  buried  here. 

HERO  (Gr.  7Jpo>s),  a  term  specially  applied  to  warriors  of 
extraordinary  strength  and  courage,  and  generally  to  all  who 
were  distinguished  from  their  fellows  by  superior  moral,  physical 
or  intellectual  qualities.  No  satisfactory  derivation  of  the 
word  has  been  suggested. 

Ancient  Greek  Heroes. 

In  ancient  Greece,  the  heroes  were  the  object  of  a  special  cult, 
and  as  such  were  intimately  connected  with  its  religious  life. 
Various  theories  have  been  put  forward  as  to  the  nature  of  these 
heroes.  According  to  some  authorities,  they  were  idealized 
historical  personages;  according  to  others,  symbolical  repre- 
sentations of  the  forces  of  nature.  The  view  most  commonly 
held  is  that  they  were  degraded  or  "  depotentiated  "  gods, 
occupying  a  position  intermediate  between  gods  and  men. 
According  to  E.  Rohde  (in  Psyche)  they  are  souls  of  the  dead, 
which  after  separation  from  the  body  enter  upon  a  higher, 
eternal  existence.  But  it  is  only  a  select  minority  who 
attain  to  the  rank  of  heroes  after  death,  only  the  distinguished 
men  of  the  past.  The  worship  of  these  heroes  is  in  reality  an 
ancestor  worship,  which  existed  in  pre-Homeric  times,  and  was 
preserved  in  local  cults.  Instances  no  doubt  occur  of  gods  being 
degraded  to  the  ranks  of  heroes,  but  these  are  not  the  real 
heroes,  the  heroes  who  are  the  object  of  a  cult.  The  cult-heroes 
were  all  persons  who  had  lived  the  life  of  man  on  earth,  and  it 
was  necessary  for  the  degraded  gods  to  pass  through  this  stage. 
They  did  not  at  once  become  cult-heroes,  but  only  after  they  had 
undergone  death  like  other  mortals.  Only  one  who  has  been  a 
man  can  become  a  hero.  The  heroes  are  spirits  of  the  dead,  not 
demi-gods;  their  position  is  not  intermediate  between  gods  and 
men,  but  by  the  side  of  these  they  exist  as  a  separate  class. 

In  Homer  the  term  is  applied  especially  to  warrior  princes,  to 
kings  and  kings'  sons,  even  to  distinguished  persons  of  lower 
rank,  and  free  men  generally.  In  Hesiod  it  is  chiefly  con- 
fined to  those  who  fought  before  Troy  and  Thebes;  in  view 
of  their  supposed  divine  origin,  he  calls  them  demi-gods 
(finldeoi ).  This  name  is  also  given  them  in  an  interpolated 
passage  in  the  Iliad  (xii.  23),  which  is  quite  at  variance  with  the 
general  Homeric  idea  of  the  heroes,  who  are  no  more  than  men, 
even  if  of  divine  origin  and  of  superior  strength  and  prowess. 
But  neither  in  Homer  nor  in  Hesiod  is  there  any  trace  of  the  idea 
that  the  heroes  after  death  had  any  power  for  good  or  evil  over 
the  lives  of  those  who  survived  them;  and  consequently,  no 
cult.  Nevertheless,  traces  of  an  earlier  ancestor  worship 
appear,  e.g.  in  funeral  games  in  honour  of  Patroclus  and  other 
heroes,  while  the  Hesiodic  account  of  the  five  ages  of  man  is  a 
reminiscence  of  the  belief  in  the  continued  existence  of  souls  in  a 
higher  life.  This  pre-historic  worship  and  belief,  for  a  time 
obscured,  were  subsequently  revived.  According  to  Porphyry 
(De  abstinentia,  iv.  22),  Draco  ordered  the  inhabitants  of  Attica 
to  honour  the  gods  and  heroes  of  their  country  "in  accordance 
with  the  usage  of  their  fathers  "  with  offerings  of  first  fruits  and 
sacrificial  cakes  every  year,  thereby  clearly  pointing  to  a  custom 
of  high  antiquity.  Solon  also  ordered  that  the  tombs  of  the 
heroes  should  be  treated  with  the  greatest  respect,  and  Cleis- 
thenes  (q.v.)  sought  to  create  a  pan-Athenian  enthusiasm  by 
calling  his  new  tribes  after  Attic  heroes  and  setting  up  their 
statues  in  the  Agora.  Heroic  honours  were  at  first  bestowed  upon 
the  founders  of  a  colony  or  city,  and  the  ancestors  of  families;  if 
their  name  was  not  known,  one  was  adopted  from  legend.  In 
many  cases  these  heroes  were  purely  fictitious;  such  were  the 
supposed  ancestors  of  the  noble  and  priestly  families  of  Attica 
and  elsewhere  (Butadae  at  Athens,  Branchidae  at  Miletus 
Ceryces  at  Eleusis),  of  the  eponymi  of  the  tribes  and  demes. 
Again,  side  by  side  with  gods  of  superior  rank,  certain  heroes 
were  worshipped  as  protecting  spirits  of  the  country  or  state; 
such  were  the  Aeacidae  amongst  the  Aeginetans,  Ajax  son  of 
O'ileus  amongst  the  Epizephyrian  Locrians  and  Hector  at 
Thebes.  Neglect  of  the  worship  of  these  heroes  was  held  to  be 


HERO 


375 


responsible  for  pestilence,  bad  crops  and  other  misfortunes, 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  duly  honoured,  their  influence  was 
equally  beneficent.  This  belief  was  supported  by  the  Delphic 
oracle,  which  was  largely  instrumental  in  promoting  hero-worship 
and  keeping  alive  its  due  observance.  Special  importance  was 
attached  to  the  grave  of  the  hero  and  to  his  bodily  remains,  with 
which  the  spirit  of  the  departed  was  inseparably  connected.  The 
grave  was  regarded  as  his  place  of  abode,  from  which  he  could 
only  be  absent  for  a  brief  period;  hence  his  bones  were  fetched 
from  abroad  (e.g.  Cimon  brought  those  of  Theseus  from  Scyros), 
or  if  they  could  not  be  procured,  at  least  a  cenotaph  was  erected 
in  his  honour.  Their  relics  also  were  carefully  preserved:  the 
house  of  Cadmus  at  Thebes,  the  hut  of  Orestes  at  Tegea,  the  stone 
on  which  Telamon  had  sat  at  Salamis  (in  Cyprus).  Special 
shrines  (fipqa)  were  also  erected  in  their  honour,  usually  over  their 
graves.  In  these  shrines  a  complete  set  of  armour  was  kept,  in 
accordance  with  the  idea  that  the  hero  was  essentially  a  warrior, 
who  on  occasion  came  forth  from  his  grave  and  fought  at  the 
head  of  his  countrymen,  putting  the  enemy  to  flight  as  during  his 
lifetime.  Like  the  gods,  the  cult  heroes  were  supposed  to  exercise 
an  influence  on  human  affairs,  though  not  to  the  same  extent, 
their  sphere  of  action  being  confined  to  their  own  localities. 
Amongst  the  earliest  known  historical  examples  of  the  elevation 
of  the  dead  to  the  rank  of  heroes  are  Timesius  the  founder  of 
Abdera,  Miltiades,  son  of  Cypselus,  Harmodius  and  Aristogiton 
and  Brasidas,  the  victor  of  Amphipolis,  who  ousted  the  local 
Athenian  hero  Hagnon.  In  course  of  time  admission  to  the  rank 
of  a  hero  became  far  more  common,  and  was  even  accorded  to  the 
living,  such  as  Lysimachus  in  Samothrace  and  the  tyrant  Nicias 
of  Cos.  Antiochus  of  Commagene  instituted  an  order  of  priests 
to  celebrate  the  anniversary  of  his  birth  and  coronation  in  a 
special  sanctuary,  and  the  kings  of  Pergamum  claimed  divine 
honours  for  themselves  and  their  wives  during  their  lifetime. 
The  birthday  of  Eumenes  was  regularly  kept,  and  every  month 
sacrifice  was  offered  to  him  and  games  held  in  his  honour.  In 
addition  to  persons  of  high  rank,  poets,  legendary  and  others 
(Linus,  Orpheus,  Homer,  Aeschylus  and  Sophocles),  legislators 
and  physicians  (Lycurgus,  Hippocrates),  the  patrons  of  various 
trades  or  handicrafts  (artists,  cooks,  bakers,  potters),  the  heads  of 
philosophical  schools  (Plato,  Democritus,  Epicurus)  received  the 
honours  of  a  cult.  At  Teos  incense  was  offered  before  the  statue 
of  a  flute-player  during  his  lifetime.  In  some  countries  the 
honour  became  so  general  that  every  man  after  death  was 
described  as  a  hero  in  his  epitaph — in  Thessaly  even  slaves. 

The  cult  of  the  heroes  exhibits  points  of  resemblance  with  that 
of  the  chthonian  divinities  and  of  the  dead,  but  differs  from  that 
of  the  ordinary  gods,  a  further  indication  that  they  were  not 
"  depotentiated  "  gods.  Thus,  sacrifice  was  offered  to  them  at 
night  or  in  the  evening;  not  on  a  high,  but  on  a  low  altar  (faxapa), 
surrounded  by  a  trench  to  receive  the  blood  of  the  victim,  which 
was  supposed  to  make  its  way  through  the  ground  to  the 
occupant  of  the  grave;  the  victims  were  black  male  animals, 
whose  heads  were  turned  downwards,  not  upwards;  their  blood 
was  allowed  to  trickle  on  the  ground  to  appease  the  departed 
(alpaKovpia);  the  body  was  entirely  consumed  by  fire  and  no 
mortal  was  allowed  to  eat  of  it;  the  technical  expression  for  the 
sacrifice  was  not  Bvtiv  but  kvayi^tiv  (less  commonly  kvrtiu>v.v). 
The  chthonian  aspect  of  the  heft)  is  further  shown  by  his  attribute 
the  snake,  and  in  many  cases  he  appears  under  that  form  himself. 
On  special  occasions  a  sacrificial  meal  of  cooked  food  was  set  out 
for  the  heroes,  of  which  they  were  solemnly  invited  to  partake. 
The  fullest  description  of  such  a  festival  is  the  account  given  by 
Plutarch  (Aristides,  21)  of  the  festival  celebrated  by  the  Plataeans 
in  honour  of  their  countrymen  who  had  fallen  at  the  battle  of 
Plataea.  On  the  i6th  of  the  month  Maimacterion,  a  long  pro- 
cession, headed  by  a  trumpeter  playing  a  warlike  air,  set  out  for 
the  graves;  wagons  decked  with  myrtle  and  garlands  of  flowers 
followed,  young  men  (who  must  be  of  free  birth)  carried  jars  of 
wine,  milk,  oil  and  perfumes;  next  came  the  black  bull  destined 
for  the  sacrifice,  the  rear  being  brought  up  by  the  archon,  who 
wore  the  purple  robe  of  the  general,  a  naked  sword  in  one  hand, 
in  the  other  an  urn.  When  he  came  near  the  tombs,  he  drew 


some  water  with  which  he  washed  the  gravestones,  afterwards 
anointing  them  with  perfume;  he  then  sacrificed  the  bull  on  the 
altar  calling  upon  Zeus  Chthonios  and  Hermes  Psychopompos,  and 
inviting  them  in  company  with  the  heroes  to  the  festival  of  blood. 
Finally,  he  poured  a  libation  of  wine  with  the  words:  "  I  drink 
to  those  who  died  for  the  freedom  of  the  Hellenes." 

See  especially  E.  Rohde,  Psyche  (1905)  and  in  Rheinisches  Museum, 
1!-  (1895),  28;  P.  Stengel,  Die  griechischen  Kultusaltertumer 
(Munich,  1898),  p.  124;  G.  F.  Schomann,  Griechische  AUerlumer, 
n.  (1897),  159;  J.  Wassner,  De  heroum  apud  Graecos  cullu  (Kiel, 
1883);  article  by  F.  Deneken  in  Roscher's  Lexikon  der  Mythologie, 
in  which  a  large  amount  of  material  is  accumulated;  J.  A.  Hild, 
Etude  sur  les  demons  (1881)  and  article  in  Daremberg  and  Saglio's 
Dictionnaire  des  antiquites. 

Teutonic  Legend. 

Many  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  ancient  Greek 
heroes  are  reproduced  in  those  of  the  Teutonic  North,  the 
parallel  being  in  some  cases  very  striking;  Siegfried,  for  instance, 
like  Achilles,  is  vulnerable  only  in  one  spot,  and  Wayland  Smith, 
like  Hephaestus,  is  lame.  Superhuman  qualities  and  powers, 
too,  are  commonly  ascribed  to  both,  an  important  difference, 
however,  being  that  whatever  worship  may  have  been  paid  to  the 
Teutonic  heroes  never  crystallized  into  a  cult.  This  applies 
equally  to  those  who  have  a  recognized  historical  origin  and  to 
those  who  are  regarded  as  purely  mythical.  Of  the  latter  the 
number  has  tended  to  diminish  in  the  light  of  modern  scholarship. 
The  fashion  during  the  igth  century  set  strongly  in  the  other 
direction,  and  the  "  degraded  gods  "  theory  was  applied  not 
only  to  such  conspicuous  heroes  as  Siegfried,  Dietrich  and 
Beowulf,  but  to  a  host  of  minor  characters,  such  as  the  good 
marquis  Riideger  of  the  Nibelungenlied  and  our  own  Robin 
Hood  (both  identified  with  Woden  Hruodperaht).  The  reaction 
from  one  extreme  has,  indeed,  tended  to  lead  to  another,  until 
not  only  the  heroes,  but  the  very  gods  themselves,  are  being 
traced  to  very  human,  not  to  say  commonplace,  origins.  Thus 
M.  Henri  de  Tourville,  in  his  Histoire  de  la  formation  particulariste 
(1903),  basing  his  argument  on  the  Ynglinga  Saga,  interpreted 
in  the  light  of  "  Social  Science,"  reveals  Odin,  "  the  traveller," 
as  a  great  "  caravan-leader  "  and  warrior,  who,  driven  from 
Asgard — a  trading  city  on  the  borders  of  the  steppes  east  of  the 
Don — by  "  the  blows  that  Pompey  aimed  at  Mithridates," 
brought  to  the  north  the  arts  and  industries  of  the  East.  The 
argument  is  developed  with  convincing  ingenuity,  but  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  it  has  permanently  "  rescued  Odin  from  the 
misty  dreamland  of  mythology  and  restored  him  to  history." 
It  is  now,  however,  admitted  that,  whatever  influence  the  one 
may  have  from  time  to  time  exercised  on  the  other,  Teutonic 
myth  and  Teutonic  heroic  legend  were  developed  on  independent 
lines.  The  Teutonic  heroes  are,  in  the  main,  historical  personages, 
never  gods;  though,  like  the  Greek  heroes,  they  are  sometimes 
endowed  with  semi-divine  attributes  or  interpreted  as  symbolical 
representations  of  natural  forces. 

The  origin  of  Teutonic  heroic  saga,  which  may  be  regarded 
as  including  that  of  the  Germans,  Goths,  Anglo-Saxons  and 
Scandinavians,  is  to  be  looked  for  in  the  period  of  the  so-called 
migration  of  nations  (A.D.  350-650).  It  consequently  rests 
upon  a  distinct  basis  of  fact,  the  saga  (in  the  older  and  wider 
sense  of  any  story  said  or  sung)  being  indeed  the  oldest  form 
of  historical  tradition;  though  this  of  course  does  not  exclude 
the  probability  of  the  accretion  of  mythical  elements  round 
persons  and  episodes  from  the  very  first.  As  to  the  origin  of  the 
heroic  sagas  as  we  now  have  them,  Tacitus  tells  us  that  the  deeds 
of  Arminius  were  still  celebrated  in  song  a  hundred  years  after 
his  death  (Annals,  ii.  88)  and  in  the  Germania  he  speaks  of  "  old 
songs  "  as  the  only  kind  of  "  annals  "  which  the  ancient  Germans 
possessed;  but,  whatever  relics  of  the  old  songs  may  be  embedded 
in  the  Teutonic  sagas,  they  have  left  no  recognizable  mark  on  the 
heroic  poetry  of  the  German  peoples.  The  attempt  to  identify 
Arminius  with  Siegfried  is  'now  generally  abandoned.  Teutonic 
heroic  saga,  properly  so-called,  consists  of  the  traditions  connected 
with  the  migration  period,  the  earliest  traces  of  which  are  found 
in  the  works  of  historical  writers  such  as  Ammianus  Marcellinus 
and  Cassiodorus.  According  to  Jordanes  (the  epitomator  of 


HERO 


Cassiodorus's  History  of  the  Goths)  at  the  funeral  of  Attila  his 
vassals,  as  they  rode  round  the  corpse,  sang  of  his  glorious  deeds. 
The  next  step  in  the  development  of  epic  narrative  was  the 
single  lay  of  an  episodic  character,  sung  by  a  single  individual, 
who  was  frequently  a  member  of  a  distinguished  family,  not 
merely  a  professional  minstrel.  Then,  as  different  stories  grew 
up  round  the  person  of  a  particular  hero,  they  formed  a  connected 
cycle  of  legend,  the  centre  of  which  was  the  person  of  the  hero 
(e.g.  Dietrich  of  Bern).  The  most  important  figures  of  these 
cycles  are  the  following. 

(i)  Beowulf,  king  of  the  Geatas  (Jutland),  whose  story  in  its 
present  form  was  probably  brought  from  the  continent  by  the 
Angles.  It  is  an  amalgamation  of  the  myth  of  Beowa,  the 
slayer  of  the  water-demon  and  the  dragon,  with  the  historical 
legend  of  Beowulf,  nephew  and  successor  of  Hygelac  (Chochil- 
aicus),  king  of  the  Geatas,  who  was  defeated  and  slain  (c.  520) 
while  ravaging  the  Frisian  coast.  The  water-demon  Grendel 
and  the  dragon  (probably),  by  whom  Beowulf  is  mortally 
wounded,  have  been  supposed  to  represent  the  powers  of  autumn 
and  darkness,  the  floods  which  at  certain  seasons  overflow  the 
low-lying  countries  on  the  coast  of  the  North  Sea  and  sweep 
away  all  human  habitations;  Beowulf  is  the  hero  of  spring  and 
light  who,  after  overcoming  the  spirit  of  the  raging  waters, 
finally  succumbs  to  the  dragon  of  approaching  winter.  Others 
regard  him  as  a  wind-hero,  who  disperses  the  pestilential  vapours 
of  the  fens.  Beowulf  is  also  a  culture-hero.  His  father  Sceaf- 
Scyld  (i.e.  Scyld  Scefing,"  the  protector  with  the  sheaf  ")  lands 
on  the  Anglian  or  Scandinavian  coast  when  a  child,  in  a  rudder- 
less ship,  asleep  on  a  sheaf  of  grain,  symbolical  of  the  means 
whereby  his  kingdom  shall  become  great;  the  son  indicates 
the  blessings  of  a  fixed  habitation,  secured  against  the  attacks 
of  the  sea.  (2)  Hildebrand,  the  hero  of  the  oldest  German  epic. 
A  loyal  supporter  of  Theodoric,  he  follows  his  master,  when 
threatened  by  Odoacer,  to  the  court  of  Attila.  After  thirty 
years'  absence,  he  returns  to  his  home  in  Italy;  his  son  Hadu- 
brand,  believing  his  father  to  be  dead,  suspects  treachery  and 
refuses  to  accept  presents  offered  by  the  father  in  token  of 
good-will.  A  fight  takes  place,  in  which  the  son  is  slain  by  the 
father.  In  a  later  version,  recognition  and  reconciliation  take 
place.  Well-known  parallels  are  Odysseus  and  Telegonis, 
Rustem  and  Sohrab.  (3)  Ermanaric,  the  king  of  the  East  Goths, 
who  according  to  Ammianus  Marcellinus  slew  himself  (c.  375) 
in  terror  at  the  invasion  of  the  Huns.  With  him  is  connected 
the  old  German  Dioscuri  myth  of  the  Harlungen.  (4)Dietrich 
of  Bern  (Verona),  the  legendary  name  of  Theodoric  the  Great. 
Contrary  to  historical  tradition,  Italy  is  supposed  to  have  been 
his  ancestral  inheritance,  of  which  he  has  been  deprived  by 
Odoacer,  or  by  Ermanaric,  who  in  his  altered  character  of  a 
typical  tyrant  appears  as  his  uncle  and  contemporary.  He  takes 
refuge  in  Hungary  with  Etzel  (Attila),  by  whose  aid  he  finally 
recovers  his  kingdom.  In  the  later  middle  ages  he  is  represented 
as  fighting  with  giants,  dragons  and  dwarfs,  and  finally  disappears 
on  a  black  horse.  Some  attempts  have  been  made  to  identify 
him  as  a  kind  of  Donar  or  god  of  thunder.  (5)  Siegfried  (M.H. 
Ger.  Sivrit),  the  hero  of  the  Niebelungenlied,  the  Sigurd  of  the 
related  northern  sagas,  is  usually  regarded  as  a  purely  mythical 
figure,  a  hero  of  light  who  is  ultimately  overcome  by  the  powers 
of  darkness,  the  mist-people  (Niebelungen).  He  is,  however, 
closely  associated  with  historical  characters  and  events,  e.g. 
with  the  Burgundian  king  Gundahari  (Gunther,  Gunnar)  and  the 
overthrow  of  his  house  and  nation  by  the  Huns;  the  scholars 
have  exercised  considerable  ingenuity  in  attempting  to  identify 
him  with  various  historical  figures.  Theodor  Abeling  (Das 
Nibelungenlied,  Leipzig,  1907)  traces  the  Nibelung  sagas  to 
three  groups  of  Burgundian  legends,  each  based  on  fact:  the 
Frankish-Burgundian  tradition  of  the  murder  of  Segeric,  son 
of  the  Burgundian  king  Sigimund,  who  was  slain  by  his  father 
at  the  instigation  of  his  stepmother;  the  Frankish-Burgundian 
story,  as  told  by  Gregory  of  Tours  (iii.  n),  of  the  defeat  of  the 
Burgundian  kings  Sigimund  and  Godomar,  and  the  captivity 
and  murder  of  Sigimund,  by  the  sons  of  Clovis,  at  the  instigation 
of  their  mother  Chrothildis,  in  revenge  for  the  murder  of  her 


father  Chilperich  and  of  her  mother,  by  Godomar;  the  Rhenish- 
Burgundian  story  of  the  ruin  of  Gundahari's  kingdom  by  Attila's 
Huns.  Herr  Abeling  identifies  Siegfried  (Sigurd)  with  Segeric, 
while — according  to  him — the  heroine  of  the  Nibelung  sagas, 
Kriemhild  (Gudrun),  represents  a  confusion  of  two  historical 
persons:  Chrothildis,  the  wife  of  Clovis,  and  Ildico  (Hilde),. 
the  wife  of  Attila.  (See  also  the  articles  KRIEMHILD,  NIBELUN- 
GENLIED). 

(6)Hugdietrich,  Wolfdietrich  and  Ortnit,  whose  legend,  like 
that  of  Siegfried,  is  of  Prankish  origin.  It  is  preserved  in  four 
versions,  the  best  of  which  is  the  oldest,  and  has  an  historical 
foundation.  Hugdietrich  is  the  "  Prankish  Dietrich  "  ( =  Hugo 
Theodoric),  king  of  Austrasia  (d.  534),  who  like  his  son  and 
successor  Theodebert,  was  illegitimate;  both  had  to  fight  for 
their  inheritance  with  relatives.  The  transference  of  the  scene  ta 
Constantinople  is  a  reminiscence  of  the  events  of  the  Crusades 
and  Theodebert's  projected  campaign  against  that  city.  The 
version  in  which  Hugdietrich  gains  access  to  his  future  wife  by 
disguising  himself  as  a  woman  has  also  a  foundation  in  fact.  As 
the  myth  of  the  Harlungen  is  connected  with  Ermanaric,  so 
another  Dioscuri  myth  (of  the  Hartungen)  is  combined  with  the 
Ortnit-Wolfdietrich  legend.  The  Hartungen  are  probably 
identical  with  the  divine  youths  (mentioned  in  Tacitus  as 
worshipped  by  the  Vandal  Naharvali  or  Nahanarvali),  from 
whom  the  Vandal  royal  family,  the  Asdingi,  claimed  descent. 
Asdingi  ("A<m77oO  would  be  represented  in  Gothic  by  Hazdiggos, 
"  men  with  women's  hair  "  (cf.  muliebri  ornatu  in  Tacitus),  and 
in  middle  high  German  by  Hartungen.  (7)Rother,  king  of 
Lombardy.  Desiring  to  wed  the  daughter  of  Constantine,  king  of 
Constantinople,  he  sends  twelve  envoys  to  ask  her  in  marriage. 
They  are  arrested  and  thrown  into  prison  by  the  king.  Rother, 
who  appears  under  the  name  of  Dietrich,  sets  out  with  an  army, 
liberates  the  envoys  and  carries  off  the  princess.  One  version 
places  the  scene  in  the  land  of  the  Huns.  The  character  of 
Constantine  in  many  respects  resembles  that  of  Alexius  Com- 
nenus;  the  slaying  of  a  tame  lion  by  one  of  the  gigantic  followers 
of  Rother  is  founded  on  an  incident  which  actually  took  place  at 
the  court  of  Alexius  during  the  crusade  of  not  under  duke  Welf 
of  Bavaria,  when  King  Rother  was  composed  about  1160  by  a 
Rhenish  minstrel.  Rother  may  be  the  Lombard  king  Rothari 
(636-650),  transferred  to  the  period  of  the  Crusades.  (S)Walther 
of  Aquitaine,  chiefly  known  from  the  Latin  poem  Waltharius, 
written  by  Ekkehard  of  St  Gall  at  the  beginning  of  the  loth 
century,  and  fragments  of  an  8th-century  Anglo-Saxon  Epic 
Waldere.  Walther  is  not  an  historical  figure,  although  the  legend 
undoubtedly  represents  typical  occurrences  of  the  migration 
period,  such  as  the  detention  and  flight  of  hostages  of  noble 
family  from  the  court  of  the  Huns,  and  the  rescue  of  captive 
maidens  by  abduction.  (9)WieIand  (Volundr),  Wayland  the 
Smith,  the  only  Teutonic  hero  (his  original  home  was  lower 
Saxony)  who  firmly  established  himself  in  England.  There  is 
absolutely  no  historical  background  for  his  legend.  He  is  a  fire- 
spirit,  who  is  pressed  into  man's  service,  and  typifies  the  advance 
from  the  stone  age  to  a  higher  stage  of  civilization  (working  in 
metals).  As  the  lame  smith  he  reminds  us  of  Hephaestus,  and  in 
his  flight  with  wings  of  Daedalus  escaping  from  Minos.  (10)  Hogni 
(Hagen)  and  Hedin  (Hetel) ,  whose  personalities  are  overshadowed 
by  the  heroines  Hilde  and  Gudrun  (Kudrun,  Kutrun).  In  one 
version  occurs  the  incident  of  the  never-ending  battle  between 
the  forces  of  Hagen  and  Hedin.  Every  night  Hilde  revives  the 
fallen,  and  "  so  will  it  continue  till  the  twilight  of  the  gods."  The 
battle  represents  the  eternal  conflict  between  light  and  darkness, 
the  alternation  of  day  and  night.  Hilde  here  figures  as  a  typical 
Valkyr  delighting  in  battle  and  bloodshed,  who  frustrates  a 
reconciliation.  Hedin  had  sent  a  necklace  as  a  peace-offering  to 
Hagen,  but  Hilde  persuades  her  father  that  it  is  only  a  ruse. 
This  necklace  occurs  in  the  story  of  the  goddess  Freya  (Frigg), 
who  is  said  to  have  caused  the  battle  to  conciliate  the  wrath  of 
Odin  at  her  infidelity,  the  price  paid  by  her  for  the  possession  of 
the  necklace  Brisnigamen;  again,  the  light  god  Heimdal  is  said  to 
have  fought  with  Loki  for  the  necklace  (the  sun)  stolen  by  the 
latter.  Hence  the  battle  has  been  explained  as  the  necklace 


HERO 


377 


myth  in  epic  form.  The  historical  background  is  the  raids  of  the 
Teutonic  maritime  tribes  on  the  coasts  of  England  and  Ireland; 
Famous  heroes  who  are  specially  connected  with  England  are 
Alfred  the  Great,  Richard  Coeur-de-Lion,  King  Horn,  Havelok 
the  Dane,  Guy  of  Warwick,  Sir  Bevis  of  Hampton  (or  South- 
ampton), Robin  Hood  and  his  companions. 

Celtic  Heroes. 

The  Celtic  heroic  saga  in  the  British  islands  may  be  divided  into 
thetwo  principal  groups  of  Gaelic  (Irish)  andBrython  (Welsh),  the 
first,  excluding  the  purely  mythological,  into  the  Ultonian  (con- 
nected with  Ulster)  and  the  Ossianic.  The  Ultonianis  grouped 
round  the  names  of  King  Conchobar  and  the  heroCuchulainn, "  the 
Irish  Achilles,"  the  defender  of  Ulster  against  all  Ireland,  regarded 
by  some  as  a  solar  hero.  The  second  cycle  contains  the  epics 
of  Finn  (Fionn,  Fingal)  mac  Cumhail,  and  his  son  Oisin  (Ossian), 
the  bard  and  warrior,  chiefly  known  from  the  supposed  Ossianic 
poems  of  Macpherson.  (See  CELT,  sec.  Celtic  Literature.) 

Of  Brython  origin  is  the  cycle  of  King  Arthur  (Art us),  the 
adopted  national  hero  of  the  mixed  nationalities  of  whom  the 
"  English  "  people  was  composed.  Here  he  appears  as  a  chiefly 
mythical  personality,  who  slays  monsters,  such  as  the  giant  of 
St  Michel,  the  boar  Troit,  the  demon  cat,  and  goes  down  to  the 
underworld.  The  original  Welsh  legend  was  spread  by  British 
refugees  in  Brittany,  and  was  thus  celebrated  by  both  English  and 
French  Celts.  From  a  literary  point  of  view,  however,  it  is 
chiefly  French  and  forms  "  the  matter  of  Brittany.  "  Arthur, 
the  leader  (comes  Britanniae,  dux  bellorum)  of  the  Siluri  or 
Dumnonii  against  the  Saxons,  flourished  at  the  beginning  of  the 
6th  century.  He  is  first  spoken  of  in  Nennius's  History  of  the 
Britons  (gth  century),  and  at  greater  length  in  Geoffrey  of 
Monmouth's  History  of  the  Kings  of  Britain  (i2th  century), 
at  the  end  of  which  the  French  Breton  cycle  attained  its  fullest 
development  in  the  poems  of  Chretien  de  Troyes  and  others. 

Speaking  generally,  the  Celtic  heroes  are  differentiated  from 
the  Teutonic  by  the  extreme  exaggeration  of  their  superhuman, 
or  rather  extra-human,  qualities.  Teutonic  legend  does  not 
lightly  exaggerate,  and  what  to  us  seems  incredible  in  it  may  be 
easily  conceived  as  credible  to  those  by  whom  and  for  whom  the 
tales  were  told;  that  Sigmund  and  his  son  Sinfiotli  turned  them- 
selves into  wolves  would  be  but  a  sign  of  exceptional  powers  to 
those  who  believed  in  werewolves;  Fafnir  assuming  the  form  of 
a  serpent  would  be  no  more  incredible  to  the  barbarous  Teuton 
than  the  similar  transformation  of  Proteus  to  the  Greek.  But  in 
the  characterization  of  their  heroes  the  Celtic  imagination  runs 
riot,  and  the  quality  of  their  persons  and  their  acts  becomes 
exaggerated  beyond  the  bounds  of  any  conceivable  probability. 
Take,  for  instance,  the  description  of  some  of  Arthur's  knights  in 
the  Welsh  tale  of  Kilhivch  and  Olwen  (in  the  Mabinogion) .  Along 
with  Kai  and  Bedwyr  (Bedivere),  Peredur  (Perceval),  Gwalchmai 
(Gawain),  and  many  others,  we  have  such  figures  as  Sgilti 
Yscandroed,  whose  way  through  the  wood  lay  along  the  tops  of  the 
trees,  and  whose  tread  was  so  light  that  no  blade  of  grass  bent 
beneath  his  weight;  Sol,  who  could  stand  all  day  upon  one  leg; 
Sugyn  the  son  of  Sugnedydd,  who  was  "broad-chested"  to  such 
a  degree  that  he  could  suck  up  the  sea  on  which  were  three 
hundred  ships  and  leave  nothing  but  dry  land;  Gweyyl,  the  son  of 
Gwestad,  who  when  he  was  sad  would  let  one  of  his  lips  drop 
beneath  his  waist  and  turn  up  the  other  like  a  cap  over  his  head; 
and  Uchtry  Varyf  Draws,  who  spread  his  red  untrimmed  beard 
over  the  eight-and-forty  rafters  of  Arthur's  hall.  Such  figures  as 
these  make  no  human  impression,  and  criticism  has  busied  itself 
in  tracing  them  to  one  or  other  of  the  shadowy  divinities  of  the 
Celtic  pantheon.  However  this  may  be,  remnants  of  their 
primitive  superhuman  qualities  cling  to  the  Celtic  heroes  long 
after  they  have  been  transfigured,  under  the  influence  of  Christi- 
anity and  chivalry,  into  the  heroes  of  the  medieval  Arthurian 
romance,  types — for  the  most  part — of  the  knightly  virtues  as 
these  were  conceived  by  the  middle  ages;  while  shadowy 
memories  of  early  myths  live  on,  strangely  disguised,  in  certain  of 
the  episodes  repeated  uncritically  by  the  medieval  poets.  So 
Merlin  preserves  his  diabolic  origin;  Arthur  his  mystic  coming  and 


his  mystic  passing;  while  Gawain,  and  after  him  Lancelot,  journey 
across  the  river,  as  the  Irish  hero  Bran  had  done  before  them  to 
the  island  of  fair  women — the  Celtic  vision  of  the  realm  of  death. 
The  chief  heroes  of  the  medieval  Arthurian  romances  are 
the  following.  Arthur  himself,  who  tends  however  to  become 
completely  overshadowed  by  his  knights,  who  make  his  court 
the  starting-point  of  their  adventures.  Merlin  (Myrddin),  the 
famous  wizard,  bard  and  warrior,  perhaps  an  historical  figure, 
first  introduced  by  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  originally  called 
Ambrose  from  the  British  leader  Ambrosius  Aurelianus,  under 
whom  he  is  said  to  have  first  served.  Perceval  (Parzival, 
Parsifal),  the  Welsh  Peredur,  "  the  seeker  of  the  basin,"  the  most 
intimately  connected  with  the  quest  of  the  Grail  (q.v.).  Tristan 
(Tristram),  the  ideal  lover  of  the  middle  ages,  whose  name  is 
inseparably  associated  with  that  of  Iseult.  Lancelot,  son  of 
Ban  king  of  Brittany,  a  creation  of  chivalrous  romance,  who 
only  appears  in  Arthurian  literature  under  French  influence, 
known  chiefly  from  his  amour  with  Guinevere,  perhaps  in 
imitation  of  the  story  of  Tristan  and  Iseult.  Gawain  (Welwain, 
Welsh  Gwalchmai),  Arthur's  nephew,  who  in  medieval  romance 
remains  the  type  of  knightly  courage  and  chivalry,  until  his 
character  is  degraded  in  order  to  exalt  that  of  Lancelot.  Among 
less  important,  but  still  conspicuous,  figures  may  be  mentioned 
Kay  (the  Kai  of  the  Mabinogion),  Arthur's  foster-brother  and 
sensechal,  the  type  of  the  bluff  and  boastful  warrior,  and  Bedivere 
(Bedwyr),  the  type  of  brave  knight  and  faithful  retainer,  who 
alone  is  with  Arthur  at  his  passing,  and  afterwards  becomes 
"  a  hermit  and  a  holy  man."  (See  ARTHUR,  MERLIN,  PERCEVAL, 
TRISTAN,  LANCELOT,  GAWAIN.) 

Heroes  of  Romance. 

Another  series  of  heroes,  forming  the  central  figures  of  stories 
variously  derived  but  developed  in  Europe  by  the  Latin-speaking 
peoples,  may  be  conveniently  grouped  under  the  heading 
of  "  romance."  Of  these  the  most  important  are  Alexander 
of  Macedon  and  Charlemagne,  while  alongside  of  them  Priam 
and  other  heroes  of  the  Trojan  war  appear  during  the  middle  ages 
in  strangely  altered  guise.  Of  all  heroes  of  romance  Alexander 
has  been  the  most  widely  celebrated.  His  name,  in  the  form  of 
Iskander,  is  familiar  in  legend  and  story  all  over  the  East  to  this 
day;  to  the  West  he  was  introduced  through  a  Latin  translation 
of  the  original  Greek  romance  (by  the  pseudo-Callisthenes) 
to  which  the  innumerable  Oriental  versions  are  likewise  traceable 
(see  ALEXANDER  III.,  KING  OF  MACEDON;  sec.  The  Romance  of 
Alexander).  More  important  in  the  West,  however,  was  the 
cycle  of  legends  gathering  round  the  figure  of  Charlemagne, 
forming  what  was  known  as  "  the  matter  of  France."  The 
romances  of  this  cycle,  of  Germanic  (Prankish)  origin  and 
developed  probably  in  the  north  of  France  by  the  French 
(probably  in  the  north  of  France)  contain  reminiscences 
of  the  heroes  of  the  Merovingian  period,  and  in  their  later 
development  were  influenced  by  the  Arthurian  cycle.  Just 
as  Arthur  was  eclipsed  by  his  companions,  so  Charlemagne's 
vassal  nobles,  except  in  the  Chanson  de  Roland,  are  exalted  at 
the  expense  of  the  emperor,  probably  the  result  of  the  changed 
relations  between  the  later  emperors  and  their  barons.  The 
character  of  Charlemagne  himself  undergoes  a  change;  in  the 
Chanson  de  Roland  he  is  a  venerable  figure,  mild  and  dignified, 
while  later  he  appears  as  a  cruel  and  typical  tyrant  (as  is  also  the 
case  with  Ermanaric).  The  basis  of  his  legend  is  mainly  histori- 
cal, although  the  story  of  his  journey  to  Constantinople  and  the 
East  is  mythical,  and  incidents  have  been  transferred  from  the 
reign  of  Charles  Martel  to  his.  Charlemagne  is  chiefly  venerated  as 
the  champion  of  Christianity  against  the  heathen  and  the  Saracens. 
(See  CHARLEMAGNE,  ad  fin.  "  The  Charlemagne  Legends.") 

The  most  famous  heroes  who  are  associated  with  him  are 
Roland,  praefect  of  the  marches  of  Brittany,  the  Orlando  of 
Ariosto,  slain  at  Roncevaux  (Roncevalles)  in  the  Pyrenees, 
and  his  friend  and  rival  Oliver  (Olivier);  Ogier  the  Dane,  the 
Holger  Danske  of  Hans  Andersen,  and  Huon  of  Bordeaux, 
probably  both  introduced  from  the  Arthurian  cycle;  Renaud 
(Rinaldo)  of  Montauban,  one  of  the  four  sons  of  Aymon,  to 


HERO  AND  LEANDER— HERO  OF  ALEXANDRIA 


whom  the  wonderful  horse  Bayard  was  presented  by  Charlemagne ; 
the  traitor  Doon  of  Mayence;  Ganelon,  responsible  for  the 
treachery  that  led  to  the  death  of  Roland;  Archbishop  Turpin, 
a  typical  specimen  of  muscular  Christianity;  William  Fierabras, 
William  au  court  nez,  William  of  Toulouse,  and  William  of 
Orange  (all  probably  identical),  and  Vivien,  the  nephew  of  the 
latter  and  the  hero  of  Aliscans.  The  late  Charlemagne  romances 
originated  the  legends, in  English  form,  of  Sowdoneof  Babylone, 
Sir  Otnel,  Sir  Firumbras  and  Huon  of  Bordeaux  (in  which  Oberon, 
the  king  of  the  fairies,  the  son  of  Julius  Caesar  and  Morgan  the 
Fay,  was  first  made  known  to  England). 

The  chief  remains  of  the  Spanish  heroic  epic  are  some  poems 
on  the  Cid,  on  the  seven  Infantes  of  Lara,  and  on  Fern&n 
Gonzalez,  count  of  Castile.  The  legend  of  Charlemagne  as  told 
in  the  Crdnica  general  of  Alfonso  X.  created  the  desire  for  a 
national  hero  distinguished  for  his  exploits  against  the  Moors, 
and  Roland  was  thus  supplanted  by  Bernardo  del  Carpio. 
Another  famous  hero  and  centre  of  a  14th-century  cycle  of 
romance  was  Amadis  of  Gaul;  its  earliest  form  is  Spanish, 
although  the  Portuguese  have  claimed  it  as  a  translation  from 
their  own  language.  There  is  no  trace  of  a  French  original. 

Slavonic  Heroes. — The  Slavonic  heroic  saga  of  Russia  centres 
round  Vladimir  of  Kiev  (980-1015),  the  first  Christian  ruler 
of  that  country,  whose  personality  is  eclipsed  by  that  of  Ilya 
(Elias)  of  Mourom,  the  son  of  a  peasant,  who  was  said  to  have 
saved  the  empire  from  the  Tatars  at  the  urgent  request  of  his 
emperor.  It  is  not  known  whether  he  was  an  historical  personage ; 
many  of  the  achievements  attributed  to  him  border  on  the 
miraculous.  A  much-discussed  work  is  the  Tale  of  Igor,  the  oldest 
of  the  Russian  medieval  epics.  Igor  was  the  leader  of  a  raid 
against  the  heathen  Polovtsi  in  1185;  at  first  successful,  he  was 
afterwards  defeated  and  taken  prisoner,  but  finally  managed 
to  escape.  Although  the  Finns  are  not  Slavs,  on  topographical 
grounds  mention  may  here  be  made  of  Wainamoinen,  the  great 
magician  and  hero  of  the  Finnish  epic  Kalevala  ("  land  of 
heroes  ").  The  popular  hero  of  the  Servians  and  Bulgarians  is 
Marko  Kralyevich  (q.v.),  son  of  Vukashin,  characterized  by 
Goethe  as  a -counterpart  of  the  Greek  Heracles  and  the  Persian 
Rustem.  For  the  Persian,  Indian,  &c.,  heroes  see  the  articles  on 
the  literature  and  religions  of  the  various  countries. 

AUTHORITIES. — On  the  subject  generally,  see  J.  G.  T.  Grasse,  Die 
grossen  Sagenkreise  des  Miltelalters  (Dresden,  1842),  forming  part  of 
his  Lehrbuch  einer  Literargeschichte  der  beruhmtesten  Volker  des 
Mittelalters;  W.  P.  Ker,  Epic  and  Romance  (2nd  ed.,  1908).  TEU- 
TONIC.— B.  Symons,  "  Germanische  Heldensage  "  in  H.  Paul's 
Grundris  der  germanischen  Philologie,  iii.  (Strassburg,  1900),  2nd 
revised  edition,  separately  printed  (ib.,  1905);  W.  Grimm,  Die 
deutsche  Heldensage  (1829,  3rd  ed.,  1889),  still  one  of  the  most 
important  works;  W.  Miiller,  Mythologie  der  deutschen  Heldensage 
(Heilbronn,  1886)  and  supplement,  Zur  Mythologie  der  griechischen 
und  deutschen  Heldensage  (ib.,  1889);  O.  L.  Jiriczek,  Deutsche 
Heldensagen,  i.  (Strassburg,  1898)  and  Die  deutsche  Heldensage 
(3rd  revised  edition,  Leipzig,  1906) ;  Chantepie  de  la  Saussaye,  The 
Religion  of  the  Teutons  (Eng.  tr.,  Boston,  U.S.A.,  1902) ;  J.  G. 
Robertson,  History  of  German  Literature  (1902).  See  also  HELDEN- 
BUCH. 

CELTIC. — M.  H.  d'Arbois  de  Jubainville,  Cours  de  lUlerature 
celtiaue  (12  vols.,  1883-1902),  one  vol.  trans,  into  English  by  R.  I. 
Best,  The  Irish  Mythological  Cycle  and  Celtic  Mythology  (1903) ; 
L.  Petit  de  Julleville,  Hist,  de  la  langue  et  de  la  lilt,  franfaise,  i. 
Moyen  Age  (1896);  C.  Squire,  The  Mythology  of  the  British  Isles: 
an  Introduction  to  Celtic  Myth  and  Romance  (1905);  J.  Rhys,  Celtic 
Britain  (3rd  ed.,  1904).  SLAVONIC.— A.  N.  Rambaud,  La  Russie 
epique  (1876);  W.  Wollner,  Untersuchungen  iiber  die  Volksepik  der 
Grossrussen  (1879);  W.  R.  Morfill,  Slavonic  Literature  (1883). 

HERO  AND  LEANDER,  two  lovers  celebrated  in  antiquity. 
Hero,  the  beautiful  priestess  of  Aphrodite  at  Sestos,  was  seen  by 
Leander,  a  youth  of  Abydos,  at  the  celebration  of  the  festival 
of  Aphrodite  and  Adonis.  He  became  deeply  enamoured  of 
her;  but,  as  her  position  as  priestess  and  the  opposition  of  her 
parents  rendered  their  marriage  impossible  they  agreed  to  carry 
on  a  clandestine  intercourse.  Every  night  Hero  placed  a  lamp 
in  the  top  of  the  tower  where  she  dwelt  by  the  sea,  and  Leander, 
guided  by  it,  swam  across  the  dangerous  Hellespont.  One 
stormy  night  the  lamp  was  blown  out  and  Leander  perished. 
On  finding  his  body  next  morning  on  the  shore,  Hero  flung 


herself  into  the  waves.  The  story  is  referred  to  by  Virgil  (Georg. 
iii.  258),  Statius  (Theb.  vi.  535)  and  Ovid  (Her.  xviii.  and  xix.). 
The  beautiful  little  epic  of  Musaeus  has  been  frequently  trans- 
lated, and  is  expanded  in  the  Hero  and  Leander  of  C.  Marlowe 
and  G.  Chapman.  It  is  also  the  subject  of  a  ballad  by  Schiller 
and  a  drama  by  F.  Grillparzer. 

See  M.  H.  Jellinek,  Die  Sage  von  Hero  und  Leander  in  der  Dichtung 
(1890),  and  G.  Knaack  "  Hero  und  Leander  "  in  Festgabe  fur  Franz 
Susemihl  (1898).  A  careful  collection  of  materials  will  be  found  in 
F.  Koppner,  Die  Sage  von  Hero  und  Leander  in  der  Lileratur  und 
Kunst  des  Altertums  (1894). 

HERO  OF  ALEXANDRIA,  Greek  geometer  and  writer  on 
mechanical  and  physical  subjects,  probably  flourished  in  the 
second  half  of  the  ist  century.  This  is  the  more  modern  view, 
in  contrast  to  the  earlier  theory  most  generally  accepted,  according 
to  which  he  flourished  about  100  B.C.  The  earlier  theory  started 
from  the  superscription  of  one  of  his  works,  "Ilpuvos  Krncnfliov 
j3t\oirouKa,  from  which  it  was  inferred  that  Hero  was  a  pupil  of 
Ctesibius.  Martin,  Hultsch  and  Cantor  took  this  Ctesibius  to  be 
a  barber  of  that  name  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Euergetes 
II.  (d.  117  B.C.)  and  is  credited  with  having  invented  an  improved 
water-organ.  But  this  identification  is  far  from  certain,  as  a 
Ctesibius  mechanicus  is  mentioned  by  Athenaeus  as  having  lived 
under  Ptolemy  II.  Philadelphus  (285-247  B.C.).  Nor  can  the 
relation  of  master  and  pupil  be  certainly  inferred  from  the  super- 
scription quoted  (observe  the  omission  of  any  article),  which 
really  asserts  no  more  than  that  Hero  re-edited  an  earlier  treatise 
by  Ctesibius,  and  implies  nothing  about  his  being  an  immediate 
predecessor.  Further,  it  is  certain  that  Hero  used  physical  and 
mathematical  writings  by  Posidonius,  the  Stoic,  of  Apamea, 
Cicero's  teacher,  who  lived  until  about  the  middle  of  the  ist 
century  B.C.  The  positive  arguments  for  the  more  modern  view 
of  Hero's  date  are  (i)  the  use  by  him  of  Latinisms  from  which 
Diels  concluded  that  the  ist  century  A.D.  was  the  earliest  pos- 
sible date,  (2)  the  description  in  Hero's  Mechanics  iii.  of  a  small 
olive-press  with  one  screw  whiifli  is  alluded  to  by  Pliny  (Nat. 
Hist,  viii.)  as  having  been  introduced  since  A.D.  55,  (3)  an 
allusion  by  Plutarch  (who  died  A.D.  120)  to  the  proposition  that 
light  is  reflected  from  a  surface  at  an  angle  equal  to  the  angle  of 
incidence,  which  Hero  proved  in  his  Catoptrica,  the  words  used 
by  Plutarch  fitting  well  with  the  corresponding  passage  of  that 
work  (as  to  which  see  below) .  Thus  we  arrive  at  the  latter  half  of 
the  ist  century  A.D.  as  the  approximate  date  of  Hero's  activity. 

The  geometrical  treatises  which  have  survived  (though  not 
interpolated)  in  Greek  are  entitled  respectively  Defmitiones, 
Geometria,  Geodaesia,  Stereometrica  (i.  and  ii.),  Mensurae,  Liber 
Geoponicus,  to  which  must  now  be  added  the  Melrica  recently  dis- 
covered by  R.  Schone  in  a  MS.  at  Constantinople.  These  books, 
except  the  Definitiones,  mostly  consist  of  directions  for  obtaining, 
from  given  parts,  the  areas  or  volumes,  and  other  parts,  of  plane  or 
solid  figures.  A  remarkable  feature  is  the  bare  statement  of  a 
number  of  very  close  approximations  to  the  square  roots  of 
numbers  which  are  not  complete  squares.  Others  occur  in  the 
Melrica  where  also  a  method  of  finding  such  approximate  square, 
and  even  approximate  cube,  roots  is  shown.  Hero's  expressions 
for  the  areas  of  regular  polygons  of  from  5  to  12  sides  in  terms  of 
the  squares  of  the  sides  show  interesting  approximations  to  the 
values  of  trigonometrical  ratios.  Akin  to  the  geometrical  works 
is  that  On  the  Dioplra,  a  remarkable  book  on  land-surveying, 
so  called  from  the  instrument  described  in  it,  which  was  used  for 
the  same  purposes  as  the  modern  theodolite.  It  is  in  this  book 
that  Hero  proves  the  expression  for  the  area  of  a  triangle  in 
terms  of  its  sides.  The  Pneumalica  in  two  books  is  also  extant  in 
Greek  as  is  also  the  Aulomalopoietica.  In  the  former  will  be 
found  such  things  as  siphons,  "  Hero's  fountain,"  "  penny-in-the- 
slot  "  machines,  a  fire-engine,  a  water-organ,  and  arrangements 
employing  the  force  of  steam.  Pappus  quotes  from  three  books 
of  Mechanics  and  from  a  work  called  Barulcus,  both  by  Hero. 
The  three  books  on  Mechanics  survive  in  an  Arabic  translation 
which,  however, bears  a  title  "On  the  lifting  of  heavy  objects." 
This  corresponds  exactly  to  Barulcus,  and  it  is  probable  that 
Barulcus  and  Mechanics  were  only  alternative  titles  for  one  and 
the  same  work.  It  is  indeed  not  credible  that  Hero  wrote  two 


HERO— HEROD 


379 


separate  treatises  on  the  subject  of  the  mechanical  powers, 
which  are  fully  discussed  in  the  Mechanics,  ii.,  iii.  The  Belopoiica 
(on  engines  of  war)  is  extant  in  Greek,  and  both  this  and  the 
Mechanics  contain  Hero's  solution  of  the  problem  of  the  two 
mean  proportionals.  Hero  also  wrote  Ca'toptrica  (on  reflecting 
surfaces),  and  it  seems  certain  that  we  possess  this  in  a  Latin 
work,  probably  translated  from  the  Greek  by  Wilhelm  van 
Moerbeek,  which  was  long  thought  to  be  a  fragment  of 
Ptolemy's  Optics,  because  it  bore  the  title  Plolemaei  de  speculis 
in  the  MS.  But  the  attribution  to  Ptolemy  was  shown  to  be 
wrong  as  soon  as  it  was  made  clear  (especially  by  Martin)  that 
another  translation  by  an  Admiral  Eugenius  Siculus  (izth 
century)  of  an  optical  work  from  the  Arabic  was  Ptolemy's 
Optics.  Of  other  treatises  by  Hero  only  fragments  remain.  One 
was  four  books  on  Water  Clocks  (Hepl  vdpluv  upoaKom'uiiv),  of 
which  Proclus  (Hypotyp.  astron.,  ed.  Halma)  has  preserved  a 
fragment,  and  to  which  Pappus  also  refers.  Another  work  was  a 
commentary  on  Euclid  (referred  to  by  the  Arabs  as  "  the  book  of 
the  resolution  of  doubts  in  Euclid  ")  from  which  quotations  have 
survived  in  an-NairizI's  commentary. 

The  Pneumatica,  Automatopoietica,  Belopoiica  and  Cheiroballistra 
of  Hero  were  published  in  Greek  and  Latin  in  Th6venot's  Veterum 
mathematicorum  opera  graece  et  latine  pleraque  nunc  primum  edita 
(Paris,  1693);  the  first  important  critical  researches  on  Hero 
were  G.  B.  Venturi's  Commentari  sopra  la  storia  e  la  teoria  del- 
I'oUica  (Bologna,  1814)  and  H.  Martin's  "  Recherches  sur  la  vie  et  les 
ouvrages  d'Hdron  d'Alexandrie  disciple  de  Ct&ibius  et  sur  tous  les 
ouvrages  math6matiques  grecs  conserves  ou  perdus.publids  ou  ine'dits, 
qui  ont  e'te'  attribu<5s  a  un  auteur  nomm6  H6ron  "  (Mem.  presentes  a 
l"Academie  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles-Lettres,  i.  serie,  iv.,  1854).  The 
geometrical  works  (except  of  course  the  Metrica)  were  edited  (Greek 
only)  by  F.  Hultsch  (Heronis  Alcxandrini  geomelricorum  et  stereo- 
metricorum  reliquiae,  1864),  the  Dioptra  by  Vincent  (Extraits  des 
manuscrits  relatifs  d  la  geometric  pratique  des  Grecs,  Notices  et  extraits 
des  manuscrits  de  la  Bibliotheque  Imperiale,  xix.  2,  1858),  the 
treatises  on  Engines  of  War  by  C.  Wescher  (Poliorcetique  des  Grecs, 
Paris,  1867).  The  Mechanics  was  first  published  by  Carra  de  Vaux 
in  the  Journal  asiatique  (ix.  serie,  ii.,  1893).  In  1899  began  the 
publication  in  Teubner's  series  of  Heronis  Alexandrini  opera  quae 
supersunt  omnia.  Vol.  i.  and  Supplement  (by  W.  Schmidt)  contains 
the  Pneumatica  and  Automata,  the  fragment  on  Water  Clocks,  the 
De  ingeniis  spir.itualibus  of  Philon  of  Byzantium  and  extracts  on 
Pneumatics  by  Vitruyius.  Vol.  ii.  pt.  i.,  by  L.  Nix  and  W.  Schmidt, 
contains  the  Mechanics  in  Arabic,  Greek  fragments  of  the  same,  the 
Catoptrica  in  Latin  with  appendices  of  extracts  from  Olympiodorus, 
Vitruvius,  Pliny,  &c.  Vol.  iii.  (by  Hermann  Schone)  contains  the 
Metrica  (in  three  books)  and  the  Dioptra.  A  German  translation  is 
added  throughout.  The  approximation  to  square  roots  in  Hero 
has  been  the  subject  of  papers  too  numerous  to  mention.  But 
reference  should  be  made  to  the  exhaustive  studies  on  Hero's 
arithmetic  by  Paul  Tannery,  "  L'Arithme'tique  des  Grecs  dans  H6ron 
d'Alexandrie  "  (Mem.  dela  Soc.  des  sciences  phys.  etmath.  de  Bordeaux, 
ii.  serie,  iv.,  1882),  "  La  Stere'ome'trie  d'Heron  d'Alexandrie  "  and 
"  Etudes  Heroniennes  (ibid,  v.,  1883),  "  Questions  H6roniennes  " 
'  (Bulletin  des  sciences  math.,  ii.  sdrie,  viii.,  1884),  "  Un  Fragment  des 
Mdtriques  d'Heron  "  (Zeitschrift  fur  Math,  und  Physik,  xxxix.,  5894; 
Bulletin  des  sciences  math.,  ii.  se'rie,  xviii.,  1894).  A  good  account 
of  Hero's  works  will  be  found  in  M.  Cantor's  Geschichte  der  Mathe- 
matik,  i.2  (1894),  chapters  18  and  19,  and  in  G.  Loria's  studies,  Le 
Scienze  esatte  nell'  antica  Grecia,  especially  libro  iii.  (Modena,  1900), 
pp.  103-128.  (T.  L.  H.) 

HERO,  THE  YOUNGER,  the  name  given  without  any  sufficient 
reason  to  a  Byzantine  land-surveyor  who  wrote  (about  A.D.  938) 
a  treatise  on  land-surveying  modelled  on  the  works  of  Hero  of 
Alexandria,  especially  the  Dioptra. 

See  "  Geodesic  de  Heron  de  Byzance,"  published  by  Vincent  in 
Notires  et  extraits  des  manuscrits  de  la  Bibliotheque  Imperiale,  xix.  2 
(Paris,  1858),  and  T.  H.  Martin  in  Memoires  presentes  a  I'  Academie 
des  Inscriptions,  1st  series,  iv.  (Paris,  1854). 

HEROD,  the  name  borne  by  the  princes  of  a  dynasty  which 
reigned  in  Judaea  from  40  B.C. 

HEROD  (surnamed  THE  GREAT),  the  son  of  Antipater,  who 
supported  Hyrcanus  II.  against  Aristobulus  II.  with  the  aid  first 
of  the  Nabataean  Arabs  and  then  of  Rome.  The  family  seems  to 
have  been  of  Idumaean  origin,  so  that  its  members  were  liable  to 
the  reproach  of  being  half- Jews  or  even  foreigners.  Justin  Martyr 
has  a  tradition  that  they  were  originally  Philistines  of  Ascalon 
(Dial.  c.  52),  and  on  the  other  hand  Nicolaus  of  Damascus  (apud 
Jos.  Ant.  xiv.  i.  3)  asserted  that  Herod,  his  royal  patron,  was 
descended  from  the  Jews  who  first  returned  from  the  Babylonian 


Captivity.  The  tradition  and  the  assertion  are  in  all  probability 
equally  fictitious  and  proceed  respectively  from  the  foes  and  the 
friends  of  the  Herodian  dynasty. 

Antipas  (or  Antipater),  the  father  of  Antipater,  had  been 
governor  of  Idumaea  under  Alexander  Jannaeus.  His  son  allied 
himself  by  marriage  with  the  Arabian  nobility  and  became  the 
real  ruler  of  Palestine  under  Hyrcanus  II.  When  Rome  inter- 
vened in  Asia  in  the  person  of  Pompey,  the  younger  Antipater 
realized  her  inevitable  predominance  and  secured  the  friendship 
of  her  representative.  After  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  in  63  B.C. 
Pompey  installed  Hyrcanus,  who  was  little  better  than  a 
figurehead,  in  the  high-priesthood;  and  when  in  55  B.C.  the  son 
of  Aristobulus  renewed  the  civil  war  in  Palestine,  the  Roman 
governor  of  Syria  in  the  exercise  of  his  jurisdiction  arranged  a 
settlement  "  in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  Antipater  "  (Jos. 
Ant.  xiv.  6.  4).  To  this  policy  of  dependence  upon  Rome 
Antipater  adhered,  and  he  succeeded  in  commending  himself  to 
Mark  Antony  and  Caesar  in  turn.  After  the  battle  of  Pharsalia 
Caesar  made  him  procurator  and  a  Roman  citizen. 

At  this  point  Herod  appears  on  the  scene  as  ruler  of  Galilee 
(Jos.  Ant.  xiv.  o.  2)  appointed  by  his  father  at  the  age  of  fifteen 
or,  since  he  died  at  seventy,  twenty-five.  In  spite  of  his  youth  he 
soon  found  an  opportunity  of  displaying  his  mettle;  for  he 
arrested  Hezekiah  the  arch-brigand,  who  had  overrun  the  Syrian 
border,  and  put  him  to  death.  The  Jewish  nobility  at  Jerusalem 
seized  upon  this  high-handed  action  as  a  pretext  for  satisfying 
their  jealousy  of  their  Idumaean  rulers.  Herod  was  cited  in  the 
name  of  Hyrcanus  to  appear  before  the  Sanhedrin,  whose  pre- 
rogative he  had  usurped  in  executing  Hezekiah.  He  appeared 
with  a  bodyguard,  and  the  Sanhedrin  was  overawed.  Only 
Sameas,  a  Pharisee,  dared  to  insist  upon  the  legal  verdict  of  con- 
demnation. But  the  governor  of  Syria  had  sent  a  demand  for 
Herod's  acquittal,  and  so  Hyrcanus  adjourned  the  trial  and 
persuaded  the  accused  to  abscond.  Herod  returned  with  an 
army,  but  his  father  prevailed  upon  him  to  depart  to  Galilee 
without  wreaking  his  vengeance  upon  his  enemies.  About  this 
time  (47-46  B.C.)  he  was  created  strategus  of  Coelesyria  by  the 
provincial  governor.  The  episode  is  important  for  the  light 
which  it  throws  upon  Herod's  relations  with  Rome  and  with 
the  Jews. 

In  44  B.C.  Cassius  arrived  in  Syria  for  the  purpose  of  filling 
his  war-chest:  Antipater  and  Herod  collected  the  sum  of  money 
at  which  the  Jews  of  Palestine  had  been  assessed.  In  43  B.C. 
Antipater  was  poisoned  at  the  instigation  of  one  Malichus,  who 
was  perhaps  a  Jewish  patriot  animated  by  hatred  of  the  Herods 
and  their  Roman  patrons. 

With  the  connivance  of  Cassius  Herod  had  Malichus  assassin- 
ated; but  the  country  was  in  a  state  of  anarchy,  thanks  to  the 
extortions  of  Cassius  and  the  encroachments  of  neighbouring 
powers.  Antony,  who  became  master  of  the  East  after  Philippi, 
was  ready  to  support  the  sons  of  his  friend  Antipater;  but  he 
was  absent  in  Egypt  when  the  Parthians  invaded  Palestine  to 
restore  Antigonus  to  the  throne  of  his  father  Aristobulus  (40  B.C.)  . 
Herod  escaped  to  Rome:  the  Arabians,  his  mother's  people,  had 
repudiated  him.  Antony  had  made  him  tetrarch,  and  now  with 
the  assent  of  Octavian  persuaded  the  Senate  to  declare  him  king 
of  Judaea. 

In  39  B.C.  Herod  returned  to  Palestine  and,  when  the  presence 
of  Antony  put  the  reluctant  Roman  troops  entirely  at  his  disposal , 
he  was  able  to  lay  siege  to  Jerusalem  two  years  later.  Secure  of 
the  support  of  Rome  he  was  concerned  also  to  legitimize  his 
position  in  the  eyes  of  the  Jews  by  taking,  for  love  as  well  as 
policy,  the  Hasmonaean  princess  Mariamne  to  be  his  second  wife. 
Jerusalem  was  taken  by  storm;  the  Roman  troops  withdrew 
to  behead  Antigonus  the  usurper  at  Antioch.  In  37  B.C.  Herod 
was  king  of  Judaea,  being  the  client  of  Antony  and  the  husband 
of  Mariamne. 

The  Pharisees,  who  dominated  the  bulk  of  the  Jews,  were 
content  to  accept  Herod's  rule  as  a  judgment  of  God.  Hyrcanus 
returned  from  his  prison  :  mutilated,  he  could  no  longer  hold 
office  as  high-priest;  but  his  mutilation  probably  gave  him  the 
prestige  of  a  martyr,  and  his  influence— whatever  it  was  worth — 


38o 


HERODAS 


seems  to  have  been  favourable  to  the  new  dynasty.  On  the  other 
hand  Herod's  marriage  with  Mariamne  brought  some  of  his 
enemies  into  his  own  household.  He  had  scotched  the  faction 
of  Hasmonaean  sympathizers  by  killing  forty-five  members  of 
the  Sanhedrin  and  confiscating  their  possessions.  But  so  long 
as  there  were  representatives  of  the  family  alive,  there  was  always 
a  possible  pretender  to  the  throne  which  he  occupied;  and  the 
people  had  not  lost  their  affection  for  their  former  deliverers. 
Mariamne's  mother  used  her  position  to  further  her  plots  for  the 
overthrow  of  her  son-in-law;  and  she  found  an  ally  in  Cleopatra 
of  Egypt,  who  was  unwilling  to  be  spurned  by  him,  even  if  she 
was  not  weary  of  his  patron,  Antony. 

The  events  of  Herod's  reign  indicate  the  temporary  triumphs 
of  his  different  adversaries.  His  high-priest,  a  Babylonian, 
was  deposed  in  order  that  Aristobulus  III.,  Mariamne's  brother, 
might  hold  the  place  to  which  he  had  some  ancestral  right. 
But  the  enthusiasm  with  which  the  people  received  him  at  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles  convinced  Herod  of  the  danger;  and  the 
youth  was  drowned  by  order  of  the  king  at  Jericho.  Cleopatra 
had  obtained  from  Antony  a  grant  of  territory  adjacent  to 
Herod's  domain  and  even  part  of  it.  She  required  Herod  to 
collect  arrears  of  tribute.  So  it  fell  out  that,  when  Octavian  and 
the  Senate  declared  war  against  Antony  and  Cleopatra,  Herod 
was  preoccupied  in  obedience  to  her  commands  and  was  thus 
prevented  from  fighting  against  the  future  emperor  of  Rome. 

After  the  battle  of  Actium  (31  B.C.)  Herod  executed  Hyrcanus 
and  proceeded  to  wait  upon  the  victorious  Octavian  at  Rhodes. 
His  position  was  confirmed  and  his  territories  were  restored. 
On  his  return  he  took  in  hand  to  heal  with  the  Hasmonaeans, 
and  in  25  B.C.  the  old  intriguers,  their  victims  like  Mariamne, 
and  all  pretenders  were  dead.  From  this  time  onwards  Herod 
was  free  to  govern  Palestine,  as  a  client-prince  of  the  Roman 
Empire  should  govern  his  kingdom.  In  order  to  put  down  the 
brigands  who  still  infested  the  country  and  to  check  the  raids 
of  the  Arabs  on  the  frontier,  he  built  or  rebuilt  fortresses,  which 
were  of  material  assistance  to  the  Jews  in  the  great  revolt  against 
Rome.  Within  and  without  Judaea  he  erected  magnificent 
buildings  and  founded  cities.  He  established  games  in  honour 
of  the  emperor  after  the  ancient  Greek  model  in  Caesarea  and 
Jerusalem  and  revived  the  splendour  of  the  Olympic  games. 
At  Athens  and  elsewhere  he  was  commemorated  as  a  benefactor; 
and  as  Jew  and  king  of  the  Jews  he  restored  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem.  The  emperor  recognized  his  successful  government 
by  putting  the  districts  of  Ulatha  and  Panias  under  him  in  20  B.C. 

But  Herod  found  new  enemies  among  the  members  of  his 
household.  His  brother  Pheroras  and  sister  Salome  plotted  for 
their  own  advantage  and  against  tht  two  sons  of  Mariamne. 
The  people  still  cherished  a  loyalty  to  the  Hasmonaean  lineage, 
although  the  young  princes  were  also  the  sons  of  Herod.  The 
enthusiasm  with  which  they  were  received  fed  the  suspicion, 
which  their  uncle  instilled  into  their  father's  mind,  and  they 
were  strangled  at  Sebaste.  On  his  deathbed  Herod  discovered 
that  his  eldest  son,  Antipater,  whom  Josephus  calls  a  "  monster 
of  iniquity,"  had  been  plotting  against  him.  He  proceeded  to 
accuse  him  before  the  governor  of  Syria  and  obtained  leave 
from  Augustus  to  put  him  to  death.  The  father  died  five  days 
after  his  son  in  4  B.C.  He  had  done  much  for  the  Jews,  thanks 
to  the  favour  he  had  won  and  kept  in  spite  of  all  from  the 
successive  heads  of  the  Roman  state;  he  had  observed  the 
Law  publicly — in  fact,  as  the  traditional  epigram  of  Augustus 
says,  "  it  was  better  to  be  Herod's  swine  than  a  son  of  Herod." 

Josephus,  Ant.  xv.,  xvi.,  xvii.  1-8,  B.J.  i.  18-33;  Schurer,  Gesch. 
d.jiid.  Volk.,  4th  ed.,  i.  pp.  360-418. 

HEROD  ANTIPAS,  son  of  Herod  the  Great  by  the  Samaritan 
Malthace,  and  full  brother  of  Archelaus,  received  as  his  share 
of  his  father's  dominions  the  provinces  of  Galilee  and  Peraea, 
with  the  title  of  tetrarch.  Like  his  father,  Antipas  had  a  turn 
for  architecture:  he  rebuilt  and  fortified  the  town  of  Sepphoris 
in  Galilee;  he  also  fortified  Betharamptha  in  Peraea,  and  called 
it  Julias  after  the  wife  of  the  emperor.  Above  all  he  founded  the 
important  town  of  Tiberias  on  the  west  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
with  institutions  of  a  distinctly  Greek  character.  He  reigned 


4  B.C.-A.D.  39.  In  the  gospels  he  is  mentioned  as  Herod.  He 
it  was  who  was  called  a  "  fox  "  by  Christ  (Luke  xiii.  32).  He  is 
erroneously  spoken  of  as  a  king  in  Mark  vi.  14.  It  was  to  him 
that  Jesus  was  sent  by  Pilate  to  be  tried.  But  it  is  in  connexion 
with  his  wife  Herodias  that  he  is  best  known,  and  it  was  through 
her  that  his  misfortunes  arose.  He  was  married  first  of  all  to  a 
daughter  of  Aretas,  the  Arabian  king;  but,  making  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Herodias,  the  wife  of  his  brother  Philip  (not  the  tetrarch), 
during  a  visit  to  Rome,  he  was  fascinated  by  her  and  arranged 
to  marry  her.  Meantime  his  Arabian  wife  discovered  the  plan 
and  escaped  to  her  father,  who  made  war  on  Herod,  and  com- 
pletely defeated  his  army.  John  the  Baptist  condemned  his 
marriage  with  Herodias,  and  in  consequence  was  put  to  death 
in  the  way  described  in  the  gospels  and  in  Josephus.  When 
Herodias's  brother  Agrippa  was  appointed  king  by  Caligula,  she 
was  determined  to  see  her  husband  attain  to  an  equal  eminence, 
and  persuaded  him,  though  naturally  of  a  quiet  and  unambitious 
temperament,  to  make  the  journey  to  Rome  to  crave  a  crown 
from  the  emperor.  Agrippa,  however,  managed  to  influence 
Caligula  against  him.  Antipas  was  deprived  of  his  dominions 
and  banished  to  Lyons,  Herodias  voluntarily  sharing  his  exile. 

HEROD  PHILIP,  son  of  Herod  the  Great  by  Cleopatra  of 
Jerusalem,  received  the  tetrarchate  of  Ituraea  and  other  districts 
to  E.  and  N.E.  of  the  Lake  of  Galilee,  the  poorest  part  of  his 
father's  kingdom.  His  subjects  were  mainly  Greeks  or  Syrians, 
and  his  coins  bear  the  image  of  Augustus  or  Tiberius.  He  is 
described  as  an  excellent  ruler,  who  loved  peace  and  was  careful 
to  maintain  justice,  and  spent  his  time  in  his  own  territories. 
He  was  also  a  builder  of  cities,  one  of  which  was  Caesarea  Philippi, 
and  another  was  Bethsaida,  which  he  called  Julias.  He  died  after 
a  reign  of  thirty-seven  years  (4  B.C.-A.D.  34);  and  his  dominions 
were  incorporated  in  the  province  of  Syria.  (J.  H.  A.  H.) 

HERODAS  .(Gr. 'Hp<j)6as),  or  HERONDAS  (the  name  is  spelt 
differently  in  the  few  places  where  he  is  mentioned),  Greek  poet, 
the  author  of  short  humorous  dramatic  scenes  in  verse,  written 
under  the  Alexandrian  empire  in  the  3rd  century  B.C.  Apart 
from  the  intrinsic  merit  of  these  pieces,  they  are  interesting  in  the 
history  of  Greek  literature  as  being  a  new  species,  illustrating 
Alexandrian  methods.  They  are  called  Mijua/a/3ot,  "  Mime- 
iambics."  Mimes  were  the  Dorian  product  of  South  Italy  and 
Sicily,  and  the  most  famous  of  them — from  which  Plato  is  said 
to  have  studied  the  drawing  of  character — were  the  work  of 
Sophron.  These  were  scenes  in  popular  life,  written  in  the 
language  of  the  people,  vigorous  with  racy  proverbs  such  as  we 
get  in  other  reflections  of  that  region — in  Petronius  and  the 
Pentamerone.  Two  of  the  best  known  and  the  most  vital 
among  the  Idylls  of  Theocritus,  the  2nd  and  the  i5th,  we  know 
to  have  been  derived  from  mimes  of  Sophron.  What  Theocritus 
is  doing  there,  Herodas,  his  younger  contemporary,  is  doing 
in  another  manner — casting  old  material  into  novel  form,  upon  a 
small  scale,  under  strict  conditions  of  technique.  The  method 
is  entirely  Alexandrian:  Sophron  had  written  in  a  peculiar  kind 
of  rhythmical  prose;  Theocritus  uses  the  hexameter  and  Doric, 
Herodas  the  season  or  "  lame"  iambic  (with  a  dragging  spondee 
at  the  end)  and  the  old  Ionic  dialect  with  which  that  curious 
metre  was  associated.  That,  however,  hardly  goes  beyond  the 
choice  and  form  of  words;  the  structure  of  the  sentences  is 
close-knit  Attic.  But  the  grumbling  metre  and  quaint  language 
suit  the  tone  of  common  life  which  Herodas  aims  at  realizing; 
for,  as  Theocritus  may  be  called  idealist,  Herodas  is  a  realist 
unflinching.  His  persons  talk  in  vehement  exclamations  and 
emphatic  turns  of  speech,  with  proverbs  and  fixed  phrases; 
and  occasionally,  where  it  is  designed  as  proper  to  the  part,  with 
the  most  naked  coarseness  of  expression. 

The  scene  of  the  second  and  the  fourth  is  laid  at  Cos,  and  the 
speaking  characters  in  each  are  never  more  than  three.  In 
Mime  I.  the  old  nurse,  now  the  professional  go-between  or  bawd, 
calls  on  Metriche,  whose  husband  has  been  long  away  in  Egypt, 
and  endeavours  to  excite  her  interest  in  a  most  desirable  young 
man,  fallen  deeply  in  love  with  her  at  first  sight.  After  hearing 
all  the  arguments  Metriche  declines  with  dignity,  but  consoles  the 
old  woman  with  an  ample  glass  of  wine,  this  kind  being  always 


HERODIANS— HERODOTUS 


represented  with  the  taste  of  Mrs  Gamp.  II.  is  a  monologue  by 
the  IlopvopoaKos  ("  Whoremonger  ")  prosecuting  a  merchant- 
trader  for  breaking  into  his  establishment  at  night  and  attempt- 
ing to  carry  off  one  of  the  inmates,  who  is  produced  in  court. 
The  vulgar  blackguard,  who  is  a  stranger  to  any  sort  of  shame, 
remarking  that  he  has  no  evidence  to  call,  proceeds  to  a  perora- 
tion in  the  regular  oratorical  style,  appealing  to  the  Coan  judges 
not  to  be  unworthy  of  their  traditional  glories.  In  fact,  the 
whole  oration  is  also  a  burlesque  in  every  detail  of  an  Attic 
speech  at  law;  and  in  this  case  we  have  the  material  from  which 
to  estimate  the  excellence  of  the  parody.  In  III.  a  desperate 
mother  brings  to  the  schoolmaster  a  truant  urchin,  with  whom 
neither  she  nor  his  incapable  old  father  can  do  anything.  In  a 
voluble  stream  of  interminable  sentences  she  narrates  his  mis- 
deeds and  implores  the  schoolmaster  to  flog  him.  The  boy 
accordingly  is  hoisted  on  another's  back  and  flogged;  but  his 
spirit  does  not  appear  to  be  subdued,  and  the  mother  resorts 
to  the  old  man  after  all.  IV.  is  a  visit  of  two  poor  women  with 
an  offering  to  the  temple  of  Asclepius  at  Cos.  While  the  humble 
cock  is  being  sacrificed,  they  turn,  like  the  women  in  the  Ion  of 
Euripides,  to  admire  the  works  of  art;  among  them  a  small  boy 
strangling  a  vulpanser — doubtless  the  work  of  Boethus  that  we 
know — and  a  sacrificial  procession  by  Apelles,  "  the  Ephesian," 
of  whom  we  have  an  interesting  piece  of  contemporary  eulogy. 
The  oily  sacristan  is  admirably  painted  in  a  few  slight  strokes. 
V.  brings  us  very  close  to  some  unpleasant  facts  of  ancient  life. 
The  jealous  woman  accuses  one  of  her  slaves,  whom  she  has 
made  her  favourite,  of  infidelity;  has  him  bound  and  sent 
degraded  through  the  town  to  receive  2000  lashes;  no  sooner  is 
he  out  of  sight  than  she  recalls  him  to  be  branded  "  at  one  job." 
The  only  pleasing  person  in  the  piece  is  the  little  maidservant — 
permitted  liberties  as  a  iierna  brought  up  in  the  house — whose 
ready  tact  suggests  to  her  mistress  an  excuse  for  postponing 
execution  of  a  threat  made  in  ungovernable  fury.  VI.  is  a 
friendly  chat  or  a  private  conversation.  The  subject  is  an  ugly 
one,  but  the  dialogue  is  as  clever  and  amusing  as  the  rest,  with 
some  delicious  touches.  Our  interest  is  engaged  here  in  a  certain 
Kerdon,  the  artistic  shoemaker,  to  whom  we  are  introduced  in 
VII.  (the  name  had  already  become  generic  for  the  shoemaker 
as  the  typical  representative  of  retail  trade),  a  little  bald  man  with 
a  fluent  tongue,  complaining  of  hard  times,  who  bluffs  and 
wheedles  by  turns.  VII.  opens  with  a  mistress  waking  up  her 
maids  to  listen  to  her  dream;  but  we  have  only  the  beginning, 
and  the  other  fragments  are  very  short. 

Within  the  limits  of  100  lines  or  less  Herodas  presents  us  with 
a  highly  entertaining  scene  and  with  characters  definitely  drawn. 
Some  of  these  had  been  perfected  no  doubt  upon  the  Attic  stage, 
where  the  tendency  in  the  4th  century  had  been  gradually  to 
evolve  accepted  types — not  individuals,  but  generalizations 
from  a  class,  an  art  in  which  Menander's  was  esteemed  the 
master-hand.  The  Hopvofto&Kos  and  the  Maorpoiros  we  can 
piece  together  from  succeeding  literature,  and  see  how  skilfully 
the  established  traits  are  indicated  here.  This  is  achieved  by 
true  dramatic  means,  with  .touches  never  wasted  and  the  more 
delightful  often  because  they  do  not  clamour  for  attention. 
The  execution  has  the  qualities  of  first-rate  Alexandrian  work 
in  miniature,  such  as  the.  epigrams  of  Asclepiades  possess,  the 
finish  and  firm  outlines;  and  these  little  pictures  bear  the  test 
of  all  artistic  work — they  do  not  lose  their  freshness  with 
familiarity,  and  gain  in  interest  as  one  learns  to  appreciate  their 
subtle  points. 

The  papyrus  MS.,  obtained  from  the  Fayum,  is  in  the  possession  of 
the  British  Museum,  and  was  first  printed  by  F.  G.  Kenyon  in  1891. 
Editions  by  O.  Crusius  (1905,  text  only,  in  Teubner  series)  and 
J.  A.  Nairn  (1904),  with  introduction,  notes  and  bibliography. 
There  is  an  English  verse  translation  of  the  mimes  by  H.  Snarpley 
(1906)  under  the  title  A  Realist  of  the  Aegean.  (W.  G.  H.) 

HERODIANS  ('Hpudiavoi),  a  sect  or  party  mentioned  in 
Scripture  as  having  on  two  occasions — once  in  Galilee,  and  again 
in  Jerusalem — manifested  an  unfriendly  disposition  towards 
Jesus  (Mark  iii.  6,  xii.  13;  Matt.  xxii.  6;  cf.  also  Mark  viii.  15). 
In  each  of  these  cases  their  name  is  coupled  with  that  of  the 
Pharisees.  According  to  many  interpreters  the  courtiers  or 


soldiers  of  Herod  Antipas  ("  Milites  Herodis,"  Jerome)  are 
intended;  but  more  probably  the  Herodians  were  a  public 
political  party,  who  distinguished  themselves  from  the  two  great 
historical  parties  of  post -exilian  Judaism  by  the  fact  that  they 
were  and  had  been  sincerely  friendly  to  Herod  the  Great  and  to 
his  dynasty  (cf.  such  formations  as  "  Caesarian!,"  "  Pom- 
peiani  ").  It  is  possible  that,  to  gain  adherents,  the  Herodian 
party  may  have  been  in  the  habit  of  representing  that  the 
establishment  of  a  Herodian  dynasty  would  be  favourable  to 
the  realization  of  the  theocracy;  and  this  in  turn  may  account 
for  Tertullian's  (De  praescr.)  allegation  that  the  Herodians 
regarded  Herod  himself  as  the  Messiah.  The  sect  was  called 
by  the  Rabbis  Boethusians  as  being  friendly  to  the  family  of 
Boethus,  whose  daughter  Mariamne  was  one  of  Herod  the 
Great's  wives.  (J.  H.  A.  H.) 

HERODIANUS,  Greek  historian,  flourished  during  the  third 
century  A.D.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  Syrian  Greek. 
In  203  he  was  in  Rome,  where  he  held  some  minor  posts.  He  does 
not  appear  to  have  attained  high  official  rank;  the  statement 
that  he  was  imperial  procurator  and  legate  of  the  Sicilian  pro- 
vinces rests  upon  conjecture  only.  His  historical  work  ('Hp<o5ia- 
vov  TTJS  fitTO.  Map/cop  /3a(uX«tas  laTopi&v  /3ift\ia  OKTCO)  narrates 
the  events  of  the  fifty-eight  years  between  the  death  of  Marcus 
Aurelius  and  the  proclamation  of  Gordianus  III.  (180-238). 
The  narrative  is  of  special  value  as  supplementing  Dion  Cassius, 
whose  history  ends  with  Alexander  Severus.  His  work  has 
the  value  that  attaches  to  a  record  written  by  one  chronicling 
the  events  of  his  own  times,  gifted  with  ordinary  powers  of 
observation,  indubitable  candour  and  independence  of  view. 
But  while  he  gives  a  lively  account  of  external  events — such  as 
the  death  of  Commodus  and  the  assassination  of  Pertinax — 
the  barbarian  invasions,  the  spread  of  Christianity,  the  extension 
of  the  franchise  by  Caracalla  are  unnoticed.  The  dates  are  often 
wrong,  and  little  attention  is  paid  to  geographical  details,  which 
makes  the  narrative  of  milita/y  expeditions  beyond  the  borders 
of  the  empire  difficult  to  understand.  Herodian  has  been  accused 
of  prejudice  against  Alexander  Severus.  His  style,  modelled 
on  that  of  Thucydides  and  unreservedly  praised  by  Photius,  is 
on  the  whole  pure,  though  somewhat  rhetorical  and  showing  a 
fondness  for  Latinisms. 

Extensive  use  has  been  made  of  Herodianus  by  later  chroniclers, 
especially  the  "  Scriptores  historiae  Augustae  "  and  John  of  Antioch. 
His  history  was  first  translated  into  Latin  at  the  end  of  the  I5th 
century  by  Politian.  The  most  complete  edition  is  by  G.  W.  Irmisch 
(1789-1805),  with  elaborate  indices,  but  the  notes  are  very  diffuse; 
critical  editions  by  I.  Bekker  (1855),  L.  Mendelssohn  (1883);  see 
also  C.  Dandliker. 

HERODIANUS,  AELIUS,  called  6  T«x"tx6s,  Alexandrian 
grammarian,  flourished  in  the  and  century  A.D.  He  early  took 
up  his  residence  at  Rome,  where  he  enjoyed  the  patronage  of 
Marcus  Aurelius  (161-180),  to  whom  he  dedicated  his  great 
treatise  on  prosody.  This  work  in  twenty-one  books  (KotfoXuo) 
irpoa&dia)  included  also  an  account  of  the  etymological  part  of 
grammar.  The  work  itself  is  lost,  but  several  epitomes  of  it  have 
been  preserved.  His  'Eiri/nepw/xoi  dealt  with  difficult  words 
and  peculiar  forms  in  Homer.  Herodianus  also  wrote  numerous 
grammatical  treatises,  of  which  only  one  has  come  down  to  us  in  a 
complete  form  (Ilept  povripovs  Xe£«os,  on  peculiar  style),  articles 
on  exceptional  or  anomalous  words.  Numerous  quotations  and 
fragments  still  exist,  chiefly  in  the  Homeric  scholiasts  and 
Stephanus  of  Byzantium.  Herodianus  enjoyed  a  great  reputation 
as  a  grammarian,  and  Priscian  styles  him  "  maximus  auctor 
artis  grammaticae." 

The  best  edition  is  by  A.  Lentz,  Herodiani  Technici  reliquiae 
(1867—1870);  a  supplementary  volume  is  included  in  Uhling's  Corpus 
grammaticorum  Graecorum;  for  further  bibliographical  information 
see  W.  Christ,  Geschichte  der  griechischen  Literalur  (1898). 

HERODOTUS  (c.  484-425  B.C.),  Greek  historian,  called  the 
Father  of  History,  was  born-at  Halicarnassus  in  Asia  Minor,  then 
dependent  upon  the  Persians,  in  or  about  the  year  484  B.C. 
Herodotus  was  thus  born  a  Persian  subject,  and  such  he  conj 
tinued  until  he  was  thirty  or  five-and-thirty  years  of  age.  At  the 
time  of  his  birth  Halicarnassus  was  under  the  rule  of  a  queen 


HERODOTUS 


Artemisia  (?.».)•  The  year  of  her  death  is  unknown;  but  she 
left  her  crown  to  her  son  Pisindelis  (born  about  498  B.C.),  who 
was  succeeded  upon  the  throne  by  his  son  Lygdamis  about  the 
time  that  Herodotus  grew  to  manhood.  The  family  of  Herodotus 
belonged  to  the  upper  rank  of  the  citizens.  His  father  was 
named  Lyxes,  and  his  mother  Rhaeo,  or  Dryo.  He  had  a  brother 
Theodore,  and  an  uncle  or  cousin  Panyasis  (q.v.),  the  epic  poet, 
a  personage  of  so  much  importance  that  the  tyrant  Lygdamis, 
suspecting  him  of  treasonable  projects,  put  him  to  death. 
It  is  probable  that  Herodotus  shared  his  relative's  political 
opinions,  and  either  was  exiled  from  Halicarnassus  or  quitted 
it  voluntarily  at  the  time  of  his  execution. 

Of  the  education  of  Herodotus  no  more  can  be  said  than  that  it 
was  thoroughly  Greek,  and  embraced  no  doubt  the  three  subjects 
essential  to  a  Greek  liberal  education — grammar,  gymnastic 
training  and  music.  His  studies  would  be  regarded  as  completed 
when  he  attained  the  age  of  eighteen,  and  took  rank  among  the 
ephebi  or  eirenes  of  his  native  city.  In  a  free  Greek  state  he 
would  at  once  have  begun  his  duties  as  a  citizen,  and  found 
therein  sufficient  employment  for  his  growing  energies.  But  in  a 
city  ruled  by  a  tyrant  this  outlet  was  wanting;  no  political  life 
worthy  of  the  name  existed.  Herodotus  may  thus  have  had  his 
thoughts  turned  to  literature  as  furnishing  a  not  unsatisfactory 
career,  and  may  well  have  been  encouraged  in  his  choice  by  the 
example  of  Panyasis,  who  had  already  gained  a  reputation  by  his 
writings  when  Herodotus  was  still  an  infant.  At  any  rate  it  is 
clear  from  the  extant  work  of  Herodotus  that  he  must  have 
devoted  himself  early  to  the  literary  life,  and  commenced  that 
extensive  course  of  reading  which  renders  him  one  of  the  most 
instructive  as  well  as  one  of  the  most  charming  of  ancient  writers. 
The  poetical  literature  of  Greece  was  already  large;  the  prose 
literature  was  more  extensive  than  is  generally  supposed;  yet 
Herodotus  shows  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  whole  of  it. 
The  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  are  as  familiar  to  him  as  Shakespeare  to 
the  educated  Englishman.  He  is^icquainted  with  the  poems  of 
the  epic  cycle,  the  Cypria,  the  Epigoni,  &c.  He  quotes  or  other- 
wise shows  familiarity  with  the  writings  of  Hesiod,  Olen,  Musaeus, 
Bacis,  Lysistratus,  Archilochus  of  Paros,  Alcaeus,  Sappho,  Solon, 
Aesop,  Aristeas  of  Proconnesus,  Simonides  of  Ceos,  Phrynichus, 
Aeschylus  and  Pindar.  He  quotes  and  criticizes  Hecataeus,  the 
best  of  the  prose  writers  who  had  preceded  him,  and  makes 
numerous  allusions  to  other  authors  of  the  same  class. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that  he  was  at  any  time  a 
mere  student.  It  is  probable  that  from  an  early  age  his  inquiring 
disposition  led  him  to  engage  in  travels,  both  in  Greece  and  in 
foreign  countries.  He  traversed  Asia  Minor  and  European 
Greece  probably  more  than  once;  he  visited  all  the  most  im- 
portant islands  of  the  Archipelago — Rhodes,  Cyprus,  Delos,  Paros, 
Thasos,  Samothrace,  Crete,  Samos,  Cythera  and  Aegina.  He 
undertook  the  long  and  perilous  journey  from  Sardis  to  the 
Persian  capital  Susa,  visited  Babylon,  Colchis,  and  the  western 
shores  of  the  Black  Sea  as  far  as  the  estuary  of  the  Dnieper;  he 
travelled  in  Scythia  and  in  Thrace,  visited  Zante  and  Magna 
Graecia,  explored  the  antiquities  of  Tyre,  coasted  along  the  shores 
of  Palestine,  saw  Gaza,  and  made  a  long  stay  in  Egypt.  At  the 
most  moderate  estimate,  his  travels  covered  a  space  of  thirty-one 
degrees  of  longitude,  or  1700  miles,  and  twenty-four  of  latitude, 
or  nearly  the  same  distance.  At  all  the  more  interesting  sites  he 
took  up  his  abode  for  a  time;  he  examined,  he  inquired,  he  made 
measurements,  he  accumulated  materials.  Having  in  his  mind 
the  scheme  of  his  great  work,  he  gave  ample  time  to  the  elabora- 
tion of  all  its  parts,  and  took  care  to  obtain  by  personal  observation 
a  full  knowledge  of  the  various  countries. 

The  travels  of  Herodotus  seem  to  have  been  chiefly  accomplished 
between  his  twentieth  and  his  thirty-seventh  year  (464-447  B.C.).1 
It  was  probably  in  his  early  manhood  that  as  a  Persian  subject 
he  visited  Susa  and  Babylon,  taking  advantage  of  the  Persian 
system  of  posts  which  he  describes  in  his  fifth  book.  His  residence 

1  The  date  of  his  travels  is  difficult  to  determine.  E.  Meyer 
inclines  to  put  all  the  longer  journeys,  except  the  Scythian,  between 
440  and  430  B.C.  The  journey  to  Susa  and  Babylon  is  put  by 
C.  F.  Lehmann  c.  450  B.C.,  and  by  H.  Stein  before  450. 


in  Egypt  must,  on  the  other  hand,  have  been  subsequent  to  460 
B.C.,  since  he  saw  the  skulls  of  the  Persians  slain  by  Inarus  in  that 
year.  Skulls  are  rarely  visible  on  a  battlefield  for  more  than  two 
or  three  seasons  after  the  fight,  and  we  may  therefore  presume 
that  it  was  during  the  reign  of  Inarus  (460-454  B.C.),2  when  the 
Athenians  had  great  authority  in  Egypt,  that  he  visited  the 
country,  making  himself  known  as  a  learned  Greek,  and  therefore 
receiving  favour  and  attention  on  the  part  of  the  Egyptians,  who 
were  so  much  beholden  to  his  countrymen  (see  ATHENS,  CIMON, 
PERICLES).  On  his  return  from  Egypt,  as  he  proceeded  along  the 
Syrian  shore,  he  seems  to  have  landed  at  Tyre,  and  from  thence 
to  have  gone  to  Thasos.  His  Scythian  travels  are  thought  to  have 
taken  place  prior  to  450  B.C. 

It  is  a  question  of  some  interest  from  what  centre  or  centres 
these  various  expeditions  were  made.  Up  to  the  time  of  the 
execution  of  Panyasis,  which  is  placed  by  chronologists  in  or  about 
the  year  457  B.C.,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  Herodotus 
lived  at  Halicarnassus.  His  travels  in  Asia  Minor,  in  European 
Greece,  and  among  the  islands  of  the  Aegean,  probably  belong  to 
this  period,  as  also  his  journey  to  Susa  and  Babylon.  We  are 
told  that  when  he  quitted  Halicarnassus  on  account  of  the 
tyranny  of  Lygdamis,  in  or  about  the  year  457  B.C.,  he  took  up 
his  abode  in  Samos.  That  island  was  an  important  member  of  the 
Athenian  confederacy,  and  in  making  it  his  home  Herodotus 
would  have  put  himself  under  the  protection  of  Athens.  The 
fact  that  Egypt  was  then  largely  under  Athenian  influence  (see 
CIMON,  PERICLES)  may  have  induced  him  to  proceed,  in  457  or 
456  B.C.,  to  that  country.  The  stories  that  he  had  heard  in  Egypt 
of  Sesostris  may  then  have  stimulated  him  to  make  voyages  from 
Samos  to  Colchis,  Scythia  and  Thrace.  He  was  thus  acquainted 
with  almost  all  the  regions  which  were  to  be  the  scene  of  his 
projected  history. 

After  Herodotus  had  resided  for  some  seven  or  eight  years  in 
Samos,  events  occurred  in  his  native  city  which  induced  him  to 
return  thither.  The  tyranny  of  Lygdamis  had  gone  from  bad 
to  worse,  and  at  last  he  was  expelled.  According  to  Suidas, 
Herodotus  was  himself  an  actor,  and  indeed  the  chief  actor,  in  the 
rebellion  against  him;  but  no  other  author  confirms  this  state- 
ment, which  is  intrinsically  improbable.  It  is  certain,  however, 
that  Halicarnassus  became  henceforward  a  voluntary  member  of 
the  Athenian  confederacy.  Herodotus  would  now  naturally 
return  to  his  native  city,  and  enter  upon  the  enjoyment  of  those 
rights  of  free  citizenship  on  which  every  Greek  set  a  high  value. 
He  would  also,  if  he  had  by  this  time  composed  his  history,  or  any 
considerable  portion  of  it,  begin  to  make  it  known  by  recitation 
among  his  friends.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  these  first 
attempts  were  not  received  with  much  favour,  and  that  it  was 
in  chagrin  at  his  failure  that  he  precipitately  withdrew  from  his 
native  town,  and  sought  a  refuge  in  Greece  proper  (about  447 
B.C.).3  We  learn  that  Athens  was  the  place  to  which  he  went,  and 
that  he  appealed  from  the  verdict  of  his  countrymen  to  Athenian 
taste  and  judgment.  His  work  won  such  approval  that  in  the 
year  445  B.C.,  on  the  proposition  of  a  certain  Anytus,  he  was  voted 
a  sum  of  ten  talents  (£2400)  by  decree  of  the  people.  At  one  of 
the  recitations,  it  was  said,  the  future  historian  Thucydides  was 
present  with  his  father,  Olorus,  and  was  so  moved  that  he  burst 
into  tears,  whereupon  Herodotus  remarked  to  the  father — 
"  Olorus,  your  son  has  a  natural  enthusiasm  for  letters."4 

Athens  was  at  this  time  the  centre  of  intellectual  life,  and 
could  boast  an  almost  unique  galaxy  of  talent — Pericles, 
Thucydides  the  son  of  Melesias,  Aspasia,  Antiphon,  the  musician 
Damon,  Pheidias,  Protagoras,  Zeno,  Cratinus,  Crates,  Euripides 
and  Sophocles.  Accepted  into  th'is  brilliant  society,  on  familiar 
terms  with  all  probably,  as'  he  certainly  was  with  Olorus, 

2  Most  recent  critics  (e.g.  Stein,  Meyer,  Busolt)  put  the  visit  to 
Egypt  after  the  suppression  of  the  revolt  under  Inarusand  Amyrtaeus 
(i.e.  after  449  B.C.),  on  the  strength  of  Herod.  2.  30,  which  implies 
the  restoration  of  Persian  authority. 

3  Stein,   Meyer,   Busolt,  and  other  recent  writers  attribute  his 
departure  from  Halicarnassus  to  political  causes,  e.g.  the  ascendancy 
of  the  anti-Athenian  party  in  the  state. 

*  This  story  is  on  chronological  grounds  rejected  by  all  recent 
critics. 


HERODOTUS 


383 


Thucydides  and  Sophocles,  he  must  have  been  tempted,  like  many 
another  foreigner,  to  make  Athens  his  permanent  home.  It  is  to 
his  credit  that  he  did  not  yield  to  this  temptation.  At  Athens 
he  must  have  been  a  dilettante,  an  idler,  without  political  rights 
or  duties.  As  such  he  would  have  soon  ceased  to  be  respected 
in  a  society  where  literature  was  not  recognized  as  a  separate 
profession,  where  a  Socrates  served  in  the  infantry,  a  Sophocles 
commanded  fleets,  a  Thucydides  was  general  of  an  army,  and  an 
Antiphon  was  for  a  time  at  the  head  of  the  state.  Men  were  not 
men  according  to  Greek  notions  unless  they  were  citizens;  and 
Herodotus,  aware  of  this,  probably  sharing  in  the  feeling,  was 
anxious,  having  lost  his  political  status  at  Halicarnassus;  to 
obtain  such  status  elsewhere.  At  Athens  the  franchise,  jealously 
guarded  at  this  period,  was  not  to  be  attained  without  great 
expense  and  difficulty.  Accordingly,  in  the  spring  of  the  follow- 
ing year  he  sailed  from  Athens  with  the  colonists  who  went  out 
to  found  the  colony  of  Thurii  (see  PERICLES),  and  became  a 
citizen  of  the  new  town. 

From  this  point  of  his  career,  when  he  had  reached  the  age 
of  forty,  we  lose  sight  of  him  almost  wholly.  He  seems  to  have 
made  but  few  journeys,  one  to  Crotona,  one  to  Metapontum, 
and  one  to  Athens  (about  430  B.C.)  being  all  that  his  work 
indicates.1  No  doubt  he  was  employed  mainly,  as  Pliny  testifies, 
in  retouching  and  elaborating  his  general  history.  He  may  also 
have  composed  at  Thurii  that  special  work  on  the  history  of 
Assyria  to  which  he  twice  refers  in  his  first  book,  and  which  is 
quoted  by  Aristotle.  It  has  been  supposed  by  many  that  he 
lived  to  a  great  age,  and  argued  that  "  the  never-to-be-mistaken 
fundamental  tone  of  his  performance  is  the  quiet  talkativeness 
of  a  highly  cultivated,  tolerant,  intelligent,  old  man  "  (Dahlmann). 
But  the  indications  derived  from  the  later  touches  added  to  his 
work,  which  form  the  sole  evidence  on  the  subject,  would  rather 
lead  to  the  conclusion  that  his  life  was  not  very  prolonged. 
There  is  nothing  in  the  nine  books  which  may  not  have  been 
written  as  early  as  430  B.C.;  there  is  no  touch  which,  even 
probably,  points  to  a  later  date  than  424  B.C.  As  the  author  was 
evidently  engaged  in  polishing  his  work  to  the  last,  and  even 
promises  touches  which  he  does  not  give,  we  may  assume  that 
he  did  not  much  outlive  the  date  last  mentioned,  or  in  other 
words,  that  he  died  at  about  the  age  of  sixty.  The  predominant 
voice  of  antiquity  tells  us  that  he  died  at  Thurii,  where  his  tomb 
was  shown  in  later  ages. 

The  History. — In  estimating  the  great  work  of  Herodotus, 
and  his  genius  as  its  author,  it  is  above  all  things  necessary  to 
conceive  aright  what  that  work  was  intended  to  be.  It  has 
been  called  "  a  universal  history,"  "  a  history  of  the  wars 
between  the  Greeks  and  the  barbarians,"  and  "  a  history  of 
the  struggle  between  Greece  and  Persia."  But  these  titles  are  all 
of  them  too  comprehensive.  Herodotus,  who  omits  wholly 
the  histories  of  Phoenicia,  Carthage  and  Etruria,  three  of  the 
most  important  among  the  states  existing  in  his  day,  cannot  have 
intended  to  compose  a  "  universal  history,"  the  very  idea  of 
which  belongs  to  a  later  age.  He  speaks  in  places  as  if  his  object 
was  to  record  the  wars  between  the  Greeks  and  the  barbarians; 
but  as  he  omits  the  Trojan  war,  in  which  he  fully  believes, 
the  expedition  of  the  Teucrians  and  Mysians  against  Thrace 
and  Thessaly,  the  wars  connected  with  the  Ionian  colonization 
of  Asia  Minor  and  others,  it  is  evident  that  he  does  not  really 
aim  at  embracing  in  his  narrative  all  the  wars  between  Greeks 
and  barbarians  with  which  he  was  acquainted.  Nor  does  it 
even  seem  to  have  been  his  object  to  give  an  account  of  the 
entire  struggle  between  Greece  and  Persia.  That  struggle  was 
not  terminated  by  the  battle  of  Mycale  and  the  capture  of  Sestos 
in  479  B.C.  It  continued  for  thirty  years  longer,  to  the  peace 
of  Callias  (but  see  CALLIAS  and  CIMON).  The  fact  that  Herodotus 
ends  his  history  where  he  does  shows  distinctly  that  his  intention 

1  Opinion  is  divided  as  to  this  visit  to  Athens  after  his  settlement 
at  Thurii.  Stein,  Meyer  and  Busolt  hold  that  much  of  his  work 
(especially  the  later  books)  was  composed  at  Athens  soon  after  430 
B.C.  See  further  Wachsmuth,  Rheinisches  Museum,  Ivi.  (1901) 
215-218.  Macan,  Herodotus  VII. -IX.  (Introduction,  pp.  xlv.-lxvi., 
seeks  to  prove  that  the  last  three  books  were  the  first  part  of  the 
Histories  to  be  composed.  He  is  followed  in  this  view  by  Bury. 


was,  not  to  give  an  account  of  the  entire  long  contest  between 
the  two  countries,  but  to  write  the  history  of  a  particular  war — 
the  great  Persian  war  of  invasion.  His  aim  was  as  definite  as 
that  of  Thucydides,  or  Schiller,  or  Napier  or  any  other  writer 
who  has  made  his  subject  a  particular  war;  only  he  determined 
to  treat  it  jn  a  certain  way.  Every  partial  history  requires 
an  "introduction";  Herodotus,  untrammelled  by  examples, 
resolved  to  give  his  history  a  magnificent  introduction.  Thucy- 
dides is  content  with  a  single  introductory  book,  forming  little 
more  than  one-eighth  of  his  work;  Herodotus  has  six  such  books, 
forming  two-thirds  of  the  entire  composition. 

By  this  arrangement  he  is  enabled  to  treat  his  subject  in 
the  grand  way,  which  is  so  characteristic  of  him.  Making  it  his 
main  object  in  his  "  introduction  "  to  set  before  his  readers  the 
previous  history  »of  the  two  nations  who  were  the  actors  in  the 
great  war,  he  is  able  in  tracing  their  history  to  bring  into  his 
narrative  some  account  of  almost  all  the  nations  of  the  known 
world,  and  has  room  to  expatiate  freely  upon  their  geography, 
antiquities,  manners  and  customs  and  the  like,  thus  giving  his 
work  a  "  universal  "  character,  and  securing  for  it,  without 
trenching  upon  unity,  that  variety,  richness  and  fulness  which 
are  a  principal  charm  of  the  best  histories,  and  of  none  more  than 
his.  In  tracing  the  growth  of  Persia  from  a  petty  subject 
kingdom  to  a  vast  dominant  empire,  he  has  occasion  to  set  out 
the  histories  of  Lydia,  Media,  Assyria,  Babylon,  Egypt,  Scythia, 
Thrace,  and  to  describe  the  countries  and  the  peoples  inhabiting 
them,  their  natural  productions,  climate,  geographical  position, 
monuments,  &c. ;  while,  in  noting  the  contemporaneous  changes 
in  Greece,  he  is  led  to  tell  of  the  various  migrations  of  the  Greek 
race,  their  colonies,  commerce,  progress  in  the  arts,  revolutions, 
internal  struggles,  wars  with  one  another,  legislation,  religious 
tenets  and  the  like.  The  greatest  variety  of  episodical  matter 
is  thus  introduced;  but  the  propriety  of  the  occasion  and  the 
mode  of  introduction  are  such  that  no  complaint  can  be  made; 
the  episodes  never  entangle,  encumber  or  even  unpleasantly 
interrupt  the  main  narrative. 

It  has  been  questioned,  both  in  ancient  and  in  modern  times, 
whether  the  history  of  Herodotus  possesses  the  essential  requisite 
of  trustworthiness.  Several  ancient  writers  accuse  him  of 
intentional  untruthfulness.  Moderns  generally  acquit  him  of  this 
charge;  but  his  severer  critics  still  urge  that,  from  the  inherent 
defects  of  his  character,  his  credulity,  his  love  of  effect  and  his 
loose  and  inaccurate  habits  of  thought,  he  was  unfitted  for  the 
historian's  office,  and  has  produced  a  work  of  but  small  historical 
value.  Perhaps  it  may  be  sufficient  to  remark  that  the  defects 
in  question  certainly  exist,  and  detract  to  some  extent  from  the 
authority  of  the  work,  more  especially  of  those  parts  of  it  which 
deal  with  remoter  periods,  and  were  taken  by  Herodotus  on 
trust  from  his  informants,  but  that  they  only  slightly  affect 
the  portions  which  treat  of  later  times  and  form  the  special 
subject  of  his  history.  In  confirmation  of  this  view,  it  may  be 
noted  that  the  authority  of  Herodotus  for  the  circumstances 
of  the  great  Persian  war,  and  for  all  local  and  other  details  which 
come  under  his  immediate  notice,  is  accepted  by  even  the  most 
sceptical  of  modern  historians,  and  forms  the  basis  of  their 
narratives. 

Among  the  merits  of  Herodotus  as  an  historian,  the  most 
prominent  are  the  diligence  with  which  he  collected  his  materials, 
the  candour  and  impartiality  with  which  he  has  placed  his  facts 
before  the  reader,  the  absence  of  party  bias  and  undue  national 
vanity,  and  the  breadth  of  his  conception  of  the  historian's 
office.  On  the  other  hand,  he  has  no  claim  to  rank  as  a  critical 
historian;  he  has  no  conception  of  the  philosophy  of  history, 
no  insight  into  the  real  causes  that  underlie  political  changes, 
no  power  of  penetrating  below  the  surface,  or  even  of  grasping 
the  real  interconnexion  of  the  events  which  he  describes.  He 
belongs  distinctly  to  the  romantic  school;  his  forte  is  vivid  and 
picturesque  description,  the  lively  presentation  of  scenes  and 
actions,  characters  and  states  of  society,  not  the  subtle  analysis 
of  motives,  the  power  of  detecting  the  undercurrents  or  the 
generalizing  faculty. 

But  it  is  as  a  writer  that  the  merits  of  Herodotus  are  most 


HEROET— HEROIC  ROMANCES 


conspicuous.     "  O  that  I  were  in  a  condition,"  says  Lucian 
"  to  resemble  Herodotus,  if  only  in  some  measure!    I  by  no  means 
say  in  all  his  gifts,  but  only  in  some  single  point ;  as,  for  instance 
the  beauty  of  his  language,  or  its  harmony,  or  the  natural  and 
peculiar  grace  of  the  Ionic  dialect,  or  his  fulness  of  thought,  or  by 
whatever  name  those  thousand  beauties  are  called  which  to 
the  despair  of  his  imitator  are  united  in  him."     Cicero  calls 
his  style   "  copious   and  polished,"   Quintilian,    "  sweet,   pure 
and  flowing";  Longinus  says  he  was  "the  most  Homeric  of 
historians  ";  Dionysius,  his  countryman,  prefers  him  to  Thucy- 
dides,  and  regards  him  as  combining  in  an  extraordinary  degree 
the  excellences  of  sublimity,   beauty  and  the  true  historical 
method  of  composition.     Modern  writers  are  almost  equally 
complimentary.      "  The   style  of   Herodotus,"   says   one,    "  is 
universally   allowed   to   be   remarkable   for  its   harmony   and 
sweetness."  "  The  charm  of  his  style,"  argues  another,  "  has 
so  dazzled  men  as  to  make  them  blind  to  his  defects."    Various 
attempts  have  been  made  to  analyse  the  charm  which  is  so 
universally  felt;  but  it  may  be  doubted  whether  any  of  them 
are  very  successful.     All,  however,  seem  to  agree  that  among 
the  qualities  for  which  the  style  of  Herodotus  is  to  be  admired 
are  simplicity,  freshness,  naturalness  and  harmony  of  rhythm. 
Master  of  a  form  of  language  peculiarly  sweet  and  euphonical, 
and  possessed  of  a  delicate  ear  which  instinctively  suggested 
the  most  musical  arrangement  possible,  he  gives  his  sentences, 
without  art  or  effort,  the  most  agreeable  flow,  is  never  abrupt, 
never  too  diffuse,  much  less  prolix  or  wearisome,  and  being 
himself  simple,  fresh,  naif  (if  we  may  use  the  word),  honest  and 
somewhat  quaint,  he  delights  us  by  combining  with  this  melody  of 
sound  simple,  clear  and  fresh  thoughts,  perspicuously  expressed, 
often   accompanied   by   happy   turns   of   phrase,    and   always 
manifestly  the  spontaneous  growth  of  his  own  fresh  and  un- 
sophisticated mind.     Reminding  us  in  some  respects  of  the 
quaint  medieval  writers,  Froissart  and  Philippe  de  Comines, 
he  greatly  excels  them,  at  once  in  the  beauty  of  his  language 
and  the  art  with  which  he  has  combined  his    heterogeneous 
materials  into  a  single  perfect  harmonious  whole.     See  also 
GREECE,  section  History,  "  Authorities." 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  history  of  Herodotus  has  been  translated 
by  many  persons  and  into  many  languages.  About  1450,  at  the  time 
of  the  revival  of  learning,  a  Latin  version  was  made  and  published 
by  Laurentius  Valla.  This  was  revised  in  1537  by  Heusbach,  and 
accompanies  the  Greek  text  of  Herodotus  in  many  editions.  The 
first  complete  translation  into  a  modern  language  was  the  English 
one  of  Littlebury,  published  in  1737.  This  was  followed  in  1786 
by  the  French  translation  of  Larcher,  a  valuable  work,  accompanied 
by  copious  notes  and  essays.  Bcloe,  the  second  English  translator, 
based  his  work  on  that  of  Larcher.  His  first  edition,  in  1791,  was 
confessedly  very  defective;  the  second,  in  1806,  still  left  much  to 
be  desired.  A  good  German  translation,  but  without  note  or  com- 
ment, was  brought  out  by  Friedrich  Lange  at  Berlin  in  181 1.  Andrea 
Mustoxidi,  a  native  of  Corfu,  published  an  Italian  version  in  1820. 
In  1822  Auguste  Miot  endeavoured  to  improve  on  Larcher;  and  in 
1828-1832  Dr  Adolf  Scholl  brought  out  a  German  translation  with 
copious  notes  (new  ed.,  1855),  which  has  to  some  extent  superseded 
the  work  of  Lange.  About  the  same  time  a  new  English  version 
was  made  by  Isaac  Taylor  (London,  1829).  In  i858-l86o,the  history 
of  Herodotus  was  translated  by  Canon  G.  Rawlinson,  assisted  in 
the  copious  notes  and  appendices  accompanying  the  work  by 
Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson  and  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson.  More  recently 
we  have  translations  in  English  by  G.  C.  Macaulay  (2  vols.,  1890); 
in  German  by  Biihr  (Stuttgart,  1867)  and  Stein  (Oldenburg,  1875); 
in  French  by  Giguet  (1857)  and  Talbot  (1864);  in  Italian  by  Ricci 
(Turin,  1871-1876),  Grandi  (Asti,  1872)  and  Bertini  (Naples,  1871- 
1872).  A  Swedish  translation  by  F.  Carlstadt  was  published  at 
Stockholm  in  1871. 

The  best  of  the  older  editions  of  the  Greek  text  are  the  following: — 
Herodoti  historiae,  ed.  Schweighauser  (5  vols.,  Strassburg,  1816); 
Herodoti  Halicarnassei  historiarum  libri  IX.  (ed.  Gaisford,  Oxford, 
1840);  Herodotus,  with  a  Commentary,  by  J.  W.  Blakesley  (2  vols., 
London,  1854);  Herodoti  musae  (ed.  Biihr,  4  vols.,  Leipzig,  1856- 
1861,  2nd  ed.) ;  and  Herodoti  historiae  (ed.  Abicht,  Leipzig,  1869). 

The  most  recent  editions  of  the  text,  or  of  portions  of  it,  with 
and  without  commentaries  are  the  following: — H.  Stein,  Herodoti 
Historiae  (ed.  Major,  2  vols.,  Berlin,  1869-1871,  with  apparatus 
criticus;  still  the  best  edition  of  the  text);  H.  Kellenberg,  Histo- 
riarum libri  IX.  (2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1887);  van  Herwerden,  'loropiai 
(Leiden,  1885);  H.  Stein,  Herodotus,  erklart  (Berlin,  1856-1861, 
and  several  editions  since;  the  best  short  commentary  and  intro- 
duction); A.  H.  Sayce,  The  Ancient  Empires  of  the  East.  Herodotus 


I --II I-,  with  introductions  and  appendices  (1883 ;  an  attempt  to  prove 
the  unveracity  of  Herodotus,  especially  in  regard  to  the  extent  of  his 
travels,  which  has  found  little  support  amongst  more  recent  English 
or  German  writers);  R.  W.  Macan,  Herodotus  IV. -VI.  (2  vols 
1895)  and  Herodotus  VII. -IX.  (2  vols.,  1908),  with  exhaustive  intro- 
duction, appendices  and  notes;  the  only  scientific  edition  of  these 
books  in  English ;  E.  Abbott,  Herodotus  V.  and  VI.  (Oxford,  1893); 
A.  Wiedemann,  Herodots  zweites  Buck  mit  sachlichen  Bemerkungen 
(Leipzig,  1890 ;  the  best  and  fullest  commentary  on  book  ii.). 

Among  works  of  value  illustrative  of  Herodotus  may  be  mentioned 
Bpuhier,  Recherches  sur  Herodote  (Dijon,  1746);  Rennell,  Geography 
of  Herodotus  (London,  1800);  Niebuhr,  Geography  of  Herodotus 
and  Scythia  (Eng.  trans.,  Oxford,  1830);  Dahlmann,  Herodot, 
aus  semem  Buche  sein  Leben  (Altona,  1823);  Eltz,  Quaestiones 
Herodoteae  (Leipzig,  1841);  Kenrick,  Egypt  of  Herodotus  (London, 
1841);  Mure,  Literature  of  Greece,  vol.  iv.  (London,  1852);  Abicht, 
Ubersicht  ilber  den  Herodoteischen  Dialekt  (Leipzig,  1869,  3rd  ed., 
1874),  and  De  codicum  Herodoti  fide  ac  auctorilate  (Naumburg 
1869);  Melander,  De  anacoluthis  Herodoteis  (Lund,  1860);  Matzat, 
"  Uber  die  Glaubenswurdigkeit  der  geograph.  Angaben  Herodots 
iiber  Asien,  m  Hermes,  vi. ;  Biidinger,  Zur  agyplischen  Forschung 
Herodots  (Vienna,  1873,  reprinted  from  the  Sitzungsber.  of  the  Vienna 
Acad.);  Merzdorf,  Quaestiones  grammatical  de  dialecto  Herodolea 
(Leipzig,  1875);  A.  Kirchhoff,  Uber  die  Entstehungszeit  des  Hero- 
dohschen  Geschichtswerkes  (Berlin,  1878);  Adolf  Bauer,  Herodots 
Biographie  (Vienna,  1878);  H.  Delbriick,  Perser  und  Burgunder- 
kriege  (Berlin,  1887;  of  great  importance  for  the  criticism  of  tfie 
Persian  Wars);  N.  Wecklein,  Uber  die  Tradition  der  Perserkriege 
(Munich,  1876);  A.  Hauvette-Besnault,  Herodote  historien  des 
guerres  mediques  (Paris,  1894);  J.  A.  R.  Munro,  Some  Observations 
on  the  Persian  Wars  (in  various  vols.  of  the  Journal  of  Hellenic 
Studies;  acute  and  suggestive);  G.  B.  Grundy,  The  Great  Persian 
War  (London,  1901);  J.  P.  Mahaffy,  History  of  Greek  Classical 
Literature,  ii.  16  ff.  (London,  1880);  E.  Meyer,  Forschungen  zur 
alien  Geschichte,  i.  151  ff.,  and  ii.  196  ff.  (Halle,  1892-1899);  Busolt, 
Griechische  Geschichte,  ii.  602  ff.  (2nd  ed.,  Gotha,  1895) ;  J.  B.  Bury, 
Ancient  Greek  Historians  (1908),  lecture  2.  For  notices  of  current 
literature  see  Bursian's  Jahresbericht.  Students  of  the  original  may 
also  consult  with  advantage  the  lexicons  of  Aemilius  Portus  (Oxford, 
1817)  and  of  Schweighauser  (London,  1824).  On  Herodotus'  debt 
to  Hecataeus  see  Wells,  in  Journ.  Hell.  Stud.,  1909,  pt.  i. 

(G.  R.;E.  M.  W.) 

HlSROET,  ANTOINE,  surnamed  LA  MAISON-NEUVE  (d.  1568), 
French  poet,  was  born  in  Paris  of  a  family  connected  with  the 
famous  chancellor,  Francois  Olivier.  His  poetry  belongs  to  his 
early  years,  for  after  he  had  taken  orders  he  ceased  to  write 
profane  poetry,  no  doubt  because  he  considered  it  out  of  keeping 
with  his  calling,  in  which  he  attained  the  dignity  of  bishop  of 
Digue.  His  chief  work  is  La  Parfaicte  ^4wye(Lyons,i542)inwhich 
he  developed  the  idea  of  a  purely  spiritual  love,  based  chiefly  on 
the  reading  of  the  Italian  Neo-Platonists.  The  book  aroused 
great  controversy.  La  Borderie  replied  in  L'Amye  de  cour  with 
a  description  of  a  very  much  more  human  woman,  and  Charles 
Fontaine  contributed  a  Contr'  amye  de  cour  to  the  dispute. 
Heroet,  in  addition  to  some  translations  from  the  classics,  wrote 
the  Complainle  d'une  dame  nouvellement  surprise  d'amour,  an 
Epistre  a  Francois  I",  and  some  pieces  included  in  the  now 
very  rare  Opuscules  d'amour  par  Heroet,  La  Borderie  et  autres 
divins  poe'tes  (Lyons,  1547).  Heroet  belongs  to  the  Lyonnese 
school  of  which  Maurice  Sceve  may  be  regarded  as  the  leader. 
Clement  Marot  praises  him,  and  Ronsard  was  careful  to  exempt 
him  with  one  or  two  others  from  the  scorn  he  poured  on  his 
immediate  predecessors. 

See  H.  F.  Gary,  The  Early  French  Poets  (1846). 

HEROIC  ROMANCES,  the  name  by  which  is  distinguished  a 
class  of  imaginative  literature  which  flourished  in  the  i7th 
century,  principally  in  France.  The  beginnings  of  modern 
fiction  in  that  country  took  a  pseudo-bucolic  form,  and  the  cele- 
brated Astree  (1610)  of  Honore  d'Urfe  (1568-1625),  which  is  the 
earliest  French  novel,  is  properly  styled  a  pastoral.  But  this 
ingenious  and  diffuse  production,  in  which  all  is  artificial,  was 
the  source  of  a  vast  literature,  which  took  many  and  diverse 

•ms.  Although  its  action  was,  in  the  main,  languid  and 
sentimental,  there  was  a  side  of  the  Astree  which  encouraged 
that  extravagant  love  of  glory,  that  spirit  of  "  panache,"  which 
was  now  rising  to  its  height  in  France.  That  spirit  it  was  which 
animated  Marin  le  Roy,  sieur  de  Gomberville  (160x3-1674), 
who  was  the  inventor  of  what  have  since  been  known  as  the 
Heroical  Romances.  In  these  there  was  experienced  a  violent 
recrudescence  of  the  old  medieval  elements  of  romance,  the 


HEROIC  VERSE 


385 


impossible  valour  devoted  to  a  pursuit  of  the  impossible  beauty, 
but  the  whole  clothed  in  the  language  and  feeling  and  atmosphere 
of  the  age  in  which  the  books  were  written.  In  order  to  give 
point  to  the  chivalrous  actions  of  the  heroes,  it  was  always 
hinted  that  they  were  well-known  public  characters  of  the  day 
in  a  romantic  disguise. 

In  the  Astree  of  Honore  d'Urfe,  which  was  a  pure  pastoral, 
in  the  religious  romances  of  Pierre  Camus  (1582-1653),  in  the 
comic  Francion  of  Charles  Sorel,  piquancy  had  been  given  to 
the  recital  by  this  belief  that  real  personages  could  be  recognized 
under  the  disguises.  But  in  the  Carithee  of  Gomberville  (1621) 
we  have  a  pastoral  which  is  already  beginning  to  be  a  heroic 
romance,  arid  a  book  in  which,  under  a  travesty  of  Roman 
history,  an  appeal  is  made  to  an  extravagantly  chivalrous 
enthusiasm.  A  further  development  was  seen  in  the  Polyxene 
(1623)  of  Frangois  de  Moliere,  and  the  Endymion  (1624)  of 
Gombauld;  in  the  latter  the  elderly  queen,  Marie  de'  Medici, 
was  celebrated  under  the  disguise  of  Diana,  for  whom  a  beautiful 
shepherd  of  Caria  (the  author  himself)  nourishes  a  hopeless 
passion.  The  earliest  of  the  Heroic  Romances,  pure  and  simple, 
is,  however,  the  celebrated  Polexandre  (1629)  of  Gomberville. 
The  author  began  by  intending  his  hero  to  represent  Louis  XIII., 
but  he  changed  his  mind,  and  drew  a  portrait  of  Cardinal 
Richelieu.  In  this  novel,  for  the  first  time,  the  romantic  char- 
acter proper  to  this  class  of  books  is  seen  undiluted;  there  is  no 
intrusion  of  a  personage  who  is  not  celebrated  for  his  birth,  his 
beauty  or  his  exploits.  The  story  deals  with  the  adventures  of 
a  hero  who  visits  all  the  sea-coasts  of  the  world,  the  most  remote 
as  well  as  the  most  fabulous,  in  search  of  an  ineffable  princess, 
Alcidiane.  This  absurd  and  pretentious,  yet  very  original  piece 
of  invention  enjoyed  an  immense  success,  and  historical  romances 
of  a  similar  class  competed  for  the  favour  of  the  public.  There 
was  an  equal  amount  of  geography  and  more  of  ancient  history 
in  the  Ariane  (1632)  of  Desmarets  de  Saint-Sorlin  (1595-1676), 
a  book  which,  long  neglected,  has  in  late  years  been  rediscovered, 
and  which  has  been  greeted  by  M.  Paul  Morillot  as  the  most 
readable  and  the  least  tiresome  of  all  the  Heroic  Romances. 
The  type  of  that  class  of  literature,  however,  has  always  been 
found  in  the  highly  elaborate  writings  of  Gauthier  de  Coste  de 
la  Calprenede  (1609-1663),  which  enjoyed  for  a  time  a  prodigious 
celebrity,  and  were  read  and  imitated  all  over  Europe.  La 
Calprenede  was  a  Gascon  soldier,  imbued  with  all  the  extrava- 
gance of  his  race,  and  in  full  sympathy  with  the  audacity  and 
violence  of  the  aristocratic  society  of  France  in  his  day.  His 
Cassandre,  which  appeared  in  ten  volumes  between  1642  and  1645, 
is  perhaps  the  most  characteristic  of  all  the  Heroic  Romances. 
It  deals  with  a  highly  romantic  epoch  of  ancient  history,  the 
decline  of  the  empire  of  Alexander  the  Great.'  The  wars  of  the 
Persians  and  of  the  Scythians  are  introduced,  and  among  the 
characters  are  discovered  such  personages  as  Artaxerxes,  Roxana 
and  Ephestion.  It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  la 
Calprenede  makes  the  smallest  effort  to  deal  with  the  subject 
accurately  or  realistically.  The  figures  are  those  of  his  own  day ; 
they  are  seigneurs  and  great  ladies  of  the  court  of  Louis  XIII., 
masquerading  in  Macedonian  raiment.  The  passion  of  love  is 
dominant  throughout,  and  it  is  treated  in  the  most  exalted  and 
hyperbolical  spirit.  The  central  heroes  of  the  story,  Oroondate 
and  Lysimachus,  are  dignified,  eloquent  and  amorous;  they 
undergo  unexampled  privations  in  the  quest  of  incomparable 
ladies  whose  beauty  and  whose  nobility  is  only  equalled  by  their 
magnificent  loyalty.  These  books  were  written  with  an  aim 
that  was  partly  didactic.  Their  object  was  to  entertain  the 
ladies  and  to  gratify  a  taste  for  endlessly  wire-drawn  sentimen- 
tality, but  it  was  also  to  teach  fortitude  and  grandeur  of  soul 
and  to  inculcate  lessons  of  practical  chivalry.  La  Calprenede 
followed  up  the  success  of  his  Cassandre  with  a  Cleopdtre  (1647) 
in  twelve  volumes,  and  a  Faramond  (1661)  which  he  did  not  live 
to  finish.  He  became  more  extravagant,  more  rhapsodical  as 
he  proceeded,  aVid  he  lost  all  the  little  hold  on  history  which  he 
had  ever  held.  Cleopdtre,  nevertheless,  enjoyed  a  prodigious 
popularity,  and  it  became  the  fashion  to  emulate  as  far  as 
possible  the  prowess  of  its  magnificent  hero,  the  proud  Artaban. 

xm.  13 


It  should  be  said  that  la  Calprenede  objected  to  his  books  being 
styled  romances,  and  insisted  that  they  were  specimens  of 
"  history  embellished  with  certain  inventions."  He  may,  in 
opposition  to  his  wishes,  claim  the  doubtful  praise  of  being,  in 
reality,  the  creator  of  the  modern  historical  novel.  He  was 
immediately  imitated  or  accompanied  by  a  large  number  of 
authors,  of  whom  two  have  achieved  a  certain  immortality, 
which,  unhappily,  must  be  confessed  to  be  partly  of  ridicule. 
The  vogue  of  the  historical  romance  was  carried  to  its  height  by 
a  brother  and  a  sister,  Georges  de  Scudery  (1601-1667)  and 
Madeleine  de  Scudery  (1608-1701),  who  represented  in  their 
own  persons  all  the  extravagant,  tempestuous  and  absurd 
elements  of  the  age,  and  whose  elephantine  romances  remain  as 
portents  in  the  history  of  literature.  These  novels — there 
are  five  of  them — were  signed  by  Georges  de  Scudery,  but  it  is 
believed  that  all  were  in  the  main  written  by  Madeleine.  The 
earliest  was  Ibrahim,  ou  I'llluslre  Bassa  (1641);  it  was  followed 
by  Le  Grand  Cyrus  (1648-1653)  and  the  final,  and  most  pre- 
posterous member  of  the  series  was  Clelie  (1649-1654).  The 
romances  of  Mile  de  Scudery  (for  to  her  we  may  safely  attribute 
them)  are  much  inferior  in  style  to  those  of  la  Calprenede.  They 
are  pretentious,  affected  and  sickly.  The  author  abuses  the 
element  of  analysis,  and 'pushes  a  psychology,  which  was  beyond 
the  age  in  penetration,  to  a  wearisome  and  excessive  extent. 
Nothing,  it  is  probable,  in  the  whole  evolution  of  the  Historical 
Romances  has  attracted  so  much  attention  as  the  "  Carte  de 
Tendre  "  which  occurs  in  the  opening  book  of  Clelie.  This 
celebrated  map,  drawn  by  the  heroine  in  order  to  show  the  route 
from  New  Friendship  to  Tender,  and  a  geographical  symbol, 
therefore,  of  the  progress  of  love,  with  its  city  of  Tender-upon- 
Esteem,  its  sea  of  Enmity,  its  river  of  Inclination,  its  rock-built 
citadel  of  Pride,  its  cold  lake  of  Indifference,  is  a  miracle  of 
elaborate  and  incongruous  ingenuity.  But,  amusing  as  it  is, 
it  shows  into  what  depths  of  puerility  the  amorous  casuistry  of 
these  romances  had  fallen.  These  novels  formed  the  chief 
topic  of  conversation  and  of  correspondence  in  the  literary 
society  which  gathered  at  and  around  the  Hotel  de  Rambouillet, 
and  in  the  personages  of  Mile  de  Scudery's  romances  could  be 
recognized  all  the  famous  leaders  of  that  society.  The  mawkish 
love-making  and  the  false  heroism  of  these  monstrous  novels 
went  rapidly  out  of  fashion  in  France  soon  after  1660,  when  the 
epoch  of  the  Heroic  Romance  came  to  an  end.  In  England  the 
Heroic  Romance  had  a  period  of  flourishing  popularity.  All 
the  principal  French  examples  were  very  promptly  translated, 
and  "  he  was  not  to  be  admitted  into  the  academy  of  wit  who 
had  not  read  Aslrea  and  The  Grand  Cyrus."  The  great  vogue 
of  these  books  in  England  lasted  from  about  1645  to  1660. 
It  led,  of  course,  to  the  composition  of  original  works  in  imitation 
of  the  French.  The  most  remarkable  and  successful  of  these 
was  Parthenissa,  published  in  1654  by  Roger  Boyle,  Lord 
Broghill  and  afterwards  Earl  of  Orrery  (1621-1679),  which  was 
greatly  admired  by  Dorothy  Osborne  and  her  correspondents. 
Addison  speaks  in  the  "  Spectator  "  of  the  popularity  of  all 
these  huge  books,  "  the  Grand  Cyrus,  with  a  pin  stuck  in  one  of 
the  middle  leaves,  Clelie,  which  opened  of  itself  in  the  place  that 
describes  two  lovers  in  a  bower."  When  the  drama,  and  in 
particular  tragedy,  was  reinstituted  in  England,  sentimental 
readers  found  a  field  for  their  emotions  on  the  stage,  and  the 
heroic  romances  immediately  began  to  go  out  of  fashion.  They 
lingered,  however,  for  a  quarter  of  a  century  more,  and  M. 
Jusserand  has  analysed  what  may  be  considered  the  very 
latest  of  the  race,  Pandion  and  Amphigenia,  published  in  1665 
by  the  dramatist,  John  Crowne. 

See  Gordon  de  Percel,  De  I' usage  des  romans  (1734);  Andrfi  Le 
Breton,  Le  Roman  au  XVII"  siecle  (1890);  Paul  Morillot,  Le  Roman 
en  France  depuis  1610  (1894);  J.  J.  Jusserand,  Le  Roman  anglais  au 
XVII'  siecle  (1888).  (E.  G.) 


HEROIC  VERSE,  a  term  exclusively  used  in  English  to 
indicate  the  rhymed  iambic  line  or  HEROIC  COUPLET.  In  ancient 
literature,  the  heroic  verse,  •fipui.Kov  fierpov,  was  synonymous 
with  the  dactylic  hexameter.  It  was  in  this  measure  that  those 
typically  heroic  poems,  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  and  the  Aeneid 


386 


HEROLD— HERON 


were  written.  In  English,  however,  it  was  not  enough  to 
designate  a  single  iambic  line  of  five  beats  as  heroic  verse,  because 
it  was  necessary  to  distinguish  blank  verse  from  the  distich, 
which  was  formed  by  the  heroic  couplet.  This  had  escaped  the 
notice  of  Dryden,  when  he  wrote  "  The  English  Verse,  which  we 
call  Heroic,  consists  of  no  more  than  ten  syllables."  If  that 
were  the  case,  then  Paradise  Lost  would  be  written  in  heroic 
verse,  which  is  not  true.  What  Dryden  should  have  said  is 
"  consists  of  two  rhymed  lines,  each  of  ten  syllables."  In  French 
the  alexandrine  has  always  been  regarded  as  the  heroic  measure 
of  that  language.  The  dactylic  movement  of  the  heroic  line  in 
ancient  Greek,  the  famous  pufljuos  i?ptpos  of  Homer,  is  expressed 
in  modern  Europe  by  the  iambic  movement.  The  consequence 
is  that  much  of  the  rush  and  energy  of  the  antique  verse,  which 
at  vigorous  moments  was  like  the  charge  of  a  battalion,  is  lost. 
It  is  owing  to  this,  in  part,  that  the  heroic  couplet  is  so  often 
required  to  give,  in  translation,  the  full  value  of  a  single  Homeric 
hexameter.  It  is  important  to  insist  that  it  is  the  couplet,  not 
the  single  line,  which  constitutes  heroic  verse.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  the  Latin  poet  Ennius,  as  reported  by  Cicero,  called 
the  heroic  metre  of  one  line  iiersum  longum,  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  brevity  of  lyrical  measures.  The  current  form  of 
English  heroic  verse  appears  to  be  the  invention  of  Chaucer, 
who  used  it  in  his  Legend  of  Good  Women  and  afterwards,  with 
still  greater  freedom,  in  the  Canterbury  Tales.  Here  is  an 
example  of  it  in  its  earliest  development: — 

"  And  thus  the  longe  day  in  fight  they  spend, 
Till,  at  the  last,  as  everything  hath  end, 
Anton  is  shent,  and  put  him  to  the  flight, 
And  all  his  folk  to  go,  as  best  go  might." 

This  way  of  writing  was  misunderstood  and  neglected  by  Chaucer's 
English  disciples,  but  was  followed  nearly  a  century  later  by  the 
Scottish  poet,  called  Blind  Harry  (c.  1475),  whose  Wallace  holds 
an  important  place  in  the  history  of  versification  as  having 
passed  on  the  tradition  of  the  heroic  couplet.  Another  Scottish 
poet,  Gavin  Douglas,  selected  heroic  verse  for  his  translation  of 
the  Aencid  (1513),  and  displayed,  in  such  examples  as  the  follow- 
ing, a  skill  which  left  little  room  for  improvement  at  the  hands  of 
later  poets: — 

"  One  sang,  '  The  ship  sails  over  the  salt  foam, 
Will  bring  the  merchants  and  my  leman  home' ; 
Some  other  sings,  '  I  will  be  blithe  and  light, 
Mine  heart  is  leant  upon  so  goodly  wight.'  " 

The  verse  so  successfully  mastered  was,  however,  not  very 
generally  used  for  heroic  purposes  in  Tudor  literature.  The  early 
poets  of  the  revival,  and  Spenser  and  Shakespeare  after  them, 
greatly  preferred  stanzaic  forms.  For  dramatic  purposes  blank 
verse  was  almost  exclusively  used,  although  the  French  had 
adopted  the  rhymed  alexandrine  for  their  plays.  In  the  earlier 
half  of  the  iyth  century,  heroic  verse  was  often  put  to  somewhat 
unheroic  purposes,  mainly  in  prologues  and  epilogues,  or  other  short 
poems  of  occasion;  but  it  was  nobly  redeemed  by  Marlowe  in  his 
Hero  and  Leander  and  respectably  by  Browne  in  his  Britannia's 
Pastorals.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  those  Elizabethans 
who,  like  Chapman,  Warner  and  Drayton,  aimed  at  producing  a 
warlike  and  Homeric  effect,  did  so  in  shambling  fourteen-syllable 
couplets.  The  one  heroic  poem  of  that  age  written  at  considerable 
length  in  the  appropriate  national  metre  is  the  Bosworth  Field  of 
Sir  John  Beaumont  (1582-1628).  Since  the  middle  of  the  I7th 
century,  when  heroic  verse  became  the  typical  and  for  a  while 
almost  the  solitary  form  in  which  serious  English  poetry  was 
written,  its  history  has  known  many  vicissitudes.  After  having 
been  the  principal  instrument  of  Dryden  and  Pope,  it  was  almost 
entirely  rejected  by  Wordsworth  and  Coleridge,  but  revised, 
with  various  modifications,  by  Byron,  Shelley  (in  Julian  and 
Maddalo)  and  Keats  (in  Lamia).  In  the  second  half  of  the  igth 
century  its  prestige  was  restored  by  the  brilliant  work  of  Swin- 
burne in  Tristram  and  elsewhere.  (E.  G.) 

HAROLD,  LOUIS  JOSEPH  FERDINAND  (1791-1833),  French 
musician,  the  son  of  Francois  Joseph  Herold,  an  accomplished 
pianist,  was  born  in  Paris,  on  the  28th  of  January  1791.  It  was 
not  till  after  his  father's  death  that  Herold  in  1806  entered  the 
Paris  conservatoire,  where  he  studied  under  Catal  and  Mehul. 


In  1812  he  gained  the  grand  prix  de  Rome  with  the  cantata 
La  Duchesse  de  la  Valliere,  and  started  for  Italy,  where  he  re- 
mained till  1815  and  composed  a  symphony,  a  cantata  and 
several  pieces  of  chamber  music.  During  his  stay  in  Italy  also 
Herold  for  the  first  time  ventured  on  the  stage  with  the  opera 
La  Gioventu  di  Enrico  V.,  first  performed  at  Naples  in  1815  with 
moderate  success.  During  a  short  stay  in  Vienna  he  was  much 
in  the  society  of  Salieri.  Returning  to  Paris  he  was  invited  by 
Boieldieu  to  collaborate  with  him  on  an  opera  called  Charles  de 
France,  performed  in  1816,  and  soon  followed  by  Herold's  first 
French  opera,  Les  Rosieres  (1817),  which  was  received  very 
favourably.  Herold  produced  numerous  dramatic  works  for  the 
next  fifteen  years  in  rapid  succession.  Only  the  names  of  some  of 
the  more  important  need  here  be  mentioned: — La  Clochelte  (1817), 
L'Auteur  mart  et  vivant  (1820),  Marie  (1826),  and  the  ballets  La 
Fille  mal  gardee  (1828)  and  La  Belle  au  bois  dormant  (1829). 
Herold  also  wrote  a  vast  quantity  of  pianoforte  music,  in  spite  of 
his  time  being  much  occupied  by  his  duties  as  accompanist  at  the 
Italian  opera  in  Paris.  In  1831  he  produced  the  romantic  opera 
Zampa,  and  in  the  following  year  Le  Pre  aux  dercs  (first  perform- 
ance December  15,  1832),  in  which  French  esprit  and  French 
chivalry  find  their  most  perfect  embodiment.  These  two  operas 
secured  immortality  for  the  name  of  the  composer,  who  died  on 
the  i8th  of  January  1833,  of  the  lung  disease  from  which  he  had 
suffered  for  many  years,  and  the  effects  of  which  he  had  accelerated 
by  incessant  work.  Herold's  incomplete  opera  Ludovic  was 
afterwards  printed  by  J.  F.  F.  Halevy. 

HERON  (Fr.  heron;  Ital.  aghirone,  air  one;  Lat.  ardea; 
Gr.  epo>5toj:  A.-S.  hragra;  Icelandic,  hegre;  Swed.  hager; 
Dan.  heire;  Ger.  Heiger,  Reiher,  Heergans;  Dutch,  reiger),  a 
long-necked,  long-winged  and  long-legged  bird,  the  typical 
representative  of  the  group  Ardeidae.  It  is  difficult  or  even  im- 
possible to  estimate  with  any  accuracy  the  number  of  species  of 
Ardeidae  which  exist.  Professor  Hermann  Schlegel  in  1863 
enumerated  61,  besides  5  of  what  he  terms  "  conspecies,"  as 


FIG.  I. — Heron. 

contained  in  the  collection  at  Leyden  (Mus.  des  Pays-Bas, 
Ardeae,  64  pp.), — on  the  other  hand,  G.  R.  Gray  in  1871 
(Handlist,  &c.  iii.  26-34)  admitted  above  90,  while  Dr  Anton 
Reichenow  (Journ.furOrnithologie,  187 7,  pp.  232-275)  recognizes 
67  as  known,  besides  15  "  subspecies  "  and  3  varieties,  arranging 
them  in  3  genera,  Nycticorax,  Botaurus  and  Ardea,  with  17  sub- 
genera.  But  it  is  difficult  to  separate  the  family,  with  any 
satisfactory  result,  into  genera,  if  structural  characters  have  to 
be  found  for  these  groups,  for  in  many  cases  they  run  almost 
§  insensibly  into  each  other— though  in  common  language  it  is 
I  easy  to  speak  of  herons,  egrets,  bitterns,  night-herons  and 


HERON 


387 


boatbills.  With  the  exception  of  the  last,  Professor  Schlegel 
retains  all  in  the  genus  Ardea,  dividing  it  into  eight  sections,  the 
names  of  which  may  perhaps  be  Englished — great  herons,  small 
herons,  egrets,  semi-egrets,  rail-like  herons,  little  bitterns,  bitterns 
and  night-herons. 

The  common  heron  of  Europe,  Ardea  cinerea  of  Linnaeus,  is 
universally  allowed  to  be  the  type  of  the  family,  and  it  may  also 
be  regarded  as  that  of  Professor  Schlegel's  first  section.  The 
species  inhabits  suitable  localities  throughout  the  whole  of 
Europe,  Africa  and  Asia,  reaching  Japan,  many  of  the  islands 
of  the  Indian  Archipelago  and  even  Australia.  Though  by  no 
means  so  numerous  as  formerly  in  Britain,  it  is  still  sufficiently 
common,1  and  there  must  be  few  persons  who  have  not  seen  it 
rising  slowly  from  some  river-side  or  marshy  flat,  or  passing  over- 
head in  its  lofty  and  leisurely  flight  on  its  way  to  or  from  its 
daily  haunts;  while  they  are  many  who  have  been  enter- 
tained by  watching  it  as  it  sought  its  food,  consisting  chiefly 
of  fishes  (especially  eels  and  flounders)  and  amphibians — though 
young  birds  and  small  mammals  come  not  amiss — wading  midleg 
in  the  shallows,  swimming  occasionally  when  out  of  its  depth,  or 
standing  motionless  to  strike  its  prey  with  its  formidable  and  sure 
beak.  When  sufficiently  numerous  the  heron  breeds  in  societies, 
known  as  heronries,  which  of  old  time  were  protected  both  by  law 
and  custom  in  nearly  all  European  countries,  on  account  of  the 
sport  their  tenants  afforded  to  the  falconer.  Of  late  years,  partly 
owing  to  the  withdrawal  of  the  protection  they  had  enjoyed,  and 
still  more,  it  would  seem,  from  agricultural  improvement,  which, 
by  draining  meres,  fens  and  marshes,  has  abolished  the  feeding- 
places  of  a  great  population  of  herons,  many  of  the  larger 
heronries  have  broken  up — the  birds  composing  them  dispersing 
to  neighbouring  localities  and  forming  smaller  settlements,  most 
of  which  are  hardly  to  be  dignified  by  the  name  of  heronry,  though 
commonly  accounted  such.  Thus  the  number  of  so-called 
heronries  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  especially  in  England  and 
Wales,  has  become  far  greater  than  formerly,  but  no  one  can 
doubt  that  the  number  of  herons  has  dwindled.  The  sites  chosen 
by  the  heron  for  its  nest  vary  greatly.  It  is  generally  built  in  the 
top  of  a  lofty  tree,  but  not  unf requently  (and  this  seems  to  have 
been  much  more  usual  in  former  days)  near  or  on  the  ground 
among  rough  vegetation,  on  an  island  in  a  lake,  or  again  on  a 
rocky  cliff  of  the  coast.  It  commonly  consists  of  a  huge  mass  of 
sticks,  often  the  accumulation  of  years,  lined  with  twigs,  and  in  it 
are  laid  from  four  to  six  sea-green  eggs.  The  young  are  clothed 
in  soft  flax-coloured  down,  and  remain  in  the  nest  for  a  consider- 
able time,  therein  differing  remarkably  from  the  "  pipers  "  of  the 
crane,  which  are  able  to  run  almost  as  soon  as  they  are  hatched. 
The  first  feathers  assumed  by  young  herons  in  a  general  way 
resemble  those  of  the  adult,  but  the  pure  white  breast,  the 
black  throat-streaks  and  especially  the  long  pendent  plumes, 
which  characterize  only  the  very  old  birds,  and  are  most  beautiful 
in  the  cocks,  are  subsequently  acquired.  The  heron  measures 
about  3  ft.  from  the  bill  to  the  tail,  and  the  expanse  of  its  wings  is 
sometimes  not  less  than  6  ft.,  yet  it  weighs  only  between  3  and 
4  Ib. 

Large  as  is  the  common  heron  of  Europe,  it  is  exceeded  in 
size  by  the  great  blue  heron  of  America  (Ardea  herodias),  which 
generally  resembles  it  in  appearance  and  habits,  and  both  are 
smaller  than  the  A.  sumalrana  or  A.  typhon  of  India  and  the 
Malay  Archipelago,  while  the  A.  goliath,  of  wide  distribution  in 
Africa  and  Asia,  is  the  largest  of  all.  The  purple  heron,  A. 
purpurea,  as  a  well-known  European  species  having  a  great 
range  over  the  Old  World,  also  deserves  mention  here.  The 
species  included  in  Professor  Schlegel's  second  section  inhabit  the 
tropical  parts  of  Africa,  Australasia  and  America.  The  egrets, 
forming  his  third  group,  require  more  notice,  distinguished  as  they 
are  by  their  pure  white  plumage,  and,  when  in  breeding-dress,  by 

1  In  many  parts  of  England  it  is  generally  called  a  "  hernser  " — 
being  a  corruption  of  "  heronsewe,"  which,  as  Professor  Skeat  states 
(Elymol.  Dictionary,  p.  264),  is  a  perfectly  distinct  word  from 
"  heronshaw,"  commonly  confounded  with  it.  The  further  corrup- 
tion of  "  hernser  "  into  handsaw,"  as  in  the  well-known  proverb, 
was  easy  in  the  mouth  of  men  to  whom  hawking  the  heronsewe  was 
unfamiliar. 


the  beautiful  dorsal  tufts  of  decomposed  feathers  that  ordinarily 
droop  over  the  tail,  and  are  so  highly  esteemed  as  ornaments  by 
Oriental  magnates.  The  largest  species  is  A.  occidentalis,  only 
known  apparently  from  Florida  and  Cuba;  but  one  not  much 
less,  the  great  egret  (4.  alba),  belongs  to  the  Old  World,  breeding 
regularly  in  south-eastern  Europe,  and  occasionally  straying  to 
Britain.  A  third,  A.  egretta,  represents  it  in  America,  while  much 
the  same  may  be  said  of  two  smaller  species,  A.  garzetta,  the  little 
egret  of  English  authors,  and  A.  candidissima;  and  a  sixth, 
A.  intermedia,  is  common  in  India,  China  and  Japan,  besides 
occurring  in  Australia.  The  group  of  semi-egrets,  containing 
some  nine  or  ten  forms,  among  which  the  buff-backed  heron 
(A.  bubulcus),  is  the  only  species  that  is  known  to  have  occurred  in 
Europe,  is  hardly  to  be  distinguished  from  the  last  section  except 
by  their  plumage  being  at  certain  seasons  varied  in  some  species 
with  slaty-blue  and  in  others  with  rufous.  The  rail-like  herons 
form  Professor  Schlegel's  next  section,  but  it  can  scarcely  be 
satisfactorily  differentiated,  and  the  epithet  is  misleading,  for  its 
members  have  no  rail-like  affinities,  though  the  typical  species, 


FIG.  2. — Bittern. 

which  inhabits  the  south  of  Europe,  and  occasionally  finds  its 
way  to  England,  has  long  been  known  as  A.  ralloid.es?  Nearly 
all  these  birds  are  tropical  or  subtropical.  Then  there  is  the 
somewhat  better  defined  group  of  little  bitterns,  containing 
about  a  dozen  species — the  smallest  of  the  whole  family.  One 
of  them,  A.  minuta,  though  very  local  in  its  distribution,  is  a 
native  of  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  and  has  bred  in  England. 
It  has  a  close  counterpart  in  the  A.  exilis  of  North  America,  and 
is  represented  by  three  or  four  forms  in  other  parts  of  the  world, 
the  A.  pusilla  of  Australia  especially  differing  very  slightly  from 
it.  Ranged  by  Professor  Schlegel  with  these  birds,  which  are  all 
remarkable  for  their  skulking  habits,  but  more  resembling  the  true 
herons  in  their  nature,  are  the  common  green  bittern  of  America 
(A.  mrescens)  and  its  very  near  ally  the  African  A.  atricapilla, 
from  which  last  it  is  almost  impossible  to  distinguish  the  A. 
javanica,  of  wide  range  throughout  Asia  and  its  islands,  while 
other  species,  less  closely  related,  occur  elsewhere  as  A.flavicollis 
— one  form  of  which,  A.  gouldi,  inhabits  Australia. 

The  true  bitterns,  forming  the  genus  Botaurus  of  most  authors, 
seem  to  be  fairly  separable,  but  more  perhaps  on  account  of  their 
wholly  nocturnal  habits  and  correspondingly  adapted  plumage 
than  on  strictly  structural  grounds,  though  some  differences  of 
proportion  are  observable.  The  common  bittern  (q.v.)  of 

J  It  is  the  "  Squacco-Heron  "  of  modern  British  authors — the 
distinctive  name,  given  "  Sguacco  "  by  Willughby  and  Ray  from 
Aldrovandus,  having  been  misspelt  by  Latham. 


388 


HERPES— HERRERA 


Europe  (B.  stellaris),  is  widely  distributed  over  the  eastern 
hemisphere.1  Australia  and  New  Zealand  have  a  kindred  species, 
B.  pocciloptilus,  and  North  America  a  third,  B.  mugitans*  or 
B.  lentiginosus.  Nine  other  species  from  various  parts  of  the 
world  are  admitted  by  Professor  Schlegel,  but  some  of  them 
should  perhaps  be  excluded  from  the  genus  Botaurus. 

Of  the  night-herons  the  same  author  recognizes  six  species,  all 
of  which  may  be  reasonably  placed  in  the  genus  Nycticorax, 
characterized  by  a  shorter  beak  and  a  few  other  peculiarities, 
among  which  the  large  eyes  deserve  mention.  The  first  is  N. 
griseus,  a  bird  widely  spread  over  the  Old  World,  and  not  un- 
frequently  visiting  England,  where  it  would  undoubtedly  breed  if 
permitted.  Professor  Schlegel  unites  with  it  the  common  night- 
heron  of  America;  but  this,  though  very  closely  allied,  is  generally 
deemed  distinct,  and  is  the  N.  naevius  or  If,  gardcni  of  most 
writers.  A  clearly  different  American  species,  with  a  more 
southern  habitat,  is  the  N.  violaceus  or  N.  cayennensis,  while  others 
are  found  in  South  America,  Australia,  some  of  the  Asiatic  Islands 
and  in  West  Africa.  The  Galapagos  have  a  peculiar  species, 

N.  pauper,  and 
another,  so  far 
as  is  known, 
peculiar  to 
Rodriguez,  N. 
megacephalus, 
existed  in  that 
island  at  the 
time  of  its  being 
first  colonized, 
but  is  now 
extinct. 

The  boatbill, 
of  which  only 
one  species  is 
known,  seems 
to  be  merely 
a  night-heron 
with  an  ex- 
aggerated bill, 
—  so  much 
widened  as  to 
suggest  its 
English  name, 
— but  has  al- 
ways been  allowed  generic  rank.  This  curious  bird,  the 
Cancroma  cochlearia  of  most  authors,  is  a  native  of  tropical 
America,  and  what  is  known  of  its  habits  shows  that  they  are 
essentially  those  of  a  Nycticorax? 

Bones  of  the  common  heron  and  bittern  are  not  uncommon  in 
the  peat  of  the  East-Anglian  fens.  Remains  from  Sansan  and 
Langy  in  France  have  been  referred  by  Alphonse  Milne-Edwards 
to  herons  under  the  names  of  Ardea  perplexa  and  A.formosa;  a 
tibia  from  the  Miocene  of  Steinheim  am  Albuch  by  Dr  Fraas  to  an 
A.  similis,  while  Sir  R.  Owen  recognized  a  portion  of  a  sternum 
from  the  London  Clay  as  most  nearly  approaching  this  family. 

It  remains  to  say  that  the  herons  form  part  of  Huxley's  section 
Pelargomorphae,  belonging  to  his  larger  group  Desmognathae,  and 
to  draw  attention  to  the  singular  development  of  the  patches 
of  "  powder-down  "  which  in  the  family  Ardeidae  attain  a 
magnitude  hardly  to  be  found  elsewhere.  Their  use  is  utterly 
unknown.  (A.  N.) 

1  The  last-recorded  instance  of  the  bittern  breeding  in  England 
was  in   1868,  as    mentioned  by    Stevenson    (Birds  of   Norfolk,  ii. 
164). 

2  Richardson,  a  most  accurate  observer,  asserts  (Fauna  Boreali- 
Amerirana,  ii.  374)  that  its  booming  (whence  the  epithet)  exactly 
resembles  that  of  its  Old-World  congener,  but  American  ornitholo- 
gists seem  only  to  have  heard  the  croaking  note  it  makes  when 
disturbed. 

3  The  very  wonderful  shoe-bird  (Balaeniceps)  has  been  regarded  by 
many  authorities  as  allied  to  Cancroma ;  but  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  it  is  more  nearly  related  to  the  genus  Scopus  belonging  to  the 
storks.     The  sun-bittern  (Eurypyga)  forms  a  family  of  itself,  allied 
to  the  rails  and  cranes. 


FIG.  3.— Boatbill. 


HERPES  (from  the  Gr.  epirfiv,  to  creep),  an  inflammation  of 
the  true  skin  resulting  from  a  lesion  of  the  underlying  nerve  or 
its  ganglion,  attended  with  the  formation  of  isolated  or  grouped 
vesicles  of  various  sizes  upon  a  reddened  base.  They  contain  a 
clear  fluid,  and  either  rupture  or  dry  up.  Two  well-marked 
varieties  of  herpes  are  frequently  met  with,  (a)  In  herpes 
labialis  el  nasalis  the  eruption  occurs  about  the  lips  and  nose. 
It  is  seen  in  cases  of  certain  acute  febrile  ailments,  such  as  fevers, 
inflammation  of  the  lungs  or  even  in  a  severe  cold.  It  soon  passes 
off.  (6)  In  the  herpes  zoster,  zona  or  "  shingles  "  the  eruption 
occurs  in  the  course  of  one  or  more  cutaneous  nerves,  often  on  one 
side  of  the  trunk,  but  it  may  be  on  the  face,  limbs  or  other  parts. 
It  may  occur  at  any  age,  but  is  probably  more  frequently  met 
with  in  elderly  people.  The  appearance  of  the  eruption  is  usually 
preceded  by  severe  stinging  neuralgic  pains  for  several  days,  and, 
not  only  during  the  continuance  of  the  herpetic  spots,  but  long 
after  they  have  dried  up  and  disappeared,  these  pains  sometimes 
continue  and  give  rise  to  great  suffering.  The  disease  seldom 
recurs.  The  most  that  can  be  done  for  its  relief  is  to  protect  the 
parts  with  cotton  wool  or  some  dusting  powder,  while  the  pain 
may  be  allayed  by  opiates  or  bromide  of  potassium.  Quinine 
internally  is  often  of  service. 

HERRERA,  FERNANDO  DE  (c.  1534-1597),  Spanish  lyrical 
poet,  was  born  at  Seville.  Although  in  minor  orders,  he  addressed 
many  impassioned  poems  to  the  countess  of  Gelves,  wife  of  Alvaro 
Colon  de  Portugal;  but  it  is  suggested  that  these  should  be 
regarded  as  Platonic  literary  exercises  in  the  manner  of  Petrarch. 
As  is  shown  by  his  Anotaciones  a  las  obras  de  Garcilaso  de  la  Vega 
(1580),  Herrera  had  a  boundless  admiration  for  the  Italian 
poets,  and  continued  the  work  of  Boscan  in  naturalizing  the 
Italian  metrical  system  in  Spain.  His  commentary  on  Garcilaso 
involved  him  in  a  series  of  literary  polemics,  and  his  verbal 
innovations  laid  him  open  to  attack.  But,  even  if  his  amatory 
sonnets  are  condemned  as  insincere  in  sentiment,  their  work- 
manship is  admirable,  while  his  odes  on  the  battle  of  Lepanto.  on 
Don  John  of  Austria,  and  the  elegy  on  King  Sebastian  of  Portugal 
entitle  him  to  rank  as  the  greatest  of  Andalusian  poets  and  as  the 
most  important  of  the  followers  of  Garcilaso  de  la  Vega  (see 
VEGA).  His  poems  were  published  in  1582,  and  reprinted  with 
additions  in  1619;  they  are  reissued  in  the  Biblioleca  de  autores 
cspanoles,  vol.  xxxii.  Of  Herrera's  prose  works  only  the  Vida  y 
mucrla  de  Tomas  Moro  (1592)  survives;  it  is  a  translation  of  the 
life  in  Thomas  Stapleton's  Tres  Thomae  (1588). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — E.  Bourciez,  "  Les  Sonnets  de  Fernando  de 
Herrera,"  Annales  de  la  Faculte  des  Lettres  de  Bordeaux  (1891); 
Fernando  de  Herrera,  controversia  sobre  sus  anotaciones  a  les  obras 
de  Garcilaso  de  la  Vega  (Seville,  1870);  A.  Morel-Fatio,  L'Hymne 
sur  Lepanle  (Paris,  1893). 

HERRERA,  FRANCISCO  (1576-1656),  surnamed  el  Viejo  (the 
old),  Spanish  historical  and  fresco  painter,  studied  under  Luis 
Fernandez  in  Seville,  his  native  city,  where  he  spent  most  of  his 
life.  Although  so  rough  and  coarse  in  manners  that  neither 
scholar  nor  child  could  remain  with  him,  the  great  talents  of 
Herrera,  and  the  promptitude  with  which  he  used  them,  brought 
him  abundant  commissions.  He  was  also  a  skilful  worker  in 
bronze,  an  accomplishment  that  led  to  his  being  charged  with 
coining  base  money.  From  this  accusation,  whether  true  or 
false,  he  sought  sanctuary  in  the  Jesuit  college  of  San  Hermene- 
gildo,  which  he  adorned  with  a  fine  picture  of  its  patron  saint. 
Philip  IV.,  on  his  visit  to  Seville  in  1624,  having  seen  this  picture, 
and  learned  the  position  of  the  artist,  pardoned  him  at  once, warn- 
ing him,  however,  that  such  powers  as  his  should  not  be  degraded. 
In  1 6  50  Herrera  removed  to  Madrid,  where  he  lived  in  great  honour 
till  his  death  in  1656.  Herrera  was  the  first  to  relinquish  the 
timid  Italian  manner  of  the  old  Spanish  school  of  painting,  and 
to  initiate  the  free,  vigorous  touch  and  style  which  reached  such 
perfection  in  Velazquez,  who  had  been  for  a  short  time  his  pupil. 
His  pictures  are  marked  by  an  energy  of  design  and  freedom  of 
execution  quite  in  keeping  with  his  bold,  rough  character.  He  is 
said  to  have  used  very  long  brushes  in  his  painting;  and  it  is  also 
said  that,  when  pupils  failed,  his  servant  used  to  dash  the  colours 
on  the  canvas  with  a  broom  under  his  directions,  and  that  he 
worked  them  up  into  his  designs  before  they  dried.  The  drawing 


HERRERA  Y  TORDESILLAS— HERRICK 


389 


in  his  pictures  is  correct,  and  the  colouring  original  and  skilfully 
managed,  so  that  the  figures  stand  out  in  striking  relief.  What 
has  been  considered  his  best  easel-work,  the  "  Last  Judgment,"  in 
the  church  of  San  Bernardo  at  Seville,  is  an  original  and  striking 
composition,  showing  in  its  treatment  of  the  nude  how  ill-founded 
the  common  belief  was  that  Spanish  painters,  through  ignorance 
of  anatomy,  understood  only  the  draped  figure.  Perhaps  his  best 
fresco  is  that  on  the  dome  of  the  church  of  San  Buenaventura; 
but  many  of  his  frescoes  have  perished,  some  by  the  effects  of  the 
weather  and  others  by  the  artist's  own  carelessness  in  preparing 
his  surfaces.  He  has,  however,  preserved  several  of  his  own 
designs  in  etchings.  For  his  easel-works  Herrera  often  chose  such 
humble  subjects  as  fairs,  carnivals,  ale-houses  and  the  like. 

His  son  FRANCISCO  HERRERA  (1622-1685),  surnamed  el  Mozo 
(the  young),  was  also  an  historical  and  fresco  painter.  Unable  to 
endure  his  father's  cruelty,  the  younger  Herrera,  seizing  what 
money  he  could  find,  fled  from  Seville  to  Rome.  There,  instead 
of  devoting  himself  to  the  antiquities  and  the  works  of  the  old 
Italian  masters,  he  gave  himself  up  to  the  study  of  architecture 
and  perspective,  with  the  view  of  becoming  a  fresco-painter.  He 
did  not  altogether  neglect  easel-work,  but  became  renowned  for 
his  pictures  of  still-life,  flowers  and  fruit,  and  from  his  skill  in 
painting  fish  was  called  by  the  Italians  Lo  Spagnuolo  degli  pcsci. 
In  later  life  he  painted  portraits  with  great  success.  He  returned 
to  Seville  on  hearing  of  his  father's  death,  and  in  1660  was 
appointed  subdirector  of  the  new  academy  there  under  Murillo. 
His  vanity,  however,  brooked  the  superiority  of  no  one;  and 
throwing  up  his  appointment  he  went  to  Madrid.  There  he  was 
employed  to  paint  a  San  Hermenegildo  for  the  barefooted 
Carmelites,  and  to  decorate  in  fresco  the  roof  of  the  choir  of  San 
Felipe  el  Real.  The  success  of  this  last  work  procured  for  him  a 
commission  from  Philip  IV.  to  paint  in  fresco  the  roof  of  the 
Atocha  church.  He  chose  as  his  subject  for  this  the  Assumption 
of  the  Virgin.  Soon  afterwards  he  was  rewarded  with  the  title  of 
painter  to  the  king,  and  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the 
royal  buildings.  He  died  at  Madrid  in  1685.  Herrera  el  Mozo 
was  of  a  somewhat  similar  temperament  to  his  father,  and  offended 
many  people  by  his  inordinate  vanity  and  suspicious  jealousy. 
His  pictures  are  inferior  to  the  older  Herrera's  both  in  design  and 
in  execution;  but  in  some  of  them  traces  of  the  vigour  of  his 
father,  who  was  his  first  teacher,  are  visible.  He  was  by  no 
means  an  unskilful  colourist,  and  was  especially  master  of  the 
effects  of  chiaroscuro.  As  his  best  picture  Sir  Edmund  Head  in 
his  Handbook  names  his  "  San  Francisco,"  in  Seville  Cathedral. 
An  elder  brother,  known  as  Herrera  el  Rubio  (the  ruddy),  who 
died  very  young,  gave  great  promise  as  a  painter. 

HERRERA  Y  TORDESILLAS,  ANTONIO  DE  (1549-1625), 
Spanish  historian,  was  born  at  Cuellar,  in  the  province  of  Segovia 
in  Spain.  His  father,  Roderigo  de  Tordesillas,  and  his  mother, 
Agnes  de  Herrera,  were  both  of  good  family.  After  studying  for 
some  time  in  his  native  country,  Herrera  proceeded  to  Italy,  and 
there  became  secretary  to  Vespasian  Gonzago,  with  whom,  on 
his  appointment  as  viceroy  of  Navarre,  he  returned  to  Spain. 
Gonzago,  sensible  of  his  secretary's  abilities,  commended  him  to 
Philip  II.  of  Spain;  and  that  monarch  appointed  Herrera  first 
historiographer  of  the  Indies,  and  one  of  the  historiographers  of 
Castile.  Placed  thus  in  the  enjoyment  of  an  ample  salary, 
Herrera  devoted  the  rest  of  his  life  to  the  pursuit  of  literature, 
retaining  his  offices  until  the  reign  of  Philip  IV.,  by  whom  he  was 
appointed  secretary  of  state  very  shortly  before  his  death, 
which  took  place  at  Madrid  on  the  2gth  of  March  1625.  Of 
Herrera's  writings,  the  most  valuable  is  his  Historia  general  de 
los  hechos  de  los  Castellanos  en  las  islas  y  tierra  firme  del  Mar 
Oceano  (Madrid,  1601-1615,  4  vols.),  a  work  which  relates  the 
history  of  the  Spanish-American  colonies  from  1492  to  1554. 
The  author's  official  position  gave  him  access  to  the  state  papers 
and  to  other  authentic  sources  not  attainable  by  other  writers, 
while  he  did  not  scruple  to  borrow  largely  from  other  MSS., 
especially  from  that  of  Bartolome  de  Las  Casas.  He  used  his 
facilities  carefully  and  judiciously;  and  the  result  is  a  work  on 
the  whole  accurate  and  unprejudiced,  and  quite  indispensable 
to  the  student  either  of  the  history  of  the  early  colonies,  or  of  the 


institutions  and  customs  of  the  aboriginal  American  peoples. 
Although  it  is  written  in  the  form  of  annals,  mistakes  are  not 
wanting,  and  several  glaring  anachronisms  have  been  pointed 
out  by  M.  J.  Quintana.  "  If,"  to  quote  Dr  Robertson, 
"  by  attempting  to  relate  the  various  occurrences  in  the  New 
World  in  a  strict  chronological  order,  the  arrangement  of  events 
in  his  work  had  not  been  rendered  so  perplexed,  disconnected 
and  obscure  that  it  is  an  unpleasant  task  to  collect  from  different 
parts  of  his  book  and  piece  together  the  detached  shreds  of  a 
story,  he  might  justly  have  been  ranked  among  the  most  eminent 
historians  of  his  country."  This  work  was  republished  in  1730, 
and  has  been  translated  into  English  by  J.  Stevens  (London, 
1740),  and  into  other  European  languages. 

Herrera's  other  works  are  the  following:  Historia  de  lo  sucedido 
en  Escocia  e  Inglalerra  en  quarenta  y  quatro  anos  que  vii'io  la  reyna 
Maria  Estuarda  (Madrid,  1589);  Cinco  libros  de  la  historia  de 
Portugal,  y  conquista  de  las  islas  de  los  Azores,  1582-1583  (Madrid, 
1591);  Historia  de  lo  sucedido  en  Francia,  1585-1594  (Madrid, 
1598);  Historia  general  del  mundo  del  tiempo  del  rey  Felipe  II, 
desde  1559  hasla  su  muerte  (Madrid,  1601-1612,  3  vols.);  Tralado, 
relacion,  y  discurso  historico  de  los  movimientos  de  Aragon  (Madrid, 
1612);  Comentarios  de  los  hechos  de  los  Espanoles,  Franceses,  y 
Venecianos  en  Italia,  &c.,  1281-1550  (Madrid,  1624,  seq.).  See  W.  H. 
Prescott,  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,  vol.  ii. 

HERRICK,  ROBERT  (1591-1674),  English  poet,  was  born  at 
Cheapside,  London,  and  baptized  on  the  24th  of  August  1591. 
He  belonged  to  an  old  Leicestershire  family  which  had  settled  in 
London.  He  was  the  seventh  child  of  Nicholas  Herrick,  gold- 
smith, of  the  city  of  London,  who  died  in  1592,  under  suspicion 
of  suicide.  The  children  were  brought  up  by  their  uncle,  Sir 
William  Herrick,  one  of  the  richest  goldsmiths  of  the  day,  to 
whom  in  1607  Robert  was  bound  apprentice.  He  had  probably 
been  educated  at  Westminster  school,  and  in  1614  he  proceeded  to 
Cambridge;  and  it  was  no  doubt  during  his  apprenticeship  that 
the  young  poet  was  introduced  to  that  circle  of  wits  which  he  was 
afterwards  to  adorn.  He  seems  to  have  been  present  at  the  first 
performance  of  The  Alchemist  in  1610,  and  it  was  probably  about 
this  time  that  Ben  Jonson  adopted  him  as  his  poetical  "  son." 
He  entered  the  university  as  fellow-commoner  of  St  John's 
College,  and  he  remained  there  until,  in  1616,  upon  taking  his 
degree,  he  removed  to  Trinity  Hall.  A  lively  series  of  fourteen 
letters  to  his  uncle,  mainly  begging  for  money,  exists  at  Beau- 
manoir,  and  shows  that  Herrick  suffered  much  from  poverty  at 
the  university.  He  took  his  B.A.  in  1617,  and  in  1620  he  became 
master  of  arts.  From  this  date  until  1627  we  entirely  lose  sight  of 
him;  it  has  been  variously  conjectured  that  he  spent  these  years 
preparing  for  the  ministry  at  Cambridge,  or  in  much  looser 
pursuits  in  London.  In  1629  (September  30)  he  was  presented  by 
the  king  to  the  vicarage  of  Dean  Prior,  not  far  from  Totnes  in 
Devonshire.  At  Dean  Prior  he  resided  quietly  until  1648,  when 
he  was  ejected  by  the  Puritans.  The  solitude  there  oppressed 
him  at  first;  the  village  was  dull  and  remote,  and  he  felt  very 
bitterly  that  he  was  cut  off  from  all  literary  and  social  associa- 
tions; but  soon  the  quiet  existence  in  Devonshire  soothed  and 
delighted  him.  He  was  pleased  with  the  rural  and  semi-pagan 
customs  that  survived  in  the  village,  and  in  some  of  his  most 
charming  verses  he  has  immortalized  the  morris-dances,  wakes 
and  quintains,  the  Christmas  mummers  and  the  Twelfth  Night 
revellings,  that  diversified  the  quiet  of  Dean  Prior.  Herrick 
never  married,  but  lived  at  the  vicarage  surrounded  by  a  happy 
family  of  pets,  and  tended  by  an  excellent  old  servant  named 
Prudence  Baldwin.  His  first  appearance  in  print  was  in  some 
verses  he  contributed  to  A  Description  of  the  King  and  Queen 
of  Fairies,  in  1635.  In  1650  a  volume  of  Wit's  Recreations 
contained  sixty-two  small  poems  afterwards  acknowledged  by 
Herrick  in  the  Hesperides,  and  one  not  reprinted  until  our  own 
day.  These  partial  appearances  make  it  probable  that  he  visited 
London  from  time  to  time.  We  have  few  hints  of  his  life  as  a 
clergyman.  Anthony  Wood  says  that  Herricks's  sermons  were 
florid  and  witty,  and  that  he  was  "  beloved  by  the  neighbouring 
gentry."  A  very  aged  woman,  one  Dorothy  King,  stated  that 
the  poet  once  threw  his  sermon  at  his  congregation,  cursing  them 
for  their  inattention.  The  same  old  woman  recollected  his 
favourite  pig,  which  he  taught  to  drink  out  of  a  tankard.  He 


39° 


HERRIES,  J.  C.— HERRING 


was  a  devotedly  loyal  supporter  of  the  king  during  the  Civil 
War,  and  immediately  upon  his  ejection  in  1648  he  published  his 
celebrated  collection  of  lyrical  poems,  entitled  Hesperides;  or  the 
Works  both  Human  and  Divine  of  Robert  Herrick.  The  "  divine 
works  "  bore  the  title  of  Noble  Numbers  and  the  date  1647. 
That  he  was  reduced  to  great  poverty  in  London  has  been  stated, 
but  there  is  no  evidence  of  the  fact.  In  August  1662  Herrick 
returned  to  Dean  Prior,  supplanting  his  own  supplanter,  Dr 
John  Syms.  He  died  in  his  eighty-fourth  year,  and  was  buried 
at  Dean  Prior,  October  15,  1674.  A  monument  was  erected  to  his 
memory  in  the  parish  church  in  1857,  by  Mr  Perry  Herrick,  a 
descendant  of  a  collateral  branch  of  the  family.  The  Hesperides 
(and  Noble  Numbers)  is  the  only  volume  which  Herrick  published, 
but  he  contributed  poems  to  Lachrymae  Musarum  (1649)  and  to 
Wit's  Recreations. 

As  a  pastoral  lyrist  Herrick  stands  first  among  English  poets. 
His  genius  is  limited  in  scope,  and  comparatively  unambitious, 
but  in  its  own  field  it  is  unrivalled.  His  tiny  poems — and  of  the 
thirteen  hundred  that  he  has  left  behind  him  not  one  is  long — 
are  like  jewels  of  various  value,  heaped  together  in  a  casket. 
Some  are  of  the  purest  water,  radiant  with  light  and  colour, 
some  were  originally  set  in  f?lse  metal  that  has  tarnished,  some 
were  rude  and  repulsive  from  the  first.  Out  of  the  unarranged, 
heterogeneous  mass  the  student  has  to  select  what  is  not  worth 
reading,  but,  after  he  has  cast  aside  all  the  rubbish,  he  is  astonished 
at  the  amount  of  excellent  and  exquisite  work  that  remains. 
Herrick  has  himself  summed  up,  very  correctly,  the  themes  of  his 
sylvan  muse  when  he  says: — 

"  I  sing  of  brooks,  of  blossoms,  birds  and  bowers, 
Of  April,  May,  of  June  and  July  flowers, 
I  sing  of  May-poles,  hock-carts,  wassails,  wakes, 
Of  bridegrooms,  brides  and  of  their  bridal-cakes." 

He  saw  the  picturesqueness  of  English  homely  life  as  no 
one  before  him  had  seen  it,  and  he  described  it  in  his  verse 
with  a  certain  purple  glow  of  Arcadian  romance  over  it,  in 
tones  of  immortal  vigour  and  freshness.  His  love  poems  are 
still  more  beautiful;  the  best  of  them  have  an  ardour  and 
tender  sweetness  which  give  them  a  place  in  the  forefront  of 
modern  lyrical  poetry,  and  remind  us  of  what  was  best  in  Horace 
and  in  the  poets  of  the  Greek  anthology. 

After  suffering  complete  extinction  for  more  than  a  century,  the 
fame  of  Herrick  was  revived  by  John  Nichols,  who  introduced  his 
poems  to  the  readers  of  the  Gentleman's  Magazine  of  1796  and  1797. 
Dr  Drake  followed  in  1798  with  considerable  enthusiasm.  By  1810 
interest  had  so  far  revived  in  the  forgotten  poet  that  Dr  Nott  ventured 
to  print  a  selection  from  his  poems,  which  attracted  the  favourable 
notice  of  the  Quarterly  Review.  In  1823  the  Hesperides  and  the 
Noble  Numbers  were  for  the  first  time  edited  by  Mr  T.  Maitland, 
afterwards  Lord  Dundrennan.  Since  then  the  reprints  of  Herrick's 
have  been  too  numerous  to  be  mentioned  here;  there  are  few 
English  poets  of  the  .I7th  century  whose  writings  are  now  more 
accessible.  See  F.  W.  Moorman,  Robert  Herrick  (1910).  (E.  G.) 

HERRIES,  JOHN  CHARLES  (1778-1855),  English  politician, 
son  of  a  London  merchant,  began  his  career  as  a  junior  clerk 
in  the  treasury,  and  became  known  for  his  financial  abilities 
as  private  secretary  to  successive  ministers.  He  was  appointed 
commissary-in-chief  (1811),  and,  on  the  abolition  of  that  office 
(1816),  auditor  of  the  civil  list.  In  1823  he  entered  parliament 
as  secretary  to  the  treasury,  and  in  1827  became  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer  under  Lord  Goderich;  but  in  consequence  of  internal 
differences,  arising  partly  out  of  a  slight  put  upon  Herries,  the 
ministry  was  broken  up,  and  in  1828  he  was  appointed  master 
of  the  mint.  In  1830  he  became  president  of  the  board  of  trade, 
and  for  the  earlier  months  of  1835  he  was  secretary  at  war. 
From  1841  to  1847  he  was  out  of  parliament,  but  during  1852 
he  was  president  of  the  board  of  control  under  Lord  Derby. 
He  was  a  consistent  and  upright  Tory  of  the  old  school,  who 
carried  weight  as  an  authority  on  financial  subjects.  His  eldest 
son,  SIR  CHARLES  JOHN  HERRIES  (1815-1882),  was  chairman 
of  the  board  of  inland  revenue. 

See  the  Life  by  his  younger  son,  Edward  Herries  (1880). 

HERRIES,  JOHN  MAXWELL,  4TH  LORD  (c.  1512-1583), 
Scottish  politician,  was  the  second  son  of  Robert  Maxwell,  4th 
Lord  Maxwell  (d.  1546).  In  1547  he  married  Agnes  (d.  1594), 


daughter  of  William  Herries,  3rd  Lord  Herries  (d.  1543),  a 
grandson  of  Herbert  Herries  (d.  c.  1500)  of  Terregles,  Kirkcud- 
brightshire, who  was  created  a  lord  of  the  Scottish  parliament 
about  1490,  and  in  1567  he  obtained  the  title  of  Lord  Herries. 
But  before  this  event  Maxwell  had  become  prominent  among 
the  men  who  rallied  round  Mary  queen  of  Scots,  although 
during  the  earlier  part  of  his  public  life  he  had  been  associated 
with  the  religious  reformers  and  had  been  imprisoned  by  the 
regent,  Mary  of  Lorraine.  He  was,  moreover — at  least  until 
1563 — very  friendly  with  John  Knox,  who  calls  him  "  a  man 
zealous  and  stout  in  God's  cause."  But  the  transition  from  one 
party  to  the  other  was  gradually  accomplished,  and  from  March 
1566,  when  Maxwell  joined  Mary  at  Dunbar  after  the  murder 
of  David  Rizzio  and  her  escape  from  Holyrood,  he  remained  one 
of  her  staunches!  friends,  although  he  disliked  her  marriage  with 
Bothwell.  He  led  her  cavalry  at  Langside,  and  after  this  battle 
she  committed  herself  to  his  care.  Herries  rode  with  the  queer 
into  England  in  May  1568,  and  he  and  John  Lesley,  bishop  of 
Ross,  were  her  chief  commissioners  at  the  conferences  at  York. 
He  continued  to  labour  in  Mary's  cause  after  returning  to 
Scotland,  and  was  imprisoned  by  the  regent  Murray;  he  also 
incurred  Elizabeth's  displeasure  by  harbouring  the  rebel  Leonard 
Dacres,  but  he  soon  made  his  peace  with  the  English  queen. 
He  showed  himself  in  general  hostile  to  the  regent  Morton,  but 
he  was  among  the  supporters  of  the  regent  Lennox  until  his 
death  on  the  2oth  of  January  1583.  His  son  William,  5th  Lord 
Herries  (d.  1604),  was,  like  his  father,  warden  of  the  west  marches. 

William's  grandson  John,  7th  Lord  Herries  (d.  1677),  became 
3rd  earl  of  Nithsdale  in  succession  to  his  cousin  Robert  Maxwell, 
the  2nd  earl,  in  1667.  John's  grandson  was  William,  5th  earl  of 
Nithsdale,  the  Jacobite  (see  NITHSDALE).  William  was  deprived 
of  his  honours  in  1716,  but  in  1858  the  House  of  Lords  decided 
that  his  descendant  William  Constable-Maxwell  (1804-1876)  was 
rightly  Lord  Herries  of  Terregles.  In  1876  William's  son  Marma- 
duke  Constable-Maxwell  (b.  1837)  became  i2th  Lord  Herries, 
and  in  1884  he  was  created  a  baron  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

HERRING  (Clupea  harengus,  Haring  in  German,  le  hareng 
in  French,  sill  in  Swedish),  a  fish  belonging  to  the  genus  Clupea, 
of  which  more  than  sixty  different  species  are  known  in  various 
parts  of  the  globe.  The  sprat,  pilchard  or  sardine  and  shad 
are  species  of  the  same  genus..  Of  all  sea-fishes  Clupeae  are  the 
most  abundant;  for  although  other  genera  may  comprise  a 
greater  variety  of  species,  they  are  far  surpassed  by  Clupea 
with  regard  to  the  number  of  individuals.  The  majority  of  the 
species  of  Clupea  are  of  greater  or  less  utility  to  man;  it  is  only 
a  few  tropical  species  that  acquire,  probably  from  their  food, 
highly  poisonous  properties,  so  as  to  be  dangerous  to  persons 
eating  them.  But  no  other  species  equals  the  common  herring 
in  importance  as  an  article  of  food  or  commerce.  It  inhabits  in 
incredible  numbers  the  North  Sea,  the  northern  parts  of  the 
Atlantic  and  the  seas  north  of  Asia.  The  herring  inhabiting 
the  corresponding  latitudes  of  the  North  Pacific  is  another 
species,  but  most  closely  allied  to  that  of  the  eastern  hemisphere. 
Formerly  it  was  the  general  belief  that  the  herring  inhabits 
the  open  ocean  close  to  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  that  it  migrates 
at  certain  seasons  towards  the  northern  coasts  of  Europe  and 
America.  This  view  has  been  proved  to  be  erroneous,  and  we 
know  now  that  this  fish  lives  throughout  the  year  in  the  vicinity 
of  our  shores,  but  at  a  greater  depth,  and  at  a  greater  distance 
from  the  coast,  than  at  the  time  when  it  approaches  land  for 
the  purpose  of  spawning. 

Herrings  are  readily  recognized  and  distinguished  from  the 
other  species  of  Clupea  by  having  an  ovate  patch  of  very  small 
teeth  on  the  vomer  (that  is,  the  centre  of  the  palate).  In  the 
dorsal  fin  they  have  from  17  to  20  rays,  and  in  the  anal  fin  from 
1 6  to  18;  there  are  from  53  to  59  scales  in  the  lateral  line  and 
54  to  56  vertebrae  in  the  vertebral  column.  They  have  a 
smooth  gill-cover,  without  those  radiating  ridges  of  bone  which 
are  so  conspicuous  in  the  pilchard  and  other  Clupeae.  The 
sprat  cannot  be  confounded  with  the  herring,  as  it  has  no  teeth 
on  the  vomer  and  only  47  or  48  scales  in  the  lateral  line. 

The  spawn  of  the  herring  is  adhesive,  and  is  deposited  on 


HERRING-BONE— HERSCHEL,  SIR  F.  W. 


391 


rough  gravelly  ground  at  varying  distances  from  the  coast  and 
always  in  comparatively  shallow  water.  The  season  of  spawning 
is  different  in  different  places,  and  even  in  the  same  district,  e.g. 
the  east  coast  of  Scotland,  there  are  herrings  spawning  in  spring 
and  others  in  autumn.  These  are  not  the  same  fish  but  different 
races.  Those  which  breed  in  winter  or  spring  deposit  their 
spawn  near  the  coast  at  the  mouths  of  estuaries,  and  ascend  the 
estuaries  to  a  considerable  distance  at  certain  times,  as  in  the 
Firths  of  Forth  and  Clyde,  while  those  which  spawn  in  summer  or 
autumn  belong  more  to  the  open  sea,  e.g.  the  great  shoals  that 
visit  the  North  Sea  annually. 

Herrings  grow  very  rapidly;  according  to  H.  A.  Meyer's 
observations,  they  attain  a  length  of  from  17  to  18  mm.  during 
the  first  month  after  hatching,  34  to  36  mm.  during  the  second, 
45  to  50  mm.  during  the  third,  55  to  61  mm.  during  the  fourth, 
and  65  to  72  mm.  during  the  fifth.  The  size  which  they  finally 
attain  and  their  general  condition  depend  chiefly  on  the  abund- 
ance of  food  (which  consists  of  crustaceans  and  other  small 
marine  animals),  on  the  temperature  of  the  water,  on  the  season 
at  which  they  have  been  hatched,  &c.  Their  usual  size  is 
about  12  in.,  but  in  some  particularly  suitable  localities  they 
grow  to  a  length  of  15  in.,  and  instances  of  specimens  measuring 

17  in.  are  on  record.    In  the  Baltic,  where  the  water  is  gradually 
losing  its  saline  constituents,  thus  becoming  less  adapted  for 
the  development  of  marine  species,  the  herring  continues  to 
exist  in  large  numbers,  but  as  a  dwarfed  form,  not  growing 
either  to  the  size  or  to  the  condition  of  the  North-Sea  herring. 
The  herring  of  the  American  side  of  the  Atlantic  is  specifically 
identical  with  that  of  Europe.    A  second  species  (Clupea  leachii) 
has  been  supposed  to  exist  on  the  British  coast;  but  it  comprises 
only  individuals  of  a  smaller  size,  the  produce  of  an  early  or 
late  spawn.    Also  the  so-called  "  white-bait  "  is  not  a  distinct 
species,  but  consists  chiefly  of  the  fry  or  the  young  of  herrings 
and  sprats,  and  is  obtained  "in  perfection"  at  localities  where 
these  small  fishes  find  an  abundance  of  food,  as  in  the  estuary 
of  the  Thames. 

Several  excellent  accounts  of  the  herring  have  been  published, 
as  by  Valenciennes  in  the  2oth  vol.  of  the  Histoire  naturette  des 
poissons,  and  more  especially  by  Mr  J.  M.  Mitchell,  The  Herring, 
Us  Natural  History  and  National  Importance  (Edinburgh,  1864). 
Recent  investigations  are  described  in  the  Reports  of  the  Fishery 
Board  for  Scotland,  and  in  the  reports  of  the  German  Kommisxion 
zur  Untersuchung  der  Deutschen  Meere  (published  at  Kiel).  (J.  T.  C.) 

HERRING-BONE,  a  term  in  architecture  applied  to  alternate 
courses  of  bricks  or  stone,  which  are  laid  diagonally  with  binding 
courses  above  and  below:  this  is  said  to  give  a  better  bond  to 
the  wall,  especially  when  the  stone  employed  is  stratified,  such 
as  Stonefield  stone,  and  too  thin  to  be  laid  in  horizontal  courses. 
Although  it  is  only  occasionally  found  in  modern  buildings,  it 
was  a  type  of  construction  constantly  employed  in  Roman, 
Byzantine  and  Romanesque  work,  and  in  the  latter  is  regarded 
as  a  test  of  very  early  date.  It  is  frequently  found  in  the  Byzan- 
tine walls  in  Asia  Minor,  and  in  Byzantine  churches  was  employed 
decoratively  to  give  variety  to  the  wall  surface.  Sometimes  the 
diagonal  courses  are  reversed  one  above  the  other.  Examples 
in  France  exist  in  the  churches  at  Querqueville  in  Normandy 
and  St  Christophe  at  Suevres  (Loir  et  Cher),  both  dating  from 
the  loth  century,  and  in  England  herring-bone  masonry  is 
found  in  the  walls  of  castles,  such  as  at  Guildford,  Colchester  and 
Tamworth.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  paving  of  stable 
yards  with  bricks  laid  flat  diagonally  and  alternating  so  that  the 
head  of  one  brick  butts  against  the  side  of  another;  and  the 
effect  is  more  pleasing  than  when  laid  in  parallel  courses. 

HERRINGS,  BATTLE  OF  THE,  the  name  applied  to  the 
action  of  Rouvray,  fought  in  1429  between  the  French  (and 
Scots)  and  the  English,  who,  under  Sir  John  Falstolfe  (or 
Falstaff),  were  convoying  Lenten  provisions,  chiefly  herrings, 
to  the  besiegers  of  Orleans.  (See  ORLEANS  and  HUNDRED 
YEARS'  WAR.) 

HERRNHUT,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony, 

18  m.  S.E.  of  Bautzen,  and  situated  on  the  Lobau-Zittau  rail- 
way.    Pop.  1200.     It  is  chiefly  known  as  the  principal  seat  of 
the  Moravian  or  Bohemian  brotherhood,  the  members  of  which 


ire  called  Herrnhuter.  A  colony  of  these  people,  fleeing  from 
persecution  in  Moravia,  settled  at  Herrnhut  in  1722  on  a  site 
presented  by  Count  Zinzendorf.  The  buildings  of  the  society 
include  a  church,  a  school  and  houses  for  the  brethren,  the  sisters 
and  the  widowed  of  both  sexes,  while  it  possesses  an  ethno- 
graphical museum  and  other  collections  of  interest.  The  town 
is  remarkable  for  its  ordered,  regular  life  and  its  scrupulous 
cleanliness.  Linen,  paper  (to  varieties  of  which  Herrnhut  gives 
its  name),  tobacco  and  various  minor  articles  are  manufactured. 
The  Hutberg,  at  the  foot  of  which  the  town  lies,  commands  a 
pleasant  view.  Berthelsdorf,  a  village  about  a  mile  distant,  has 
been  the  seat  of  the  directorate  of  the  community  since  about 
1789. 

HERSCHEL,  CAROLINE  LUCRETIA  (1750-1848),  English 
astronomer,  sister  of  Sir  William  Herschel,  the  eighth  child  and 
fourth  daughter  of  her  parents,  was  born  at  Hanover  on  the 
1 6th  of  March  1750.  On  account  of  the  prejudices  of  her  mother, 
who  did  not  desire  her  to  know  more  than  was  necessary  for 
being  useful  in  the  family,  she  received  in  youth  only  the  first 
elements  of  education.  After  the  death  of  her  father  in'  1767  she 
obtained  permission  to  learn  millinery  and  dressmaking  with  a 
view  to  earning  her  bread,  but  continued  to  assist  her  mother 
in  the  management  of  the  household  until  the  autumn  of  1772, 
when  she  joined  her  brother  William,  who  had  established  himself 
as  a  teacher  of  music  at  Bath.  At  once  she  became  a  valuable 
co-operator  with  him  both  in  his  professional  duties  and  in  the 
astronomical  researches  to  which  he  had  already  begun  to  devote 
all  his  spare  time.  She  was  the  principal  singer  at  his  oratorio 
concerts,  and  acquired  such  a  reputation  as  a  vocalist  that  she 
was  offered  an  engagement  for  the  Birmingham  festival,  which, 
however,  she  declined.  When  her  brother  accepted  the  office 
of  astronomer  to  George  III.,  she  became  his  constant  assistant 
in  his  observations,  and  also  executed  the  laborious  calcula- 
tions which  were  connected  with  them.  For  these  services 
she  received  from  the  king  in  1787  a  salary  of  £50  a  year.  Her 
chief  amusement  during  her  leisure  hours  was  sweeping  the 
heavens  with  a  small  Newtonian  telescope.  By  this  means  she 
detected  in  1783  three  remarkable  nebulae,  and  during  the 
eleven  years  1786-1797  eight  comets,  five  of  them  with  un- 
questioned priority.  In  1797  she  presented  to  the  Royal 
Society  an  Index  to  Flamsteed  s  observations,  together  with  a 
catalogue  of  561  stars  accidentally  omitted  from  the  "  British 
Catalogue,"  and  a  list  of  the  errata  in  that  publication.  Though 
she  returned  to  Hanover  in  1822  she  did  not  abandon  her  astro- 
nomical studies,  and  in  1828  she  completed  the  reduction,  to 
January  1800,  of  2500  nebulae  discovered  by  her  brother.  In 
1828  the  Astronomical  Society,  tc  mark  their  sense  of  the  benefits 
conferred  on  science  by  such  a  series'  of  laborious  exertions, 
unanimously'resolved  to  present  her  with  their  gold  medal,  and 
in  1835  elected  her  an  honorary  member  of  the  society.  In  1846 
she  received  a  gold  medal  from  the  king  of  Prussia.  She  died  on 
the  gth  of  January  1848. 

See  The  Memoir  and  Correspondence  of  Caroline  Herschel,  by  Mrs 
John  Herschel  (1876). 

HERSCHEL,  SIR  FREDERICK  WILLIAM  (1738-1822), 
generally  known  as  Sir  William  Herschel,  English  astronomer, 
was  born  at  Hanover  on  the  isth  of  November  1738.  His 
father  was  a  musician  employed  as  hautboy  player  in  the 
Hanoverian  guard.  The  family  had  quitted  Moravia  for  Saxony 
in  the  early  part  of  the  i7th  century  on  account  of  religious 
troubles,  they  themselves  being  Protestants.  Herschel's  earlier 
education  was  necessarily  of  a  very  limited  character,  chiefly 
owing  to  the  warlike  commotions  of  his  country;  but  being  at 
all  times  an  indomitable  student,  he,  by  his  own  exertions,  more 
than  repaired  this  deficiency.  He  became  a  very  skilful  musician, 
both  theoretical  and  practical;  while  his  attainments  as  a 
self-taught  mathematician  were  fully  adequate  to  the  prosecution 
of  those  branches  of  astronomy  which  he  so  eminently  advanced 
and  adorned.  Whatever  he  did  he  did  methodically  and 
thoroughly;  and  in  this  methodical  thoroughness  lay  the  secret 
of  what  Arago  very  properly  termed  his  astonishing  scientific 
success. 


392 


HERSCHEL,  SIR  F.  W. 


In  1752,  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  he  joined  the  band  of  the 
Hanoverian  guard,  and  with  his  detachment  visited  England 
in  1755,  accompanied  by  his  father  and  eldest  brother;  in  the 
following  year  he  returned  to  his  native  country;  but  the 
hardships  of  campaigning  during  the  Seven  Years'  War  imperil- 
ling his  health,  his  parents  privately  removed  him  from  the 
regiment,  and  on  the  26th  of  July  1757  despatched  him  to 
England.  There,  as  might  have  been  expected,  the  earlier  part 
of  his  career  was  attended  with  formidable  difficulties  and  much 
privation.  We  find  him  engaged  in  several  towns  in  the  north 
of  England  as  organist  and  teacher  of  music,  which  were  not 
lucrative  occupations.  But  the  tide  of  his  fortunes  began  to 
flow  when  he  obtained  in  1766  the  appointment  of  organist  to 
the  Octagon  chapel  in  Bath,  at  that  time  the  resort  of  the  wealth 
and  fashion  of  the  city. 

During  the  next  five  or  six  years  he  became  the  leading  musical 
authority,  and  the  director  of  all  the  chief  public  musical  enter- 
tainments at  Bath.  His  circumstances  having  thus  become 
easier,  he  revisited  Hanover  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  back 
with  him  his  sister  Caroline,  whose  services  he  much  needed  in 
his  multifarious  undertakings.  She  arrived  in  Bath  in  August 
1772,  being  at  that  time  in  her  twenty-third  year.  She  thus 
describes  her  brother's  life  soon  after  her  arrival:  "  He  used 
to  retire  to  bed  with  a  bason  of  milk  or  a  glass  of  water,  with 
Smith's  Harmonics  and  Ferguson's  Astronomy,  &c.,  and  so  went 
to  sleep  buried  under  his  favourite  authors;  and  his  first  thoughts 
on  waking  were  how  to  obtain  instruments  for  viewing  those 
objects  himself  of  which  he  had  been  reading."  It  is  not  without 
significance  that  we  find  him  thus  reading  Smith's  Harmonics; 
to  that  study  loyalty  to  his  profession  would  impel  him;  as  a 
reward  for  his  thoroughness  this  led  him  to  Smith's  Optics; 
and  this,  by  a  natural  sequence,  again  led  him  to  astronomy, 
for  the  purposes  of  which  the  chief  optical  instruments  were 
devised.  It  was  in  this  way  that  he  was  introduced  to  the 
writings  of  Ferguson  and  Keill,  and  subsequently  to  those  of 
Lalande,  whereby  he  educated  himself  to  become  an  astronomer 
of  undying  fame.  In  those  days  telescopes  were  very  rare,  very 
expensive  and  not  very  efficient,  for  the  Dollonds  had  not  as  yet 
perfected  even  their  beautiful  little  achromatics  of  zf  in.  aperture. 
So  Herschel  was  obliged  to  content  himself  with  hiring  a  small 
Gregorian  reflector  of  about  2  in.  aperture,  which  he  had  seen 
exposed  for  loan  in  a  tradesman's  shop.  Not  satisfied  with  this 
implement,  he  procured  a  small  lens  of  about  18  ft.  focal  length, 
and  set  his  sister  to  work  on  a  pasteboard  tube  to  match  it,  so  as 
to  make  him  a  telescope.  This  unsatisfactory  material  was  soon 
replaced  by  tin,  and  thus  a  sorry  sort  of  vision  was  obtained  of 
Jupiter,  Saturn  and  the  moon.  He  then  sought  in  London  for 
a  reflector  of  much  larger  dimensions;  but  no  such  instrument 
was  on  sale;  and  the  terms  demanded  for  the  construction  of  a 
reflecting  telescope  of  5  or  6  ft.  focal  length  he  regarded  as  too 
exorbitant  even  for  the  gratification  of  such  desires  as  his  own. 
So  he  was  driven  to  the  only  alternative  that  remained;  he 
must  himself  build  a  large  telescope.  His  first  step  in  this 
direction  was  to  purchase  the  debris  of  an  amateur's  implements 
for  grinding  and  polishing  small  mirrors;  and  thus,  by  slow 
degrees,  and  by  indomitable  perseverance,  he  in  1774  had,  as 
he  says,  the  satisfaction  of  viewing  the  heavens  with  a  Newtonian 
telescope  of  6  ft.  focal  length  made  by  his  own  hands.  But  he 
was  not  contented  to  be  a  mere  star-gazer;  on  the  contrary, 
he  had  from  the  very  first  conceived  the  gigantic  project  of 
surveying  the  entire  heavens,  and,  if  possible,  of  ascertaining 
the  plan  of  their  general  structure  by  a  settled  mode  of  procedure, 
if  only  he  could  provide  himself  with  adequate  instrumental 
means.  For  this  purpose  he,  his  brother  and  his  sister  toiled 
for  many  years  at  the  grinding  and  polishing  of  hundreds  of 
specula,  always  retaining  the  best  and  recasting  the  others,  until 
the  most  perfect  of  the  earlier  products  had  been  surpassed. 
This  was  the  work  of  the  daylight  in  those  seasons  of  the  year 
when  the  fashionable  visitors  of  Bath  had  quitted  the  place,  and 
had  thus  freed  the  family  from  professional  duties.  After  1774 
every  available  hour  of  the  night  was  devoted  to  the  long-hoped- 
for  scrutiny  of  the  skies.  In  those  days  no  machinery  had  been 


invented  for  the  construction  of  telescopic  mirrors;  the  man 
who  had  the  hardihood  to  undertake  polishing  them  doomed 
himself  to  walk  leisurely  and  uniformly  round  an  upright  post 
for  many  hours,  without  removing  his  hands  from  the  mirror,  until 
his  work  was  done.  On  these  occasions  Herschel  received  his  food 
from  the  hands  of  his  faithful  sister.  But  his  reward  was  nigh. 

In  May  1780  his  first  two  papers  containing  some  results  of  his 
observations  on  the  variable  star  "  Mira  "  and  the  mountains  of 
the  moon  were  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society  through 
the  influential  introduction  of  Dr  William  Watson.  Herschel 
had  made  his  acquaintance  in  a  characteristic  manner.  In  order 
to  obtain  a  sight  of  the  moon  the  astronomer  had  taken  his 
telescope  into  the  street  opposite  his  house;  the  celebrated 
physician  happening  to  pass  at  the  time,  and  seeing  his  eye 
removed  for  a  moment  from  the  instrument,  requested  permission 
to  take  his  place.  The  mutual  courtesies  and  intelligent  conversa- 
tion which  ensued  soon  ripened  this  casual  acquaintance  into  a 
solid  and  enduring  regard. 

The  phenomena  of  variable  stars  were  examined  by  Herschel 
as  a  guide  to  what  might  be  occurring  in  our  own  sun.  The  sun, 
he  knew,  rotated  on  its  axis,  and  he  knew  that  dark  spots  often 
exist  on  its  photosphere;  the  questions  that  he  put  to  himself 
were —  Are  there  dark  spots  also  on  variable  stars?  Do  the  stars 
also  rotate  on  their  axes?  or  are  they  sometimes  partially 
eclipsed  by  the  intervention  of  opaque  bodies?  And  he  went  on 
to  enquire,  What  are  these  singular  spots  upon  the  sun?  and 
have  they  any  practical  relation  to  the  inhabitants  of  this  planet? 
To  these  questions  he  applied  his  telescopes  and  his  thoughts; 
and  he  communicated  the  results  to  the  Royal  Society  in  no  less 
than  six  memoirs,  occupying  very  many  pages  in  the  Philosophical 
Transactions,  and  extending  in  date  from  1780  to  1 80 1.  It  was 
in  the  latter  year  that  these  remarkable  papers  culminated  in  the 
inquiry  whether  any  relation  could  be  traced  in  the  recurrence  of 
sun-spots,  regarded  as  evidences  of  solar  activity,  and  the  varying 
seasons  of  our  planet,  as  exhibited  by  the  varying  price  of  corn. 
Herschel's  reply  was  inconclusive;  nor  has  a  final  solution  of  the 
related  problems  yet  been  obtained. 

In  1781  he  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society  the  first  of  a 
series  of  papers  on  the  rotation  of  the  planets  and  of  their  several 
satellites.  The  object  which  he  had  in  view  was  not  so  much  to 
ascertain  the  times  of  their  rotation  as  to  discover  whether 
those  rotations  are  strictly  uniform.  From  the  result  he  expected 
to  gather,  by  analogy,  the  probability  of  an  alteration  in  the 
length  of  our  own  day.  These  inquiries  occupy  the  greaterpart  of 
seven  memoirs  extending  from  1781  to  1797.  While  engaged  on 
them  he  noticed  the  curious  appearance  of  a  white  spot  near  to 
each  of  the  poles  of  the  planet  Mars.  On  investigat  ing  the  inclina- 
tion of  its  axis  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit,  and  finding  that  it  differed 
little  from  that  of  the  earth,  he  concluded  that  its  changes  of 
climate  also  would  resemble  our  own,  and  that  these  white 
patches  were  probably  polar  snow.  Modern  researches  have  con- 
firmed his  conclusion.  He  also  discovered  that,  as  far  as  his 
observations  extended,  the  times  of  the  rotations  of  the  various 
satellites  round  their  axes  conform  to  the  analogy  of  our  moon  by 
equalling  the  times  of  their  revolution  round  their  primaries. 
Here  again  we  perceive  that  his  discoveries  arose  out  of  the 
systematic  and  comprehensive  nature  of  his  investigation. 
Nothing  with  such  a  man  is  accidental. 

In  the  same  year  (1781)  Herschel  made  a  discovery  which 
completely  altered  the  character  of  his  professional  life.  In  the 
course  of  a  methodical  review  of  the  heavens  he  lighted  on  an 
object  which  at  first  he  supposed  to  be  a  comet,  but  which,  by 
its  subsequent  motions  and  appearance,  averred  itself  to  be  a 
new  planet,  moving  outside  the  orbit  of  Saturn.  The  name  of 
Georgium  Sidus  was  by  him  assigned  to  it,  but  has  by  general 
consent  been  laid  aside  in  favour  of  Uranus.  The  object  was 
detected  with  a  7-ft.  reflector  having  an  aperture  of  65  in.;  sub- 
sequently, when  he  had  provided  himself  with  a  much  more 
powerful  telescope,  of  20  ft.  focal  length,  he  discovered,  as  he 
believed,  no  less  than  six  Uranian  satellites.  Modern  observations, 
while  abolishing  four  of  these  supposed  attendants,  have  added 
two  others  apparently  not  observed  by  Herschel.  Seven  memoirs 


HERSCHEL,  SIR  J.  F.  W. 


on  the  subject  were  communicated  by  him  to  the  Royal  Society, 
extending  from  the  date  of  the  discovery  in  1781  to  1815.  A 
noteworthy  peculiarity  in  Herschel's  mode  of  observation  led  to 
the  discovery  of  this  planet.  He  had  observed  that  the  spurious 
diameters  of  stars  are  not  much  affected  by  increasing  the  magni- 
fying powers,  but  that  the  case  is  different  with  other  celestial 
objects;  hence  if  anything  in  his  telescopic  field  struck  him  as 
unusual  in  aspect,  he  immediately  varied  the  magnifying  power 
in  order  to  decide  its  nature.  Thus  Uranus  was  discovered ;  and 
had  a  similar  method  been  applied  to  Neptune,  that  planet 
would  have  been  found  at  Cambridge  some  months  before  it  was 
recognized  at  Berlin. 

We  now  come  to  the  beginning  of  Herschel's  most  important 
series  of  observations,  culminating  in  what  ought  probably  to  be 
regarded  as  his  capital  discovery.  A  material  part  of  the  task 
which  he  had  set  himself  embraced  the  determination  of  the 
relative  distances  of  the  stars  from  our  sun  and  from  each  other. 
Now,  in  the  course  of  his  scrutiny  of  the  heavens,  he  had  observed 
many  stars  in  apparently  very  close  contiguity,  but  often 
differing  greatly  in  relative  brightness.  He  concluded  that,  on 
the  average,  the  brighter  star  would  be  the  nearer  to  us,  the 
smaller  enormously  more  distant;  and  considering  that  an 
astronomer  on  the  earth,  in  consequence  of  its  immense  orbital 
displacement  of  some  180  millions  of  miles  every  six  months, 
would  see  such  a  pair  of  stars  under  different  perspective  aspects, 
he  perceived  that  the  measurement  of  these  changes  should  lead 
to  an  approximate  determination  of  the  stars'  relative  distances. 
He  therefore  mapped  down  the  places  and  aspects  of  all  the 
double  stars  that  he  met  with,  and  communicated  in  1782  and 
1785  very  extensive  catalogues  of  the  results.  Indeed,  his  very 
last  scientific  memoir,  sent  to  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society  in 
the  year  1822,  when  he  was  its  first  president  and  already  in  the 
eighty-fourth  year  of  his  age,  related  to  these  investigations. 
In  the  memoir  of  1 78  2  he  threw  out  the  hint  that  these  apparently 
contiguous  stars  might  be  genuine  pairs  in  mutual  revolution; 
but  he  significantly  added  that  the  time  had  not  yet  arrived  for 
settling  the  question.  Eleven  years  afterwards  (1793),  he  re- 
measured  the  relative  positions  of  many  such  couples,  and  we 
may  conceive  what  his  feelings  must  have  been  at  finding  his 
prediction  verified.  For  he  ascertained  that  some  of  these  stars 
circulated  round  each  other,  after  the  manner  required  by  the 
laws  of  gravitation,  and  thus  demonstrated  the  action  among  the 
distant  members  of  the  starry  firmament  of  the  same  mechanical 
laws  which  bind  together  the  harmonious  motions  of  our  solar 
system.  This  sublime  discovery,  announced  in  1802,  would  of 
itself  suffice  to  immortalize  his  memory.  If  only  he  had  lived 
long  enough  to  learn  the  approximate  distances  of  some  of 
these  binary  combinations,  he  would  at  once  have  been  able  to 
calculate  their  masses  relative  to  that  of  our  own  sun;  and  the 
quantities  being,  as  we  now  know,  strictly  comparable,  he  would 
have  found  another  of  his  analogical  conjectures  realized. 

In  the  year  1782  Herschel  was  invited  to  Windsor  by 
George  III.,  and  accepted  the  king's  offer  to  become  his  private 
astronomer,  and  henceforth  devote  himself  wholly  to  a  scientific 
career.  His  salary  was  fixed  at  £200  per  annum,  to  which  an 
addition  of  £50  per  annum  was  subsequently  made  for  the 
astronomical  assistance  of  his  sister.  Dr  Watson,  to  whom  alone 
the  amount  was  mentioned,  made  the  natural  remark,  "  Never 
before  was  honour  purchased  by  a  monarch  at  so  cheap  a  rate." 
In  this  way  the  great  astronomer  removed  from  Bath,  first  to 
Datchet  and  soon  afterwards  permanently  to  Slough,  within  easy 
access  of  his  royal  patron  at  Windsor. 

The  old  pursuits  at  Bath  were  soon  resumed  at  Slough,  but 
with  renewed  vigour  and  without  the  former  professional 
interruptions.  The  greater  part,  in  fact,  of  the  papers  already 
referred  to  are  dated  from  Datchet  and  Slough;  for  the  magnifi- 
cent astronomical  speculations  in  which  he  was  engaged,  though 
for  the  most  part  conceived  in  the  earlier  portion  of  his  philo- 
sophical career,  required  years  of  patient  observation  before 
they  could  be  fully  examined  and  realized. 

It  was  at  Slough  in  1783  that  he  wrote  his  first  memorable 
paper  on  the  "  Motion  of  the  Solar  System  in  Space," — a  sublime 


393 

speculation,  yet  through  his  genius  realized  by  considerations 
of  the  utmost  simplicity.  He  returned  to  the  same  subject 
with  fuller  details  in  1805.  It  was  also  after  his  removal  to 
Slough  that  he  published  his  first  memoir  on  the  construction 
of  the  heavens,  which  from  the  first  had  been  the  inspiring  idea 
of  his  varied  toils.  In  a  long  series  of  remarkable  papers, 
addressed  as  usual  to  the  Royal  Society,  and  extending  from 
the  year  1784  to  1818,  when  he  was  eighty  years  of  age,  he  demon- 
strated the  fact  that  our  sun  is  a  star  situated  not  far  from  the 
bifurcation  of  the  Milky  Way,  and  that  all  the  stars  visible  to 
us  lie  more  or  less  in  clusters  scattered  throughout  a  comparatively 
thin,  but  immensely  extended  stratum.  At  one  time  he  imagined 
that  his  powerful  instruments  had  pierced  through  this  stellar 
stratum,  and  that  he  had  approximately  determined  the  form 
of  some  of  its  boundaries.  In  the  last  of  his  memoirs,  having 
convinced  himself  of  his  error,  he  admitted  that  to  his  telescopes 
the  Milky  Way  was  "  fathomless."  On  either  side  of  this 
assemblage  of  stars,  presumably  in  ceaseless  motion  round  their 
common  centre  of  gravity,  Herschel  discovered  a  canopy  of 
discrete  nebulous  masses,  such  as  those  from  the  condensation 
of  which  he  supposed  the  whole  stellar  universe  to  have  been 
formed, — a  magnificent  conception,  pursued  with  a  force  of 
genius  and  put  to  the  practical  test  of  observation  with  an 
industry  almost  incredible. 

Hitherto  we  have  said  nothing  about  the  great  reflecting 
telescope,  of  40  ft.  focal  length  and  4  ft.  aperture,  the  construction 
of  which  is  often,  though  mistakenly,  regarded  as  his  chief 
performance.  The  full  description  of  this  celebrated  instrument 
will  be  found  in  the  8sth  volume  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal 
Society.  On  the  day  that  it  was  finished  (August  28,  1789) 
Herschel  saw  at  the  first  view,  in  a  grandeur  not  witnessed 
before,  the  Saturnian  system  with  six  satellites,  five  of  which 
had  been  discovered  long  before  by  C.  Huygens  and  G.  D. 
Cassini,  while  the  sixth,  subsequently  named  Enceladus,  he  had, 
two  years  before,  sighted  by  glimpses  in  his  exquisite  little 
telescope  of  6%  in.  aperture,  but  now  saw  in  unmistakable 
brightness  with  the  towering  giant  he  had  just  completed.  On 
the  1 7th  of  September  he  discovered  a  seventh,  which  proved 
to  be  the  nearest  to  the  globe  of  Saturn.  It  has  since  received 
the  name  of  Mimas.  It  is  somewhat  remarkable  that,  notwith- 
standing his  long  and  repeated  scrutinies  of  this  planet,  the 
eighth  satellite,  Hyperion,  and  the  crape  ring  should  have 
escaped  him. 

Herschel  married,  on  the  8th  of  May  1788,  the  widow  of  Mr 
John  Pitt,  a  wealthy  London  merchant,  by  whom  he  had  an 
only  son,  John  Frederick  William.  The  prince  regent  conferred 
a  Hanoverian  knighthood  upon  him  in  1816.  But  a  far  more 
valued  and  less  tardy  distinction  was  the  Copley  medal  assigned 
to  him  by  his  associates  in  the  Royal  Society  in  1781. 

He  died  at  Slough  on  the  25th  of  August  1822,  in  the  eighty- 
fourth  year  of  his  age,  and  was  buried  under  the  tower  of  St 
Laurence's  Church,  Upton,  within  a  few  hundred  yards  of  the 
old  site  of  the  4o-ft.  telescope.  A  mural  tablet  on  the  wall  of 
the  church  bears  a  Latin  inscription  from  the  pen  of  the  late 
Dr  Goodall,  provost  of  Eton  College. 

See  Mrs  John  Herschel,  Memoir  of  Caroline  Herschel  (1876); 
E.  S.  Holden,  Herschel,  his  Life  and  Works  (1881);  A.  M.  Clerke, 
The  Herschels  and  Modern  Astronomy  (1895);  E.  S.  Holden  and 
C.  S.  Hastings,  Synopsis  of  the  Scientific  Writings  of  Sir  William 
Herschel  (Washington,  1881);  Baron  Laurier,  £loge  historique,  Paris 
Memoirs  (1823),  p.  Ixi. ;  F.  Arago,  Analyse  historique,  Annuaire  du 
Bureau  des  Longitudes  (1842),  p.  249;  Arago,  Biographies  of  Scientific 
Men,  p.  167;  Madame  d'Arblay's  Diary,  passim;  Public  Characters 
(1798-1799),  p.  384  (with  portrait);  J.  Sime,  William  Herschel  and 
his  Work  (1900).  Herschel's  photometric  Star  Catalogues  were 
discussed  and  reduced  by  E.  C.  Pickering  in  Harvard  Annals,  vols. 
xiv.  p.  345,  xxiii.  p.  185,  and  xxiv.  (C.  P. ;  A.  M.  C.) 

HERSCHEL,    SIR    JOHN    FREDERICK    WILLIAM,    BAKT. 

(1792-1871),  English  astronomer,  the  only  son  of  Sir  William 
Herschel,  was  born  at  Slough,  Bucks,  on  the  7th  of  March  1792. 
His  scholastic  education  commenced  at  Eton,  but  maternal 
fears  or  prejudices  soon  removed  him  to  the  house  of  a  private 
tutor.  Thence,  at  the  early  age  of  seventeen,  he  was  sent  to 
St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  the  form  and  method  of  the 


HERSCHEL,  SIR  J.  F.  W. 


394 

mathematical  instruction  he  there  received  exercised  a  material 
influence  on  the  whole  complexion  of  his  scientific  career.  In 
due  time  the  young  student  won  the  highest  academical  distinc- 
tion of  his  year,  graduating  as  senior  wrangler  in  1813.  It  was 
during  his  undergraduateship  that  he  and  two  of  his  fellow- 
students  who  subsequently  attained  to  very  high  eminence, 
Dean  Peacock  and  Charles  Babbage,  entered  into  a  compact 
that  they  would  "  do  their  best  to  leave  the  world  wiser  than  they 
found  it," — a  compact  loyally  and  successfully  carried  out  by 
all  three  to  the  end.  As  a  commencement  of  this  laudable 
attempt  we  find  Herschel  associated  with  these  two  friends  in 
the  production  of  a  work  on  the  differential  calculus,  and  on 
cognate  branches  of  mathematical  science,  which  changed  the 
style  and  aspect  of  mathematical  learning  in  England,  and  brought 
it  up  to  the  level  of  the  Continental  methods.  Two  or  three 
memoirs  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society  on  new  applica- 
tions of  mathematical  analysis  at  once  placed  him  in  the  front 
rank  of  the  cultivators  of  this  branch  of  knowledge.  Of  these 
his  father  had  the  gratification  of  introducing  the  first,  but  the 
others  were  presented  in  his  own  right  as  a  fellow. 

With  the  intention  of  being  called  to  the  bar,  he  entered  his 
name  at  Lincoln's  Inn  on  the  24th  of  January  1814,  and  placed 
himself  under  the  guidance  of  an  eminent  special  pleader. 
Probably  this  temporary  choice  of  a  profession  was  inspired 
by  the  extraordinary  success  in  legal  pursuits  which  had  attended 
the  efforts  of  some  noted  Cambridge  mathematicians.  Be  that 
as  it  may,  an  early  acquaintance  with  Dr  Wollaston  in  London 
soon  changed  the  direction  of  his  studies.  He  experimented 
in  physical  optics;  took  up  astronomy  in  1816;  and  in  1820, 
assisted  by  his  father,  he  completed  for  a  reflecting  telescope  a 
mirror  of  18  in.  diameter  and  20  ft.  focal  length.  This,  subse- 
quently improved  by  his  own  hands,  became  the  instrument 
which  enabled  him  to  effect  the  astronomical  observations 
forming  the  chief  basis  of  his  fame.  In  1821-1823  we  find  him 
associated  with  Sir  James  South  in  the  re-examination  of  his 
father's  double  stars,  by  the  aid  of  two  excellent  refractors,  of 
7  and  5  ft.  focal  length  respectively.  For  this  work  he  was 
presented  in  1826  with  the  Astronomical  Society's  gold  medal; 
and  with  the  Lalande  medal  of  the  French  Institute  in  1825; 
while  the  Royal  Society  had  in  1821  bestowed  upon  him  the 
Copley  medal  for  his  mathematical  contributions  to  their 
Transactions.  From  1824  to  1827  he  held  the  responsible  post 
of  secretary  to  that  society;  and  was  in  1827  elected  to  the  chair 
of  the  Astronomical  Society,  which  office  he  also  filled  on  two 
subsequent  occasions.  In  the  discharge  of  his  duties  to  the  last- 
named  society  he  delivered  presidential  addresses  and  wrote 
obituary  notices  of  deceased  fellows,  memorable  for  their 
combination  of  eloquence  and  wisdom.  In  1831  the  honour  of 
knighthood  was  conferred  on  him  by  William  IV.,  and  two  years 
later  he  again  received  the  recognition  of  the  Royal  Society  by 
the  award  of  one  of  their  medals  for  his  memoir  "  On  the  In- 
vestigation of  the  Orbits  of  Revolving  Double  Stars."  The 
award  significantly  commemorated  his  completion  of  his  father's 
discovery  of  gravitational  stellar  systems  by  the  invention  of  a 
graphical  method  whereby  the  eye  could  as  it  were  see  the 
two  component  stars  of  the  binary  system  revolving  under  the 
prescription  of  the  Newtonian  law. 

Before  the  end  of  the  year  1833,  being  then  about  forty  years 
of  age,  Sir  John  Herschel  had  re-examined  all  his  father's  double 
stars  and  nebulae,  and  had  added  many  similar  bodies  to  his 
own  lists;  thus  accomplishing,  under  the  conditions  then  pre- 
vailing, the  full  work  of  a  lifetime.  •  For  it  should  be  remembered 
that  astronomers  were  not  as  yet  provided  with  those  valuable 
automatic  contrivances  which  at  present  materially  abridge 
the  labour  and  increase  the  accuracy  of  their  determinations. 
Equatorially  mounted  instruments  actuated  by  clockwork, 
electrical  chronographs  for  recording  the  times  of  the  phenomena 
observed,  were  not  available  to  Sir  John  Herschel;  and  he  had 
no  assistant. 

His  scientific  life  now  entered  upon  another  and  very  char- 
acteristic phase.  The  bias  of  his  mind,  as  he  subsequently  was 
wont  to  declare,  was  towards  chemistry  and  the  phenomena 


of  light,  rather  than  towards  astronomy.  Indeed,  very  shortly 
after  taking  his  degree  at  Cambridge,  he  proposed  himself  as  a 
candidate  for  the  vacant  chair  of  chemistry  in  that  university; 
but,  as  he  said  with  some  humour,  the  result  of  the  election  was 
to  leave  him  in  a  glorious  minority  of  one.  In  fact  Herschel 
had  become  an  astronomer  from  a  sense  of  duty,  and  it  was  by 
filial  loyalty  to  his  father's  memory  that  he  was  now  impelled 
to  undertake  the  completion  of  the  work  nobly  begun  at  Slough. 
William  Herschel  had  searched  the  northern  heavens;  John 
Herschel  determined  to  explore  the  southern,  besides  re-explor- 
ing northern  skies.  "  I  resolved,"  he  said,  "  to  attempt  the 
completion  of  a  survey  of  the  whole  surface  of  the  heavens; 
and  for  this  purpose  to  transport  into  the  other  hemisphere  the 
same  instrument  which  had  been  employed  in  this,  so  as  to  give 
a  unity  to  the  results  of  both  portions  of  the  survey,  and  to 
render  them  comparable  with  each  other."  In  accordance  with 
this  resolution,  he  and  his  family  embarked  for  the  Cape  on  the 
i3th  November  1833;  they  arrived  in  Table  Bay  on  the  isth 
January  1834;  and  proceedings,  he  says,  "  were  pushed  forward 
with  such  effect  that  on  the  22nd  of  February  I  was  enabled  to 
gratify  my  curiosity  by  a  view  of  K  Crucis,  the  nebula  about  TJ 
Argus,  and  some  other  remarkable  objects  in  the  zo-ft.  reflector, 
and  on  the  night  of  the  4th  of  March  to  commence  a  regular 
course  of  sweeping." 

To  give  an  adequate  description  of  the  vast  mass  of  labour  com- 
pleted during  the  next  four  busy  years  of  his  life  at  Feldhausen 
would  require  the  transcription  of  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
Cape  Observations,  a  volume  of  unsurpassed  interest  and  importance; 
although  it  might  perhaps  be  equalled  by  a  judicious  selection  from 
Sir  William's  "  Memoirs,"  now  scattered  through  some  thirty 
volumes  of  the  Philosophical  Transactions.  It  was  published,  at 
the  sole  expense  of  the  late  duke  of  Northumberland,  but  not  till 
1847,  nine  years  after  the  author's  return  to  England,  for  the  cogent 
reason,  that  as  he  said,  "  The  whole  of  the  observations,  as  well 
as  the  entire  work  of  reducing,  arranging  and  preparing  them  for 
the  press,  have  been  executed  by  myself."  There  are  164  pages  of 
catalogues  of  southern  nebulae  and  clusters  of  stars.  There  are  then 
careful  and  elaborate  drawings  of  the  great  nebula  in  Orion,  and  of 
the  region  surrounding  the  remarkable  star  in  Argo.  The  labour 
and  the  thought  bestowed  upon  some  of  these  objects  are  almost 
incredible;  several  months  were  spent  upon  a  minute  spot  in  the 
heavens  containing  1216  stars,  but  which  an  ordinary  spangle,  held 
at  a  distance  of  an  arm's  length,  would  eclipse.  These  catalogues 
and  charts  being  completed,  he  proceeded  to  discuss  their  significance. 
He  confirmed  his  father's  hypothesis  that  these  wonderful  masses  of 
glowing  vapours  are  not  irregularly  scattered  over  the  visible  heavens, 
but  are  collected  in  a  sort  of  canopy,  whose  vertex  is  at  the  pole  of 
that  vast  stratum  of  stars  in  which  our  solar  system  finds  itself  buried, 
as  Herschel  supposed,  at  a  depth  not  greater  than  that  of  the  average 
distance  from  us  of  an  eleventh  magnitude  star.  Then  follows  his 
catalogue  of  the  relative  positions  and  magnitudes  of  the  southern 
double  stars,  to  one  of  which,  y  Virginis,  he  applied  the  beautiful 
method  of  orbital  determination  invented  by  himself,  and  he  had 
the  satisfaction  of  witnessing  the  fulfilment  of  his  prediction  that  the 
components  would,  in  the  course  of  their  revolution,  appear  to  close  up 
into  a  single  star,  inseparable  by  any  telescopic  power.  In  the  next 
chapter  he  proceeded  to  describe  his  observations  on  the  varying 
and  relative  brightness  of  the  stars.  It  has  been  already  detailed 
how  his  father  began  his  scientific  career  by  similar  observations  on 
stellar  light-fluctuations,  and  how  his  remarks  culminated  years 
afterwards  in  the  question  whether  the  radiative  changes  of  our 
sun,  due  to  the  presence  or  absence  of  sun-spots,  affected  our  harvests 
and  the  price  of  corn.  Sir  John  carried  speculation  still  farther, 
pointing  out  that  variations  to  the  extent  of  half  a  magnitude  in 
the  sun's  brightness  would  account  for  those  strange  alternations 
of  semi-arctic  and  semi-tropical  climates  which  geological  researches 
show  to  have  occurred  in  various  regions  of  our  globe. 

Herschel  returned  to  his  English  home  in  the  spring  of  1838. 
As  was  natural  and  right,  he  was  welcomed  with  an  enthusiastic 
greeting.  By  the  queen  at  her  coronation  he  was  created  a 
baronet;  and,  what  to  him  was  better  than  all  such  rewards, 
other  men  caught  the  contagion  of  his  example,  and  laboured 
in  fields  similar  to  his  own,  with  an  adequate  portion  of  his  success. 

Herschel  was  a  highly  accomplished  chemist.  His  discovery 
in  1819  of  the  solvent  power  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  on  the 
otherwise  insoluble  salts  of  silver  was  the  prelude  to  its  use 
as  a  fixing  agent  in  photography;  and  he  invented  in  1839, 
independently  of  Fox  Talbot,  the  process  of  photography  on 
sensitized  paper.  He  was  the  first  person  to  apply  the  now 
well-known  terms  positive  and  negative  to  photographic  images, 


HERSCHELL,  BARON 


395 


and  to  imprint  them  upon  glass  prepared  by  the  deposit  of  a 
sensitive  Mm.  He  also  paved  the  way  for  Sir  George  Stokes's 
discovery  of  fluorescence,  by  his  addition  of  the  lavender  rays  to 
the  spectrum,  and  by  his  announcement  in  1845  of  "  epipolic  dis- 
persion," as  exhibited  by  sulphate  of  quinine.  Several  other 
important  researches  connected  with  the  undulatory  theory  of 
light  are  embodied  in  his  treatise  on  "  Light  "  published  in  the 
Encyclopaedia  metropolitana. 

Perhaps  no  man  can  become  a  truly  great  mathematician  or 
philosopher  if  devoid  of  imaginative  power.  John  Herschel 
possessed  this  endowment  to  a  large  extent;  and  he  solaced 
his  declining  years  with  the  translation  of  the  Iliad  into  verse, 
having  earlier  executed  a  similar  version  of  Schiller's  Walk.  But 
the  main  work  of  his  later  life  was  the  collection  of  all  his  father's 
catalogues  of  nebulae  and  double  stars  combined  with  his  own 
observations  and  those  of  other  astronomers  each  into  a  single 
volume.  He  lived  to  complete  the  former,  to  present  it  to  the 
Royal  Society,  and  to  see  it  published  in  a  separate  form  in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions,  vol.  cliv).  The  latter  work  he  left 
unfinished,  bequeathing  it,  in  its  imperfect  form,  to  the  Astro- 
nomical Society.  That  society  printed  a  portion  of  it,  which 
serves  as  an  index  to  the  observations  of  various  astronomers  on 
double  stars  up  to  the  year  1866. 

A  complete  list  of  his  contributions  to  learned  societies  will 
be  found  in  the  Royal  Society's  great  catalogue,  and  from  them 
may  be  gathered  most  of  the  records  of  his  busy  scientific  life. 
Sir  John  Herschel  met  with  an  amount  of  public  recognition 
which  was  unusual  in  the  time  of  his  illustrious  father.  Naturally 
he  was  a  member  of  almost  every  important  learned  society  in 
both  hemispheres.  For  five  years  he  held  the  same  office  of 
master  of  the  mint,  which  more  than  a  century  before  had 
belonged  to  Sir  Isaac  Newton;  his  friends  also  offered  to  propose 
him  as  president  of  the  Royal  Society  and  again  as  member  of 
parliament  for  the  university  of  Cambridge,  but  neither  position 
was  desired  by  him. 

In  private  life  Sir  John  Herschel  was  a  firm  and  most  active 
friend;  he  had  no  jealousies;  he  avoided  all  scientific  feuds; 
he  gladly  lent  a  helping  hand  to  those  who  consulted  him  in 
scientific  difficulties;  he  never  discouraged,  and  still  less  dis- 
paraged, men  younger  than  or  inferior  to  himself;  he  was 
pleased  by  appreciation  of  his  work  without  being  solicitous  for 
applause;  it  was  said  of  him  by  a  discriminating  critic,  and 
without  extravagance,  that  "  his  was  a  life  full  of  serenity  of  the 
sage  and  the  docile  innocence  of  a  child." 

He  died  at  Collingwood,  his  residence  near  Hawkhurst  in 
Kent,  on  the  nth  of  May  1871,  in  the  seventy-ninth  year  of  his 
age,  and  his  remains  are  interred  in  Westminster  Abbey  close  to 
the  grave  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton. 

Besides  the  laborious  Cape  Observations,  Sir  John  Herschel  was 
the  author  of  several  books,  one  of  which  at  least,  On  the  Study 
of  Natural  Philosophy  (1830),  possesses  an  interest  which  no  future 
advances  of  the  subjects  on  which  he  wrote  can  obliterate.  In 
1849  came  the  Outlines  of  Astronomy,  a  volume  still  replete  with 
charm  and  instruction.  His  articles,  "  Meteorology,"  Physical 
Geography,"  and  "  Telescope,"  contributed  to  the  8th  edition  of 
the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  were  afterwards  published  separately. 
When  he  was  at  the  Cape  he  was  more  than  once  assisted  in  the 
attempts  there  made  to  diffuse  a  love  of  knowledge  among  men  not 
engaged  in  literary  pursuits;  and  with  the  same  purpose  he,  on  his 
return  to  England,  published,  in  Good  Words  and  elsewhere,  a  series 
of  papers  on  interesting  points  of  natural  philosophy,  subsequently 
collected  in  a  volume  called  Familiar  Lectures  on  Scientific  Subjects. 
Another  less  widely  known  volume  is  his  Collected  Addresses,  in  which 
he  is  seen  in  his  happiest  and  most  instructive  mood. 

See  also  Mrs  John  Herschel,  "Memoir  of  Caroline  Herschel," 
Month.  Notices  Roy.  Astr.  Society,  xxxii.  122  (C.  Pritchard);  Pro- 
ceedings Roy.  Society,  xx.  p.  xvii.  (T.  Romney  Robinson) ;  Proceedings 
Roy.  Society  of  Edinburgh  yii.  543  (P.  G.  Tait);  Nature  iv.  69; 
E.  Dunkin,  Obituary  Notices,  p.  47;  Report  Brit.  Association 
(1871),  p.  Ixxxv.  (Lord  Kelvin);  The  Times  (May  13,  1871);  R. 
Grant,  History  of  Phys.  Astronomy;  A.  M.  Clerke,  Popular  Hist, 
of  Astronomy;  A.  M.  Clerke,  The  Herschels  and  Modern  Astronomy; 
J.  H.  Madler,  Geschichte  der  Himmelskunde,Bd.  ii. ;  Memoires  de  la 
Societe  Physique  de  Geneve,  xxi.  586  (E.  Gautier).  Reductions, 
based  on  standard  magnitudes  of  919  southern  stars,  observed  by 
Herschel  in  sequences  of  relative  brightness,  were  published  by  W. 
Doberck  in  the  Astrophysical  Journal,  xi.  192,  270,  and  in  Harvard 
Annals,  vol.  xli.,  No.  viii.  (C.  P.;  A.  M.  C.) 


HERSCHELL,  FARRER  HERSCHELL,  IST  BARON  (1837- 
1899),  lord  chancellor  of  England,  was  born  on  the  2nd  of 
November  1837.  His  father  was  the  Rev.  Ridley  Haim  Herschell, 
a  native  of  Strzelno,  in  Prussian  Poland,  who,  when  a  young 
man,  exchanged  the  Jewish  faith  for  Christianity,  took  a  leading 
part  in  founding  the  British  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel  among  the  Jews,  and,  after  many  journeyings,  settled 
down  to  the  charge  of  a  Nonconformist  chapel  near  the  Edgware 
Road,  in  London,  where  he  ministered  to  a  large  congregation. 
His  mother  was  a  daughter  of  William  Mowbray,  a  merchant  of 
Leith.  He  was  educated  at  a  private  school  and  at  University 
College,  London.  In  1857  he  took  his  B.A.  degree  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  London.  He  was  reckoned  the  best  speaker  in  the 
school  debating  society,  and  he  displayed  there  the  same  command 
of  language  and  lucidity  of  thought  which  were  his  characteristics 
during  his  official  life.  The  reputation  which  Herschell  enjoyed 
during  his  school  days  was  maintained  after  he  became  a  law- 
student  at  Lincoln's  Inn.  In  1858  he  entered  the  chambers  of 
Thomas  Chitty,  the  famous  common  law  pleader,  father  of  the 
late  Lord  Justice  Chitty.  His  fellow  pupils,  amongst  whom 
were  A.  L.  Smith,  afterwards  master  of  the  rolls,  and  Arthur 
Charles,  afterwards  judge  of  the  queen's  bench  division,  gave 
him  the  sobriquet  of  "  the  chief  baron"  in  recognition  of  his 
superiority.  He  subsequently  read  with  James  Hannen,  after- 
wards Lord  Hannen.  In  1860  he  was  called  to  the  bar  and 
joined  the  northern  circuit,  then  in  its  palmy  days  of  undivided- 
ness.  For  four  or  five  years  he  did  not  obtain  much  work. 
Fortunately,  he  was  never  a  poor  man,  and  so  was  not  forced 
into  journalism,  or  other  paths  of  literature,  in  order  to  earn  a 
living.  Two  of  his  contemporaries,  each  of  whom  achieved 
great  eminence,  found  themselves  in  like  case.  One  of  these, 
Charles  Russell,  became  lord  chief  justice  of  England ;  the  other, 
William  Court  Gully,  speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons.  It  is 
said  that  these  three  friends,  dining  together  during  a  Liverpool 
assize  some  years  after  they  had  been  called,  agreed  that  their 
prospects  were  anything  but  cheerful.  Certain  it  is  that  about 
this  time  Herschell  meditated  quitting  England  for  Shanghai  and 
practising  in  the  consular  courts  there.  Herschell,  however,  soon 
made  himself  useful  to  Edward  James,  the  then  leader  of  the 
northern  circuit,  and  to  John  Richard  Quain,  the  leading  stuff- 
gownsman.  For  the  latter  he  was  content  to  note  briefs  and 
draft  opinions,  and  when,  in  1866,  Quain  donned  "  silk,"  it  was 
on  Herschell  that  a  large  portion  of  his  mantle  descended. 

In  187  2  Herschell  was  made  a  queen's  counsel.  He  had  all  the 
necessary  qualifications  for  a  leader — a  clear,  though  not  resonant 
voice;  a  calm,  logical  mind;  a  sound  knowledge  of  legal  prin- 
ciples; and  (greatest  gift  of  all)  an  abundance  of  common  sense. 
He  never  wearied  the  judges  by  arguing  at  undue  length,  and 
he  knew  how  to  retire  with  dignity  from  a  hopeless  cause.  His 
only  weak  point  was  cross-examination.  In  handling  a  hostile 
witness  he  had  neither  the  insidious  persuasiveness  of  a  Hawkins 
nor  the  compelling,  dominating  power  of  a  Russell.  But  he 
made  up  for  all  by  his  speech  to  the  jury,  marshalling  such  facts 
as  told  in  his  client's  favour  with  the  most  consummate  skill. 
He  very  seldom  made  use  of  notes,  but  trusted  to  his  memory, 
which  he  had  carefully  trained.  By  this  means  he  was  able  to 
conceal  his  art,  and  to  appear  less  as  a  paid  advocate  than  as  an 
outsider  interested  in  the  case  anxious  to  assist  the  jury  in 
arriving  at  the  truth.  By  1874  Herschell's  business  had  become 
so  good  that  he  turned  his  thoughts  to  parliament.  In  February 
of  that  year  there  was  a  general  election,  with  the  result  that  the 
Conservative  party  came  into  power  with  a  majority  of  fifty. 
The  usual  crop  of  petitions  followed.  The  two  Radicals  (Thompson 
and  Henderson)  who  had  been  returned  for  Durham  city  were 
unseated,  and  an  attack  was  then  made  on  the  seats  of  two  other 
Radicals  (Bell  and  Palmer)  who  had  been  returned  for  Durham 
county.  For  one  of  these  last  Herschell  was  briefed.  He  made 
so  excellent  an  impression  on_the  local  Radical  leaders  that  they 
asked  him  to  stand  for  Durham  city;  and  after  a  fortnight's 
electioneering,  he  was  elected  as  junior  member.  Between  1874 
and  1880  Herschell  was  most  assiduous  in  his  attendance  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  He  was  not  a  frequent  speaker,  but  a  few 


396 


HERSCHELL,  BARON 


great  efforts  sufficed  in  his  case  to  gain  for  him  a  reputation  as  a 
debater.  The  best  examples  of  his  style  as  a  private  member 
will  be  found  in  Hansard  under  the  dates  i8th  February  1876, 
23rd  May  1878,  6th  May  1879  On  the  last  occasion  he  carried  a 
resolution  in  favour  of  abolishing  actions  for  breach  of  promise  of 
marriage  except  when  actual  pecuniary  loss  had  ensued,  the 
damages  in  such  cases  to  be  measured  by  the  amount  of  such 
loss.  The  grace  of  manner  and  solid  reasoning  with  which  he 
acquitted  himself  during  these  displays  obtained  for  him  the 
notice  of  Gladstone,  who  in  1880  appointed  Herschell  solicitor- 
general. 

Herschell's  public  services  from  1880  to  1885  were  of  great 
value,  particularly  in  dealing  with  the  "  cases  for  opinion  " 
submitted  by  the  Foreign  Office  and  other  departments.  He  was 
also  very  helpful  in  speeding  government  measures  through  the 
House,  notably  the  Irish  Land  Act  1881,  the  Corrupt  Practices 
and  Bankruptcy  Acts  1883,  the  County  Franchise  Act  1884  and 
the  Redistribution  of  Seats  Act  1885.  This  last  was  a  bitter  pill 
for  Herschell,  since  it  halved  the  representation  of  Durham  city, 
and  so  gave  him  statutory  notice  to  quit.  Reckoning  on  the 
local  support  of  the  Cavendish  family,  he  contested  the  North 
Lonsdale  division  of  Lancashire;  but  in  spite  of  the  powerful 
influence  of  Lord  Hartington,  he  was  badly  beaten  at  the  poll, 
though  Mr  Gladstone  again  obtained  a  majority  in  the  country. 
Herschell  now  thought  he  saw  the  solicitor-generalship  slipping 
away  from  him,  and  along  with  it  all  prospect  of  high  promotion. 
Lord  Selborne  and  Sir  Henry  James,  however,  successively 
declined  Gladstone's  offer  of  the  Woolsack,  andin  1886  Herschell, 
by  a  sudden  turn  of  fortune's  wheel,  found  himself  in  his  forty- 
ninth  year  lord  chancellor. 

Herschell's  chancellorship  lasted  barely  six  months,  for  in 
August  1886  Gladstone's  Home  Rule  Bill  was  rejected  in  the 
Commons  and  his  administration  fell.  In  August  1892,  when 
Gladstone  returned  to  power,  Herschell  again  became  lord 
chancellor.  In  September  1893,  when  the  second  Home  Rule 
Bill  came  on  for  second  reading  in  the  House  of  Lords,  Herschell 
took  advantage  of  the  opportunity  to  justify  the  "  sudden  con- 
version" to  Home  Rule  of  himself  and  his  colleagues  in  1885  by 
comparing  it  to  the  duke  of  Wellington's  conversion  to  Catholic 
Emancipation  in  1829  and  to  that  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  to  Free 
Trade  in  1846.  In  1895,  however,  his  second  chancellorship 
came  to  an  end  with  the  defeat  of  the  Rosebery  ministry. 

Whether  sitting  at  the  royal  courts  in  the  Strand,  on  the 
judicial  committee  of  the  privy  council,  or  in  the  House  of  Lords, 
Lord  Herschell's  judgments  were  distinguished  for  their  acute 
and  subtle  reasoning,  for  their  grasp  of  legal  principles,  and, 
whenever  the  occasion  arose,  for  their  broad  treatment  of  con- 
stitutional and  social  questions.  He  was  not  a  profound  lawyer, 
but  his  quickness  of  apprehension  was  such  that  it  was  an 
excellent  substitute  for  great  learning.  In  construing  a  real 
property  will  or  any  other  document,  his  first  impulse  was  to 
read  it  by  the  light  of  nature,  and  to  decline  to  be  influenced  by 
the  construction  put  by  the  judges  on  similar  phrases  occurring 
elsewhere.  But  when  he  discovered  that  certain  expressions  had 
acquired  a  technical  meaning  which  could  not  be  disturbed  with- 
out fluttering  the  dovecotes  of  the  conveyancers,  he  would  yield 
to  the  established  rule,  even  though  he  did  not  agree  with  it.  He 
was  perhaps  seen  at  his  judicial  best  in  Vagliano  v.  Bank  of 
England  ( 1 89 1 )  and  A  lien  v.  Flood  ( 1 898) .  Latterly  he  showed  a 
tendency,  which  seems  to  grow  on  some  judges,  to  interrupt 
counsel  overmuch.  The  case  last  mentioned  furnishes  an 
example  of  this.  The  question  involved  was  what  constituted  a 
molestation  of  a  man  in  the  pursuit  of  his  lawful  calling.  At  the 
close  of  the  argument  of  counsel,  whom  he  had  frequently 
interrupted,  one  of  their  lordships,  noted  for  his  pretty  wit, 
observed  that  although  there  might  be  a  doubt  as  to  what 
amounted  to  such  molestation  in  point  of  law,  the  House  could 
well  understand,  after  that  day's  proceedings,  what  it  was  in 
actual  practice.  In  addition  to  his  political  and  judicial  work, 
Herschell  rendered  many  public  services.  In  1888  he  presided 
over  an  inquiry  directed  by  the  House  of  Commons  with  regard  to 
the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works.  He  acted  as  chairman  of  two 


royal  commissions,  one  on  Indian  currency,  the  other  on  vaccina- 
tion. He  took  a  great  interest  in  the  National  Society  for  the 
Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Children,  not  only  promoting  the  acts 
of  1889  and  1894,  but  also  bestowing  a  good  deal  of  time  in 
sifting  the  truth  of  certain  allegations  which  had  been  brought 
against  the  management  of  that  society.  In  June  1893  he  was 
appointed  chancellor  of  the  university  of  London  in  succession  to 
the  earl  of  Derby,  and  he  entered  on  his  new  duties  with  the 
usual  thoroughness.  "  His  views  of  reform,"  according  to 
Victor  Dickins,  the  accomplished  registrar  of  the  university, 
"  were  always  most  liberal  and  most  frankly  stated,  though  at 
first  they  were  not  altogether  popular  with  an  important  section 
of  university  opinion.  He  disarmed  opposition  by  his  intellectual 
power,  rather  than  conciliated  it  by  compromise,  and  sometimes 
was  perhaps  a  little  masterful,  after  a  fashion  of  his  own,  in  his 
treatment  of  the  various  burning  questions  that  agitated  the 
university  during  his  tenure  of  office.  His  characteristic  power 
of  detachment  was  well  illustrated  by  his  treatment  of  the 
proposal  to  remove  the  university  to  the  site  of  the  Imperial 
Institute  at  South  Kensington.  Although  he  was  at  that  time 
chairman  of  the  Institute,  the  most  irreconcilable  opponent  of  the 
removal  never  questioned  his  absolute  impartiality."  With  the 
Imperial  Institute  Herschell  had  been  officially  connected  from 
its  inception.  He  was  chairman  of  the  provisional  committee 
appointed  by  the  prince  of  Wales  to  formulate  a  scheme  for  its 
organization,  and  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  preparation  of  its 
charter  and  constitution  in  conjunction  with  Lord  Thring,  Lord 
James,  Sir  Frederick  Abel  and  Mr  John  Hollams.  He  was  the 
first  chairman  of  its  council,  and,  except  during  his  tour  in  India 
in  1888,  when  he  brought  the  Institute  under  the  notice  of  the 
Indian  authorities,  he  was  hardly  absent  from  a  single  meeting. 
For  his  special  services  in  this  connexion  he  was  made  G.C.B.  in 
1893,  this  being  the  only  instance  of  a  lord  chancellor  being 
decorated  with  an  order. 

In  1897  he  was  appointed,  jointly  with  Lord  Justice  Collins,  to 
represent  Great  Britain  on  the  Venezuela  Boundary  Commission, 
which  assembled  in  Paris  in  the  spring  of  1899.  So  complicated  a 
business  involved  a  great  deal  of  preparation  and  a  careful  study 
of  maps  and  historic  documents.  Not  content  with  this,  he 
accepted  in  1898  a  seat  on  the  joint  high  commission  appointed  to 
adjust  certain  boundary  and  other  important  questions  pending 
between  Great  Britain  and  Canada  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
United  States  on  the  other  hand.  He  started  for  America  in 
July  of  that  year,  and  was  received  most  cordially  at  Washington. 
His  fellow  commissioners  elected  him  their  president.  In 
February  1899,  while  the  commission  was  in  full  swing,  he  had 
the  misfortune  to  slip  in  the  street  and  in  falling  to  fracture  a  hip 
bone.  His  constitution,  which  at  one  time  was  a  robust  one, 
had  been  undermined  by  constant  hard  work,  and  proved  unequal 
to  sustaining  the  shock.  On  the  ist  of  March,  only  a  fortnight 
after  the  accident,  he  died  at  the  Shoreham  Hotel,  Washington, 
a.  post-mortem  examination  revealing  disease  of  the  heart.  Mr 
Hay,  secretary  of  state,  at  once  telegraphed  to  Mr  Choate,  the 
United  States  ambassador  in  London,  the  "deep  sorrow"  felt  by 
President  McKinley;  and  Sir  Wilfred  Laurier  said  the  next  day, 
in  the  parliament  chamber  at  Ottawa,  that  he  regarded  Herschell's 
death  "  as  a  misfortune  to  Canada  and  to  the  British  Empire." 
A  funeral  service  held  in  St  John's  Episcopal  Church,  Washington, 
was  attended  by  the  president  and  vice-president  of  the  United 
States,  by  the  cabinet  ministers,  the  judges  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  the  members  of  the  joint  high  commission,  and  a  large 
number  of  senators  and  other  representative  men.  The  body 
was  brought  to  London  in  a  British  man-of-war,  and  a  second 
funeral  service  was  held  in  Westminster  Abbey  before  it  was 
conveyed  to  its  final  resting-place  at  Tincleton,  Dorset,  in  the 
parish  church  of  which  he  had  been  married.  Herschell  left  a 
widow,  granddaughter  of  Vice-Chancellor  Kindersley;  a  son, 
Richard  Farrer  (b.  1878),  who  succeeded  him  as  second  baron  ; 
and  two  daughters. 

A  "reminiscence"  of  Herschell  by  Mr  Speaker  Gully  (LordSelby) 
will  be  found  in  The  Law  Quarterly  Review  for  April  1899.  The 
Journal  of  the  Society  of  Comparative  Legislation  (of  which  he  had  been 


HERSENT— HERTFORD,  EARLS  OF 


397 


president  from  its  formation  in  1893)  contains,  in  its  part  for  July 
of  the  same  year,  notices  of  him  by  Lord  James  of  Hereford,  Lord 
Dayey,  Mr  Victor  Williamson  (his  executor  and  intimate  friend), 
and  also  by  Mr  Justice  D.  J.  Brewer  and  Senator  C.  W.  Fairbanks 
(both  of  the  United  States).  (M.  H.  C.) 

HERSENT,  LOUIS  (1777-1860),  French  painter,  was  born  at 
Paris  on  the  loth  of  March  1777,  and  becoming  a  pupil  of  David, 
obtained  the  Prix  de  Rome  in  1797;  in  the  Salon  of  1802 
appeared  his  "  Metamorphosis  of  Narcissus,"  and  he  continued  to 
exhibit  with  rare  interruptions  up  to  183 1 .  His  most  considerable 
works  under  the  empire  were  "  Achilles  parting  from  Briseis,"  and 
"  Atala  dying  in  the  arms  of  Chactas  "  (both  engraved  in  Landon's 
Annales  du  Musfe) ;  an  "  Incident  of  the  life  of  Fenelon,"  painted 
in  1810, found  a  place  at  Malmaison, and  "Passage  of  the  Bridge 
atLandshut,"  which  belongs  to  the  same  date,  is  now  at  Versailles. 
Hersent's  typical  works,  however,  belong  to  the  period  of  the  Re- 
storation; "  Louis  XVI.  relieving  the  Afflicted"  (Versailles)  and 
"  Daphnis  and  Chloe  "  (engraved  by  Langier  and  by  Gelee)  were 
both  in  the  Salon  of  1817;  at  that  of  1819  the  "  Abdication  of 
Gustavus  Vasa  "  brought  to  Hersent  a  medal  of  honour,  but  the 
picture,  purchased  by  the  duke  of  Orleans,  was  destroyed  at  the 
Palais  Royal  in  1848,  and  the  engraving  by  Henriquel-Dupont  is 
now  its  sole  record.  "  Ruth,"  produced  in  1822,  became  the 
property  of  Louis  XVIII.,  who  from  the  moment  that  Hersent 
rallied  to  the  Restoration  jealously  patronized  him,  made  him 
officer  of  the  legion  of  honour,  and  pressed  his  claims  at  the 
Institute,  where  he  replaced  van  Spaendonck.  He  continued  in 
favour  under  Charles  X.,  for  whom  was  executed  "  Monks  of  Mount 
St  Gotthard,"  exhibited  in  1824.  In  1831  Hersent  made  his  last 
appearance  at  the  Salon  with  portraits  of  Louis  Philippe,  Marie- 
Amelie  and  the  duke  of  Montpensier;  that  of  the  king  though 
good,  is  not  equal  to  the  portrait  of  Spontini  (Beilin),  which  is 
probably  Hersent's  chef-d'oeuvre.  After  this  date  Hersent  ceased 
to  exhibit  at  the  yearly  salons.  Although  in  1846  he  sent  an 
excellent  likeness  of  Delphine  Gay  and  one  or  two  other  works  to 
the  rooms  of  the  Societe  d'Artistes,  he  could  not  be  tempted 
from  his  usual  reserve  even  by  the  international  contest  of  1855. 
He  died  on  the  2nd  of  October  1860. 

HERSFELD,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Hesse-Nassau,  is  pleasantly  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Geis  and  Haun  with  the  Fulda,  on  the  railway  from  Frankfort- 
on-Main  to  Bebra,  24  m.  N.N.E.  of  Fulda.  Pop.  (1905)  8688. 
Some  of  the  old  fortifications  of  the  town  remain,  but  the  ramparts 
and  ditches  have  been  laid  out  as  promenades.  The  principal 
buildings  are  the  Stadt  Kirche,  a  beautiful  Gothic  building, 
erected  about  1320  and  restored  in  1899,  with  a  fine  tower  and  a 
large  bell;  the  old  and  interesting  town  hall  (Rathaus)  and  the 
ruins  of  the  abbey  church.  This  church  was  erected  on  the  site  of 
the  cathedral  in  the  beginning  of  the  i2th  century;  it  was  built 
in  the  Byzantine  style  and  was  burnt  down  by  the  French  in  1761. 
Outside  the  town  are  the  Frauenberg  and  the  Johannesberg,  on 
both  of  which  are  monastic  ruins.  Among  the  public  institutions 
are  a  gymnasium  and  a  military  school.  The  town  has  important 
manufactures  of  cloth,  leather  and  machinery;  it  has  also  dye- 
works,  worsted  mills  and  soap-boiling  works. 

Hersfeld  owes  its  existence  to  the  Benedictine  abbey  (see 
below).  It  became  a  town  in  the  i2th  century  and  in  1370  the 
burghers,  having  meanwhile  shaken  off  the  authority  of  the 
abbots,  placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  the  landgraves 
of  Hesse.  It  was  taken  and  retaken  during  the  Thirty  Years' 
War  and  later  it  suffered  from  the  attacks  of  the  French. 

The  Benedictine  abbey  of  Hersfeld  was  founded  by  Lullus, 
afterwards  archbishop  of  Mainz,  about  769.  It  was  richly 
endowed  by  Charlemagne  and  became  an  ecclesiastical  princi- 
pality in  the  i2th  century,  passing  under  the  protection  of  the 
landgraves  of  Hesse  in  1423.  It  was  secularized  in  1648,  having 
been  previously  administered  for  some  years  by  a  member  of  the 
ruling  family  of  Hesse.  As  a  secular  principality  Hersfeld  passed 
to  Hesse,  and  with  electoral  Hesse  was  united  with  Prussia  in 
1866.  In  the  middle  ages  the  abbey  was  famous  for  its  library. 

See  Vigelius,  Denkwurdigkeiten  von  Hersfeld  (Hersfeld,  1888); 
Demme,  Nachrichten  und  Urkunden  zur  Chronik  von  Hersfeld  (Hersfeld, 
1891-1901),  and  P.  Hafner,  Die  Reichsabtei  Hersfeld  bis  zur  Mitte 
des  I3ten  Jahrhunderts  (Hersfeld,  1889). 


HERSTAL,  or  HERISTAL,  a  town  of  Belgium,  less  than  2  m.  N. 
of  Liege  and  practically  one  of  its  suburbs.  The  name  is  supposed 
to  be  derived  from  Heerstelle,  i.e.  "  Permanent  Camp."  The 
second  Pippin  was  born  here,  and  this  mayor  of  the  palace 
acquired  the  control  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks.  His  grand- 
son, Pippin  the  Short,  died  at  Herstal  in  A.D.  768,  and  it  disputes 
with  Aix  la  Chapelle  the  honour  of  being  the  birthplace  of 
Charlemagne.  It  is  now  a  very  active  centre  of  iron  and 'steel 
manufactures.  The  Belgian  national  small  arms  factory  and 
cannon  foundry  are  fixed  here.  Pop.  (1904)  20,114. 

HERTFORD,  EARLS  AND  MARQUESSES  OF.  The  English 
earldom  of  Hertford  was  held  by  members  of  the  powerful  family 
of  Clare  from  about  1138,  when  Gilbert  de  Clare  was  created 
earl  of  Hertford,  to  1314  when  another  earl  Gilbert  was  killed 
at  Bannockburn.  In  1537  EDWARD  SEYMOUR,  viscount  Beau- 
champ,  a  brother  of  Henry  VIII. 's  queen,  Jane  Seymour,  was 
created  earl  of  Hertford,  being  advanced  ten  years  later  to  the 
dignity  of  duke  of  Somerset  and  becoming  protector  of  England. 
His  son  EDWARD  (c.  1540-1621)  was  styled  earl  of  Hertford  from 
1547  until  the  protector's  attainder  and  death  in  January  1552, 
when  the  title  was  forfeited;  in  1559,  however,  he  was  created 
earl  of  Hertford.  In  1560  he  was  secretly  married  to  Lady 
Catherine  Grey  (c.  1538-1568),  daughter  of  Henry  Grey,  duke  of 
Suffolk,  and  a  descendant  of  Henry  VII.  Queen  Elizabeth 
greatly  disliked  this  union,  and  both  husband  and  wife  were 
imprisoned,  while  the  validity  of  their  marriage  was  questioned. 
Catherine  died  on  the  27th  of  January  1568  and  Hertford  on  the 
6th  of  April  1621.  Their  son  Edward,  Lord  Beauchamp  (1561- 
1612),  who  inherited  his  mother's  title  to  the  English  throne, 
predeceased  his  father;  and  the  latter  was  succeeded  in  the 
earldom  by  his  grandson  WILLIAM  SEYMOUR  (1588-1660),  who 
was  created  marquess  of  Hertford  in  1640  and  was  restored  to  his 
ancestor's  dukedom  of  Somerset  in  1660.  The  title  of  marquess 
of  Hertford  became  extinct  when  JOHN,  4th  duke  of  Somerset, 
died  in  1675,  and  the  earldom  when  ALGERNON,  the  7th  duke, 
died  in  February  1750. 

In  August  1750  FRANCIS  SEYMOUR  CONWAY,  2nd  Baron 
Conway  (1718-1794),  who  was  a  direct  descendant  of  the 
protector  Somerset,  was  created  earl  of  Hertford;  this  noble- 
man was  the  son  of  Francis  Seymour  Conway  (1670-1732),  who 
had  taken  the  name  of  Conway  in  addition  to  that  of  Seymour, 
and  was  the  brother  of  Field-marshal  Henry  Seymour  Conway. 
Hertford  was  ambassador  to  France  from  1763  to  1765;  was  lord- 
lieutenant  of  Ireland  in  1765  and  1766;  and  lord  chamberlain  of 
the  household  from  1766  to  1782.  Horace  Walpole  speaks  of  his 
"  decorum  and  piety  "  and  refers  to  him  as  a  "  perfect  courtier," 
but  says  that  he  had  "  too  great  propensity  to  heap  emoluments 
on  his  children."  In  1793  he  became  earl  of  Yarmouth  and 
marquess  of  Hertford,  and  he  died  on  the  i4th  of  June  1 794.  His 
son,  FRANCIS  INGRAM  SEYMOUR  CONWAY  (1743-1822),  who  was 
known  during  his  father's  lifetime  as  Lord  Beauchamp,  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  debates  of  the  House  of  Commons  from 
1766  until  he  succeeded  to  the  marquessate  in  1794.  He  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Berlin  and  Vienna  in  1793  and  from  1812 
to  1821  he  was  lord  chamberlain.  His  son  FRANCIS  CHARLES, 
the  3rd  marquess  (1777-1842),  was  an  intimate  friend  of  the 
prince  regent,  afterwards  George  IV.,  and  is  the  original  of  the 
"  Marquis  of  Steyne  "  in  Thackeray's  Vanity  Fair  and  of  "  Lord 
Monmouth  "  in  Disraeli's  Coningsby.  The  4th  marquess  was  his 
son,  RICHARD  (1800-1870),  whose  mother  was  the  great  heiress, 
Maria  Emily  Fagniani,  and  whose  brother  was  Lord  Henry 
Seymour  (1805-1859),  the  founder  of  the  Jockey  Club  at  Paris. 
When  Richard  died  unmarried  in  Paris  in  August  1870.  his  title 
passed  to  his  kinsman,  FRANCIS  HUGH  GEORGE  SEYMOUR  (1812- 
1884),  a  descendant  of  the  ist  marquess,  whose  son,  HUGH  DE 
GREY  (b.  1843)  became  6th  marquess  in  1884.  The  4th  mar- 
quess left  his  great  wealth  and  his  priceless  collection  of  art 
treasures  to  Sir  Richard  Wallace  (1818-1890),  his  reputed  half- 
brother,  and  Wallace's  widow,  who  died  in  1897,  bequeathed 
the  collection  to  the  British  nation.  It  is  now  in  Hertford 
House,  formerly  the  London  residence  of  the  marquesses  of 
Hertford. 


39^ 


HERTFORD— HERTFORDSHIRE 


HERTFORD,  a  market-town  and  municipal  borough,  and  the 
county  town  of  Hertfordshire,  England,  in  the  Hertford  parlia- 
mentary division  of  the  county,  24  m.  N.  from  London,  the 
terminus  of  branch  lines  of  the  Great  Eastern  and  Great 
Northern  railways.  Pop.  (1901)  9322.  It  is  pleasantly  situated 
in  the  valley  of  the  river  Lea.  The  chief  buildings  are  the  modern 
churches  of  St  Andrew  and  of  All  Saints,  on  the  sites  of  old 
ones,'  a  town  hall,  corn  exchange,  public  library,  school  of  art  and 
the  old  castle,  which  retains  the  wall  and  part  of  a  tower  dating 
from  the  Norman  period,  and  is  represented  by  a  picturesque 
Jacobean  building  of  brick,  largely  modernized.  There  are 
several  educational  establishments,  including  the  preparatory 
school  for  Christ's  Hospital,  a  picturesque  building  (in  great  part, 
however,  rebuilt)  at  the  east  end  of  the  town,  Kale's  grammar 
school,  the  Cowper  Testimonial  school,  and  a  Green-coat  school 
for  boys  and  girls.  Two  miles  S.E.  is  Haileybury  College,  one  of 
the  principal  public  schools  of  England,  founded  in  1805  by  the 
East  India  Company  for  their  civil  service  students,  who  were 
then  temporarily  housed  in  Hertford  Castle.  The  school  lies 
high  above  the  Lea  valley,  towards  Hoddesdon,  in  the  midst  of  a 
stretch  of  finely-wooded  country.  Hertford  has  a  considerable 
agricultural  trade,  and  there  are  mailings,  breweries,  iron 
foundries,  and  oriental  printing  works.  The  town  is  governed 
by  a  mayor,  5  aldermen  and  15  councillors.  Area,  1134 
acres. 

Hertford  (Herutford,  Heorolford,  Hurtford)  was  the  scene  of  a 
synod  in  673.  Its  communication  with  London  by  way  of  the 
Lea  and  the  Thames  gave  it  strategic  importance  during  the 
Danish  occupation  of  East  Anglia.  In  1066  and  later  it  was  a 
royal  garrison  and  burgh.  It  made  separate  payments  for  aids 
to  the  Norman  and  Angevin  kings;  and  in  1331  was  governed  by 
a  bailiff  annually  elected  by  the  commonalty.  A  charter  in- 
corporated the  bailiffs  and  burgesses  in  1555,  and  was  confirmed 
under  Elizabeth  and  in  1606.  A  charter  of  1680  to  the  mayor, 
aldermen  and  commonalty  was  effective  until  the  Municipal 
Corporation  Act.  Hertford  returned  two  burgesses  to  the 
parliament  of  1298,  and  to  others  until,  after  1375/6,  such 
right  became  abeyant,  to  be  restored  by  order  of  parliament  in 
1623/4.  One  representative  was  lost  by  the  Representation 
Act  in  1868,  and  separate  representation  by  the  Redistribution 
Act  in  1885.  A  grant  of  fairs  in  1226  probably  originated  or 
confirmed  those  held  in  1331  on  the  feasts  of  the  Assumption  and 
of  St  Simon  and  St  Jude,  their  vigils  and  morrows,  which  fairs 
were  confirmed  by  Elizabeth  and  Charles  II.  Another  on  the 
vigil,  morrow  and  feast  of  the  Nativity  of  the  Virgin  was  granted 
by  Elizabeth:  its  date  was  changed  to  May-day  under  James  I. 
Modern  fairs  are  on  the  third  Saturda>  before  Easter,  the  I2th  of 
May,  the  sth  of  July  and  the  8th  of  November.  Markets  were 
held  in  1331  on  Wednesday  and  Saturday;  after  1368  on 
Thursday  and  Saturday;  and  they  returned  to  Wednesdays  and 
Saturdays  in  1680. 

HERTFORDSHIRE  [HERTS],  a  county  of  England,  bounded 
N.  by  Cambridgeshire,  N.W.  by  Bedfordshire,  E.  by  Essex, 
S.  by  Middlesex,  and  S.W.  by  Buckinghamshire.  The  area  is 
634-6  sq.  m.,  the  county  being  the  sixth  smallest  in  England. 
Its  aspect  is  always  pleasant,  the  surface  generally  undulating, 
while  in  some  parts,  where  these  undulations  form  a  quick 
succession  of  hills  and  valleys,  the  woodland  scenery  becomes 
very  beautiful,  as  in  the  upper  Lea  valley,  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Tewin  near  Hertford,  and  elsewhere.  To  the  north-west  and 
north  considerable  elevations  are  reached,  a  line  of  hills,  facing 
north-westward  with  a  sharp  descent,  crossing  this  portion  of 
the  county,  and  overlooking  the  flat  lands  of  Bedfordshire  and 
Cambridgeshire.  They  continue  the  line  of  the  Chiltern  Hills, 
under  the  name  of  the  East  Anglian  Ridge.  They  exceed  800  ft. 
near  Dunstable,  sinking  gradually  north-eastward.  These 
uplands  are  generally  bare,  and  in  parts  remarkably  sparsely 
populated  as  compared  with  the  home  counties  at  large.  In  the 
greater  part  of  the  county,  however,  rich  arable  lands  are  inter- 
mingled with  the  parks  and  woodlands  of  numerous  fine  country 
seats,  which  impart  to  the  county  a  peculiar  luxuriance.  Of  the 
principal  rivers,  the  Lea,  rising  beyond  Luton  in  Bedfordshire, 


enters  Hertfordshire  near  East  Hyde,  flows  S.E.  to  near  Hatfield, 
then  E.  by  N.  to  Hertford  and  Ware,  whence  it  bends  S.  and 
passing  along  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  county  falls  into  the 
Thames  below  London.  It  receives  in  its  course  the  Maran,  or 
Mimram,  the  Beane,  the  Rib  and  the  Stort,  all  joining  on  the 
north  side;  the  Stort  for  some  distance  forming  the  county 
boundary  with  Essex.  The  Colne  flows  through  the  south- 
western part  of  the  county,  to  fall  into  the  Thames  at  Staines. 
It  receives  the  Ver,  the  Bulborne  and  the  Chess.  The  Ivel, 
rising  in  the  N.W.  soon  passes  into  Bedfordshire  to  join  the 
Great  Ouse.  To  the  south  of  Hatfield,  near  North  Mimms,  two 
streams  of  moderate  size  are  lost  in  pot-holes,  except  in  the 
highest  floods.  The  New  River,  one  of  the  water  supplies  of 
London,  has  its  source  near  Ware,  and  runs  roughly  parallel 
with  the  Lea.  Most  of  the  rivers  are  full  of  fish,  including  trout 
in  the  upper  parts  (of  the  Lea  and  Colne  especially),  which  are 
carefully  preserved. 

Geology. — The  rocks  of  Hertfordshire  belong  to  the  shallow 
syncl'ne  known  as  the  London  basin,  the  beds  dipping  in  a  south- 
easterly direction.  The  two  most  important  formations  are  the 
Chalk,  which  forms  the  high  ground  in  the  north  and  west;  and  the 
Eocene  Reading  beds  and  London  Clay  which  occupy  the  remaining 
southern  part  of  the  county.  On  the  northern  boundary,  at  the  foot 
of  the  chalk  hills,  a  small  strip  of  Gault  Clay  and  the  Upper  Greensand 
above  it  falls  just  within  the  county.  The  lowest  subdivision  of  the 
chalk  is  the  Chalk  Marl,  which  with  the  Totternhoe  Stone  above  it, 
lies  at  the  base  of  the  Chalk  escarpment,  by  Ashwell,  Pirton  and 
Miswell  to  Tring.  Above  these  beds,  the  Lower  Chalk,  without 
flints,  rises  up  sharply  to  form  the  downs  which  are  the  easterly 
continuation  of  the  Chiltern  Hills.  Next  comes  the  Chalk  Rock, 
which  being  a  hard  bed,  lies  near  the  hilltops  by  Boxmoor,  Apsley 
End  and  near  Baldock.  The  Upper  Chalk  slopes  southward  towards 
the  Eocene  boundary  previously  mentioned.  The  Reading  beds 
consist  of  mottled  and  yellow  clays  and  sands,  the  latter  are  frequently 
hardened  into  masses  made  up  of  pebbles  in  a  siliceous  cement, 
known  locally  as  Hertfordshire  puddingstone.  The  London  Clay,  a 
stiff  blue  clay  which  weathers  brown,  rests  nearly  everywhere  upon  the 
Reading  beds.  Outliers  of  Eocene  rocks  rest  on  the  chalk  at  Mickle- 
field  Green,  Sarrat,  Bedmont,  &c.  The  Chalk  is  often  covered  by 
the  Clay-with-flints,  a  detrital  deposit,  formed  of  the  remnants  of 
Tertiary  rocks  and  Chalk.  Glacial  gravels,  clays  and  loams  cover  a 
great  deal  of  the  whole  area,  and  the  Upper  Chalk  itself  has  been 
disturbed  at  Reed  and  Barley  by  the  same  agency.  Chalk  was 
formerly  used  for  building  purposes;  it  is  now  burned  for  lime. 
Reading  beds  and  London  clay  are  dug  for  brickmaking  at  Watford, 
Hertford  and  Hatfield.  Phosphatic  nodules  have  been  excavated 
from  the  base  of  the  Chalk  Marl  at  several  places  along  the  outcrop; 
the  Marl  is  worked  for  cement. 

Climate  and  Agriculture. — The  climate  is  mild,  dry  and 
generally  healthy.  On  this  account  London  physicians  were 
formerly  accustomed  to  recommend  the  county  to  persons  in 
weak  health,  and  it  was  so  much  coveted  by  the  noble  and 
wealthy  as  a  place  of  residence  that  it  was  a  common  saying  that 
"  he  who  buys  a  home  in  Hertfordshire  pays  two  years'  purchase 
for  the  air."  Of  the  total  area  about  four-fifths  is  under  cultiva- 
tion, and  of  this  more  than  one-third  is  in  permanent  pasture. 
The  principal  grain  crop  is  wheat,  occupying  about  two-fifths  of 
the  area  under  corn,  but  gradually  decreasing.  The  varieties 
mostly  grown  are  white,  and  they  are  unsurpassed  by  those  of 
any  English  county.  Wheathampstead  on  the  upper  Lea 
receives  its  name  from  the  fine  quality  of  the  wheat  grown  in  that 
district.  Barley  is  largely  used  in  the  county  for  malting 
purposes.  Vetches  are  grown  for  the  London  stables,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  permanent  grass  is  used  for  hay.  There  are 
some  very  rich  pastures  on  the  banks  of  the  Stort,  and  also  near 
Rickmansworth  on  the  Colne.  Some  two-thirds  of  the  area 
occupied  by  green  crops  is  under  turnips,  swedes  and  mangolds, 
many  cows  being  kept  for  the  supply  of  milk  and  butter  to 
London.  The  quantity  of  stock  is  generally  small,  but  increasing 
except  in  the  case  of  sheep,  of  which  the  numbers  have  greatly 
decreased.  Of  cows  the  most  common  breed  is  the  Suffolk 
variety;  of  sheep,  Southdowns,  Wiltshires  and  a  cross  between 
Cotteswolds  and  Leicesters.  In  the  south-west  large  quantities 
of  cherries,  apples  and  strawberries  are  grown  for  the  London 
market;  and  on  the  best  soils  near  London  vegetables  are  forced 
by  the  aid  of  manure,  and  more  than  one  crop  is  sometimes 
obtained  in  a  year.  A  considerable  industry  lies  in  the  growth  of 
watercresses  in  the  pure  water  of  the  upper  parts  of  the  rivers  and 


HERTFORDSHIRE 


399 


the  smaller  streams.  There  are  a  number  of  rose-gardens  and 
nurseries. 

Other  Industries. — The  manufacturing  industries  are  slight; 
though  the  great  brewing  establishments  at  Watford  may  be 
mentioned,  and  straw-plaiting,  paper-making,  coach-building, 
tanning  and  brick-making  are  carried  on  in  various  towns. 

Communications. — Owing  to  its  proximity  to  the  metropolis, 
Hertfordshire  is  particularly  well  served  by  railways.  On  the 
eastern  border  there  is  the  Great  Eastern  (Cambridge  line) 
with  branches  to  Hertford  and  to  Buntingford.  The  main  line 
of  the  Great  Northern  passes  through  the  centre  by  Hatfield, 
Stevenage  and  Hitchin,  with  branches  from  Hatfield  to  Hertford, 
to  St  Albans  and  to  Luton  and  Dunstable,  and  from  Hitchin  to 
Baldock,  Royston  and  so  to  Cambridge.  The  Midland  passes 
through  St  Albans  and  Harpenden,  with  a  branch  to  Hemel 
Hempstead.  The  London  &  North- Western  traverses  the  south- 
west by  Watford,  Berkhampstead  and  Tring,  with  branches  to 
Rickmansworth  and  to  St  Albans.  The  Metropolitan  &  Great 
Central  joint  line  serves  Rickmansworth,  and  suburban  lines 
of  the  Great  Northern  the  Barnet  district.  The  existence  of 
these  communications  has  combined  with  the  natural  attractions 
of  the  county  to  cause  many  villages  to  become  large  residential 
centres.  Water  communications  are  supplied  from  Hertford, 
Ware  and  Bishop  Stortford,  southward  to  the  Thames  by  the 
Lea  and  Stort  Navigation;  and  the  Grand  Junction  canal  from 
London  to  the  north-west  traverses  the  south-western  corner 
of  the  county  by  Rickmansworth  and  Berkhampstead.  Three 
great  highways  from  London  to  the  north  traverse  the  county. 
The  Holyhead  Road  passes  Chipping  Barnet,  South  Mimms  and 
St  Albans,  quitting  the  county  near  Dunstable.  The  Great 
North  Road  branches  from  the  Holyhead  Road  at  Barnet,  and 
passes  Potter's  Bar,  Hatfield,  Stevenage  and  Baldock,  with  a 
branch  from  Welwyn  to  Hitchin  and  beyond.  Another  road 
follows  the  Lea  valley  to  Ware,  whence  it  runs  to  Royston, 
being  here  coincident  with  the  Roman  Ermine  Street  and  known 
as  the  Old  North  Road. 

Population  and  Administration. — The  area  of  the  ancient 
county  is  406,157  acres  with  a  population  in  1891  of  220,162, 
and  in  1901  of  250,152.  The  area  of  the  administrative  county 
is  404,518  acres.  The  county  comprises  eight  hundreds.  The 
municipal  boroughs  are:  Hemel  Hempstead  (11,264),  Hertford 
9322),  St  Albans,  a  city  (16,019).  The  other  urban  districts  are: 
Baldock  (2057),  Barnet  (7876),  Berkhampstead  (Great  Berk- 
hampstead, 5140),  Bishop  Stortford  (7143),  Bushey  (4564), 
Cheshunt  (12,292),  East  Barnet  Valley  (10,094),  Harpenden 
(4725),  Hitchin  (10,072),  Hoddesdon  (4711),'  Rickmansworth 
(5627),  Royston  (3517),  Sawbridgeworth  (2085),  Stevenage  (3957), 
Tring  (4349),  Ware  (5573)  and  Watford  (29,327).  The  county 
is  in  the  home  circuit,  and  assizes  are  held  at  Hertford.  It  has 
two  courts  of  quarter-sessions,  and  is  divided  into  15  petty- 
sessional  divisions.  The  boroughs  of  Hertford  and  St  Albans 
have  separate  commissions  of  the  peace.  The  total  number 
of  civil  parishes  is  158.  All  the  civil  parishes  within  12  m.  of, 
or  in  which  no  portion  is  more  than  15  m.  from,  Charing  Cross, 
London,  are  included  in  the  metropolitan  police  district.  The 
county  contains  1 70  ecclesiastical  parishes  or  districts,  wholly  or 
in  part;  it  is  nearly  all  in  the  diocese  of  St  Albans,  but  small 
parts  are  in  the  dioceses  of  Ely,  Oxford  and  London.  It  is 
divided  into  four  parliamentary  divisions — Northern  or  Hitchin, 
Eastern  or  Hertford,  Mid  or  St  Albans,  Western  or  Watford, 
each  returning  one  member.  There  is  no  parliamentary  borough 
within  the  county. 

History. — Relics  of  Saxon  occupation  have  been  found  in 
Hertfordshire  for  the  most  part  near  St  Albans  and  Hitchin. 
The  diocesan  limits  show  that  part  of  the  shire  was  included  in 
the  West  Saxon  kingdom.  The  East  Saxons,  as  early  as  the 
6th  century,  were  settled  about  Hertford,  which  in  673  was 
sufficiently  important  to  be  the  meeting-place  of  a  synod  con- 
vened by  Theodore,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  while  in  675  the 
Witenagemot  assembled  at  a  place  which  has  been  identified  with 
Hatfield.  In  the  gth  century  the  district  was  frequently  visited 
by  the  Danes;  and  after  the  peace  of  Wedmore  the  country  east 


of  the  Lea  was  included  in  the  Danelaw;  in  911  Edward  the 
Elder  erected  forts  on  both  sides  of  the  river  at  Hertford. 

After  the  battle  of  Hastings  William  advanced  on  Hertford- 
shire and  ravaged  as  far  as  Berkhampstead,  where  the  Conquest 
received  its  formal  ratification.  In  the  sweeping  confiscation 
of  estates  which  followed,  the  church  was  generously  endowed, 
the  abbey  of  St  Albans  alone  holding  172  hides,  while  Count 
Eustace  of  Boulogne,  the  chief  lay  tenant,  held  a.vast  fief  in  the 
north-east  of  the  county.  Large  estates  were  held  by  Geoffrey 
de  Mandeville,  and  the  barony  of  Peter  de  Valognes,  sheriff  of  the 
county  in  1086,  though  extending  over  six  counties  in  the  east 
of  England,  was  returned  in  1166  as  a  Hertfordshire  barony. 
Berkhampstead  was  the  head  of  an  honour  carved  from  the 
fief  of  Robert  of  Mortain.  The  Hertfordshire  estates,  however, 
for  the  most  part  changed  hands  very  frequently  and  the  county 
is  noticeably  lacking  in  historic  families.  Edmund  Langley, 
fifth  son  of  Edward  III.,  was  born  at  King's  Langley  in  this 
county. 

During  the  war  between  John  and  his  barons,  William,  earl  of 
Salisbury  and  Falkes  de  Breaute  had  the  king's  orders  to  ravage 
Hertfordshire,  and  in  1216  Hertford  Castle  was  captured  and 
Berkhampstead  Castle  besieged  by  Louis  of  France,  who  had 
come  over  by  invitation  of  the  barons.  At  the  time  of  the  rising 
of  1381  the  abbot's  tenants  broke  into  the  abbey  of  St  Albans  and 
forced  the  abbot  to  grant  them  a  charter.  During  the  Wars  of  the 
Roses,  Henry  VI.  was  defeated  at  St  Albans  in  1455;  at  the 
second  battle  of  St  Albans  the  earl  of  Warwick  was  defeated  by 
Queen  Margaret;  and  in  1471  Edward  IV.  again  defeated  the 
earl  at  Barnet.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  of  the  i7th 
century,  Hertfordshire  joined  with  Bedfordshire  and  Essex  in 
petitioning  for  peace,  and  St  Albans  again  played  an  important 
part  in  the  struggle,  being  at  different  times  the  headquarters 
of  Essex  and  Fairfax. 

As  a  shire  Hertfordshire  is  of  purely  military  origin,  being  the 
district  assigned  to  the  fortress  which  Edward  the  Elder  erected 
at  Hertford.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  the  Saxon  Chronicle  in  101 1 . 
At  the  time  of  the  Domesday  Survey  the  boundaries  were  ap- 
proximately those  of  the  present  day,  but  part  of  Meppershall  in 
Bedfordshire  formed  a  detached  portion  of  the  shire  and  is  still 
assessed  for  land  and  income  tax  in  Hertfordshire.  Of  the  nine 
Domesday  hundreds,  those  of  Danais  and  Tring  were  consolidated 
about  1 200  under  the  name  of  Dacorum;  the  modern  hundred  of 
Cashio,  from  being  held  by  the  abbots  of  St  Albans,  was  known 
as  Albaneston,  while  the  remaining  six  hundreds  correspond 
approximately  both  in  name  and  extent  with  those  of  the  present 
day. 

Hertfordshire  was  originally  divided  between  the  dioceses  of 
London  and  Lincoln.  In  1291  that  part  included  in  the  Lincoln 
diocese  formed  part  of  the  archdeaconry  of  Huntingdom  and 
comprised  the  deaneries  of  Berkhampstead,  Hitchin,  Hertford  and 
Baldock,  and  the  archdeaconry  and  deanery  of  St  Albans;  while 
that  part  within  the  London  diocese  formed  the  deanery  of 
Braughing  within  the  archdeaconry  of  Middlesex.  In  1535 
the  jurisdiction  of  St  Albans  had  been  transferred  to  the  London 
diocese,  the  division  being  otherwise  unchanged.  In  1846  the 
whole  county  was  placed  within  the  diocese  of  Rochester  and 
archdeaconry  of  St  Albans,  and  in  the  next  year  the  deaneries  of 
Welwyn,  Bennington,  Buntingford,  Bishop  Stortford  and  Ware 
were  created,  and  that  of  Braughing  abolished.  In  1864  the 
archdeaconries  of  Rochester  and  St  Albans  were  united  under 
the  name  of  the  archdeaconry  of  Rochester  and  St  Albans.  In 
1878  the  county  was  placed  in  the  newly  created  diocese  of  St 
Albans,  and  formed  the  archdeaconry  of  St  Albans,  the  deaneries 
being  unchanged. 

Hertfordshire  was  closely  associated  with  Essex  from  the  time 
of  its  first  settlement,  and  the  counties  paid  a  joint  fee-farm  and 
were  united  under  one  sheriff  until  1565,  the  shire-court  being  held 
at  Hertford.  The  hundred  of  St  Albans  was  at  an  early  date 
constituted  a  separate  liberty,  with  independent  courts  and 
coroners  under  the  control  of  the  abbot;  it  preserved  a  separate 
commission  of  the  peace  until  1874,  when  by  act  of  parliament 
the  county  was  arranged  in  two  divisions,  the  eastern  division 


HERTHA— HERTZ,  H.  R. 


being  named  Hertford,  and  the  western  the  liberty  of  St  Albans. 
These  divisions  have  since  been  abolished. 

Hertfordshire  has  always  been  an  agricultural  county,  with  few 
manufactures,  and  at  the  time  of  the  Domesday  Survey  its  wealth 
was  derived  almost  entirely  from  its  rural  manors,  with  their 
water  meadows,  woodlands,  fisheries  paying  rent  in  eels,  and 
water-mills,  the  shire  on  its  eastern  side  being  noticeably  free  from 
waste  land.  In  Norman  times  the  woollen  trade  was  considerable, 
and  the  great  corn  market  at  Royston  has  been  famous  since  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth.  At  the  time  of  the  Civil  War  the  malting 
industry  was  largely  carried  on,  and  saltpetre  was  produced  in 
the  county.  In  the  i7th  century  Hertfordshire  was  famous 
for  its  horses,  and  the  i8th  century  saw  the  introduction  of 
several  minor  industries,  such  as  straw-plaiting,  paper-making 
and  silk  weaving. 

In  1290  Hertfordshire  returned  two  members  to  parliament, 
and  in  1298  the  borough  of  Hertford  was  represented.  St 
Albans,  Bishop  Stortford  and  Berkhampstead  acquired  repre- 
sentation in  the  I4th  century,  but  from  1375  to  1553  no  returns 
were  made  for  the  boroughs.  St  Albans  regained  representation 
>n  J5S3  and  Hertford  in  1623.  Under  the  Reform  Act  of  1832 
the  county  returned  three  members.  St  Albans  was  dis- 
franchised on  account  of  bribery  in  1852.  Hertford  lost  one 
member  in  1868,  and  was  disfranchised  by  the  act  of  1885. 

Antiquities. — Among  the  objects  of  antiquarian  interest  may 
be  mentioned  the  cave  of  Royston,  doubtless  once  used  as  a 
hermitage;  Waltham  Cross,  erected  to  mark  the  spot  where 
rested  the  body  of  Eleanor,  queen  of  Edward  I.,  on  its  way  to 
Westminster  for  interment;  and  the  Great  Bed  of  Ware  referred 
to  in  Shakespeare's  Twelfth  Night  and  preserved  at  Rye  House. 
The  principal  monastic  buildings  are  the  noble  pile  of  St  Albans 
abbey;  the  remains  of  Sopwell  Benedictine  nunnery  near  St 
Albans,  founded  in  1140;  the  remains  of  the  priory  of  Ware, 
dedicated  to  St  Francis,  and  originally  a  cell  to  the  monastery  of 
St  Ebrulf  at  Utica  in  Normandy;  and  the  remains  of  the  priory 
at  Hitchin  built  by  Edward  II.  for  the  Carmelites.  Among  the 
more  interesting  churches  may  be  mentioned  those  of  Abbots 
Langley  and  Hemel  Hempstead,  both  of  Late  Norman  archi- 
tecture; Baldock,  a  handsome  mixed  Gothic  building  supposed 
to  have  been  erected  by  the  Knights  Templars  in  the  reign  of 
Stephen;  Royston,  formerly  connected  with  the  priory  of  canons 
regular;  Hitchin  of  the  i5th  century;  Hatfield,  dating  from  the 
i3th  century  but  in  the  main  later;  Berkhampstead,  chiefly  in 
the  Perpendicular  style,  with  a  tower  of  the  i6th  century. 
Sandridge  church  shows  good  Norman  work  with  the  use  of 
Roman  bricks;  Wheathampstead  church,  mainly  very  fine 
Decorated,  has  pre-Norman  remains.  The  remains  of  secular 
buildings  of  importance  are  those  of  Berkhampstead  castle, 
Hertford  castle,  Hatfield  palace  of  the  bishops  of  Ely,  the  slight 
traces  at  Bishop  Stortford,  and  the  earthworks  at  Anstey. 
Among  the  numerous  mansions  of  interest,  Rye  House,  erected  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  was  tenanted  by  Rumbold,  one  of  the 
principal  agents  in  the  plot  to  assassinate  Charles  II.  Moor 
Park,  Rickmansworth,  once  the  property  of  St  Albans  abbey, 
was  granted  by  Henry  VII.  to  John  de  Vere,  earl  of  Oxford,  and 
was  afterwards  the  property  of  the  duke  of  Monmouth,  who 
built  the  present  mansion,  which,  however,  was  subsequently 
cased  with  Portland  stone  and  received  various  other  additions. 
Knebworth,  the  seat  of  the  Lyttons,  was  originally  a  Norman 
fortress,  rebuilt  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth  in  the  Tudor  style  and 
restored  in  the  igth  century.  Hatfield  House  is  the  seat  of  the 
marquis  of  Salisbury;  but  its  earlier  history  is  of  great  interest, 
as  is  that  of  Theobalds  near  Cheshunt.  Panshanger  House,  until 
recently  the  principal  seat  of  the  Cowpers,  is  a  splendid  mansion 
in  Gothic  style  erected  at  the  beginning  of  the  igth  century.  The 
manor  of  Cashiobury  House,  the  seat  of  the  earls  of  Essex,  was 
formerly  held  by  the  abbot  of  St  Albans,  but  the  mansion  was 
rebuilt  in  the  beginning  of  the  igth  century  from  designs  by 
Wyatt.  Gorhambury  House,  near  St  Albans,  the  seat  of  the  earl 
of  Verulam,  formerly  the  seat  of  the  Bacons,  and  the  residence  of 
the  great  chancellor,  was  rebuilt  at  the  close  of  the  i8th  century. 
At  Kings  Langley  and  Hunsdon  were  also  former  royal  residences. 


See  Sir  H.  Chauncy,  Historical  Antiquities  of  Hertfordshire  (London, 
1700,  2nd  cd.,  Bishop  Stortford,  1826);  N.  Salmon,  History  of 
Hertfordshire  (London,  1728);  R.  Clutterbuck,  History  and 
Antiquities  of  the  County  of  Hertford  (London,  1815-1827);  W. 
Berry,  Pedigrees  of  the  Hertfordshire  Families  (London,  1844); 
J.  E.  Cussans,  History  of  Hertfordshire  (London,  1870-1881); 
Victoria  County  History,  Hertfordshire  (London,  1902,  &c.) ;  see 
also  "  Visitation  of  Hertfordshire,  1572-1634,"  in  Harleian  Society's 
Publ.  vol.  xvii.,  and  various  papers  in  Middlesex  and  Hertfordshire 
Notes  and  Queries  (1895-1898),  which  in  January  1899  was  incor- 
porated in  the  Home  Counties  Magazine. 

HERTHA,  or  NERTHUS,  in  Teutonic  mythology,  the  goddess 
of  fertility,  "Mother  Earth."  Tacitus  states  that  many  Teutonic 
tribes  worshipped  her  with  orgies  and  mysterious  rites  celebrated 
at  night.  The  chief  seat  of  her  cult  was  an  island  which  has  not 
been  identified.  A  single  priest  performed  the  service.  Her 
veiled  statue  was  moved  from  place  to  place  by  sacred  cows  on 
which  none  but  the  priest  might  lay  hands.  At  the  conclusion  of 
the  rites  the  image,  its  vestments  and  its  vehicle  were  bathed  in 
a  lake. 

HERTZ,  HEINRICH  RUDOLF  (1857-1894),  German  physicist, 
was  born  at  Hamburg  on  the  22nd  of  February  1857.  On  leaving 
school  he  determined  to  adopt  the  profession  of  engineering,  and 
in  the  pursuance  of  this  decision  went  to  study  in  Munich  in  1877. 
But  soon  coming  to  the  conclusion  that  engineering  was  not  his 
vocation  he  abandoned  it  in  favour  of  physical  science,  and  in 
October  1878  began  to  attend  the  lectures  of  G.  R.  Kirchhoff  and 
H.  von  Helmholtz  at  Berlin.  In  preparation  for  these  he  spent 
the  winter  of  1877-1878  in  reading  up  original  treatises  like  those 
of  Laplace  and  Lagrange  on  mathematics  and  mechanics,  and  in 
attending  courses  on  practical  physics  under  P.  G.  von  Jolly  and 
J.  F.  W.  von  Bezold;  the  consequence  was  that  within  a  few  days 
of  his  arrival  in  Berlin  in  October  1878  he  was  able  to  plunge  into 
original  research  on  a  problem  of  electric  inertia.  For  the  best 
solution  a  prize  was  offered  by  the  philosophical  faculty  of  the 
University,  and  this  he  succeeded  in  winning  with  the  paper 
which  was  published  in  1 880  on  the  "  Kinetic  Energy  of  Electricity 
in  Motion."  His  next  investigation,  on  "  Induction  in  Rotating 
Spheres,"  he  offered  in  1880  as  his  dissertation  for  his  doctor's 
degree,  which  he  obtained  with  the  rare  distinction  of  sttmnia 
cum  laude.  Later  in  the  same  year  he  became  assistant  to 
Helmholtz  in  the  physical  laboratory  of  the  Berlin  Institute. 
During  the  three  years  he  held  this  position  he  carried  out 
researches  on  the  contact  of  elastic  solids,  hardness,  evaporation 
and  the  electric  discharge  in  gases,  the  last  earning  him  the 
special  commendation  of  Helmholtz.  In  1883  he  went  to  Kiel, 
becoming  Privatdozent,  and  there  he  began  the  studies  in  Maxwell's 
electro-magnetic  theory  which  a  few  years  later  resulted  in  the 
discoveries  that  rendered  his  name  famous.  These  were  actually 
made  between  1885  and  1889,  when  he  was  professor  of  physics 
in  the  Carlsruhe  Polytechnic.  He  himself  recorded  that  their 
origin  is  to  be  sought  in  a  prize  problem  proposed  by  the  Berlin 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1879,  having  reference  to  the  experi- 
mental establishment  of  some  relation  between  electromagnetic 
forces  and  the  dielectric  polarization  of  insulators.  Imagining 
that  this  would  interest  Hertz  and  be  successfully  attacked  by 
him,  Helmholtz  specially  drew  his  attention  to  it,  and  promised 
him  the  assistance  of  the  Institute  if  he  decided  to  work  on  the 
subject;  but  Hertz  did  not  take  it  up  seriously  at  that  time, 
because  he  could  not  think  of  any  procedure  likely  to  prove 
effective.  It  was  of  course  well  known,  as  a  necessity  of  Maxwell's 
mathematical  theory,  that  the  polarization  and  depolarization  of 
an  insulator  must  give  rise  to  the  same  electromagnetic  effects  in 
the  neighbourhood  as  a  voltaic  current  in  a  conductor.  The  ex- 
perimental proof,  however,  was  still  lacking,  and  though  several 
experimenters  had  come  very  near  its  discovery,  Hertz  was  the  first 
who  actually  succeeded  in  supplying  it,  in  1887.  Continuing  his 
inquiries  for  the  next  year  or  two,  he  was  able  to  discover  the  pro- 
gressive propagation  of  electromagnetic  action  through  space,  to 
measure  the  length  and  velocity  of  electromagnetic  waves,  and  to 
show  that  in  the  transverse  nature  of  their  vibration  and  their  sus- 
ceptibility to  reflection,  refraction  and  polarization  they  are  in 
complete  correspondence  with  the  waves  of  light  and  heat.  The 
result,  was  in  Helmholtz's  words,  to  establish  beyond  doubt  that 


HERTZ,  H.— HERTZBERG 


401 


ordinary  light  consists  of  electrical  vibrations  in  an  all-pervading 
ether  which  possesses  the  properties  of  an  insulator  and  of  a 
magnetic  medium.  Hertz  himself  gave  an  admirable  account  of 
the  significance  of  his  discoveries  in  a  lecture  on  the  relations 
between  light  and  electricity,  delivered  before  the  German  Society 
for  the  Advancement  of  Natural  Science  and  Medicine  at  Heidel- 
berg in  September  1889.  Since  the  time  of  these  early  experi- 
ments, various  other  modes  of  detecting  the  existence  of  electric 
waves  have  been  found  out  in  addition  to  the  spark-gap  which 
he  first  employed,  and  the  results  of  his  observations,  the  earliest 
interest  of  which  was  simply  that  they  afforded  a  confirmation  of 
an  abstruse  mathematical  theory,  have  been  applied  to  the 
practical  purposes  of  signalling  over  considerable  distances 
(see  TELEGRAPHY,  WIRELESS).  In  1889  Hertz  was  appointed  to 
succeed  R.  J.  E.  Clausius  as  ordinary  professor  of  physics  in  the 
university  of  Bonn.  There  he  continued  his  researches  on  the 
discharge  of  electricity  in  rarefied  gases,  only  just  missing  the 
discovery  of  the  X-rays  described  by  W.  C.  Rontgen  a  few  years 
later,  and  produced  his  treatise  on  the  Principles  of  Mechanics. 
This  was  his  last  work,  for  after  a  long  illness  he  died  at  Bonn  on 
the  ist  of  January  1894.  By  his  premature  death  science  lost  one 
of  her  most  promising  disciples.  Helmholtz  thought  him  the  one 
of  all  his  pupils  who  had  penetrated  farthest  into  his  swn  circle  of 
scientific  thought,  and  looked  to  him  with  the  greatest  confidence 
for  the  further  extension  and  development  of  his  work. 

Hertz's  scientific  papers  were  translated  into  English  by  Professor 
D.  E.  Jones,  and  published  in  three  volumes:  Electric  Waves  (1893), 
Miscellaneous  Papers  (1896),  and  Principles  of  Mechanics  (1899). 
The  preface  contributed  to  the  first  of  these  by  Lord  Kelvin,  and  the 
introductions  to  the  second  and  third  by  Professors  P.  E.  A.  Lenard 
and  Helmholtz,  contain  many  biographical  details,  together  with 
statements  of  the  scope  and  significance  of  his  investigations. 

HERTZ,  HENRIK  (1797-1870),  Danish  poet,  was  born  of 
Jewish  parents  in  Copenhagen  on  the  2$th  of  August  1798.  In 
1817  he  was  sent  to  the  university.  His  father  died  in  his 
infancy,  and  the  family  property  was  destroyed  in  the  bombard- 
ment of  1807.  The  boy  was  brought  up  by  his  relative,  M.  L. 
Nathanson,  a  well-known  newspaper  editor.  Young  Hertz 
passed  his  examination  in  law  in  1825.  But  his  taste  was  all  for 
polite  literature,  and  in  1826-1827  two  plays  of  his  were  produced, 
Mr  Burchardt  and  his  Family  and  Love  and  Policy;  in  1828 
followed  the  comedy  of  Flytledagen.  In  1830  he  brought  out 
what  was  a  complete  novelty  in  Danish  literature,  a  comedy  in 
rhymed  verse,  A  mor's  Strokes  of  Genius.  In  the  same  year  Hertz 
published  anonymously  Gengangerbrevene,  or  Letters  from  a 
Ghost,  which  he  pretended  were  written  by  Baggesen,  who  had 
died  in  1826.  The  book  was  written  in  defence  of  J.  L.  Heiberg, 
and  was  full  of  satirical  humour  and  fine  critical  insight.  Its 
success  was  overwhelming;  but  Hertz  preserved  his  anonymity, 
and  the  secret  was  not  known  until  many  years  later.  In  1832 
he  published  a  didactic  poem,  Nature  and  Art,  and  Four  Poetical 
Epistles.  A  Day  on  the  Island  of  Als  was  his  next  comedy,  followed 
in  1835  by  The  Only  Fault.  Hertz  passed  through  Germany  and 
Switzerland  into  Italy  in  1833;  he  spent  the  winter  there,  and 
returned  the  following  autumn  through  France  to  Denmark.  In 
1836  his  comedy  of  The  Sailings  Bank  enjoyed  a  great  success. 
But  it  was  not  till  1837  that  he  gave  the  full  measure  of  his  genius 
in  the  romantic  national  drama  of  Svend  Dyrings  Hus,  a  beautiful 
and  original  piece.  His  historical  tragedy  Valdemar  Alter  dag  was 
not  so  well  received  in  1839;  but  in  1845  he  achieved  an  immense 
success  with  his  lyrical  drama  Kong  Rene's  Dalter  (King  Rene's 
Daughter),  which  has  been  translated  into  almost  every  European 
language.  To  this  succeeded  the  tragedy  of  Ninon  in  1848,  the 
romantic  comedy  of  Tonietta  in  1849,  A  Sacrifice  in  1833,  The 
Youngest  in  1854.  His  lyrical  poems  appeared  in  successive 
collections,  dated  1832,  1840  and  1844.  From  1858  to  1859  he 
edited  a  literary  journal  entitled  Weekly  Leaves.  His  last  drama, 
Three  Days  in  Padua,  was  produced  in  1869,  and  he  died  on 
the  2$th  of  February  of  the  next  year. 

Hertz  is  one  of  the  first  of  Danish  lyrical  poets.  His  poems 
are  full  of  colour  and  passion,  his  versification  has  more  witch- 
craft in  it  than  any  other  poet's  of  his  age,  and  his  style  is  grace 
itself.  He  has  all  the  sensuous  fire  of  Keats  without  his  proclivity 


to  the  antique.  As  a  romantic  dramatist  he  is  scarcely  less 
original.  He  has  bequeathed  to  the  Danish  theatre,  in  Svend 
Dyrings  Hus  and  King  Rene's  Daughter,  two  pieces  which  have 
become  classic.  He  is  a  troubadour  by  instinct;  he  has  little 
or  nothing  of  Scandinavian  local  colouring,  and  succeeds  best 
when  he  is  describing  the  scenery  or  the  emotions  of  the  glowing 
south. 

His  Dramatic  Works  (18  vols.)  were  published  at  Copenhagen  in 
1854-1873;  and  his  Foems  (4  vols.)  in  1851-1862. 

HERTZBERG,  EWALD  FRIEDRICH,  COUNT  VON  (1725-1795), 
Prussian  statesman,  who  came  of  a  noble  family  which  had  been 
settled  in  Pomerania  since  the  i3th  century,  was  born  at  Lottin, 
in  that  province,  on  the  2nd  of  September  1725.  After  1739  he 
studied,  chiefly  classics  and  history  at  the  gymnasium  at  Stettin, 
and  in  1742  entered  the  university  of  Halle  as  a  student  of  juris- 
prudence, becoming  in  due  course  a  doctor  of  laws  in  1745.  In 
addition  to  this  principal  study,  he  was  also  interested  while  at 
the  university  in  historical  and  philosophical  (Christian  Wolff) 
studies.  A  first  thesis  for  his  doctcrate,  entitled  Jus  publicum 
Brandenburgicum,  was  not  printed,  because  it  contained  a 
criticism  of  the  existing  condition  of  the  state.  Shortly  after- 
wards Hertzberg  entered  the  government  service,  in  which  he 
was  first  employed  in  the  department  of  the  state  archives  (of 
which  he  became  director  in  1750),  soon  after  in  the  foreign 
office,  and  finally  in  1763  as  chief  minister  (Cabinelsminisler). 
In  1752  he  married  Baroness  Marie  von  Knyphausen,  a  marriage 
which  was  happy,  but  childless. 

For  more  than  forty  years  Hertzberg  played  an  active  part 
in  the  Prussian  foreign  office.  In  this  capacity  he  had  a  decisive 
influence  on  Prussian  policy,  both  under  Frederick  the  Great  and 
Frederick  William  II.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Seven.  Years' 
War  (1756)  he  took  part  as  a  political  writer  in  the  Hohenzollern- 
Habsburg  quarrel,  both  in  his  Ursachen,  die  S.K.M.  in  Preussen 
bewogen  haben,  sick  wider  die  Absichlen  dcs  Wiencrischcn  Hofes 
zu  setzen  und  deren  Ausfuhrung  zuvorzukommen  ("  Motives  which 
have  induced  the  king  of  Prussia  to  oppose  the  intentions  of  the 
court  of  Vienna,  and  to  prevent  them  from  being  carried  into 
effect"),  and  in  his  M  emoire  raisonne  sur  la  conduite  dcs  cours  de 
Vienne  et  de  Saxe,  based  on  the  secret  papers  taken  by  Frederick 
the  Great  from  the  archives  of  Dresden.  After  the  defeat  at 
Kolin  (1757)  he  hastened  to  Pomerania  in  order  to  organize  the 
national  defence  there  and  collect  the  necessary  troops  for  the 
protection  of  the  fortresses  of  Stettin  and  Colberg.  In  the 
same  year  he  conducted  the  peace  negotiations  with  Sweden, 
and  was  of  great  service  in  bringing  about  the  peace  of  Huberts- 
burg  (1763),  on  the  conclusion  of  which  the  king  received  him 
with  the  words,  "  I  congratulate  you.  You  have  made  peace 
as  I  made  war,  one  against  many." 

In  the  later  years,  too,  of  Frederick  the  Great's  reign,  Hertzberg 
played  a  considerable  part  in  foreign  policy.  In  1772,  in  a 
memoir  based  upon  comprehensive  historical  studies,  he  defended 
the  Prussian  claims  to  certain  provinces  of  Poland.  He  also  took 
part  successfully  as  a  publicist  in  the  negotiations  concerning  the 
question  of  the  Bavarian  succession  (1778)  and  those  of  the  peace 
of  Teschen  (1779).  But  in  1780  he  failed  to  uphold  Prussian 
interests  at  the  election  of  the  bishop  of  Munster.  In  1784 
appeared  Hertzberg's  memoir  containing  a  thorough  study  of  the 
Ftirstenbund.  He  championed  this  latest  creation  of  Frederick 
the  Great's  mainly  with  a  view  to  an  energetic  reform  of  the 
empire,  though  the  idea  of  German  unity  was  naturally  still 
far  from  his  mind.  In  1785  followed  "  An  explanation  of  the 
motives  which  have  led  the  king  of  Prussia  to  propose  to  the  other 
high  estates  of  the  empire  an  association  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  system  of  the  empire  "  (Erkldrung  der  Ursachen,  welche  S.M. 
in  Preussen  bewogen  haben,  ihren  hohen  Milstanden  des  Reichs 
eine  Association  zur  Erhaltung  des  Reichssystems  anzutragen). 
By  upholding  the  Fiirstenbund  Hertzberg  made  many  enemies, 
prominent  among  whom  was  the  king's  brother,  Prince  Henry. 
Though  the  Fiirstenbund  failed  to  effect  a  reform  of  the  empire, 
it  at  any  rate  prevented  the  fulfilment  of  Joseph  II. 's  old  desire 
for  the  incorporation  of  Bavaria  with  Austria.  The  last  act  of 
state  in  which  Hertzberg  took  part  under  Frederick  the  Great 


402 


HERTZEN 


was  the  commercial  treaty  concluded  in  1785  between  Prussia 
and  the  United  States. 

With  Frederick,  especially  in  his  later  years,  Hertzberg  stood 
in  very  intimate  personal  relations  and  was  often  the  king's  guest 
at  Sans-Souci.  Under  Frederick  William  II.  his  influential 
position  at  the  court  of  Berlin  was  at  first  unshaken.  The  king 
at  once  received  him  with  favour,  as  is  clearly  proved  by  Hertz- 
berg's  elevation  to  the  rank  of  count  in  i786;and  Mirabeau  would 
never  have  attacked  him  with  such  violence  in  his  Secret  History 
of  the  Court  of  Berlin,  which  appeared  in  1788,  if  he  had  not 
seen  in  him  the  most  powerful  man  after  the  king.  In  this  attack 
Mirabeau  seems  to  have  been  influenced  by  Hertzberg's  personal 
enemies  at  the  court.  Hertzberg's  political  system  remained 
on  the  whole  the  same  under  Frederick  William  II.  as  it  had 
been  under  his  predecessor.  It  was  mainly  characterized  by  a 
sharp  opposition  to  the  house  of  Habsburg  and  by  a  desire  to 
win  for  Prussia  the  support  of  England,  a  policy  supported  by 
him  in  important  memoirs  of  the  years  1786  and  1787.  His 
diplomacy  was  directed  also  against  Austria's  old  ally,  France. 
Hence  it  was  chiefly  owing  to  Hertzberg  that  in  1787,  in  spite  of 
the  king's  unwillingness  at  first,  Prussia  intervened  in  Holland 
in  support  of  the  stadtholder  William  V.  against  the  demo- 
cratic French  party  (see  HOLLAND:  History).  The  success  of 
this  intervention,  which  was  the  practical  realization  of  -a  plan 
very  characteristic  of  Hertzberg,  marks  the  culminating  point  in 
his  career. 

But  the  opposition  between  him  and  the  new  king,  which  had 
already  appeared  at  the  time  of  the  conclusion  of  the  triple 
alliance  between  Holland,  England  and  Prussia,  became  more 
marked  in  the  following  years,  when  Hertzberg,  relying  upon  this 
alliance,  and  in  conscious  imitation  of  Frederick  II. 's  policy  at  the 
time  of  the  first  partition  of  Poland, sought  to  take  advantage  of 
the  entanglement  of  Austria  with  Russia  in  the  war  with  Turkey 
to  secure  for  Prussia  an  extension  of  territory  by  diplomatic 
intervention.  According  to  his  plan,  Prussia  was  to  offer  her 
mediation  at  the  proper  moment,  and  in  the  territorial  readjust- 
ments that  the  peace  would  bring,  was  to  receive  Danzig  and 
Thorn  as  her  portion.  Beyond  this  he  aimed  at  preventing  the 
restoration  of  the  hegemony  of  Austria  in  the  Empire,  and 
secretly  cherished  the  hope  of  restoring  Frederick  the  Great's 
Russian  alliance. 

With  a  curious  obstinacy  he  continued  to  pursue  these  aims 
even  when,  owing  to  military  and  diplomatic  events,  they  were 
already  partly  out  of  date.  His  personal  position  became 
increasingly  difficult,  as  deep-rooted  differences  between  him  and 
the  king  were  revealed  during  these  diplomatic  campaigns. 
Hertzberg  wished  to  effect  everything  by  peaceful  means,  while 
Frederick  William  II.  was  for  a  time  determined  on  war  with 
Austria.  As  regards  Polish  policy,  too,  their  ideas  came  into 
conflict,  Hertzberg  having  always  been  openly  opposed  to  the 
total  annihilation  of  the  Polish  kingdom.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
attitude  of  king  and  minister  towards  Great  Britain.  At  the  con- 
ferences at  Reichenbach  in  the  summer  of  1790,  this  opposition 
became  more  and  more  acute,  and  Hertzberg  was  only  with 
difficulty  persuaded  to  come  to  an  agreement  merely  on  the 
basis  of  the  status  quo,  as  demanded  by  Pitt.  The  king's  renuncia- 
tion of  any  extension  of  territory  was  in  Hertzberg's  eyes 
impolitic,  and  this  view  of  his  was  later  endorsed  by  Bismarck. 
A  letter  which  came  to  the  eyes  of  the  king,  in  which 
Hertzberg  severely  criticized  the  king's  foreign  policy,  and 
especially  his  plans  for  attacking  Russia,  led  to  his  dismissal  on 
the  sth  of  July  1791.  He  afterwards  made  several  attempts  to 
exert  an  influence  over  foreign  affairs,  but  in  vain.  The  king 
showed  himself  more  and  more  personally  hostile  to  the  ex- 
minister,  and  in  later  years  pursued  Hertzberg,  now  quite 
embittered,  with  every  kind  of  petty  persecution,  even  ordering 
his  letters  to  be  opened. 

Even  in  his  literary  interests  Hertzberg  found  an  adversary  in 
the  ungrateful  king,  for  Frederick  William,  to  give  one  instance, 
made  it  so  difficult  for  him  to  use  the  archives  that  in  the  end 
Hertzberg  entirely  gave  up  the  attempt.  He  found,  however, 
some  recompense  for  all  his  disillusionment  and  discouragement 


in  learning,  and,  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt  excepted,  he  was  the 
most  learned  of  all  the  Prussian  ministers.  As  a  member  of  the 
Berlin  Academy  especially,  and,  from  1 786  onwards,  as  its  curator, 
Hertzberg  carried  on  a  great  and  valuable  activity  in  the  world  of 
learning.  His  yearly  reports  dealt  with  history,  statistics  and 
political  science.  The  most  interesting  is  that  of  1784:  Sur  la 
forme  des  gouvernements,  et  quelle  est  la  meilleure.  This  is  directed 
exclusively  against  the  absolute  system  (following  Montesquieu), 
upholds  a  limited  monarchy,  and  is  in  favour  of  extending  to 
the  peasants  the  right  to  be  represented  in  the  diet.  He  spoke 
for  the  last  time  in  1793  on  Frederick  the  Great  and  the  advantages 
of  monarchy.  After  1783  these  discourses  caused  a  great  sensa- 
tion, since  Hertzberg  introduced  into  them  a  review  of  the 
financial  situation,  which  in  the  days  of  absolutism  seemed  an 
unprecedented  innovation.  Besides  this,  Hertzberg  exerted 
himself  as  an  academician  to  change  the  strongly  French  character 
of  the  Academy  and  make  it  into  a  truly  German  institution.  He 
showed  a  keen  interest  in  the  old  German  language  and  literature. 
A  special  "  German  deputation  "  was  set  aside  at  the  Academy 
and  entrusted  with  the  drawing  up  of  a  German  grammar  and 
dictionary.  He  also  stood  in  very  close  relations  with  many  of 
the  German  poets  of  the  time,  and  especially  with  Daniel 
Schubart.  Among  the  German  historians  in  whom  he  took  a  great 
interest,  he  had  the  greatest  esteem  for  Pufendorf.  He  was 
equally  concerned  in  the  improvement  of  the  state  of  education. 
In  1780  he  boldly  took  up  the  defence  of  German  literature, 
which  had  been  disparaged  by  Frederick  the  Great  in  his  famous 
writing  De  la  literature  allemande. 

Hertzberg's  frank  and  honourable  nature  little  fitted  him  to  be 
a  successful  diplomatist;  but  the  course  of  history  has  justified 
many  of  his  aims  and  ideals,  and  in  Prussia  his  memory  is 
honoured.  He  died  at  Berlin  on  the  22nd  of  May  1795. 

AUTHORITIES. — (i)  By  Hertzberg  himself:  The  Memoires  de 
I'  Academic  from  1780  on  contain  Hertzberg's  discourses.  The  most 
noteworthy  of  them  were  printed  in  1787.  Here  too  is  to  be  found: 
Histoire  de  la  dissertation  [du.  roi]  sur  la  litterature  allemande;  see 
also  Recueil  des  deductions,  &c.,  qui  ont  ete  rediges  .  .  .  pour  la  cour 
de  Prusse  par  le  ministre  (3  vols.,  1789-1795);  and  an  "Auto- 
biographical Sketch  "  published  by  Hopke  in  Schmidt's  Zeitschrift 
fur  Geschichtswissenschaft,  i.  (1843).  (2)  Works  dealing  specially  with 
Hertzberg:  Mirabeau,  Histoire  secrete  de  la  cour  de  Berlin  (1788); 
P.  F.  Weddigen,  Hertzbergs  Leben  (Bremen,  1797);  E.  L.  Posselt, 
Hertzbergs  Leben  (Tubingen,  1798);  H.  Lehmann,  in  Neustettiner 
Programm  (1862);  E.  Fischer,  in  Staatsanzeiger  (1873);  M.  Duncker, 
in  Historische  Zeitschrift  (1877);  Paul  Bailleu,  in  Historische  Zeit- 
schrift (1879);  and  Allgemeine  deutsche  Biographie  (1880);  H. 
Petnch,  Pommersche  Lebensbilder  i.  (1880);  G.  Dressier,  Friedrich 
II.  und  Hertzberg  in  ihrer  Stellung  zu  den  hollandischen  Wirren, 
Breslauer  Dissertation  (1882);  K.  Krauel,  Hertzberg  als  Minister 
Friedrich  Wilhelms  II.  (Berlin,  1899);  F.  K.  Wittichen,  in 
Historische  Vierteljahrschnft,  9  (1906) ;  A.  Th.  Preuss,  Ewald 
Friedrich,  Graf  von  Hertzberg  (Berlin,  1909).  (3)  General  works:  F. 
K.  Wittichen,  Preussen  und  England,  1785-1788  (Heidelberg,  1902) ; 
F.  Luckwaldt,  Die  englisch-preussische  Allianz  von  1788  in  den 
Forschungen  zur  brandenburgisch-preussischen  Geschichte,  Bd.  15, 
and  in  the  Delbruckfestschrift  (Berlin,  1908) ;  L.  Sevin,  System  der 
preussischen  Geheimpolitik  1790—1791  (Heidelberger  Dissertation, 
1903) ;  P.  Wittichen,  Die  polnische  Politik  Preussens  1788-1790 
(Berlin,  1899);  F.  Andreae,  Preussische  und  russische  Politik  in 
Polen  1787-1780  (Berliner  Dissertation,  1905) ;  also  W.  Wenck, 
Deulschland  vor  100  Jahren  (2  vols.,  1887,  1890);  A.  Harnack, 
Geschichte  der  preussischen  Akademie  (4  vols.,  1899);  Consentius, 
Preussische  Jahrbucher  (1904);  J.  Hashagen,  "  Hertzbergs  Verhalt- 
nis  zur  deutschen  Literatur,"  in  Zeitschrift  fur  deutsche  Philologie 
for  1903.  .  (J.  HN.) 

HERTZEN,  ALEXANDER  (1812-1870),  Russian  author,  was 
born  at  Moscow,  a  very  short  time  before  the  occupation  of  that 
city  by  the  French.  His  father,  Ivan  Yakovlef ,  after  a  personal 
interview  with  Napoleon,  was  allowed  to  leave,  when  the  invaders 
arrived,  as  the  bearer  of  a  letter  from  the  French  to  the  Russian 
emperor.  His  family  attended  him  to  the  Russian  lines.  Then 
the  mother  of  the  infant  Alexander  (a  young  German  Protestant 
of  Jewish  extraction  from  Stuttgart,  according  to  A.  von 
Wurzbach),  only  seventeen  years  old,  and  quite  unable  to  speak 
Russian,  was  forced  to  seek  shelter  for  some  time  in  a  peasant's 
hut.  A  year  later  the  family  returned  to  Moscow,  where  Hertzen 
passed  his  youth — remaining  there,  after  completing  his  studies 
at  the  university,  till  1834,  when  he  was  arrested  and  tried  on  a 


HERULI 


403 


charge  of  having  assisted,  with  some  other  youths,  at  a  festival 
during  which  verses  by  Sokolovsky,  of  a  nature  uncomplimentary 
to  the  emperor,  were  sung.  The  special  commission  appointed  to 
try  the  youthful  culprits  found  him  guilty,  and  in  1835  he  was 
banished  to  Viatka.  There  he  remained  till  the  visit  to  that 
city  of  the  hereditary  grand-duke  (afterwards  Alexander  II.), 
accompanied  by  the  poet  Joukofsky,  led  to  his  being  allowed  to 
quit  Viatka  for  Vladimir,  where  he  was  appointed  editor  of  the 
official  gazette  of  that  city.  In  1840  he  obtained  a  post  in  the 
ministry  of  the  interior  at  St  Petersburg;  but  in  consequence  of 
having  spoken  too  frankly  about  a  death  due  to  a  police  officer's 
violence,  he  was  sent  to  Novgorod,  where  he  led  an  official  life, 
with  the  title  of  "  state  councillor,"  till  1842.  In  1846  his  father 
died,  leaving  him  by  his  will  a  very  large  property.  Early  in 
1847  he  left  Russia,  never  to  return.  From  Italy,  on  hearing  of 
the  revolution  of  1848,  he  hastened  to  Paris,  whence  he  after- 
wards went  to  Switzerland.  In  1852  he  quitted  Geneva  for 
London,  where  he  settled  for  some  years.  In  1864  he  returned  to 
Geneva,  and  after  some  time  went  to  Paris,  where  he  died  on  the 
2ist  of  January  1870. 

His  literary  career  began  in  1842  with  the  publication  of  an 
essay,  in  Russian,  on  Dilettantism  in  Science,  under  the  pseudonym 
of  "  Iskander,"  the  Turkish  form  of  his  Christian  name — con- 
victs, even  when  pardoned,  not  being  allowed  in  those  days  to 
publish  under  their  own  names.  His  second  work,  also  in  Russian, 
was  his  Letters  on  the  Study  of  Nature  (1845-1846).  In  1847 
appeared  his  novel  Klo  Vinovat?  (Whose  Fault?),  and  about  the 
same  time  were  published  in  Russian  periodicals  the  stories 
which  were  afterwards  collected  and  printed  in  London  in  1854, 
under  the  title  of  Prervannuie  Razskazui  (Interrupted  Tales). 
In  1850  two  works  appeared,  translated  from  the  Russian 
manuscript,  Vom  anderen  Ufer  (From  another  Shore)  and  Lettres 
de  France  et  d'llalie.  In  French  appeared  also  his  essay  Du 
Developpement  des  idees  revolutionnaires  en  Russie,  and  his 
Memoirs,  which,  after  being  printed  in  Russian,  were  translated 
under  the  title  of  Le  Monde  russe  el  la  Revolution  (3  vols.,  1860- 
1862),  and  were  in  part  translated  into  English  as  My  Exile  to 
Siberia  (2  vols.,  1855)-  From  a  literary  point  of  view  his  most 
important  work  is  Kto  Vinovat?  a  story  describing  how  the 
domestic  happiness  of  a  young  tutor,  who  marries  the  unacknow- 
ledged daughter  of  a  Russian  sensualist  of  the  old  type,  dull, 
ignorant  and  genial,  is  troubled  by  a  Russian  sensualist  of  the 
new  school,  intelligent,  accomplished  and  callous,  without  there 
being  any  possibility  of  saying  who  is  most  to  be  blamed  for  the 
tragic  termination.  But  it  was  as  a  political  writer  that  Hertzen 
gained  the  vast  reputation  which  he  at  one  time  enjoyed.  Having 
founded  in  London  his  "  Free  Russian  Press,"  of  the  fortunes  of 
which,  during  ten  years,  he  gave  an  interesting  account  in  a 
book  published  (in  Russian)  in  1863,  he  issued  from  it  a  great 
number  of  Russian  works,  all  levelled  against  the  system  of 
government  prevailing  in  Russia.  Some  of  these  were  essays, 
such  as  his  Baptized  Property,  an  attack  on  serfdom;  others  were 
periodical  publications,  the  Polyarnaya  Zvyezda  (or  Polar  Star), 
the  Kolokol  (or  Bell),  and  the  Colosa  iz  Rossii  (or  Voices  from 
Russia) .  The  Kolokol  soon  obtained  an  immense  circulation,  and 
exercised  an  extraordinary  influence.  For  three  years,  it  is 
true,  the  founders  of  the  "  Free  Press  "  went  on  printing,  "  not 
only  without  selling  a  single  copy,  but  scarcely  being  able  to  get 
a  single  copy  introduced  into  Russia  ";  so  that  when  at  last  a 
bookseller  bought  ten  shillings'  worth  of  Baptized  Property,  the 
half-sovereign  was  set  aside  by  the  surprised  editors  in  a  special 
place  of  honour.  But  the  death  of  the  emperor  Nicholas  in  1855 
produced  an  entire  change.  Hertzen's  writings,  and  the  journals 
he  edited,  were  smuggled  wholesale  into  Russia,  and  their  words 
resounded  throughout  that  country,  as  well  as  all  over  Europe. 
Their  influence  became  overwhelming.  Evil  deeds  long  hidden, 
evil-doers  who  had  long  prospered,  were  suddenly  dragged  into 
light  and  disgrace.  His  bold  and  vigorous  language  aptly 
expressed  the  thoughts  which  had  long  been  secretly  stirring 
Russian  minds,  and  were  now  beginning  to  find  a  timid  utterance 
at  home.  For  some  years  his  influence  in  Russia  was  a  living 
force,  the  circulation  of  his  writings  was  a  vocation  zealously 


pursued.  Stories  tell  how  on  one  occasion  a  merchant,  who  had 
bought  several  cases  of  sardines  at  Nijni-Novgorod,  found  that 
they  contained  forbidden  print  instead  of  fish,  and  at  another 
time  a  supposititious  copy  of  the  Kolokol  was  printed  for  the 
emperor's  special  use,  in  which  a  telling  attack  upon  a  leading 
statesman,  which  had  appeared  in  the  genuine  number,  was 
omitted.  At  length  the  sweeping  changes  introduced  by 
Alexander  II.  greatly  diminished  the  need  for  and  appreciation 
of  Hertzen's  assistance  in  the  work  of  reform.  The  freedom  he 
had  demanded  for  the  serfs  was  granted,  the  law-courts  he  had  so 
long  denounced  were  remodelled,  trial  by  jury  was  established, 
liberty  was  to  a  great  extent  conceded  to  the  press.  It  became 
clear  that  Hertzen's  occupation  was  gone.  When  the  Polish 
insurrection  of  1863  broke  out,  and  he  pleaded  the  insurgents' 
cause,  his  reputation  in  Russia  received  its  death-blow.  From 
that  time  it  was  only  with  the  revolutionary  party  that  he  was  in 
full  accord. 

In  1873  a  collection  of  his  works  in  French  was  commenced  in 
Paris.  A  volume  of  posthumous  works,  in  Russian,  was  published 
at  Geneva  in  1870.  His  Memoirs  supply  the  principal  information 
about  his  life,  a  sketch  of  which  appears  also  in  A.  von  Wurzbach's 
Zeitgenossen,  pt.  7  (Vienna,  1871).  See  also  the  Revue  des  deux 
mondes  for  July  15  and  Sept.  I,  1854.  Kto  Vinovat?  has  been  trans- 
lated into  German  under  the  title  of  Wer  ist  schuld?  in  Wolffsohn's 
Russlands  Novellendichter,  vol.  iii.  The  title  of  My  Exile  in  Siberia 
is  misleading;  he  was  never  in  that  country.  (W.  R.  S.-R.) 

HERULI,  a  Teutonic  tribe  which  figures  prominently  in  the 
history  of  the  migration  period.  The  name  does  not  occur  in 
writings  of  the  first  two  centuries  A.D.  Where  the  original  home 
of  the  Heruli  was  situated  is  never  clearly  stated.  Jordanes  says 
that  they  had  been  expelled  from  their  territories  by  the  Danes, 
from  which  it  may  be  inferred  that  they  belonged  either  to  what 
is  now  the  kingdom  of  Denmark,  or  the  southern  portion  of  the 
Jutish  peninsula.  They  are  mentioned  first  in  the  reign  of 
Gallienus  (260-268),  when  we  find  them  together  with  the  Goths 
ravaging  the  coasts  of  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Aegean.  Shortly 
afterwards,  in  A.D.  289,  they  appear  in  the  region  about  the  mouth 
of  the  Rhine.  During  the  4th  century  they  frequently  served 
together  with  the  Batavi  in  the  Roman  armies.  In  the  sth 
century  we  again  hear  of  piratical  incursions  by  the  Heruli  in  the 
western  seas.  At  the  same  time  they  had  a  kingdom  in  central 
Europe,  apparently  in  or  round  the  basin  of  the  Elbe.  Together 
with  the  Thuringi  and  Warni  they  were  called  upon  byTheodoric 
the  Ostrogoth  about  the  beginning  of  the  6th  century  to  form 
an  alliance  with  him  against  the  Prankish  king  Clovis,  but  very 
shortly  afterwards  they  were  completely  overthrown  in  war  by 
the  Langobardi.  A  portion  of  them  migrated  to  Sweden,  where 
they  settled  among  the  Gotar,  while  others  crossed  the  Danube 
and  entered  the  Roman  service,  where  they  are  frequently 
mentioned  later  in  connexion  with  the  Gothic  wars.  After  the 
middle  of  the  6th  century,  however,  their  name  completely 
disappears.  It  is  curious  that  in  English,  Prankish  and  Scandin- 
avian works  they  are  never  mentioned,  and  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  they  were  known,  especially  among  the  western 
Teutonic  peoples,  by  some  other  name.  Probably  they  are 
identical  either  with  the  North  Suabi  or  with  the  luti.  The 
name  Heruli  itself  is  identified  by  many  with  the  A.S.  eorlas 
(nobles),  O.S.erlos  (men),  the  singular  of  which  (erilaz)  frequently 
occurs  in  the  earliest  Northern  inscriptions,  apparently  as  a  title 
of  honour.  The  Heruli  remained  heathen  until  the  overthrow 
of  their  kingdom,  and  retained  many  striking  primitive  customs. 
When  threatened  with  death  by  disease  or  old  age,  they  were 
required  to  call  in  an  executioner,  who  stabbed  them  on  the  pyre. 
Suttee  was  also  customary.  They  were  entirely  devoted  to  war. 
fare  and  served  not  only  in  the  Roman  armies,  but  also  in 
those  of  all  the  surrounding  nations.  They  disdained  the  use  of 
helmets  and  coats  of  mail,  and  protected  themselves  only  with 
shields. 

See  Georgius  Syncellus;  Mamertinus  Paneg.  Maximi;  Ammianus 
Marcellinus;  Zosimus  i.  39;  Idatius,  Chronica;  Jordanes,  De 
origine  Getarum;  Procopius,  esp.  Bellum  Goticum,  ii.  14  f. ;  Bellum 
Persicum,  ii.  25;  Paulus  Diaconus,  Hist.  Langobardorum,  i.  20; 
K.  Zeuss,  Die  Deutschen  und  die  Nachbarstumme,  pp.  476  ff.  (Munich, 
1837).  (F.  G.  M.  B.) 


HERVAS  Y  PANDURO— HERVEY  OF  ICKWORTH 


HERVAS  Y  PANDURO,  LORENZO  (1735-1809),  Spanish 
philologist,  was  born  at  Horcajo  (Cuenca)  on  the  loth  of  May 
1735.  He  joined  the  Jesuits  on  the  agth  of  September  1745 
and  in  course  of  time  became  successively  professor  of  philosophy 
and  humanities  at  the  seminaries  of  Madrid  and  Murcia.  When 
the  Jesuit  order  was  banished  from  Spain  in  1767,  Hervas  settled 
at  Forli,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  first  part  of  his  Idea  del- 
l'  Universe  (22  vols.,  1778-1792).  Returning  to  Spain  in  1798, 
he  published  his  famous  Caldlogo  de  las  lenguas  de  las  naciones 
conocidas  (6  vols.,  1800-1805),  in  which  he  collected  the  philo- 
logical peculiarities  of  three  hundred  languages  and  drew  up 
grammars  of  forty  languages.  In  1802  he  was  appointed 
librarian  of  the  Quirinal  Palace  in  Rome,  where  he  died  on  the  24th 
of  August  1809.  Max  Miiller  credits  him  with  having  anticipated 
Humboldt,  and  with  making  "  one  of  the  most  brilliant  dis- 
coveries in  the  history  of  the  science  of  language  "  by  establishing 
the  relation  between  the  Malay  and  Polynesian  family  of  speech. 

HERVEY,  JAMES  (1714-1758),  English  divine,  was  born  at 
Hardingstone,  near  Northampton,  on  the  26th  of  February  1714, 
and  was  educated  at  the  grammar  school  of  Northampton,  and 
at  Lincoln  College,  Oxford.  Here  he  came  under  the  influence 
of  John  Wesley  and  the  Oxford  methodists;  ultimately,  however, 
while  retaining  his  regard  for  the  men  and  his  sympathy  with 
their  religious  aims,  he  adopted  a  thoroughly  Calvinistic  creed, 
and  resolved  to  remain  in  the  Anglican  Church.  Having  taken 
orders  in  1737,  he  held  several  curacies,  and  in  1752  succeeded 
his  father  in  the  family  livings  of  Weston  Favell  and  Collingtree. 
He  was  never  robust,  but  was  a  good  parish  priest  and  a  zealous 
writer.  His  style  is  often  bombastic,  but  he  displays  a  rare 
appreciation  of  natural  beauty,  and  his  simple  piety  made  him 
many  friends.  His  earliest  work,  Meditations  and  Contempla- 
tions, said  to  have  been  modelled  on  Robert  Boyle's  Occasional 
Reflexions  on  various  Subjects,  within  fourteen  years  passed 
through  as  many  editions.  Theron  and  Aspasio,  or  a  series  of 
Letters  upon  the  most  important  and  interesting  Subjects,  which 
appeared  in  1755,  and  was  equally  well  received,  called  forth  some 
adverse  criticism  even  from  Calvinists,  on  account  of  tendencies 
which  were  considered  to  lead  to  antinomianism,  and  was  strongly 
objected  to  by  Wesley  in  his  Preservative  against  unsettled  Notions 
in  Religion.  Besides  carrying  into  England  the  theological 
disputes  to  which  the  Marrow  of  Modern  Divinity  had  given  rise 
in  Scotland,  it  also  led  to  what  is  known  as  the  Sandemanian 
controversy  as  to  the  nature  of  saving  faith.  Hervey  died  on 
the  25th  of  December  1758. 

A  "  new  and  complete  "  edition  of  his  Works,  with  a  memoir, 
appeared  in  1797.  See  also  Collection  of  the  Letters  of  James  Hervey, 
to  which  is  prefixed  an  account  of  his  Life  and  Death,  by  Dr  Birch 
(1760). 

HERVEY  DE  SAINT  DENYS,  MARIE  JEAN  LEON,  MARQUIS 
D'  (1823-1892),  French  Orientalist  and  man  of  letters,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1823.  He  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  Chinese, 
and  in  1851  published  his  Recherches  sur  I' agriculture  et  I' horti- 
culture des  Chinois,  in  which  he  dealt  with  the  plants  and  animals 
that  might  be  acclimatized  in  the  West.  At  the  Paris  Exhibition 
of  1867  he  acted  as  commissioner  for  the  Chinese  exhibits;  in 
1874  he  succeeded  Stanislas  Julien  in  the  chair  of  Chinese  at 
the  College  de  France;  and  in  1878  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Academic  des  Inscriptions  et  de  Belles-Lettres.  His  works 
include  Poesies  de  I'epoque  des  T'ang  (1862),  translated  from  the 
Chinese;  Ethnographic  des  peuples  etrangers  a  la  Chine,  translated 
from  Ma-Touan-Lin  (1876-1883);  Li-Sao  (1870),  from  the 
Chinese;  Memoires  sur  les  doctrines  religieuse;  de  Confucius 
et  de  I'ecole  des  leltres  (1887);  and  translations  of  some  Chinese 
stories  not  of  classical  interest  but  valuable  for  the  light  they 
throw  on  oriental  custom.  Hervey  de  Saint  Denys  also  trans- 
lated some  works  from  the  Spanish,  and  wrote  a  history  of  the 
Spanish  drama.  He  died  in  Paris  on  the  2nd  of  November  1892. 

HERVEY  OF  ICKWORTH,  JOHN  HERVEY,  BARON  (1696- 
1743),  English  statesman  and  writer,  eldest  son  of  John,  ist  earl 
of  Bristol,  by  his  second  marriage,  was  born  on  the  i3th  of 
October  1696.  He  was  educated  at  Westminster  school  and  at 
Clare  Hall,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  M.A.  degree  in  1715. 


In  1716  his  father  sent  him  to  Paris,  and  thence  to  Hanover  to 
pay  his  court  to  George  I.  He  was  a  frequent  visitor  at  the 
court  of  the  prince  and  princess  of  Wales  at  Richmond,  and  in 
1720  he  married  Mary  Lepell,  who  was  one  of  the  princess's 
ladies-in-waiting,  and  a  great  court  beauty.  In  1723  he  received 
the  courtesy  title  of  Lord  Hervey  on  the  death  of  his  half-brother 
Carr,  and  in  1725  he  was  elected  M.P.  for  Bury  St  Edmunds.  He 
had  been  at  one  time  on  very  friendly  terms  with  Frederick, 
prince  of  Wales,  but  from  1731  he  quarrelled  with  him,  apparently 
because  they  were  rivals  in  the  favour  of  Anne  Vane.  These 
differences  probably  account  for  the  scathing  picture  he  draws 
of  the  prince's  callous  conduct.  Hervey  had  been  hesitating 
between  William  Pulteney  (afterwards  earl  of  Bath)  andWalpole, 
but  in  1730  he  definitely  took  sides  with  Walpole,  of  whom  he 
was  thenceforward  a  faithful  adherent.  He  was  assumed  by 
Pulteney  to  be  the  author  of  Sedition  and  Defamation  displayed 
with  aDedicatlon  tothe  patrons  of 'TheCraflsman(\i 31)-  Pulteney, 
who,  up  to  this  time,  had  been  a  firm  friend  of  Hervey,  replied 
with  A  Proper  Reply  to  a  late  Scurrilous  Libel,  and  the  quarrel 
resulted  in  a  duel  from  which  Hervey  narrowly  escaped  with  his 
life.  Hervey  is  said  to  have  denied  the  authorship  of  both  the 
pamphlet  and  its  dedication,  but  a  note  on  the  MS.  at  Ickworth, 
apparently  in  his  own  hand,  states  that  he  wrote  the  latter.  He 
was  able  to  render  valuable  service  to  Walpole  from  his  influence 
over  the  queen.  Through  him  the  minister  governed  Queen 
Caroline  and  indirectly  George  II.  Hervey  was  vice-chamberlain 
in  the  royal  household  and  a  member  of  the  privy  council.  In 
1733  he  was  called  to  the  House  of  Lords  by  writ  in  virtue  of  his 
father's  barony.  In  spite  of  repeated  requests  he  received  no 
further  preferment  until  after  1740,  when  he  became  lord  privy 
seal.  After  the  fall  of  Sic  Robert  Walpole  he  was  dismissed 
(July  1742)  from  his  office.  An  excellent  political  pamphlet, 
Miscellaneous  Thoughts  on  the  present  Posture  of  Foreign  and 
Domestic  Affairs,  shows  that  he  still  retained  his  mental  vigour, 
but  he  was  liable  to  epilepsy,  and  his  weak  appearance  and  rigid 
diet  were  a  constant  source  of  ridicule  to  his  enemies.  He 
died  on  the  sth  of  August  1743.  He  predeceased  his  father,  but 
three  of  his  sons  became  successively  earls  of  Bristol. 

Hervey  wrote  detailed  and  brutally  frank  memoirs  of  the  court 
of  George  II.  from  1727  to  1737.  He  gave  a  most  unflattering 
account  of  the  king,  and.of  Frederick,  prince  of  Wales,  and  their 
family  squabbles.  For  the  queen  and  her  daughter,  Princess 
Caroline,  he  had  a  genuine  respect  and  attachment,  and  the 
princess's  affection  for  him  was  commonly  said  to  be  the  reason 
for  the  close  retirement  in  which  she  lived  after  his  death.  The 
MS.  of  Hervey's  memoirs  was  preserved  by  the  family,  but  his  son, 
Augustus  John,  3rd  earl  of  Bristol,  left  strict  injunctions  that 
they  should  not  be  published  until  after  the  death  of  George  III. 
In  1848  they  were  published  under  the  editorship  of  J.  W.  Croker, 
but  the  MS.  had  been  subjected  to  a  certain  amount  of  mutilation 
before  it  came  into  his  hands.  Croker  also  softened  in  some  cases 
the  plainspokenness  of  the  original.  Hervey's  bitter  account  of 
court  life  and  intrigues  resembles  in  many  points  the  memoirs  of 
Horace  Walpole,  and  the  two  books  corroborate  one  another  in 
many  statements  that  might  otherwise  have  been  received  with 
suspicion. 

Until  the  publication  of  the  Memoirs  Hervey  was  chiefly  known 
as  the  object  of  savage  satire  on  the  part  of  Pope,  in  whose  works 
he  figured  as  Lord  Fanny,  Sporus,  Adonis  and  Narcissus.  The 
quarrel  is  generally  put  down  to  Pope's  jealousy  of  Hervey's 
friendship  with  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montagu.  In  the  first  of  the 
Imitations  of  Horace,  addressed  to  William  Fortescue,  "Lord 
Fanny  "  and  "  Sappho  "  were  generally  identified  with  Hervey 
and  Lady  Mary,  although  Pope  denied  the  personal  intention. 
Hervey  had  already  been  attacked  in  the  Dunciad  and  the 
Bathos,  and  he  now  retaliated.  There  is  no  doubt  that  he  had  a 
share  in  the  Verses  to  the  Imitator  of  Horace  (1732)  and  it  is 
possible  that  he  was  the  sole  author.  In  the  Letter  from  a  noble- 
man at  Hampton  Court  to  a  Doctor  of  Divinity  (17 33),  he  scoffed  at 
Pope's  deformity  and  humble  birth.  Pope's  reply  was  a  Letter  to 
a  Noble  Lord,  dated  November  1733,  and  the  portrait  of  Sporus  in 
the  Epistle  to  Dr  Arbuthnot  (1735),  which  forms  the  prologue  to 


HERVIEU— HERZL 


405 


the  satires.  Many  of  the  insinuations  and  insults  contained  in  it 
are  borrowed  from  Pulteney's  libel.  The  malicious  caricature  of 
Sporus  does  Hervey  great  injustice,  and  he  is  not  much  better 
treated  by  Horace  Walpole,  who  in  reporting  his  death  in  a  letter 
(i4th  of  August  1743)  to  Horace  Mann,  said  he  had  outlived  his 
last  inch  of  character.  Nevertheless  his  writings  prove  him  to 
have  been  a  man  of  real  ability,  condemned  by  Walpole's  tactics 
and  distrust  of  able  men  to  spend  his  life  in  court  intrigue,  the 
weapons  of  which,  it  must  be  owned,  he  used  with  the  utmost 
adroitness.  His  wife  Lady  Hervey  [Molly  Lepell]  (1700-1768), 
of  whom  an  account  is  to  be  found  in  Lady  Louisa  Stuart's 
Anecdotes,  was  a  warm  partisan  of  the  Stuarts.  She  retained  her 
wit  and  charm  throughout  her  life,  and  has  the  distinction  of 
being  the  recipient  of  English  verses  by  Voltaire. 

See  Hervey 's  Memoirs  of  the  Court  of  George  II.,  edited  by  J.  W. 
Croker  (1848);  and  an  article  by  G.  F.  Russell  Barker  in  the  Diet. 
Nat.  Biog.  (vol.  xxvi.,  1891).  Besides  the  Memoirs  he  wrote  numerous 
political  pamphlets,  and  some  occasional  verses. 

HERVIEU,  PAUL  (1857-  ),  French  dramatist  and  novelist, 
was  born  at  Neuilly  (Seine)  on  the  2nd  of  November  1857.  He 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1877,  and,  after  serving  some  time  in  the 
office  of  the  president  of  the  council,  he  qualified  for  the  diplomatic 
service,  but  resigned  on  his  nomination  in  1881  to  a  secretaryship 
in  the  French  legation  in  Mexico.  He  contributed  novels,  tales 
and  essays  to  the  chief  Parisian  papers  and  reviews,  and  published 
a  series  of  clever  novels,  including  L'Inconnu  (1887),  Flirl(  1890), 
L'Exorcisee  (1891),  Peinls  pareux-ntemes(i8g^),a.n  ironical  study 
written  in  the  form  of  letters,  and  L' Armature  (1895),  dramatized 
in  1905  by  Eugene  Brieux.  But  his  most  important  work  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  plays:  Les  Paroles  restent  (Vaudeville,  I7th  of 
November  1892);  Les  Tenailles  (Theatre  Francais,  28th  of 
September  1895);  La  Loi  de  I'homme  (Theatre  Francais,  i$th  of 
February  1897);  La  Course  du  flambeau  (Vaudeville,  I7th  of 
April  1901);  Point  de  lendemain  (Odeon,  i8th  of  October  1901),  a 
dramatic  version  of  a  story  by  Vivaut  Denon;  L'Enig.r.e  (Theatre 
Francais,  5th  of  November  1901);  Theroigne  de  Mericourt 
(Theatre  Sarah  Bernhardt,  23rd  of  September  1902);  Le  Dedale 
(Theatre  Frangais,  i  gth  of  December  1903) ,  and  Le  Reveil  (Theatre 
Francais,  i8th  of  December  1905).  These  plays  are  built  upon  a 
severely  logical  method,  the  mechanism  of  which  is  sometimes  so 
evident  as  to  destroy  the  necessary  sense  of  illusion.  The  closing 
words  of  La  Course  du  flambeau — "Pour  mafitte,  j'aitulmamere  " 
— are  an  example  of  his  selection  of  a  plot  representing  an  extreme 
theory.  The  riddle  in  L'Engime  (staged  at  Wyndham's  Theatre, 
London,  March  ist  1902,33  Caesar' sWife)  is,  however,  worked  out 
with  great  art,  and  Le  Dedale,  dealing  with  the  obstacles  to  the 
remarriage  of  a  divorced  woman,  is  reckoned  among  the  master- 
pieces of  the  modern  French  stage.  He  was  elected  to  the 
French  Academy  in  1900. 

See  A.  Binet,  in  L'Annee  psychologique,  vol.  x.  Hervieu's  Theatre 
was  published  by  Leraerre  (3  vols.,  1900—1904). 

HERWARTH  VON  BITTENFELD,  KARL  EBERHARD  (1796- 
1884),  Prussian  general  field-marshal,  came  of  an  aristocratic 
family  which  had  supplied  many  distinguished  officers  to  the 
Prussian  army.  He  entered  the  Guard  infantry  in  1811,  and 
served  through  the  War  of  Liberation  (1813-15),  distinguishing 
himself  at  Lutzen  and  Paris.  During  the  years  of  peace  he  rose 
slowly  to  high  command.  In  the  Berlin  revolution  of  1848 
he  was  on  duty  at  the  royal  palace  as  colonel  of  the  ist  Guards. 
Major-general  in  1852,  and  lieutenant-general  in  1856,  he  received 
the  grade  of  general  of  infantry  and  the  command  of  the  VHth 
(Westphalian)  Army  Corps  in  1860.  In  the  Danish  War  of  1864 
he  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  Prussians  when  Prince 
Frederick  Charles  became  commander-in-chief  of  the  Allies, 
r.nd  it  was  under  his  leadership  that  the  Prussians  forced  the 
passage  into  Alsen  on  the  29th  of  June.  In  the  war  of  1866 
Herwarth  commanded  the  "  Army  of  the  Elbe  "  which  overran 
Saxony  and  invaded  Bohemia  by  the  valley  of  the  Elbe  and  Iser. 
His  troops  won  the  actions  of  Huhnerwasser  and  Munchengratz, 
and  at  Koniggratz  formed  the  right  wing  of  the  Prussian  army. 
Herwarth  himself  directed  the  battle  against  the  Austrian  left 
flank.  In  1870  he  was  not  employed  in  the  field,  but  was  in 
charge  of  the  scarcely  less  important  business  of  organizing 


and  forwarding  all  the  reserves  and  material  required  for  the 
armies  in  France.  In  1871  his  great  services  were  recognized 
by  promotion  to  the  rank  of  field-marshal.  The  rest  of  his  life 
was  spent  in  retirement  at  Bonn,  where  he  died  in  1884.  Since 
1889  the  i3th  (ist  Westphalian)  Infantry  has  borne  his  name. 

See  G.  F.  M.  Herwarth  von  Bittenfeld  (Miinster,  1896). 

HERWEGH,  GEORG  (i8i7-:875),  German  political  poet,  was 
born  at  Stuttgart  on  the  3 ist  of  May  181 7,  the  son  of  a  restaurant 
keeper.  He  was  educated  at  the  gymnasium  of  his  native  city, 
and  in  1835  proceeded  to  the  university  of  Tubingen  as  a  theo- 
logical student,  where,  with  a  view  to  entering  the  ministry, 
he  entered  the  protestant  theological  seminary.  But  the  strict 
discipline  was  distasteful;  he  broke  the  rules  and  was  expelled 
in  1836.  He  next  studied  law,  but  having  gained  the  interest 
of  August  Lewald  (1793-1871)  by  his  literary  ability,  he  returned 
to  Stuttgart,  where  Lewald  obtained  for  him  a  journalisitic  post. 
Called  out  for  military  service,  he  had  hardly  joined  his  regiment 
when  he  committed  an  act  of  flagrant  insubordination,  and  fled 
to  Switzerland  to  avoid  punishment.  Here  he  published  his 
Gedichte  eines  Lebendigen  (1841),  a  volume  of  political  poems, 
which  gave  expression  to  the  fervent  aspirations  of  the  German 
youth  of  the  day.  The  work  immediately  rendered  him  famous, 
and  although  confiscated,  it  soon  raft  through  several  editions. 
The  idea  of  the  book  was  a  refutation  of  the  opinions  of  Prince 
Piickler-Muskau  (q.v.)  in  his  Briefe  eines  Verstorbenen.  He 
next  proceeded  to  Paris  and  in  1842  returned  to  Germany, 
visiting  Jena,  Leipzig,  Dresden  and  Berlin — a  journey  which  was 
described  as  being  a  "  veritable  triumphal  progress."  His 
military  insubordination  appears  to  have  been  forgiven  and 
forgotten,  for  in  Berlin  King  Frederick  William  IV.  had  him 
introduced  to  him  and  used  the  memorable  words:  "  ich  Hebe 
eine  gesinnungsvolle  Opposition"  ("I  admire  an  opposition,  when 
dictated  by  principle.")  Herwegh  next  returned  tc  Paris,  where 
he  published  in  1844  the  second  volume  of  his  Gedichte  eines 
Lebendigen,  which,  like  the  first  volume,  was  confiscated  by  the 
German  police.  At  the  head  of  a  revolutionary  column  of  German 
working  men,  recruited  in  Paris,  Herwegh  took  an  active  part 
in  the  South  German  rising  in  1848;  but  his  raw  troops  were 
defeated  on  the  27th  of  April  at  Schopfheim  in  Baden  and,  after 
a  very  feeble  display  of  heroism,  he  just  managed  to  escape  to 
Switzerland,  where  he  lived  for  many  years  on  the  proceeds  of  his 
literary  productions.  He  was  later  (1866)  permitted  to  return  to 
Germany,  and  died  at  Lichtenthal  near  Baden-Baden  on  the  7th 
of  April  1875.  A  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory  there 
in  1904.  Besides  the  above-mentioned  works,  Herwegh  pub- 
lished Einundzwanzig  Bogen  aus  der  Sckweiz  (1843),  and  transla- 
tions into  German  of  A.  de  Lamartine's  works  and  of  seven  of 
Shakespeare's  plays.  Posthumously  appeared  Neue  Gedichte 

(1877). 

Herwegh's  correspondence  was  published  by  his  son  Marcel  in 
1898.  See  also  Johannes  Scherr,  Georg  Herwegh;  literarische 
und  politische  Blatter  (1843);  and  the  article  by  Franz  Muncker  in 
the  Allgemeine  deutsche  Biographic. 

HERZB£RG,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Hanover,  situated  under  the  south-western  declivity  of  the  Harz, 
on  the  Sieber,  25  m.  N.W.  from  Nordhausen  by  the  railway  to 
Osterode-Hildesheim.  Pop.  (1905)  3896.  It  contains  an  Evan- 
gelical and  a  Roman  Catholic  church,  and  a  botanical  garden, 
and  has  manufactures  of  cloth  and  cigars,  and  weaving  and 
dyeing  works.  The  breeding  of  canaries  is  extensively  carried  on 
here  and  in  the  district.  On  a  hill  to  the  south-west  of  the  town 
lies  the  castle  of  Herzberg,  which  in  1157  came  into  the  possession 
of  Henry  the  Lion,  duke  of  Saxony,  and  afterwards  was  one  of 
the  residences  of  a  branch  of  the  house  of  Brunswick. 

HERZBERG,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Saxony,  on  the  Schwarze  Elster,  25  m.  S.  from  Juterbog 
by  the  railway  Berlin-Roderau-Dresden.  It  has  a  church 
(Evangelical)  dating  from  the  I3th  century  and  a  medieval 
town  hall.  Its  industries  include  the  founding  and  turning  of 
metal,  agricultural  machinery  and  boot-making.  Pop.  (1905) 

4°43- 

HERZL,  THEODOR  (1860-1904),  founder  of  modern  political 
Zionism  (<?.».),  was  born  in  Budapest  on  the  2nd  of  May  1860, 


406 


HERZOG,  H.— HESILRIGE 


and  died  at  Edlach  on  the  3rd  of  July  1904.  The  greater  part  of 
his  career  was  associated  with  Vienna,  where  he  acquired  high 
repute  as  a  literary  journalist.  He  was  also  a  dramatist,  and 
apart  from  his  prominence  as  a  Jewish  Nationalist  would  have 
found  a  niche  in  the  temple  of  fame.  All  his  other  claims  to 
renown,  however,  sink  into  insignificance  when  compared  with  his 
work  as  the  reviver  of  Jewish  hopes  for  a  restoration  to  political 
autonomy.  Herzl  was  stirred  by  sympathy  for  the  misery  of 
Jews  under  persecution,  but  he  was  even  more  powerfully  moved 
by  the  difficulties  experienced  under  conditions  of  assimilation. 
Modern  anti-Semitism,  he  felt,  was  both  like  and  unlike  the 
medieval.  The  old  physical  attacks  on  the  Jews  continued  in 
Russia,  but  there  was  added  the  reluctance  of  several  national 
groups  in  Europe  to  admit  the  Jews  to  social  equality.  Herzl 
believed  that  the  humanitarian  hopes  which  inspired  men  at  the 
end  of  the  i8th  and  during  the  larger  part  of  the  igth  centuries 
had  failed.  The  walls  of  the  ghettos  had  been  cast  down,  but 
the  Jews  could  find  no  entry  into  the  comity  of  nations.  The 
new  nationalism  of  1848  did  not  deprive  the  Jews  of  political 
rights,  but  it  denied  them  both  the  amenities  of  friendly  inter- 
course and  the  opportunity  of  distinction  in  the  university,  the 
army  and  the  professions.  t  Many  Jews  questioned  this  diagnosis, 
and  refused  to  see  in  the  new  anti-Semitism  (q.v.)  which  spread 
over  Europe  in  1881  any  more  than  a  temporary  reaction  against 
the  cosmopolitanism  of  the  French  Revolution.  In  1896  Herzl 
published  his  famous  pamphlet  "  Der  Judenstaat."  Holding 
that  the  only  alternatives  for  the  Jews  were  complete  merging 
by  intermarriage  or  self-preservation  by  a  national  re-union, 
he  boldly  advocated  the  second  course.  He  did  not  at  first  insist 
on  Palestine  as  the  new  Jewish  home,  nor  did  he  attach  himself 
to  religious  sentiment.  The  expectation  of  a  Messianic  restora- 
tion to  the  Holy  Land  has  always  been  strong,  if  often  latent, 
in  the  Jewisn  consciousness.  But  Herzl  approached  the  subject 
entirely  on  its  secular  side,  and  his  solution  was  economic  and 
political  rather  than  sentimental.  He  was  a  strong  advocate  for 
the  complete  separation  of  Church  and  State.  The  influence 
of  Herzl's  pamphlet,  the  progress  of  the  movement  he  initiated, 
the  subsequent  modifications  of  his  plans,  are  told  at  length  in 
the  article  ZIONISM. 

His  proposals  undoubtedly  roused  an  extraordinary  enthusiasm, 
and  though  he  almost  completely  failed  to  win  to  his  cause  the 
classes,  he  rallied  the  masses  with  sensational  success.  He  un- 
expectedly gained  the  accession  of  many  Jews  by  race  who  were 
indifferent  to  the  religious  aspect  of  Judaism,  but  he  quite  failed 
to  cgnvince  the  leaders  of  Jewish  thought,  who  from  first  to  last 
remained  (with  such  conspicuous  exceptions  as  Nordau  and 
Zangwill)  deaf  to  his  pleading.  The  orthodox  were  at  first  cool 
because  they  had  always  dreamed  of  a  nationalism  inspired  by 
messianic  ideals,  while  the  liberals  had  long  come  to  dissociate 
those  universalistic  ideals  from  all  national  limitations.  Herzl, 
however,  succeeded  in  assembling  several  congresses  at  Basel 
(beginning  in  1807),  and  at  these  congresses  were  enacted  remark- 
able scenes  of  enthusiasm  for  the  cause  and  devotion  to  its  leader. 
At  all  these  assemblies  the  same  ideal  was  formulated:  "  the 
establishing  for  the  Jewish  people  a  publicly  and  legally  assured 
home  in  Palestine."  Herzl's  personal  charm  was  irresistible. 
Among  his  political  opponents  he  had  some  close  personal  friends. 
His  sincerity,  his  eloquence,  his  tact,  his  devotion,  his  power, 
were  recognized  on  all  hands.  He  spent  his  whole  strength  in  the 
furtherance  of  his  ideas.  Diplomatic  interviews,  exhausting 
journeys,  impressive  mass  meetings,  brilliant  literary  propa- 
ganda— all  these  methods  were  employed  by  him  to  the  utmost 
limit  of  self-denial.  In  1901  he  was  received  by  the  sultan;  the 
pope  and  many  European  statesmen  gave  him  audiences.  The 
British  government  was  ready  to  grant  land  for  an  autonomous 
settlement  in  East  Africa.  This  last  scheme  was  fatal  to  Herzl's 
peace  of  mind.  Even  as  a  temporary  measure,  the  choice  of  an 
extra-Palestinian  site  for  the  Jewish  state  was  bitterly  opposed 
by  many  Zionists;  others  (with  whom  Herzl  appears  to  have 
sympathized)  thought  that  as  Palestine  was,  at  all  events 
momentarily,  inaccessible,  it  was  expedient  to  form  a  settlement 
elsewhere.  Herzl's  health  had  been  failing  and  he  did  not  long 


survive  the  initiation  of  the  somewhat  embittered  "  territorial  '* 
controversy.  He  died  in  the  summer  of  1904,  amid  the  con- 
sternation of  supporters  and  the  deep  grief  of  opponents  of  his 
Zionistic  aims. 

Herzl  was  beyond  question  the  most  influential  Jewish  person- 
ality of  the  i  gth  century.  He  had  no  profound  insight  into  the 
problem  of  Judaism,  and  there  was  no  lasting  validity  in  his 
view  that  the  problem — the  thousands  of  years'  old  mystery — 
could  be  solved  by  a  retrogression  to  local  nationality.  But  he 
brought  home  to  Jews  the  perils  that  confronted  them;  he 
compelled  many  a  "  semi-detached  "  son  of  Israel  to  rejoin  the 
camp;  he  forced  the  "assimilationists  "  to  realize  their  position 
and  to  define  it;  his  scheme  gave  a  new  impulse  to  "Jewish 
culture,"  including  the  popularization  of  Hebrew  as  a  living 
speech;  and  he  effectively  roused  Jews  all  the  world  over  to  an 
earnest  and  vital  interest  in  their  present  and  their  future. 
Herzl  thus  left  an  indelible  mark  on  his  time,  and  his  renown  is 
assured  whatever  be  the  fate  in  store  for  the  political  Zionism 
which  he  founded  and  for  which  he  gave  his  life.  (I.  A.) 

HERZOG,  HANS  (1819-1894),  Swiss  general,  was  born  at 
Aarau.  He  became  a  Swiss  artillery  lieutenant  in  1840,  and  then 
spent  six  years  in  travelling  (visiting  England  among  other 
countries),  before  he  became  a  partner  in  his  father's  business  in 
1846.  In  1847  he  saw  his  first  active  service  (as  artillery  captain) 
in  the  short  Swiss  Sonderbund  war.  In  1860  he  abandoned 
mercantile  pursuits  for  a  purely  military  career,  becoming 
colonel  and  inspector-general  of  the  Swiss  artillery.  In  1870  he 
was  commander-in-chief  of  the  Swiss  army,  which  guarded  the 
Swiss  frontier,  in  the  Jura,  during  the  Franco-German  War,  and 
in  February  1871,  as  such,  concluded  the  Convention  of  Verrieres 
with  General  Clinchant  for  the  disarming  and  the  interning  of  the 
remains  of  Bourbaki's  army,  when  it  took  refuge  in  Switzerland. 
In  1875  he  became  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  Swiss  artillery, 
which  he  did  much  to  reorganize,  helping  also  in  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  other  branches  of  the  Swiss  army.  He  died  in  1894-31 
his  native  town  of  Aarau.  (W.  A.  B.  C.) 

HERZOG,  JOHANN  JAKOB  (1805-1882),  German  Protestant 
theologian,  was  born  at  Basel  on  the  i2th  of  September  1805. 
He  studied  at  Basel  and  Berlin,  and  eventually  (1854)  settled  at 
Erlangen  as  professor  of  church  history.  He  died  there  on  the 
30th  of  September  1882,  having  retired  in  1877.  His  most  note- 
worthy achievement  was  the  publication  of  the  Realencyklopadie 
fur  protesta ntische  Theologie  und  Kirche  (1853-1868,  22  vols.), 
of  which  he  undertook  a  new  edition  with  G.  L.  Plitt  (1836- 
1880)  in  1877,  and  after  Plitt's  death  with  Albert  Hauck 
(b.  1845).  Hauck  began  the  publication  of  the  third  edition  in 
1896  (completed  in  22  vols.,  1909). 

His  other  works  include  Joh.  Calvin  (1843),  Leben  Okolampads 
(1843),  Die  romanischen  Waldenser  (1853),  Abriss  der  gesamten 
Kirchengeschichte  (3  vols.,  1876—1882,  2nd  ed.,  G.  Koffmane,  Leipzig, 
1890-1892). 

HESEKIEL,  JOHANN  GEORG  LUDWIG  (1810-1874),  German 
author,  was  born  on  the  i2th  of  August  1819  in  Halle,  where  his 
father,  distinguished  as  a  writer  of  sacred  poetry,  was  a  Lutheran 
pastor.  Hesekiel  studied  history  and  philosophy  in  Halle,  Jena 
and  Berlin,  and  devoted  himself  in  early  life  to  journalism  and 
literature.  In  1848  he  settled  in  Berlin,  where  he  lived  until  his 
death  on  the  26th  of  February  1874,  achieving  a  considerable  re- 
putation as  a  writer  and  as  editor  of  the  Neue  Preussische  Zeitung. 
He  attempted  many  different  kinds  of  literary  work,  the  most 
ambitious  being  perhaps  his  patriotic  songs  Preussenlieder,  of  which 
he  published  a  volume  during  the  revolutionary  excitement  of 
1848-1849.  Another  collection — Neue  Preussenlieder — appeared 
in  1864  after  the  Danish  War,  and  a  third  in  1870— Gegen  die 
Franzosen,  Preussische  Kriegs-  und  Konigslieder.  Among  his 
novels  may  be  mentioned  Unler  dem  Eisenzahn  (1864)  and  Der 
Schultheiss  vom  Zeyst  (1875).  The  best  known  of  his  works  is  his 
biography  of  Prince  Bismarck  (Das  Buck  vom  Fiirsten  Bismarck) 
(3rd  ed.,i873;  English  trans,  by  R.  H.  Mackenzie). 

HESILRIGE  (or  HESELRIG),  SIR  ARTHUR,  2nd  Bart.  (d.  1661), 
English  parliamentarian,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  Thomas 
Hesilrige,  ist  baronet  (c.  1622),  of  Noseley,  Leicestershire,  a 


HESIOD 


407 


member  of  a  very  ancient  family  settled  in  Northumberland 
and  Leicestershire,  and  of  Frances,  daughter  of  Sir  William 
Gorges,  of  Alderton,  Northamptonshire.  He  early  imbibed 
strong  puritanical  principles,  and  showed  a  special  antagonism 
to  Laud.  He  sat  for  Leicestershire  in  the  Short  and  Long 
Parliaments  in  1640,  and  took  a  principal  part  in  Strafford's 
attainder,  the  Root  and  Branch  Bill  and  the  Militia  Bill  of  the 
7th  of  December  1641,  and  was  one  of  the  five  members  im- 
peached on  the  3rd  of  January  1642.  He  showed  much  activity 
in  the  Great  Rebellion,  raised  a  troop  of  horse  for  Essex,  fought 
at  Edgehill,  commanded  in  the  West  under  Waller,  being  nick- 
named his  fidus  Achates,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  head 
of  his  cuirassiers,  "  The  Lobsters,"  at  Lansdown  on  the  sth 
of  July  1643,  at  Roundway  Down  on  the  I3th  of  July,  at  both 
of  which  battles  he  was  wounded,  and  at  Cheriton,  March  29th 
1644.  On  the  occasion  of  the  breach  between  the  army  and 
the  parliament,  Hesilrige  supported  the  former,  took  Cromwell's 
part  in  his  dispute  with  Manchester  and  Essex,  and  on  the  passing 
of  the  Self-denying  Ordinance  gave  up  his  commission  and 
became  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Independent  party  in  parlia- 
ment. On  the  30th  of  December  1647  he  was  appointed 
governor  of  Newcastle,  which  he  successfully  defended,  besides 
defeating  the  Royalists  on  the  2nd  of  July  1648  and  regaining 
Tynemouth.  In  October  he  accompanied  Cromwell  to  Scotland, 
and  gave  him  valuable  support  in  the  Scottish  expedition  in 
1650.  Hesilrige,  though  he  approved  of  the  king's  execution, 
had  declined  to  act  as  judge  on  his  trial.  He  was  one  of  the 
leading  men  in  the  Commonwealth,  but  Cromwell's  expulsion 
of  the  Long  Parliament  threw  him  into  antagonism,  and  he 
opposed  the  Protectorate  and  refused  to  pay  taxes.  He  was 
returned  for  Leicester  to  the  parliaments  of  1654,  1656  and 
1659,  but  was  excluded  from  the  two  former.  He  refused  a 
seat,  in  the  Lords,  whither  Cromwell  sought  to  relegate  him, 
and  succeeded  in  again  obtaining  admission  to  the  Commons 
in  January  1658.  On  Cromwell's  death  Hesilrige  refused  support 
to  Richard,  and  was  instrumental  in  effecting  his  downfall. 
He  was  now  one  of  the  most  influential  men  in  the  council 
and  in  parliament.  He  attempted  to  maintain  a  republican 
parliamentary  administration,  "  to  keep  the  sword  subservient 
to  the  civil  magistrate,"  and  opposed  Lambert's  schemes. 
On  the  latter  succeeding  in  expelling  the  parliament,  Hesilrige 
turned  to  Monk  for  support,  and  assisted  his  movements  by 
securing  Portsmouth  on  the  3rd  of  December  1659.  He  marched 
to  London,  and  was  appointed  one  of  the  council  of  state  on  the 
2nd  of  January  1660,  and  on  the  nth  of  February  a  commissioner 
for  the  army.  He  was  completely  deceived  by  Monk,  and  trust- 
ing to  his  assurance  of  fidelity  to  "  the  good  old  cause  "  consented 
to  the  retirement  of  his  regiment  from  London.  At  the  Restora- 
tion his  life  was  saved  by  Monk's  intervention,  but  he  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  where  he  died  on  the  7th  of  January 
1661.  Clarendon  describes  Hesilrige  as  "  an  absurd,  bold  man." 
He  was  rash,  "  hare-brained,"  devoid  of  tact  and  had  little 
claim  to  the  title  of  a  statesman,  but  his  energy  in  the  field 
and  in  parliament  was  often  of  great  value  to  the  parliamentary 
cause.  He  exposed  himself  to  considerable  obloquy  by  his 
exactions  and  appropriations  of  confiscated  landed  property, 
though  the  accusation  brought  against  him  by  John  Lilburne 
was  examined  by  a  parliamentary  committee  and  adjudged 
to  be  false.  Hesilrige  married  U)  Frances,  daughter  of  Thomas 
Elmes  of  Lilford,  Northamptonshire,  by  whom  he  had  two  sons 
and  two  daughters,  and  (2)  Dorothy,  sister  of  Robert  Greville, 
2nd  Lord  Brooke,  by  whom  he  had  three  sons  and  five  daughters. 
The  family  was  represented  in  1907  by  his  descendant  Sir  Arthur 
Grey  Hazlerigg  of  Noseley,  i3th  Baronet. 

AUTHORITIES. — Article  on  Hesilrige  by  C.  H.  Firth  in  the  Diet, 
of  Nat.  Biography,  and  authorities  there  quoted;  Early  History 
of  the  Family  of  Hesilrige,  by  W.  G.  D.  Fletcher ;  Col.  of  State  Papers, 
Domestic,  1631-1664,  where  there  are  a  large  number  of  important 
references,  as  also  in  Hist.  MSS.,  Comm.  Series,  MSS.  of  Earl 
Cowper,  Duke  of  Leeds  and  Duke  of  Portland;  Egerton  MSS.  2618, 
Harleian  7001  f.  198,  and  in  the  Sloane,  Stowe  and  Additional  collec- 
tions in  the  British  Museum;  also  S.  R.  Gardiner,  Hist,  of  England, 
Hist,  of  the  Great  Civil  War  and  Commonwealth;  Clarendon's  History, 
State  Papers  and  Col.  of  Slate  Papers,  J.  L.  Sanford's  Studies  of  the 


Great  Rebellion.  His  life  is  written  by  Noble  in  the  House  of  Cromwell, 
i.  403.  For  his  public  letters  and  speeches  in  parliament  see  the 
catalogue  of  the  British  Museum. 

HESIOD,  the  father  of  Greek  didactic  poetry,  probably 
flourished  during  the  Sth  century  B.C.  His  father  had  migrated 
from  the  Aeolic  Cyme  in  Asia  Minor  to  Boeotia;  and  Hesiod 
and  his  brother  Perses  were  born  at  Ascra,  near  mount  Helicon 
(Works  and  Days,  635).  Here,  as  he  fed  his  father's  flocks, 
he  received  his  commission  from  the  Muses  to  be  their  prophet 
and  poet — a  commission  which  he  recognized  by  dedicating  to 
them  a  tripod  won  by  him  in  a  contest  of  song  (see  below)  at 
some  funeral  games  at  Chalcis  in  Euboea,  still  in  existence  at 
Helicon  in  the  age  of  Pausanias  (Theogony,  20-34,  W.  and  p., 
656;  Pausanias  ix.  38.  3).  After  the  death  of  his  father  Hesiod 
is  said  to  have  left  his  native  land  in  disgust  at  the  result  of  a 
law-suit  with  his  brother  and  to  have  migrated  to  Naupactus. 
There  was  a  tradition  that  he  was  murdered  by  the  sons  of  his 
host  in  the  sacred  enclosure  of  the  Nemean  Zeus  at  Oeneon  in 
Locris  (Thucydides  iii.  96;  Pausanias  ix.  31);  his  remains 
were  removed  for  burial  by  command  of  the  Delphic  oracle  to 
Orchomenus  in  Boeotia,  where  the  Ascraeans  settled  after  the 
destruction  of  their  town  by  the  Thespians,  and  where,  according 
to  Pausanias,  his  grave  was  to  be  seen. 

Hesiod's  earliest  poem,  the  famous  Works  and  Days,  andaccord- 
ing  to  Boeotian  testimony  the  only  genuine  one,  embodies  the 
experiences  of  his  daily  life  and  work,  and,  interwoven  with 
episodes  of  fable,  allegory,  and  personal  history,  forms  a  sort 
of  Boeotian  shepherd's  calendar.  The  first  portion  is  an  ethical 
enforcement  of  honest  labour  and  dissuasive  of  strife  and  idle- 
ness (1-383);  the  second  consists  of  hints  and  rules  as  to  hus- 
bandry (384-764);  and  the  third  is  a  religious  calendar  of  the 
months,  with  remarks  on  the  days  most  lucky  or  the  contrary 
for  rural  or  nautical  employments.  The  connecting  link  of  the 
whole  poem  is  the  author's  advice  to  his  brother,  who  appears 
to  have  bribed  the  corrupt  judges  to  deprive  Hesiod  of  his  already 
scantier  inheritance,  and  to  whom,  as  he  wasted  his  substance 
lounging  in  the  agora,  the  poet  more  than  once  returned  good 
for  evil,  though  he  tells  him  there  will  be  a  limit  to  this  un- 
merited kindness.  In  the  Works  and  Days  the  episodes  which 
rise  above  an  even  didactic  level  are  the  "  Creation  and  Equip- 
ment of  Pandora,"  the  "  Five  Ages  of  the  World  "  and  the  much- 
admired  "  Description  of  Winter  "  (by  some  critics  judged  post- 
Hesiodic).  The  poem  also  contains  the  earliest  known  fable 
in  Greek  literature,  that  of  "  The  Hawk  and  the  Nightingale." 
It  is  in  the  Works  and  Days  especially  that  we  glean  indications 
of  Hesiod's  rank  and  condition  in  life,  that  of  a  stay-at-home 
farmer  of  the  lower  class,  whose  sole  experience  of  the  sea  was 
a  single  voyage  of  40  yds.  across  the  Euripus,  and  an  old-fashioned 
bachelor  whose  misogynic  views  and  prejudice  against  matrimony 
have  been  conjecturally  traced  to  his  brother  Perses  having 
a  wife  as  extravagant  as  himself. 

The  other  poem  attributed  to  Hesiod  or  his  school  which 
has  come  down  in  great  part  to  modern  times  is  The  Theogony, 
a  work  of  grander  scope,  inspired  alike  by  older  traditions  and 
abundant  local  associations.  It  is  an  attempt  to  work  into 
system,  as  none  had  essayed  to  do  before,  the  floating  legends  of 
the  gods  and  goddesses  and  their  offspring.  This  task  Herodotus 
(ii.  53)  attributes  to  Hesiod,  and  he  is  quoted  by  Plato  in 
the  Symposium  (178  B)  as  the  author  of  the  Theogony.  The 
first  to  question  his  claim  to  this  distinction  was  Pausanias, 
the  geographer  (A.D.  200).  The  Alexandrian  grammarians  had 
no  doubt  on  the  subject;  and  indications  of  the  hand  that 
wrote  the  Works  and  Days  may  be  found  in  the  severe  strictures 
on  women,  in  the  high  esteem  for  the  wealth-giver  Plutus 
and  in  coincidences  of  verbal  expression.  Although,  no  doubt, 
of  Hesiodic  origin,  in  its  present  form  it  is  composed  of  different 
recensions  and  numerous  later  additions  and  interpolations. 
The  Theogony  consists  of  three  divisions — (i)  a  cosmogony, 
or  creation;  (2)  a  theogony  proper,  recounting  the  history  of 
the  dynasties  of  Zeus  and  Cronus;  and  (3)  a  brief  and  abruptly 
terminated  heroogony,  the  starting-point  not  improbably  of 
the  supplementary  poem,  the  KaraKovos,  or  "  Lists  of  Women  " 


408 


HESPERIDES— HESS 


who  wedded  immortals,  of  which  all  but  a  few  fragments  are 
lost.1  The  proem  ( i- 1 16)  addressed  to  the  Heliconian  and  Pierian 
muses,  is  considered  to  have  been  variously  enlarged,  altered 
and  arranged  by  successive  rhapsodists.  The  poet  has  inter- 
woven several  episodes  of  rare  merit,  such  as  the  contest  of 
Zeus  and  the  Olympian  gods  with  the  Titans,  and  the  description 
of  the  prison-house  in  which  the  vanquished  Titans  are  confined, 
with  the  Giants  for  keepers  and  Day  and  Night  for  janitors 
(735  seq.). 

The  only  other  poem  which  has  come  down  to  us  under  Hesiod's 
name  is  the  Shield  of  Heracles,  the  opening  verses  of  which  are 
attributed  by  a  nameless  grammarian  to  the  fourth  book  of 
Eoiai.  The  theme  of  the  piece  is  the  expedition  of  Heracles 
ami  lolaus  against  the  robber  Cycnus;  but  its  main  object 
apparently  is  to  describe  the  shield  of  Heracles  ^141-31 1).  It 
is  clearly  an  imitation  of  the  Homeric  account  of  the  shield  of 
Achilles  (Iliad,  xviii.  479)  and  is  now  generally  considered 
spurious.  Titles  and  fragments  of  other  lost  poems  of  Hesiod 
have  come  down  to  us:  didactic,  as  the  Maxims  of  Cheiron; 
genealogical,  as  the  Aegimius,  describing  the  contest  of  that 
mythical  ancestor  of  the  Dorians  with  the  Lapithae;  and 
mythical,  as  the  Marriage  of  Ceyx  and  the  Descent  of  Theseus 
to  Hades. 

Recent  editions  of  Hesiod  include  the  'A.y<j>v  'Ojuwoy  /cat 
'HoLodov,  the  contest  of  song  between  Homer  and  Hesiod  at  the 
funeral  games  held  in  honour  of  King  Amphidamas  at  Chalcis. 
This  little  tract  belongs  to  the  time  of  Hadrian,  who  is  actually 
mentioned  as  having  been  present  during  its  recitation,  but  is 
founded  on  an  earlier  account  by  the  sophist  Alcidamas  (q.T.). 
Quotations  (old  and  new)  are  made  from  the  works  of  both 
poets,  and,  in  spite  of  the  sympathies  of  the  audience,  the  judge 
decides  in  favour  of  Hesiod.  Certain  biographical  details  of 
Homer  and  Hesiod  are  also  given. 

A  strong  characteristic  of  Hesiod's  style  is  his  sententious 
and  proverbial  philosophy  (as  in  Works  and  Days,  24-25,  40, 
218,  345,  371).  There  is  naturally  less  of  this  in  the  Theogony, 
yet  there  too  not  a  few  sentiments  take  the  form  of  the  saw  or 
adage.  He  has  undying  fame  as  the  first  of  didactic  poets 
(see  DIDACTIC  POETRY),  the  accredited  systematizer  of  Greek 
mythology  and  the  rough  but  not  unpoetical  sketcher  of  the 
lines  on  which  Virgil  wrought  out  his  exquisitely  finished 
Georgia. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Complete  works :  Editio  princeps  (Milan,  1493); 
Gottling-Flach  (1878),  with  full  bibliography  up  to  date  of  publica- 
tion; C.  Sittl  (1889),  with  introduction  and  critical  and  explanatory 
notes  in  Greek;  F.  A.  Paley  (1883);  A.  Rzach  (1902),  including 
the  fragments.  Separate  works:  Works  and  Days:  Van  Lennep 
(1847);  A.  Kirchhoff  (1889);  A.  Steitz,  Die  Werke  und  Tage  des 
Hesiodos  (1869),  dealing  chiefly  with  the  composition  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  poem;  G.  Wlastoff,  Promethee,  Pandore,  et  la  Ugende 
des  siecles  (1883).  Theogony:  Van  Lennep  (1843);  F.  G.  Welcker 
(1865),  valuable  edition;  G.  F.  Schomann  (1868),  with  text,  critical 
notes  and  exhaustive  commentary;  H.  Flach,  Die  Hesiodische 
Theogonie  (1873),  with  prolegomena  dealing  chiefly  with  the  digamma 
in  Hesiod,  System  der  Hesiodischen  Kosmogonie  (1874),  and  Classen 
und  Scholien  zur  Theogonie  (1876);  Meyer,  De  compositione 
Theogoniae  (1887).  Shield  of  Heracles:  Wolf-Ranke  (1840);  Van 
Lennep-Hullemann  (1854) ;  F.  Stegemann,  De  scuti  Herculis  Hesiodei 
poeta  Homeri  carminum  imitator  e  (1904);  the  fragments  were 
published  by  W.  Marckscheffel  in  1840;  for  the  Aydiv  'O^pov 
(ed.  A.  Rzach,  1908)  see  F.  Nietzsche  in  Rheinisches  Museum  (new 
series),  xxy.  p.  528.  For  papyrus  fragments  of  the  "  Catalogue," 
some  50  lines  on  the  wooing  of  Helen,  and  a  shorter  fragment  in 
praise  of  Peleus,  see  Wilamowitz-Mollendorff  in  Sitzungsber.  der 
konigl.  preuss.  Akad.  der  Wissenschaften,  for  26th  of  July  1900; 
for  fragments  relating  to  Meleager  and  the  suitors  of  Helen,  Berliner 
Klassikertexte,  v.  (1907) ;  of  the  Theogony,  Oxyrh.  Pap.  vi.  (1908). 

On  the  subject  generally,  consult  G.  F.  Schomann,  Opuscula,  ii. 
(1857);  H.  Flach,  Die  Hesiodischen  Gedichte  (1874);  A.  Rzach, 
Der  Dialekt  des  Hesiodos  (1876);  P.  O.  Gruppe,  Die  griechischen 
Kulte  und  Mythen,  i.  (1887);  O.  Friedel,  Die  Sage  vom  Tode  Hesiods 
(1879),  from  Jahrbucher  fur  classische  Philologie  (loth  suppl.  Band, 
1879);  J.  Adam,  Religious  Teachers  of  Greece  (1908).  There  is  a 
full  bibliography  of  the  publications  relating  to  Hesiod  (1884-1898) 
by  A.  Rzach  in  Bursian's  Jahresbericht  liber  die  Fortschritte  der 
klassischen  Altertumswissenschaft,  xxvii.  (1900). 

1  Part  of  the  poem  was  called  Eoiai,  because  the  description  of 
each  heroine  began  with  fl  OITJ,  "  or  like  as."  (See  Bibliography.) 


There  are  translations  of  the  Hesiodic  poems  in  English  by  Cooke 
(1728),  C.  A.  Elton  (1815),  J.  Banks  (1856),  and  specially  by  A.  W. 
Mair,  with  introduction  and  appendices  (Oxford  Library  of  Transla- 
tions, 1908) ;  in  German  (metrical  version)  with  valuable  intro- 
ductions and  notes  by  R.  Peppmuller  (1896)  and  in  other  modern 
languages.  (J.  DA.;  J.  H.  F.) 

HESPERIDES,  in  Greek  mythology,  maidens  who  guarded 
the  golden  apples  which  Earth  gave  Hera  on  her  marriage  to 
Zeus.  According  to  Hesiod  (Theogony,  215)  they  were  the 
daughters  of  Erebus  and  Night;  in  later  accounts,  of  Atlas  and 
Hesperis,  or  of  Phorcys  and  Ceto  (schol.  on  Apoll.  Rhod.  iv. 
1399;  Diod.  Sic.  iv.  27)  They  were  usually  supposed  to  be 
three  in  number — Aegle,  Erytheia,  Hesperis  (or  Hesperethusa) ; 
according  to  some,  four,  or  even  seven.  They  lived  far  away 
in  the  west  at  the  borders  of  Ocean,  where  the  sun  sets.  Hence 
the  sun  (according  to  Mimnermus  ap.  Athenaeum  xi.  p.  470) 
sails  in  the  golden  bowl  made  by  Hephaestus  from  the  abode 
of  the  Hesperides  to  the  land  where  he  rises  again.  According 
to  other  accounts  their  home  was  among  the  Hyperboreans. 
The  golden  apples  grew  on  a  tree  guarded  by  Ladon,  the  ever- 
watchful  dragon.  The  sun  is  often  in  German  and  Lithuanian 
legends  described  as  the  apple  that  hangs  on  the  tree  of  the 
nightly  heaven,  while  the  dragon,  the  envious  power,  keeps  the 
light  back  from  men  till  some  beneficent  power  takes  it  from 
him.  Heracles  is  the  hero  who  biings  back  the  golden  apples 
to  mankind  again.  Like  Perseus,  he  first  applies  to  the  Nymphs, 
who  help  him  to  learn  where  the  garden  is.  Arrived  there  he 
slays  the  dragon  and  carries  the  apples  to  Argos;  and  finally, 
like  Perseus,  he  gives  them  to  Athena.  The  Hesperides  are, 
like  the  Sirens,  possessed  of  the  gift  of  delightful  song.  The 
apples  appear  to  have  been  the  symbol  of  love  and  fruitfulness, 
and  are  introduced  at  the  marriages  of  Cadmus  and  Harmonia 
and  Peleus  and  Thetis.  The  golden  apples,  the  gift  of  Aphrodite 
to  Hippomenes  before  his  race  with  Atalanta,  were  also  plucked 
from  the  garden  of  the  Hesperides. 

HESPERUS  (Gr.  "Eo-xepos,  Lat.  Vesper),  the  evening  star, 
son  or  brother  of  Atlas.  According  to  Diodorus  Siculus  (iii. 
60,  iv.  27),  he  ascended  Mount  Atlas  to  observe  the  motions  of 
the  stars,  and  was  suddenly  swept  away  by  a  whirlwind.  Ever 
afterwards  he  was  honoured  as  a  god,  and  the  most  brilliant  star 
in  the  heavens  was  called  by  his  name.  Although  as  a  mytho- 
logical personality  he  is  regarded  as  distinct  from  Phosphoros 
or  Heosphoros  (Lat.  Lucifer),  the  morning  star  or  bringer  of 
light,  the  son  of  Astraeus  (or  Cephalus)  and  Eos,  the  two  stars 
were  early  identified  by  the  Greeks. 

Diog.  Lae'rt.  viii.  I.  14;  Cicero,  De  nat.  deorum,  ii.  20;  Pliny, 
Nat.  Hist.  ii.  6  [8]. 

HESS,  the  name  of  a  family  of  German  artists. 

HEINRICH  MARIA  HESS  (1798-1863) — von  Hess,  after  he 
received  a  patent  of  personal  nobility — was  born  at  Diisseldorf 
and  brought  up  to  the  profession  of  art  by  his  father,  the  engraver 
Karl  Ernst  Christoph  Hess  (1755-1828).  Karl  Hess  had  already 
acquired  a  name  when  in  1806  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  having  been 
raised  to  a  kingship  by  Napoleon,  transferred  the  Diisseldorf 
academy  and  gallery  to  Munich.  Karl  Hess  accompanied  the 
academy  to  its  new  home,  and  there  continued  the  education 
of  his  children.  In  time  Heinrich  Hess  became  sufficiently 
master  of  his  art  to  attract  the  attention  of  King  Maximilian. 
He  was  sent  with  a  stipend  to  Rome,  where  a  copy  which  he  made 
of  Raphael's  Parnassus,  and  the  study  of  great  examples  of 
monumental  design,  probably  caused  him  to  become  a  painter 
of  ecclesiastical  subjects  on  a  large  scale.  In  1828  he  was  made 
professor  of  painting  and  director  of  all  the  art  collections  at 
Munich.  He  decorated  the  Aukirche,  the  Glyptothek  and  the 
Allerheiligencapelle  at  Munich  with  frescoes;  and  his  cartoons 
were  selected  for  glass  windows  in  the  cathedrals  of  Cologne 
and  Regensburg.  Then  came  the  great  cycle  of  frescoes  in  the 
basilica  of  St  Boniface  at  Munich,  and  the  monumental  picture 
of  the  Virgin  and  Child  enthroned  between  the  four  doctors, 
and  receiving  the  homage  of  the  four  patrons  of  the  Munich 
churches  (now  in  the  Pinakothek).  His  last  work,  the  "  Lord's 
Supper,"  was  found  unfinished  in  his  atelier  after  his  death  in 
1863.  Before  testing  his  strength  as  a  composer  Heinrich  Hess 


HESS— HESSE 


409 


tried  genre,  an  example  of  which  is  the  Pilgrims  entering  Rome, 
now  in  the  Munich  gallery.  He  also  executed  portraits,  and 
twice  had  sittings  from  Thorwaldsen  (Pinakothek  and  Schack 
collections).  But  his  fame  rests  on  the  frescoes  representing 
scenes  from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  in  the  Allerheiligen- 
capelle,  and  the  episodes  from  the  life  of  St  Boniface  and  other 
German  apostles  in  the  basilica  of  Munich.  Here  he  holds 
rank  second  to  none  but  Overbeck  in  monumental  painting, 
being  always  true  to  nature  though  mindful  of  the  traditions 
of  Christian  art,  earnest  and  simple  in  feeling,  yet  lifelike  and 
powerful  in  expression.  Through  him  and  his  pupils  the  sentiment 
of  religious  art  was  preserved  and  extended  in  the  Munich  school. 

PETER  HESS  (1792-1871) — afterwards  von  Hess — was  born 
at  Diisseldorf  and  accompanied  his  younger  brother  Heinrich 
Maria  to  Munich  in  1806.  Being  of  an  age  to  receive  vivid 
impressions,  he  felt  the  stirring  impulses  of  the  time  and  became  a 
painter  of  skirmishes  and  battles.  In  1813-1815  he  was  allowed  to 
join  the  staff  of  General  Wrede,  who  commanded  the  Bavarians  in 
the  military  operations  which  led  to  the  abdication  of  Napoleon ; 
and  there  he  gained  novel  experiences  of  war  and  a  taste  for 
extensive  travel.  In  the  course  of  years  he  successively  visited 
Austria,  Switzerland  and  Italy.  On  Prince  Otho's  election  to 
the  Greek  throne  King  Louis  sent  Peter  Hess  to  Athens  to  gather 
materials  for  pictures  of  the  war  of  liberation.  The  sketches 
which  he  then  made  were  placed,  forty  in  number,  in  the  Pina- 
kothek, after  being  copied  in  wax  on  a  large  scale  (and  little  to 
the  edification  of  German  feeling)  by  Nilsen,  in  the  northern 
arcades  of  the  Hofgarten  at  Munich.  King  Otho's  entrance 
into  Nauplia  was  the  subject  of  a  large  and  crowded  canvas  now 
in  the  Pinakothek.  which  Hess  executed  in  person.  From  these, 
and  from  battlepieces  on  a  scale  of  great  size  in  the  Royal 
Palace,  as  well  as  from  military  episodes  executed  for  the  czar 
Nicholas,  and  the  battle  of  Waterloo  now  in  the  Munich  Gallery, 
we  gather  that  Hess  was  a  clever  painter  of  horses.  His  con- 
ception of  subject  was  lifelike, and  his  drawing  invariably  correct, 
but  his  style  is  not  so  congenial  to  modern  taste  as  that  of  the 
painters  of  touch.  He  finished  almost  too  carefully  with  thin 
medium  and  pointed  tools;  and  on  that  account  he  lacked  to  a 
certain  extent  the  boldness  of  Horace  Vernet,  to  whom  he  was 
not  unaptly  compared.  He  died  suddenly,  full  of  honours, 
at  Munich,  in  April  1871.  Several  of  his  genre  pictures,  horse 
hunts,  and  brigand  scenes  may  be  found  in  the  gallery  of  Munich. 

KARL  HESS  (1801-1874),  the  third  son  of  Karl  Christoph  Hess, 
born  at  Diisseldorf,  was  also  taught  by  his  father,  who  hoped 
that  he  would  obtain  distinction  as  an  engraver.  Karl,  however, 
after  engraving  one  plate  after  Adrian  Ostade,  turned  to  painting 
under  the  guidance  of  Wagenbauer  of  Munich,  and  then  studied 
under  his  elder  brother  Peter.  But  historical  composition 
proved  to  be  as  contrary  to  his  taste  as  engraving,  and  he  gave, 
himself  exclusively  at  last  to  illustrations  of  peasant  life  in  the 
hill  country  of  Bavaria.  He  became  clever  alike  in  representing 
the  people,  the  animals  and  the  landscape  of  the  Alps,  and  with 
constant  means  of  reference  to  nature  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Reichenhall,  where  he  at  last  resided,  he  never  produced 
anything  that  was  not  impressed  with  the  true  stamp  of  a  kindly 
realism.  Some  of  his  pictures  in  the  museum  of  Munich  will 
serve  as  examples  of  his  manner.  He  died  at  Reichenhall  on 
the  1 6th  of  November  1874. 

UESS,  HEINRICH  HERMANN  JOSEF,  FREIHERR  VON 
(1788-1870),  Austrian  soldier,  entered  the  army  in  1805  and  was 
soon  employed  as  a  staff  officer  on  survey  work.  He  distinguished 
himself  as  a  subaltern  at  Aspern  and  Wagram,  and  in  1813,  as  a 
captain,  again  served  on  the  staff.  In  1815  he  was  with  Schwarz- 
enberg.  He  had  in  the  interval  between  the  two  wars  been 
employed  as  a  military  commissioner  in  Piedmont,  and  at  the 
peace  resumed  this  post,  gaining  knowledge  which  later  proved 
invaluable  to  the  Austrian  army.  In  1831,  when  Radetzky 
became  commander-in-chief  in  Austrian  Italy,  he  took  Hess  as 
his  chief-of-staff,  and  thus  began  the  connexion  between  two 
famous  soldiers  which,  like  that  of  Blucher  and  Gneisenau,  is  a 
classical  example  of  harmonious  co-operation  of  commander  and 
chief-of-staff.  Hess  put  into  shape  Radetzky's  military  ideas,  in 


the  form  of  new  drill  for  each  arm,  and,  under  their  guidance, 
the  Austrian  army  in  North  Italy,  always  on  a  war  footing, 
became  the  best  in  Europe.  From  1834  to  1848  Hess  was 
employed  in  Moravia,  at  Vienna,  &c.,  but,  on  the  outbreak  of 
revolution  and  war  in  the  latter  year,  was  at  once  sent  out  to 
Radetzky  as  chief-of-staff.  In  the  two  campaigns  against  King 
Charles  Albert  which  followed,  culminating  in  the  victory  of 
Novara,  Hess's  assistance  to  his  chief  was  made  still  more 
valuable  by  his  knowledge  of  the  enemy,  and  the  old  field-marshal 
acknowledged  his  services  in  general  orders.  Lieut.-Fieldmarshal 
Hess  was  at  once  promoted  Feldzeugmeister,  made  a  member  of 
the  emperor's  council,  and  Freiherr,  assuming  at  the  same  time 
the  duties  of  the  quartermaster-general.  Next  year  he  became 
chief  of  the  staff  to  the  emperor.  He  was  often  employed  in 
missions  to  variouscapitals,  and  he  appeared  in  the  fieldin  1854  at 
the  head  of  the  Austrian  army  which  intervened  so  effectually 
In  the  Crimean  war.  In  1859  he  was  sent  to  Italy  after  the  early 
defeats.  He  became  field-marshal  in  1860,  and  a  year  later,  on 
resigning  his  position  as  chief-of-staff,  he  was  made  captain  of  the 
Trabant  guard.  He  died  in  Vienna  in  1870. 

See  "  General  Hess  "  in  Lebensgeschicktlichen  Hinrissen  (Vienna, 
1855). 

HESSE  (Lat.  Hessia,  Ger.  Hessen),  a  grand  duchy  forming  a 
state  of  the  German  empire.  It  was  known  until  1866  as  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  the  history  of  which  is  given  under  a  separate  heading 
below.  It  consists  of  two  main  parts,  separated  from  each  other 
by  a  narrow  strip  of  Prussian  territory.  The  northern  part  is  the 
province  of  Oberhessen;  the  southern  consists  of  the  contiguous 
provinces  of  Starkenburg  and  Rheinhessen.  There  are  also 
eleven  very  small  exclaves,  mostly  grouped  about  Homburg  to 
the  south-west  of  Oberhessen;  but  the  largest  is  Wimpfen  on 
the  north-west  frontier  of  Wiirttemberg.  Oberhessen  is  hilly; 
though  of  no  great  elevation  it  extends  over  the  water-parting 
between  the  basins  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Weser,  and  in  the 
Vogelsberg  it  has  as  its  culminating  point  the  Taufstein  (2533  ft.). 
In  the  north-west  it  includes  spurs  of  the  Taunus.  Between 
these  two  systems  of  hills  lies  the  fertile  undulating  tract  known 
as  the  Wetteraii,  watered  by  the  Wetter,  a  tributary  of  the 
Main.  •  Starkenburg  occupies  the  angle  between  the  Main  and 
the  Rhine,  and  in  its  south-eastern  part  includes  some  of  the 
ranges  of  the  Odenwald,  the  highest  part  beingthe  Seidenbucher 
Hohe  (1965  ft.).  Rheinhessen  is  separated  from  Starkenburg  by 
the  Rhine,  and  has  that  river  as  its  northern  as  well  as  its  eastern 
frontier,  though  it  extends  across  it  at  the  north-east  corner, 
where  the  Rhine,  on  receiving  the  Main,  changes  its  course 
abruptly  from  south  to  west.  The  territory  consists  of  a  fertile 
tract  of  low  hills,  rising  towards  the  south-west  into  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  Hardt  range,  but  at  no  point  reaching  a  height  of 
more  than  1050  ft. 

The  area  and  population  of  the  three  provinces  of  Hesse  are 
as  follow: 


Oberhessen 
Starkenburg     . 
Rheinhessen     . 

Total 

Area. 

Population. 

sq.  m. 

1895- 

1905- 

1267 
1169 
530 

27L524 
444,562 
322,934 

296,755 
542,996 
369,424 

2966 

1  ,039,020 

1,209,175 

The  chief  towns  of  the  grand  duchy  are  Darmstadt  (the 
capital)  and  Offenbach  in  Starkenburg,  Mainz  and  Worms  in 
Rheinhessen  and  Giessen  in  Oberhessen.  More  than  two-thirds 
of  the  inhabitants  are  Protestants;  the  majority  of  the  remainder 
are  Roman  Catholics,  and  there  are  about  25,000  Jews.  The 
grand  duke  is  head  of  the  Protestant  church.  Education  is 
compulsory,  the  elementary  schools  being  communal,  assisted  by 
state  grants.  There  are  a  university  at  Giessen  and  a  technical 
high  school  at  Darmstadt.  Agriculture  is  important,  more  than 
three-fifths  of  the  total  area  being  under  cultivation.  The 
largest  grain  crops  are  rye  and  barley,  and  nearly  40,000  acres 
are  under  vines.  Minerals,  in  which  Oberhessen  is  much  richer 


HESSE-CASSEL 


than  the  two  other  provinces,  include  iron,  manganese,  salt  and 
some  coal. 

The  constitution  dates  from  1820,  but  was  modified  in  1856, 
1862,  1872  and  1000.  There  are  two  legislative  chambers.  The 
upper  consists  of  princes  of  the  grand-ducal  family,  heads  of 
mediatized  houses,  the  head  of  the  Roman  Catholic  and  the 
superintendent  of  the  Protestant  church,  the  chancellor  of  the 
university,  two  elected  representatives  of  the  land-owning 
nobility,  and  twelve  members  nominated  by  the  grand  duke. 
The  lower  chamber  consists  of  ten  deputies  from  large  town?  and 
forty  from  small  towns  and  rural  districts.  They  are  indirectly 
elected,  by  deputy  electors  (Wahlmanner)  nominated  by  the 
electors,  who  must  be  Hessians  over  twenty-five  years  old,  paying 
direct  taxes.  The  executive  ministry  of  state  is  divided  into  the 
departments  of  the  interior,  justice  and  finance.  The  three 
provinces  are  divided  for  local  administration  into  18  circles  and 
989  communes.  The  ordinary  revenue  and  expenditure  amount 
each  to  about  £4,000,000  annually,  the  chief  taxes  being  an 
income-tax,  succession  duties  and  stamp  tax.  The  public  debt, 
practically  the  whole  of  which  is  on  railways,  amounted  to 
£i9,°97,4°8  in  1907. 

History. — The  name  of  Hesse,  now  used  principally  for  the 
grand  duchy  formerly  known  as  Hesse-Darmstadt,  refers  to  a 
country  which  has  had  different  boundaries  and  areas  at  different 
times.  The  name  is  derived  from  that  of  a  Prankish  tribe,  the 
Hessi.  The  earliest  known  inhabitants  of  the  country  were  the 
Chatti,  who  lived  here  during  the  ist  century  A.D.  (Tacitus, 
Germania,  c.  30),  and  whose  capital,  Mattium  on  the  Eder,  was 
burned  by  the  Romans  about  A.D.  15.  "  Alike  both  in  race  and 
language,"  says  Walther  Schultze,  "  the  Chatti  and  the  Hessi  are 
identical."  During  the  period  of  the  V olkerwanderung  many  of 
these  people  moved  westward,  but  some  remained  behind  to  give 
their  name  to  the  country,  although  it  was  not  until  the  8th 
century  that  the  word  Hesse  came  into  use.  Early  Hesse  was 
the  district  around  the  Fulda,  the  Werra,  the  Eder  and  the  Lahn, 
and  was  part  of  the  Prankish  kingdom  both  during  Merovingian 
and  during  Carolingian  times.  Soon  Hessegau  is  mentioned,  and 
this  district  was  the  headquarters  of  Charlemagne  during  his 
campaigns  against  the  Saxons.  By  the  treaty  of  Verdun  in  843 
it  fell  to  Louis  the  German,  and  later  it  seems  to  have  been  partly 
in  the  duchy  of  Saxony  and  partly  in  that  of  Franconia.  The 
Hessians  were  converted  to  Christianity  mainly  through  the 
efforts  of  St  Boniface;  their  land  was  included  in  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Mainz;  and  religion  and  culture  were  kept  alive 
among  them  largely  owing  to  the  foundation  of  the  Benedictine 
abbeys  of  Fulda  and  Hersfeld.  Like  other  parts  of  Germany 
during  the  gth  century  Hesse  felt  the  absence  of  a  strong  central 
power,  and,  before  the  time  of  the  emperor  Otto  the  Great, 
several  counts,  among  whom  were  Giso  and  Werner,  had  made 
themselves  practically  independent;  but  after  the  accession  of 
Otto  in  936  the  land  quietly  accepted  the  yoke  of  the  medieval 
emperors.  About  1120  another  Giso,  count  of  Gudensberg, 
secured  possession  of  the  lands  of  the  Werners;  on  his  death  in 
1137  his  daughter  and  heiress,  Hedwig,  married  Louis,  land- 
grave of  Thuringia;  and  from  this  date  until  1247,  when  the 
Thuringian  ruling  family  became  extinct,  Hesse  formed  part  of 
Thuringia.  The  death  of  Henry  Raspe,  the  last  landgrave  of 
Thuringia,  in  1247,  caused  a  long  war  over  the  disposal  of  his 
lands,  and  this  dispute  was  not  settled  until  1264  when  Hesse, 
separated  again  from  Thuringia,  was  secured  by  his  niece  Sophia 
(d.  1284),  widow  of  Henry  II.,  duke  of  Brabant.  In  the  following 
year  Sophia  handed  over  Hesse  to  her  son  Henry  (1244-1308), 
who,  remembering  the  connexion  of  Hesse  and  Thuringia,  took 
the  title  of  landgrave,  and  is  the  ancestor  of  all  the  subsequent 
rulers  of  the  country.  In  1292  Henry  was  made  a  prince  of  the 
Empire,  and  with  him  the  history  of  Hesse  properly  begins. 

For  nearly  300  years  the  history  of  Hesse  is  comparatively 
uneventful.  The  land,  which  fell  into  two  main  portions,  upper 
Hesse  round  Marburg,  and  lower  Hesse  round  Cassel,  was  twice 
divided  between  two  members  of  the  ruling  family,  but  no  per- 
manent partition  took  place  before  the  Reformation.  A  Landtag 
was  first  called  together  in  1387,  and  the  landgraves  were  con- 


stantly at  variance  with  the  electors  of  Mainz,  who  had  large 
temporal  possessions  in  the  country.  They  found  time,  however, 
to  increase  the  area  of  Hesse.  Giessen,  part  of  Schmalkalden, 
Ziegenhain,  Nidda  and,  after  a  long  struggle,  Katzenelnbogen 
were  acquired,  while  in  1432  the  abbey  of  Hersfeld  placed  itself 
under  the  protection  of  Hesse.  The  most  noteworthy  of  the 
landgraves  were  perhaps  Louis  I.  (d.  1458),  a  candidate  for  the 
German  throne  in  1440,  and  William  II.  (d.  1509),  a  comrade  of 
the  German  king,  Maximilian  I.  In  1509  William's  young  son, 
Philip  (q.v.),  became  landgrave,  and  by  his  vigorous  personality 
brought  his  country  into  prominence  during  the  religious  troubles 
of  the  i6th  century.  Following  the  example  of  his  ancestors 
Philip  cared  for  education  and  the  general  welfare  of  his  land, 
and  the  Protestant  university  of  Marburg,  founded  in  1527,  owes 
to  him  its  origin.  When  he  died  in  1567  Hesse  was  divided 
between  his  four  sons  into  Hesse-Cassel,  Hesse-Darmstadt, 
Hesse-Marburg  and  Hesse-Rheinfels.  The  lines  ruling  in  Hesse- 
Rheinfels  and  Hesse-Marburg,  or  upper  Hesse,  became  extinct 
in  1583  and  1604  respectively,  and  these  lands  passed  to  the  two 
remaining  branches  of  the  family.  The  small  landgraviate  of 
Hesse-Homburg  was  formed  in  1622  from  Hesse-Darmstadt. 
After  the  annexation  of  Hesse-Cassel  and  Hesse-Homburg  by 
Prussia  in  1866  Hesse-Darmstadt  remained  the  only  independent 
part  of  Hesse,  and  it  generally  receives  the  common  name. 

Hesse-Philippsthal  is  an  offshoot  of  Hesse-Cassel,  and  was 
founded  in  1685  by  Philip  (d.  1721),  son  of  the  Landgrave 
William  VI.  In  1909  the  representative  of  this  family  was  the 
Landgrave  Ernest  (b.  1846).  Hesse-Barchfeld  was  founded 
in  1721  by  Philip's  son,  William  (d.  1761),  and  in  1909  its  repre- 
sentative was  the  Landgrave  Clovis  (b.  1876).  The  lands  of  both 
these  princes  are  now  mediatized.  Hesse-Nassau  is  a  province 
of  Prussia  formed  in  1866  from  part  of  Hesse-Cassel  and  part  of 
the  duchy  of  Nassau. 

See  H.  B.  Wenck,  Hessische  Landesgeschichte  (Frankfort,  1783- 
1803);  C.  von  Rommel,  Geschichte  von  Hesse  (Cassel,  1820-1858); 
F.  Miinscher,  Geschichte  von  Hesse  (Marburg,  1894);  F.  Gundlach, 
Hesse  und  die  Mainzer  Stiftsfehde  (Marburg,  1899);  Walther, 
Literarisches  Handbuch  fur  Geschichte  und  Landeskunde  von  Hesse 
(Darmstadt,  1841;  Supplement,  1850-1869);  K.  Ackermann, 
Bibliotheca  Hessiaca  (Cassel,  1884-1899);  Hoffmeister,  Historisch- 
genealogisches  Handbuch  uber  alle  Linien  des  Regentenhauses  Hesse 
(Marburg,  1874),  and  the  Zeitschrift  des  Vereins  fur  hessische  Geschichte 
(1837-1904). 

HESSE-CASSEL  (in  German  Kurhessen,  i.e.  Electoral  Hesse), 
now  the  government  district  of  Cassel  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Hesse-Nassau.  It  was  till  1866  a  landgraviate  and  electorate 
of  Germany,  consisting  of  several  detached  masses  of  territory, 
to  the  N.E.  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main.  It  contained  a  superficial 
area  of  3699  sq.  m.,  and  its  population  in  1864  was  745,063. 

History. — The  line  of  Hesse-Cassel  was  founded  by  William 
IV.,  surnamed  the  Wise,  eldest  son  of  Philip  the  Magnanimous. 
On  his  father's  death  in  1567  he  received  one  half  of  Hesse,  with 
Cassel  as  his  capital;  and  this  formed  the  landgraviate  of  Hesse- 
Cassel.  Additions  were  made  to  it  by  inheritance  from  his 
brother's  possessions.  His  son,  Maurice  the  Learned  (1592-1627), 
turned  Protestant  in  1605,  became  involved  later  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  and,  after  being  forced  to  cede  some  of  his  territories 
to  the  Darmstadt  line,  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son  William  V. 
(1627-1637),  his  younger  sons  receiving  apanages  which  created 
several  cadet  lines  of  the  house,  of  which  that  of  Hesse-Rheinfels- 
Rotenburg  survived  till  1834.  On  the  death  of  William  V., 
whose  territories  had  been  conquered  by  the  Imperialists,  his 
widow  Amalie  Elizabeth,  as  regent  for  her  son  William  VI. 
(1637-1663),  reconquered  the  country  and,  with  the  aid  of  the 
French  and  Swedes,  held  it,  together  with  part  of  Westphalia. 
At  the  peace  of  Westphalia  (1648),  accordingly,  Hesse-Cassel 
was  augmented  by  the  larger  part  of  the  countship  of  Schaum- 
burg  and  by  the  abbey  of  Hersfeld,  secularized  as  a  principality 
of  the  Empire.  The  Landgravine  Amalie  Elizabeth  introduced 
the  rule  of  primogeniture.  William  VI.,  who  came  of  age  in  1650, 
was  an  enlightened  patron  of  learning  and  the  arts.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  William  VII.,  an  infant,  who  died  in  1670, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Charles  (1670-1730).  Charles's, 
chief  claim  to  remembrance  is  that  he  was  the  first  ruler  to  adopt 


HESSE-CASSEL 


411 


the  system  of  hiring  his  soldiers  out  to  foreign  powers  as  mer- 
cenaries, as  a  means  of  improving  the  national  finances.  Frederick 
I.,  the  next  landgrave  (1730-1751),  had  become  by  marriage  king 
of  Sweden,  and  on  his  death  was  succeeded  in  the  landgraviate 
by  his  brother  William  VIII.  (1751-1760),  who  fought  as  an  ally 
of  England  during  the  Seven  Years'  War.  From  his  successor 
Frederick  II.  (1760-1785),  who  had  become  a  Roman  Catholic, 
22,000  Hessian  troops  were  hired  by  England  for  about  £3, 191,000, 
to  assist  in  the  war  against  the  North  American  colonies.  This 
action,  often  bitterly  criticized,  has  of  late  years  found  apologists 
(cf.  v.  Werthern,  Die  hessischen  Hilfstruppen  im  nordamerika- 
nischen  Unabhiingigkeitskriege,  Cassel,  1895).  It  is  argued  that 
the  troops  were  in  any  case  mercenaries,  and  that  the  practice 
was  quite  common.  Whatever  opinion  may  be  held  as  to 
this,  it  is  certain  that  Frederick  spent  the  money  well:  he  did 
much  for  the  development  of  the  economic  and  intellectual 
improvement  of  the  country.  The  reign  of  the  next  landgrave, 
William  IX.  (1785-1821),  was  an  important  epoch  in  the  history 
of  Hesse-Cassel.  Ascending  the  throne  in  1785,  he  took  part 
in  the  war  against  France  a  few  years  later,  but  in  1795  peace 
was  arranged  by  the  treaty  of  Basel.  For  the  loss  in  1801 
of  his  possessions  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  he  was  in  1803 
compensated  by  some  of  the  former  French  territory  round 
Mainz,  and  at  the  same  time  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  Elector 
(Kurfilrst)  as  William  I.  In  1806  he  made  a  treaty  of  neutrality 
with  Napoleon,  but  after  the  battle  of  Jena  the  latter,  suspect- 
ing William's  designs,  occupied  his  country,  and  expelled  him. 
Hesse-Cassel  was  then  added  to  Jerome  Bonaparte's  new  kingdom 
of  Westphalia;  but  after  the  battle  of  Leipzig  in  1813  the 
French  were  driven  out  and  on  the  2 ist  of  November  the  elector 
returned  in  triumph  to  his  capital.  A  treaty  concluded  by 
him  with  the  Allies  (Dec.  2)  stipulated  that  he  was  to  receive 
back  all  his  former  territories,  or  their  equivalent,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  restore  the  ancient  constitution  of  his  country. 
This  treaty,  so  far  as  the  territories  were  concerned,  was  carried 
out  by  the  powers  at  the  congress  of  Vienna.  They  refused, 
however,  the  elector's  request  to  be  recognized  as  "  King  of 
the  Chatti  "  (Konig  der  Katten),  a  request  which  was  again 
rejected  at  the  conference  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1818).  He 
therefore  retained  the  now  meaningless  title  of  elector,  with 
the  predicate  of  "  royal  highness." 

The  elector  had  signalized  his  restoration  by  abolishing 
with  a  stroke  of  the  pen  all  the  reforms  introduced  under  the 
French  regime,  repudiating  the  Westphalian  debt  and  declaring 
null  and  void  the  sale  of  the  crown  domains.  Everything  was 
set  back  to  its  condition  on  the  ist  of  November  1806;  even 
the  officials  had  to  descend  to  their  former  rank,  and  the  army 
to  revert  to  the  old  uniforms  and  powdered  pigtails.  The 
estates,  indeed,  were  summoned  in  March  1815,  but  the  attempt 
to  devise  a  constitution  broke  down;  their  appeal  to  the  federal 
diet  at  Frankfort  to  call  the  elector  to  order  in  the  matter  of 
the  debt  and  the  domains  came  to  nothing  owing  to  the  inter- 
vention of  Metternich;  and  in  May  1816  they  were  dissolved, 
never  to  meet  again.  William  I.  died  on  the  27th  of  February 
1821,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  William  II.  Under  him 
the  constitutional  crisis  in  Hesse-Cassel  came  to  a  head.  He 
was  arbitrary  and  avaricious  like  his  father,  and  moreover 
shocked  public  sentiment  by  his  treatment  of  his  wife,  a  popular 
Prussian  princess,  and  his  relations  with  his  mistress,  one 
Emilie  Ortlopp,  created  countess  of  Reichenbach,'  whom  he 
loaded  with  wealth.  The  July  revolution  in  Paris  gave  the 
signal  for  disturbances;  the  elector  was  forced  to  summon 
the  estates;  and  on  the  sth  of  January  1831  a  constitution 
on  the  ordinary  Liberal  basis  was  signed.  The  elector  now 
retired  to  Hanau,  appointed  his  son  Frederick  William  regent, 
and  took  no  further  part  in  public  affairs. 

The  regent,  without  his  father's  coarseness,  had  a  full  share 
of  his  arbitary  and  avaricious  temper.  Constitutional  restric- 
tions were  intolerable  to  him;  and  the  consequent  friction  with 
the  diet  was  aggravated  when,  in  1832,  Hassenpflug  (q.v.)  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  administration.  The  whole  efforts  of 
the  elector  and  his  minister  were  directed  to  nullifying  the 


constitutional  control  vested  in  the  diet;  and  the  Opposition  was 
fought  by  manipulating  the  elections,  packing  the  judicial 
bench,  and  a  vexatious  and  petty  persecution  of  political 
"  suspects,"  and  this  policy  continued  after  the  retirement  of 
Hassenpflug  in  1837.  The  situation  that  resulted  issued  in  the 
revolutionary  year  1848  in  a  general  manifestation  of  public 
discontent;  and  Frederick  William,  who  had  become  elector 
on  his  father's  death  (November  20,  1847),  was  forced  to  dismiss 
his  reactionary  ministry  and  to  agree  to  a  comprehensive  pro- 
gramme of  democratic  reform.  This,  however,  was  but  short- 
lived. After  the  breakdown  of  the  Frankfort  National  Parlia- 
ment, Frederick  William  joined  the  Prussian  Northern  Union, 
and  deputies  from  Hesse-Cassel  were  sent  to  the  Erfurt  parlia- 
ment. But  as  Austria  recovered  strength,  the  elector's  policy 
changed.  On  the  23rd  of  February  1850  Hassenpflug  was  again 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  administration  and  threw  himself 
with  renewed  zeal  into  the  struggle  against  the  constitution  and 
into  opposition  to  Prussia.  On  the  2nd  of  September  the  diet 
was  dissolved;  the  taxes  were  continued  by  electoral  ordinance; 
and  the  country  was  placed  under  martial  law.  It  was  at  once 
clear,  however,  that  the  elector  could  not  depend  on  his  officers 
or  troops,  who  remained  faithful  to  their  oath  to  the  constitution. 
Hassenpflug  persuaded  the  elector  to  leave  Cassel  secretly  with 
him,  and  on  the  isth  of  October  appealed  for  aid  to  the  recon- 
stituted federal  diet,  which  willingly  passed  a  decree  of  "  inter- 
vention. "  On  the  ist  of  November  an  Austrian  and  Bavarian 
force  marched  into  the  electorate. 

This  was  a  direct  challenge  to  Prussia,  which  under  conventions 
with  the  elector  had  the  right  to  the  use  of  the  military  roads 
through  Hesse  that  were  her  sole  means  of  communication  with 
her  Rhine  provinces.  War  seemed  imminent;  Prussian  troops 
also  entered  the  country,  and  shots  were  actually  exchanged 
between  the  outposts.  But  Prussia  was  in  no  condition  to  take 
up  the  challenge;  and  the  diplomatic  contest  that  followed 
issued  in  the  Austrian  triumph  at  Olmiitz  (1851).  Hesse  was 
surrendered  to  the  federal  diet;  the  taxes  were  collected  by  the 
federal  forces,  and  all  officials  who  refused  to  recognize  the  new 
order  were  dismissed.  In  March  1852  the  federal  diet  abolished 
the  constitution  of  1831,  together  with  the  reforms  of  1848,  and 
in  April  issued  a  new  provisional  constitution.  The  new  diet 
had,  under  this,  very  narrow  powers;  and  the  elector  was  free 
to  carry  out  his  policy  of  amassing  money,  forbidding  the  con- 
struction of  railways  and  manufactories,  and  imposing  strict 
orthodoxy  on  churches  and  schools.  In  1855,  however,  Hassen- 
.pflug — who  had  returned  with  the  elector — was  dismissed;  and 
five  years  later,  after  a  period  of  growing  agitation,  a  new 
constitution  was  granted  with  the  consent  of  the  federal  diet 
(May  30,  1860).  The  new  chambers,  however,  demanded  the 
constitution  of  1831 ;  and,  after  several  dissolutions  which  always 
resulted  in  the  return  of  the  same  members,  the  federal  diet 
decided  to  restore  the  constitution  of  1831  (May  24,  1862). 
This  had  been  due  to  a  threat  of  Prussian  occupation;  and  it 
needed  another  such  threat  to  persuade  the  elector  to  reassemble 
the  chambers,  which  he  had  dismissed  at  the  first  sign  of  opposi- 
tion; and  he  revenged  himself  by  refusing  to  transact  any 
public  business.  In  1866  the  end  came.  The  elector,  full  of 
grievances  against  Prussia,  threw  in  his  lot  with  Austria;  the 
electorate  was  at  once  overrun  with  Prussian  troops;  Cassel 
was  occupied  (June  20) ;  and  the  elector  was  carried  a  prisoner 
to  Stettin.  By  the  treaty  of  Prague  Hesse-Cassel  was  annexed 
to  Prussia.  The  elector  Frederick  William  (d.  1875)  had  been, 
by  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  cession,  guaranteed  the  entailed 
property  of  his  house.  This  was,  however,  sequestered  in  1868 
owing  to  his  intrigues  against  Prussia;  part  of  the  income  was 
paid,  however,  to  the  eldest  agnate,  the  landgrave  Frederick 
(d.  1884),  and  part,  together  with  certain  castles  and  palaces, 
was  assigned  to  the  cadet  lines  of  Philippsthal  and  Philippsthal- 

Barchfeld. 

See  K.  W.  Wippermann,  Kurhessen  seit  den  Freiheitskriegen 
(Cassel,  1850);  Roth,  Geschichte  von  Hessen-Kassel  (Cassel,  1856; 
2nd  ed.  continued  by  Stamford,  1883-1885);  H.  Grafe,  Der  Ver- 
fassungskampf  in  Kurhessen  (Leipzig,  1851)  and  works  under 
HESSE. 


412 


HESSE-DARMSTADT— HESSE-HOMBURG 


HESSE-DARMSTADT,  a  grand-duchy  in  Germany,  the  history 
of  which  begins  with  the  partition  of  Hesse  in  1567.  George  I. 
(1547-1597),  the  youngest  son  of  the  landgrave  Philip,  received 
the  upper  county  of  Katzenelnbogen,  and,  selecting  Darmstadt 
as  his  residence,  became  the  founder  of  the  Hesse-Darmstadt 
line.  Additions  to  the  landgraviate  were  made  both  in  the 
reigns  of  George  and  of  his  son  and  successor,  Louis  V.  (1577- 
1626),  but  in  1622  Hesse-Homburg  was  cut  off  to  form  an  apanage 
for  George's  youngest  son,  Frederick  (d.  1638).  Although  Louis 
V.,  who  founded  the  university  of  Giessen  in  1607,  was  a  Lutheran, 
he  and  his  son,  George  II.  (1605-1661),  sided  with  the  im- 
perialists in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  during  which  Hesse-Darm- 
stadt suffered  very  severely  from  the  ravages  of  the  Swedes. 
In  this  struggle  Hesse-Cassel  took  the  other  side,  and  the  rivalry 
between  the  two  landgraviates  was  increased  by  a  dispute  over 
Hesse-Marburg,  the  ruling  family  of  which  had  become  extinct 
in  1604.  This  quarrel  was  interwoven  with  the  general  thread 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  was  not  finally  settled  until  1648, 
when  the  disputed  territory  was  divided  between  the  two  claim- 
ants. Louis  VI.  (d.  1678),  a  careful  and  patriotic  prince,  followed 
the  policy  of  the  three  previous  landgraves,  but  the  anxiety  of 
his  son,  Ernest  Louis  (d.  1739),  to  emulate  the  French  court 
under  Louis  XIV.  led  his  country  into  debt.  Under  Ernest 
Louis  and  his  son  and  successor,  Louis  VIII.  (d.  1768),  another 
dispute  occurred  between  Darmstadt  and  Cassel;  this  time 
it  was  over  the  succession  to  the  county  of  Hanau,  which  was 
eventually  divided,  Hesse-Darmstadt  receiving  Lichtenberg. 
During  the  i8th  century  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  and 
the  Seven  Years'  War  dealt  heavy  blows  at  the  prosperity  of 
the  landgraviate,  which  was  always  loyal  to  the  house  of  Austria. 
Louis  IX.  (1719-1790).  who  served  in  the  Prussian  army  under 
Frederick  the  Great,  is  chiefly  famous  as  the  husband  of  Caroline 
(1721-1774),  "  the  great  landgravine,"  who  counted  Goethe, 
Herder  and  Grimm  among  her  friends  and  was  described  by 
Frederick  the  Great  as  femina  sexu,  ingenio  vir.  In  April  1790, 
just  after  the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution,  Louis  X. 
(1753-1830),  an  educated  prince  who  shared  the  tastes  and 
friendships  of  his  mother,  Caroline,  became  landgrave.  In  1792 
he  joined  the  allies  against  France,  but  in  1799  he  was  compelled 
to  sign  a  treaty  of  neutrality.  In  1803,  having  formally  sur- 
rendered the  part  of  Hesse  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  which 
had  been  taken  from  him  in  the  early  days  of  the  Revolution, 
Louis  received  in  return  a  much  larger  district  which  had  formerly 
belonged  to  the  duchy  of  Westphalia,  the  electorate  of  Mainz 
and  the  bishopric  of  Worms.  In  1806,  being  a  member  of  the 
confederation  of  the  Rhine,  he  took  the  title  of  Louis  I.,  grand- 
duke  of  Hesse;  he  supported  Napoleon  with  troops  from  1805 
to  1813,  but  after  the  battle  of  Leipzig  he  joined  the  allies. 
In  1815  the  congress  of  Vienna  made  another  change  in  the 
area  and  boundaries  of  Hesse-Darmstadt.  Louis  secured  again 
a  district  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  including  the  cities  of 
Mainz  and  Worms,  but  he  made  cessions  of  territory  to  Prussia 
and  to  Bavaria  and  he  recognized  the  independence  of  Hesse- 
Homburg,  which  had  recently  been  incorporated  with  his  lands. 
However,  his  title  of  grand-duke  was  confirmed,  and  as  grand- 
duke  of  Hesse  and  of  the  Rhine  he  entered  the  Germanic  con- 
federation. Soon  the  growing  desire  for  liberty  made  itself 
felt  in  Hesse,  and  in  1820  Louis  gave  a  constitution  to  the  land; 
various  forms  were  carried  through;  the  system  of  government 
was  reorganized,  and  in  1828  Hesse-Darmstadt  joined  the 
Prussian  Zolherein.  Louis  I.,  who  did  a  great  deal  for  the 
welfare  of  his  country,  died  on  the  6th  of  April  1830,  and  was 
followed  on  the  throne  by  his  son,  Louis  II.  (1777-1848).  This 
grand-duke  had  some  trouble  with  his  Landtag,  but,  dying  on 
the  i6th  of  June  1848,  he  left  his  son,  Louis  III.  (1806-1877), 
to  meet  the  fury  of  the  revolutionary  year  1848.  Many  conces- 
sions were  made  to  the  popular  will,  but  during  the  subsequent 
reaction  these  were  withdrawn,  and  the  period  between  1850 
and  1871,  when  Karl  Friedrich  Reinhard,  Freiherr  von  Dalwigk 
(1802-1880),  was  chiefly  responsible  for  the  government  of  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  was  one  of  repression,  although  some  benefits  were 
conferred  upon  the  people.  Dalwigk  was  one  of  Prussia's 


enemies,  and  during  the  war  of  1866  the  grand-duke  fought  on 
the  Austrian  side,  the  result  being  that  he  was  compelled  to 
pay  a  heavy  indemnity  and  to  cede  certain  districts,  including 
Hesse-Homburg,  which  he  had  only  just  acquired,  to  Prussia. 
In  1867  Louis  entered  the  North  German  Confederation,  but  only 
for  his  lands  north  of  the  Main,  and  in  1871  Hesse-Darmstadt 
became  one  of  the  states  of  the  new  German  empire.  After  the 
withdrawal  of  Dalwigk  from  public  life  at  this  time  a  more 
liberal  policy  was  adopted  in  Hesse.  Many  reforms  in  ecclesi- 
astical, educational,  financial  and  administrative  matters  were 
introduced,  and  in  general  the  grand-duchy  may  be  said  to  have 
passed  largely  under  the  influence  of  Prussia,  which,  by  an 
arrangement  made  in  1896,  controls  the  Hessian  railway  system. 
The  constitution  of  1820,  subject  to  four  subsequent  modifica- 
tions, is  still  the  law  of  the  land,  the  legislative  power  being 
vested  in  two  chambers  and  the  executive  power  being  exercised 
by  the  three  departments  of  the  ministry  of  state.  Since  the 
annexation  of  Hesse-Cassel  by  Prussia  in  1866  the  grand-duchy 
has  been  known  simply  as  Hesse.  Louis  III.  died  on  the  i3th 
of  June  1877,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Louis  IV. 
(1837-1892),  a  son-in-law  of  Queen  Victoria;  he  died  on  the 
I3th  of  March  1892,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Ernest 
Louis  (b.  1868).  This  grand-duke's  marriage  with  Victoria 
(b.  1876),  daughter  of  Alfred,  duke  of  Saxe-Coburg  and  Gotha, 
was  dissolved  in  1901.  The  union  was  childless,  and  consequently 
in  1902  a  law  regulating  the  succession  was  passed.  By  this 
the  landgrave  Alexander  Frederick  (b.  1863),  the  representative 
of  the  family  which  ruled  Hesse-Cassel  until  1866,  was  declared 
the  heir  to  Hesse  in  case  the  grand-duke  died  without  sons. 
However,  in  1905  Ernest  Louis  married  Elenore,  princess  of 
Solms-Hohensolms-Lich  (b.  1871),  by  whom  he  had  a  son  George 
(b.  1906). 

See  L.  Baur,  Urkunden  zur  hessischen  Land.es-,  Orts-  und  Familien- 
geschichte  (Darmstadt,  1846-1873);  Steiner,  Geschichte  des  Gross- 
herzogtums  Hessen  (Darmstadt,  1833-1834);  Klein,  Das  Gruss- 
herzogtum  Hessen  (Mainz,  1861);  Ewald,  Historische  Ubersicht  der 
Territoriaherdnderungen  der  Landgrafschaft  Hessen  und  des  Gross- 
herzogtums  Hessen  (Darmstadt,  1872);  F.  Soldan,  Geschichte  des 
Grossherzogtums  Hessen  (Giessen,  1896);  H.  Heppe,  Kirchengeschichte 
beider  Hessen  (Marburg,  1876-1878);  C.  Hessler,  Geschichte  von 
Hessen  (Cassel,  1891),  and  Hessische  Landes-  und  Volkskunde 
(Marburg,  1904-1906) ;  F.  Kuchler,  A.  E.  Braun  and  A.  K.  Weber, 
Verfassungs-und  Verwaltungsrecht  des  Grossherzogtums  Hessen  (Darm- 
stadt, 1894-1897);  H.  Kunzel,  Grossherzogtum  Hessen  (Giessen, 
1893);  and  W.  Zeller,  Handbuch  der  Verfassung  und  Verwaltung 
im  Grossherzogtum  Hessen  (Darmstadt,  1885-1893).  See  also 
Archil!  fur  hessische  Geschichte  und  Altertumskunde  (Darmstadt, 
1894  fol.)  and  Hessisches  Urkundenbuch  (Leipzig,  1879  fol.). 

HESSE-HOMBURG,  formerly  a  small  landgraviate  in  Germany. 
It  consisted  of  two  parts,  the  district  of  Homburg  on  the  right 
side  of  the  Rhine,  and  the  district  of  Meisenheim,  which  was 
added  in  1815,  on  the  left  side  of  the  same  river.  Its  area 
was  about  100  sq.  m.,  and  its  population  in  1864  was  27,374. 
Homburg  now  forms  part  of  the  Prussian  province  of  Hesse- 
Nassau,  and  Meisenheim  of  the  province  of  the  Rhine.  Hesse- 
Homburg  was  formed  into  a  separate  landgraviate  in  1622 
by  Frederick  I.  (d.  1638),  son  of  George  I.,  landgrave  of  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  although  it  did  not  become  independent  of  Hesse- 
Darmstadt  until  1 768.  By  two  of  Frederick's  sons  it  was  divided 
into  Hesse-Homburg  and  Hesse-Homburg-Bingenheim;  but 
these  parts  were  again  united  in  1681  under  the  rule  of  Frederick's 
third  son,  Frederick  II.  (d.  1708).  In  1806,  during  the  long  reign 
of  the  landgrave  Frederick  V.,  which  extended  from  1751  to 
1820,  Hesse-Homburg  was  mediatized,  and  incorporated  with 
Hesse-Darmstadt;  but  in  1815  by  the  congress  of  Vienna  the 
latter  state  was  compelled  to  recognize  the  independence  of 
Hesse-Homburg,  which  was  increased  by  the  addition  of  Meisen- 
heim. Frederick  V.  joined  the  German  confederation  as  a 
sovereign  prince  in  1817,  and  after  his  death  his  five  sons  in 
succession  filled  the  throne.  The  last  of  these,  Ferdinand, 
who  succeeded  in  1848,  granted  a  liberal  constitution  to  his 
people,  but  cancelled  it  during  the  reaction  of  1852.  When  he 
died  on  the  24th  of  March  1866,  Hesse-Homburg  was  inherited 
by  Louis  III.,  grand-duke  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  while  Meisenheim 
fell  to  Prussia.  In  the  following  September,  however,  Louis 


HESSE-NASSAU— HESSUS 


4*3 


was  forced  to  cede  his  new  possession  to  Prussia,  as  he  had 
supported  Austria  during  the  war  between  these  two  powers. 

See  R.  Schwartz,  Landgraf  Friedrich  V.  von  Hessen-Homburg  und 
seine  Familie  (1878);  and  von  Herget,  Das  landgrafliche  Haus 
Hamburg  (Homburg,  1903). 

HESSE-NASSAU  (Ger.  Hessen-Nassau),  a  province  of  Prussia, 
bounded,  from  N.  to  E.,  S.  and  W.,  successively  by  Westphalia, 
Waldeck,  Hanover,  the  province  of  Saxony,  the  Thuringian 
States,  Bavaria,  Hesse  and  the  Rhine  Province.  There  are 
small  detached  portions  in  Waldeck,  Thuringia,  &c.;  on  the 
other  hand  the  province  enclaves  the  province  of  Oberhessen 
belonging  to  the  grand-duchy  of  Hesse,  and  the  circle  of  Wetzlar 
belonging  to  the  Rhine  Province.  Hesse-Nassau  was  formed 
in  1867-1868  out  of  the  territories  which  accrued  to  Prussia  after 
the  war  of  1866,  namely,  the  landgraviate  of  Hesse-Cassel  and 
the  duchy  of  Nassau,  in  addition  to  the  greater  part  of  the 
territory  of  Frankfort-on-Main,  parts  of  the  grand-duchy  of 
Hesse,  the  territory  of  Homburg  and  the  countship  of  Hesse- 
Homburg,  together  with  certain  small  districts  which  belonged 
to  Bavaria.  It  is  now  divided  into  the  governments  of  Cassel 
and  Wiesbaden,  the  second  of  which  consists  mainly  of  the  former 
territory  of  Nassau  (?.».). 

The  province  has  an  area  of  6062  sq.  m.,  and  had  a  population 
in  1905  of  2,070,052,  being  the  fourth  most  densely  populated 
province  in  Prussia,  after  Berlin,  the  Rhine  Province  and 
Westphalia.  The  east  and  north  parts  lie  in  the  basin  of  the 
river  Fulda,  which  near  the  north-eastern  boundary  joins  with 
the  Werra  to  form  the  Weser.  The  Main  forms  part  of  the 
southern  boundary,  and  the  Rhine  the  south-western;  the 
western  part  of  the  province  lies  mostly  in  the  basin  of  the 
Lahn,  a  tributary  of  the  Rhine.  The  province  is  generally  hilly, 
the  highest  hills  occurring  in  the  east  and  west.  The  Fulda 
rises  in  the  Wasserkuppe  (3117  ft.),  an  eminence  of  the  Rhonge- 
birge,  the  highest  in  the  province.  In  the  south-west  are  the 
Taunus,  bordering  the  Main,  and  the  Westerwald,  west  of  the 
Lahn,  in  which  the  highest  points  respectively  are  the  Grosser 
Feldberg  (2887  ft.)  and  the  Fuchskauten  (2155  ft.).  The 
congeries  of  small  groups  of  lower  hills  in  the  north  are  known  as 
the  Hessische  Bergland. 

The  province  is  not  notably  well  suited  to  agriculture,  but 
in  forests  it  is  the  richest  in  Prussia,  and  the  timber  trade  is 
large.  The  chief  trees  are  beech,  oak  and  conifers.  Cattle- 
breeding  is  extensively  practised.  The  vine  is  cultivated 
chiefly  on  the  slopes  of  the  Taunus,  in  the  south-west,  where 
the  names  of  several  towns  are  well  known  for  their  wines — 
Schierstein,  Erbach  (Marcobrunner),  Johannisberg,  Geisenheim, 
Riidesheim,  Assmannshausen.  Iron,  coal,  copper  and  manganese 
are  mined.  The  mineral  springs  are  important,  including  those 
at  Wiesbaden,  Homburg,  Langenschwalbach,  Nenndorf,  Schlan- 
genbad  and  Soden.  The  chief  manufacturing  centres  are  Cassel, 
Diez,  Eschwege,  Frankfort,  Fulda,  Gross  Almerode,  Hanau  and 
Hersfeld.  The  province  is  divided  for  administration  into 
42  circles  (Kreise),  24  in  the  government  of  Cassel  and  18  in  that 
of  Wiesbaden.  It  returns  14  representatives  to  the  Reichstag. 
Marburg  is  the  seat  of  a  university. 

HESSE-ROTENBURG,  a  German  landgraviate  which  was 
broken  up  in  1834.  In  1627  Ernest  (1623-1693),  a  younger  son 
of  Maurice,  landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel  (d.  1632),  received  Rheins- 
fels  and  lower  Katzenelnbogen  as  his  inheritance,  and  some  years 
later,  on  the  deaths  of  two  of  his  brothers,  he  added  Eschwege, 
Rotenburg,  Wanfried  and  other  districts  to  hi*  possessions. 
Ernest,  who  was  a  convert  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  was 
a  great  traveller  and  a  voluminous  writer.  About  1700  his  two 
sons,  William  (d.  1725)  and  Charles  (d.  1711),  divided  their 
territories,  and  founded  the  families  of  Hesse-Rotenburg  and 
Hesse-Wanfried.  The  latter  family  died  out  in  1755,  when 
William's  grandson,  Constantine  (d.  1778),  reunited  the  lands 
except  Rheinfels,  which  had  been  acquired  by  Hesse-Cassel  in 
1735,  and  ruled  them  as  landgrave  of  Hesse-Rotenburg.  At 
the  peace  of  Luneville  in  1801  the  part  of  the  landgraviate  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  was  surrendered  to  France,  and  in 
1815  other  parts  were  ceded  to  Prussia,  the  landgrave  Victor 


Amadeus  being  compensated  by  the  abbey  of  Corvey  and  the 
Silesian  duchy  of  Ratibor.  Victor  was  the  last  male  member 
of  his  family,  so,  with  the  consent  of  Prussia,  he  bequeathed 
his  allodial  estates  to  his  nephews  the  princes  Victor  and  Chlodwig 
of  Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfiirst  (see  HOHENLOHE). 
When  the  landgrave  died  on  the  i2th  of  November  1834  the 
remaining  parts  of  Hesse-Rotenburg  were  united  with  Hesse- 
Cassel  according  to  the  arrangement  of  1627.  It  may  be  noted 
that  Hesse-Rotenburg  was  never  completely  independent  of 
Hesse-Cassel.  Perhaps  the  most  celebrated  member  of  this 
family  was  Charles  Constantine  (1752-1821),  a  younger  son  of 
the  landgrave  Constantine,  who  was  called  "  citoyen  Hesse," 
and  who  took  part  in  the  French  Revolution. 

HESSIAN,  the  name  of  a  jute  fabric  made  as  a  plain  cloth, 
in  various  degrees  of  fineness,  width  and  quality.  The  common, 
or  standard,  hessian  is  40  in.  wide,  weighs  io|  oz.  per  yd., 
and  in  the  finished  state  contains  about  12  threads  and  12^ 
picks  per  in.  The  name  is  probably  of  German  origin,  and  the 
fabric  was  originally  made  from  flax  and  tow.  Small  quantities 
of  cloth  are  still  made  from  yarns  of  these  fibres,  but  the  jute 
fibre,  owing  to  its  comparative  cheapness,  has  now  almost 
supplanted  all  others. 

This  useful  cloth  is  employed  in  countless  ways,  especially  for 
packing  all  kinds  of  dry  goods,  while  large  quantities,  of  different 
qualities,  are  made  up  into  bags  for  sugar,  flour,  coffee,  grain, 
ore,  manure,  sand,  potatoes,  onions,  &c.  Indeed,  bags  made 
from  one  or  other  quality  of  this  cloth,  or  from  sacking,  bagging 
or  tarpaulin,  form  the  most  convenient,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  cheapest  covering  for  any  kind  of  goods  which  are  not 
damaged  by  being  crushed. 

Certain  types  are  specially  treated,  dyed  black,  tan  or  other 
colour,  or  left  in  their  natural  colour,  stiffened  and  used  for 
paddings  and  linings  for  cheap  clothing,  boots,  shoes,  bags 
and  other  articles.  When  dyed  in  art  shades  the  cloth  forms 
an  attractive  decoration  for  stages  and  platforms,  and  generally 
for  any  temporary  erection,  and  in  many  cases  it  is  stencilled 
and  then  used  for  wall  decoration. 

The  great  linoleum  industry  depends  upon  certain  types  of  this 
fabric  for  the  foundation  of  its  products,  while  large  quantities 
are  used  for  the  backs  of  fringe  rugs,  spring  mattresses  and  the 
upholstery  of  furniture. 

The  great  centres  for  the  manufacture  of  this  fabric  are 
Dundee  and  Calcutta,  and  every  variety  of  the  cloth,  and  all 
kinds  of  hand-  and  machine-sewn,  as  well  as  seamless  bags,  are 
made  in  the  former  city.  The  American  name  for  hessian  is 
burlap;  this  particular  kind  is  40  in.  wide,  and  is  now  largely 
made  in  Calcutta  as  well  as  in  Dundee  and  other  places. 

HESSUS,  HELIUS  EOBANUS  (1488-1540),  German  Latin 
poet,  was  born  at  Halgehausen  in  Hesse-Cassel,  on  the  6th  of 
January  1488.  His  family  name  is  said  to  have  been  Koch; 
Eoban  was  the  name  of  a  local  saint ;  Hcssus  indicates  the  land  of 
his  birth,  Helius  the  fact  that  he  was  born  on  Sunday.  In  1504 
he  entered  the  university  of  Erfurt,  and  soon  after  his  graduation 
was  appointed  rector  of  the  school  of  St  Severus.  This  post  he 
soon  lost,  and  spent  the  years  1509-1513  at  the  court  of  the  bishop 
of  Riesenburg.  Returning  to  Erfurt,  he  was  reduced  to  great 
straits  owing  to  his  drunken  and  irregular  habits.  At  length 
(in  1517)  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Latin  in  the  university. 
He  was  prominently  associated  with  the  distinguished  men  of  the 
time  (Johann  Reuchlin,  Conrad  Peutinger,  Ulrich  von  Hutten, 
Conrad  Mutianus),  and  took  part  in  the  political,  religious  and 
literary  quarrels  of  the  period,  finally  declaring  in  favour  of 
Luther  and  the  Reformation,  although  his  subsequent  corduct 
showed  that  he  was  actuated  by  selfish  motives.  The  university 
was  seriously  weakened  by  the  growing  popularity  of  the  new 
university  of  Wittenberg,  and  Hessus  endeavoured  (but  without 
success)  to  gain  a  living  by  the  practice  of  medicine.  Through 
the  influence  of  Camerarius  and  Melanchthon,  he  obtained  a  post 
at  Nuremberg  (1526),  but,  finding  a  regular  life  distasteful,  he 
again  went  back  to  Erfurt  (1533).  But  it  was  not  the  Erfurt  he 
had  known;  his  old  friends  were  dead  or  had  left  the  place;  the 
university  was  deserted.  A  lengthy  poem  gained  him  the  favour 


414 


HESTIA— HESYCHIUS 


of  the  landgrave  of  Hesse,  by  whom  he  was  summoned  in  1536  as 
professor  of  poetry  and  history  to  Marburg,  where  he  died  on  the 
5th  of  October  1 540.  Hessus,  who  was  considered  the  foremost 
Latin  poet  of  his  age,  was  a  facile  verse-maker,  but  not  a  true 
poet.  He  wrote  what  he  thought  was  likely  to  pay  or  secure  him 
the  favour  of  some  important  person.  He  wrote  local,  historical 
and  military  poems,  idylls,  epigrams  and  occasional  pieces, 
collected  under  the  title  of  Sylvae.  His  most  popular  works  were 
translations  of  the  Psalms  into  Latin  distichs  (which  reached 
forty  editions)  and  of  the  Iliad  into  hexameters.  His  most 
original  poem  was  the  Heroides  in  imitation  of  Ovid,  consist- 
ing of  letters  from  holy  women,  from  the  Virgin  Mary  down  to 
Kunigunde,  wife  of  the  emperor  Henry  II. 

His  Epistolae  were  edited  by  his  friend  Camerarius,  who  also  wrote 
his  life  (1553).  There  are  later  accounts  of  him  by  M.  Hertz  (1860), 
G.  Schwertzell  (1874)  and  C.  Krause  (1879);  see  also  D.  F.  Strauss, 
Ulrich  von  Hulten  (Eng.  trans.,  1874).  His  poems  on  Nuremberg 
and  other  towns  have  been  edited  with  commentaries  and  16th- 
century  illustrations  by  J.  Neff  and  V.  von  Loga  in  M.  Herrmann  and 
S.  Szamatolski's  Lateinische  Literaturdenkmdler  des  XV.  u.  XVI. 
Jahrhunderts  (Berlin,  1896). 

HESTIA,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  "  fire-goddess,"  daughter 
of  Cronus  and  Rhea,  the  goddess  of  hearth  and  home.  She  is 
not  mentioned  in  Homer,  although  the  hearth  is  recognized  as 
a  place  of  refuge  for  suppliants;  this  seems  to  show  that  her 
worship  was  not  universally  acknowledged  at  the  time  of  the 
Homeric  poems.  In  post-Homeric  religion  she  is  one  of  the 
twelve  Olympian  deities,  but,  as  the  abiding  goddess  of  the 
household,  she  never  leaves  Olympus.  When  Apollo  and 
Poseidon  became  suitors  for  her  hand,  she  swore  to  remain  a 
maiden  for  ever;  whereupon  Zeus  bestowed  upon  her  the 
honour  of  presiding  over  all  sacrifices.  To  her  the  opening 
sacrifice  was  offered;  to  her  at  the  sacrificial  meal  the  first  and 
last  libations  were  poured.  The  fire  of  Hestia  was  always  kept 
burning,  and,  if  by  any  accident  it  became  extinct,  only  sacred 
fire  produced  by  friction,  or  by  burning  glasses  drawing  fire  from 
the  sun,  might  be  used  to  rekindle  it.  Hestia  is  the  goddess  of 
the  family  union,  the  personification  of  the  idea  of  home;  and  as 
the  city  union  is  only  the  family  union  on  a  large  scale,  she  was 
regarded  as  the  goddess  of  the  state.  In  this  character  her  special 
sanctuary  was  in  the  prytaneum,  where  the  common  hearth-fire 
round  which  the  magistrates  meet  is  ever  burning,  and  where  the 
sacred  rites  that  sanctify  the  concord  of  city  life  are  performed. 
From  this  fire,  as  the  representative  of  the  life  of  the  city,  intend- 
ing colonists  took  the  fire  which  was  to  be  kindled  on  the  hearth 
of  the  new  colony.  Hestia  was  closely  connected  with  Zeus,  the 
god  of  the  family  both  in  its  external  relation  of  hospitality  and 
its  internal  unity  round  its  own  hearth;  in  the  Odyssey  a  form 
of  oath  is  by  Zeus,  the  table  and  the  hearth.  Again,  Hestia  is 
often  associated  with  Hermes,  the  two  representing  home  and 
domestic  life  on  the  one  hand,  and  business  and  outdoor  life  on 
the  other;  or,  according  to  others,  the  association  is  local — that 
of  the  god  of  boundaries  with  the  goddess  of  the  house.  In 
later  philosophy  Hestia  became  the  hearth  of  the  universe — the 
personification  of  the  earth  as  the  centre  of  the  universe,  identified 
with  Cybele  and  Demeter.  As  Hestia  had  her  home  in  the 
prytaneum,  special  temples  dedicated  to  her  are  of  rare  occurrence. 
She  is  seldom  represented  in  works  of  art,  and  plays  no  important 
part  in  legend.  It  is  not  certain  that  any  really  Greek  statues  of 
Hestia  are  in  existence,  although  the  Giustiniani  Vesta  in  the 
Torlonia  Museum  is  usually  accepted  as  such.  In  this  she  is 
represented  standing  upright,  simply  robed,  a  hood  over  her 
head,  the  left  hand  raised  and  pointing  upwards.  The  Roman 
deity  corresponding  to  the  Greek  Hestia  is  VESTA  (q.v.). 

See  A.  Preuner,  Hestia-Vesta  (1864),  the  standard  treatise  on  the 
subject,  and  his  article  in  Roscher's  Lexikon  der  Mythologie;  J.  G. 
Frazer,  "  The  Prytaneum,"  &c.,  in  Journal  of  Philology,  xiv.  (1885); 
G.  Hagemann,  De  Graecorum  prytaneis  (1881),  with  bibliography 
and  notes;  Homeric  Hymns,  xxix.,  ed.  T.  W.  Allen  and  E.  E.  Sikes 
(1904);  Farnell,  Cults,  the  Greek  States,  v.  (1909). 

HESYCHASTS  (ijo-uxaoral  or  Vvxafoires,  from  fyri-xos, 
quiet,  also  called  6/j.<t>a.\6\f/vxoi,  Umbilicanimi,  and  sometimes 
referred  to  as  Euchites,  Massalians  or  Palamites),  a  quietistic 
sect  which  arose,  during  the  later  period  of  the  Byzantine 


empire,  among  the  monks  of  the  Greek  church,  especially  at 
Mount  Athos,  then  at  the  height  of  its  fame  and  influence  under 
the  reign  of  Andronicus  the  younger  and  the  abbacy  of  Symeon. 
Owing  to  various  adventitious  circumstances  the  sect  came  into 
great  prominence  politically  and  ecclesiastically  for  a  few  years 
about  the  middle  of  the  i4th  century.  Their  opinion  and  practice 
will  be  best  represented  in  the  words  of  one  of  their  early  teachers 
(quoted  by  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall,  c.  63) :  "  When  thou  art 
alone  in  thy  cell  shut  thy  door,  and  seat  thyself  in  a  corner; 
raise  thy  mind  above  all  things  vain  and  transitory;  recline  thy 
beard  and  chin  on  thy  breast;  turn  thine  eyes  and  thy  thought 
towards  the  middle  of  thy  belly,  the  region  of  the  navel  (6ji<£a\6s) ; 
and  search  the  place  of  the  heart,  the  seat  of  the  soul.  At  first 
all  will  be  dark  and  comfortless;  but  if  thou  persevere  day  and 
night,  thou  wilt  feel  an  ineffable  joy;  and  no  sooner  has  the  soul 
discovered  the  place  of  the  heart  than  it  is  involved  in  a  mystic 
and  ethereal  light."  About  the  year  1337  this  hesychasm,  which 
is  obviously  related  to  certain  well-known  forms  of  Oriental 
mysticism,  attracted  the  attention  of  the  learned  and  versatile 
Barlaam,  a  Calabrian  monk,  who  at  that  time  held  the  office  of 
abbot  in  the  Basilian  monastery  of  St  Saviour's  in  Constantinople, 
and  who  had  visited  the  fraternities  of  Mount  Athos  on  a  tour  of 
inspection.  Amid  much  that  he  disapproved",  what  he  specially 
took  exception  to  as  heretical  and  blasphemous  was  the  doctrine 
entertained  as  to  the  nature  of  this  divine  light,  the  fruition  of 
which  was  the  supposed  reward  of  hesychastic  contemplation. 
It  was  maintained  to  be  the  pure  and  perfect  essence  of  God 
Himself,  that  eternal  light  which  had  been  manifested  to  the 
disciples  on  Mount  Tabor  at  the  transfiguration.  This  Barlaam 
held  to  be  polytheistic,  inasmuch  as  it  postulated  two  eternal 
substances,  a  visible  and  an  invisible  God.  On  the  hesychastic 
side  the  controversy  was  taken  up  by  Gregory  Palamas,  after- 
wards archbishop  of  Thessalonica,  who  laboured  to  establish 
a  distinction  between  eternal  owLa  and  eternal  tvepytia..  In 
1341  the  dispute  came  before  a  synod  held  at  Constantinople 
and  presided  over  by  the  emperor  Andronicus;  the  assembly, 
influenced  by  the  veneration  in  which  the  writings  of  the  pseudo- 
Dionysius  were  held  in  the  Eastern  Church,  overawed  Barlaam, 
who  recanted  and  returned  to  Calabria,  afterwards  becoming 
bishop  of  Hierace  in  the  Latin  communion.  One  of  his  friends, 
Gregory  Acindynus,  continued  the  controversy,  and  three  other 
synods  on  the  subject  were  held,  at  the  second  of  which  the 
Barlaamites  gained  a  brief  victory.  But  in  1351  under  the 
presidency  of  the  emperor  John  Cantacuzenus,  the  uncreated 
light  of  Mount  Tabor  was  established  as  an  article  of  faith  for 
the  Greeks,  who  ever  since  have  been  ready  to  recognize  it  as  an 
additional  ground  of  separation  from  the  Roman  Church.  The 
contemporary  historians  Cantacuzenus  and  Nicephorus  Gregoras 
deal  very  copiously  with  this  subject,  taking  the  Hesychast  and 
Barlaamite  sides  respectively.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  in  the 
time  of  Justinian  the  word  hesychast  was  applied  to  monks  in 
general  simply  as  descriptive  of  the  quiet  and  contemplative 
character  of  their  pursuits. 

See  article  "  Hesychasten  "  in  Herzog-Hauck,  RealencykJopddie 
(3rd  ed.,  1900),  where  further  references  are  given. 

HESYCHIUS,  grammarian  of  Alexandria,  probably  flourished 
in  the  5th  century  A.D.  He  was  probably  a  pagan;  and  the 
explanations  of  words  from  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  and  other 
Christian  writers  (glossae  sacrae)  are  interpolations  of  a  later 
time.  He  has  left  a  Greek  dictionary,  containing  a  copious 
list  of  peculiar  words,  forms  and  phrases,  with  an  explanation 
of  their  meaning,  and  often  with  a  reference  to  the  author 
who  used  them  or  to  the  district  of  Greece  where  they  were 
current.  Hence  the  book  is  of  great  value  to  the  student 
of  the  Greek  dialects;  while  in  the  restoration  of  the  text 
of  the  classical  authors  generally,  and  particularly  of  such 
writers  as  Aeschylus  and  Theocritus,  who  used  many  unusual 
words,  its  value  can  hardly  be  exaggerated.  The  explanations 
of  many  epithets  and  phrases  reveal  many  important  facts 
about  the  religion  and  social  life  of  the  ancients.  In  a  prefatory 
letter  Hesychius  mentions  that  his  lexicon  is  based  on  that  of 
Diogenianus  (itself  extracted  from  an  earlier  work  by  Pamphilus), 


HESYCHIUS  OF  MILETUS— HEUGLIN 


but  that  he  has  also  used  similar  works  by  Aristarchus,  Apion, 

Heliodorus  and  others. 

The  text  is  very  corrupt,  and  the  order  of  the  words  has  often  been 
disturbed.  There  is  no  doubt  that  many  interpolations,  besides  the 
Christian  glosses,  have  been  made.  The  work  has  come  down  to 
us  from  a  single  MS.,  now  in  the  library  at  Venice,  from  which  the 
editio  princeps  was  published.  The  best  edition  is  by  M.  Schmidt 
(1858-1868);  in  a  smaller  edition  (1867)  he  attempts  to  distinguish 
the  additions  made  by  Hesychius  to  the  work  of  Diogenianus. 

HESYCHIUS  OF  MILETUS,  Greek  chronicler  and  biographer, 
surnamed  Illustrius,  son  of  an  advocate,  flourished  at  Con- 
stantinople in  the  5th  century  A.D.  during  the  reign  of  Justinian. 
According  to  Photius  (cod.  69)  he  was  the  author  of  three 
important  works,  (i)  A  Compendium  of  Universal  History 
in  six  books,  from  Belus,  the  reputed  founder  of  the  Assyrian 
empire,  to  Anastasius  I.  (d.  518).  A  considerable  fragment 
has  been  preserved  from  the  sixth  book,  entitled  Hdrpta 
K<i}vcrTa.VTivouxb\tM,  a  history  of  Byzantium  from  its  earliest 
beginnings  till  the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great.  (2)  A 
Biographical  Dictionary  ('OvoiJ.aTO\6yos  or  nica£)  of  Learned 
Men,  arranged  according  to  classes  (poets,  philosophers),  the  chief 
sources  of  which  were  the  MOWIKI)  loropio.  of  Aelius  Dionysius 
and  the  works  of  Herennius  Philo.  Much  of  it  has  been  in- 
corporated in  the  lexicon  of  Suidas,  as  we  learn  from  that 
author.  It  is  disputed,  however,  whether  the  words  in  Suidas 
("  of  which  this  book  is  an  epitome  ")  mean  that  Suidas  himself 
epitomized  the  work  of  Hesychius,  or  whether  they  are  part 
of  the  title  of  an  already  epitomized  Hesychius  used  by  Suidas. 
The  second  view  is  more  generally  held.  The  epitome  referred 
to,  in  which  alphabetical  order  was  substituted  for  arrangement 
in  classes  and  some  articles  on  Christian  writers  added  as  a 
concession  to  the  times,  is  assigned  from  internal  indications 
to  the  years  829-837.  Both  it  and  the  original  work  are  lost, 
with  the  exception  of  the  excerpts  in  Photius  and  Suidas.  A 
smaller  compilation,  chiefly  from  Diogenes  Laertius  and  Suidas, 
with  a  similar  title,  is  the  work  of  an  unknown  author  of  the 
nth  or  1 2th  century.  (3)  A  History  of  the  Reign  of  Justin 
I.  (518-527)  and  the  early  years  of  Justinian,  completely  lost. 
Photius  praises  the  style  of  Hesychius,  and  credits  him  with 
being  a  veracious  historian. 

Editions:  J.  C.  Orelli  (1820)  and  J.  Flach  (1882);  fragments  in 
C.  W.  Miiller,  Frag.  hist.  Graec.  iv.  143  and  in  T.  Preger's  Scriptores 
originis  Constantinopolitanae,  i.  (1901);  Pseudo-Hesychius,  by  J. 
Flach  (1880);  see  generally  C.  Krumbacher,  Geschichte  der  byzanti- 
nischen  Literatur  (1897). 

HETAERISM  (Gr.  eraipa  a  mistress),  the  term  employed 
by  anthropologists  to  express  the  primitive  condition  of  man 
in  his  sexual  relations.  The  earliest  social  organization  of 
the  human  race  was  characterized  by  the  absence  of  the  institu- 
tion of  marriage  in  any  form.  Women  were  the  common 
property  of  their  tribe,  and  the  children  never  knew  their  fathers. 

HETEROKARYOTA,  a  zoological  name  proposed  by  S.  J. 
Hickson  for  the  Infusoria  (q.v.)  on  the  ground  of  the  differentia- 
tion of  their  nuclear  apparatus  into  meganucleus  and  micro- 
nucleus  (or"  nuclei). 

See  Lankester's  Treatise  of  Zoology,  vol.  i.  fasc.  I  (1903). 

HETERONOMY  (from  Gr.  Crepes  and  vo/ws,  the  rule  of 
another),  the  state  of  being  under  the  rule  of  another  person. 
In  ethics  the  term  is  specially  used  as  the  antithesis  of 
"  autonomy,"  which,  especially  in  Kantian  terminology,  treats 
of  the  true  self  as  will,  determining  itself  by  its  own  law,  the 
moral  law.  "  Heteronomy  "  is  therefore  applied  by  Kant  to 
all  other  ethical  systems,  inasmuch  as  they  place  the  individual 
in  subjection  to  external  laws  of  conduct. 

HETMAN  (a  Polish  word,  probably  derived  from  the  Ger. 
Hauplmann,  head-man  or  captain;  the  Russian  form  is  ataman), 
a  military  title  formerly  in  use  in  Poland;  the  Hetman  Wielki, 
or  Great  Hetman,  was  the  chief  of  the  armed  forces  of  the 
nation,  and  commanded  in  the  field,  except  when  the  king 
was  present  in  person.  The  office  was  abolished  in  1792.  From 
Poland  the  word  was  introduced  into  Russia,  in  the  form  ataman, 
and  was  adopted  by  the  Cossacks,  as  a  title  for  their  head, 
who  was  practically  an  independent  prince,  when  under  the 
suzerainty  of  Poland.  After  the  acceptance  of  Russian  rule 


by  the  Cossacks  in  1654,  the  post  was  shorn  of  its  power.  The 
title  of  "  ataman  "  or  "  hetman  of  all  the  Cossacks  "  is  held 
by  the  Cesarevitch.  "  Ataman "  or  "  hetman "  is  also  the 
name  of  the  elected  elder  of  the  stanitsa,  the  unit  of  Cossack 
administration.  (See  COSSACKS.) 

HETTNER,  HERMANN  THEODOR  (1821-1882),  German 
literary  historian  and  writer  on  the  history  of  art,  was  born  at 
Leisersdorf,  near  Goldberg,  in  Silesia,  on  the  izth  of  March 
1821.  At  the  universities  of  Berlin,  Halle  and  Heidelberg  he 
devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  study  of  philosophy,  but  in  1843 
turned  his  attention  to  aesthetics,  art  and  literature.  With  a 
view  to  furthering  these  studies,  he  spent  three  years  in  Italy, 
and,  on  his  return,  published  a  Vorschule  zur  bildenden  Kunst 
der  Alien  (1848)  and  an  essay  on  Die  neapolitanischen  Maler- 
schulen.  He  became  Privatdozent  for  aesthetics  and  the  history 
of  art  at  Heidelberg  and,  after  the  publication  of  his  suggestive 
volume  on  Die  romantische  Schule  in  ihrem  Zusammenhang 
mil  Goethe  und  Schiller  (1850),  accepted  a  call  as  professor  to 
Jena  where  he  lectured  on  the  history  of  both  art  and  literature. 
In  1855  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  royal  collections  of 
antiquities  and  the  museum  of  plaster  casts  at  Dresden,  to  which 
posts  were  subsequently  added  that  of  director  of  the  historical 
museum  and  a  professorship  at  the  royal  Polytechnikum.  He 
died  in  Dresden  on  the  2gth  of  May  1882.  Hettner's  chief  work 
is  his  Literatur geschichte  des  iSlen  Jahrhunderls,  which  appeared 
in  three  parts,  devoted  respectively  to  English,  French  and 
German  literature,  between  1856  and  1870  (sth  ed.  of  I.  and  II., 
revised  by  A.  Brandl  and  H.  Morf,  1894;  4th  of  III.,  revised  by 
O.  Harnack,  1894).  Although  to  some  extent  influenced  by  the 
political  and  literary  theories  of  the  Hegelian  school,  which, 
since  Hettner's  day  have  fallen  into  discredit,  and  at  times 
losing  sight  of  the  main  issues  of  literary  development  over 
questions  of  social  evolution,  this  work  belongs  to  the  best 
histories  that  the  igth  century  produced.  Hettner's  judgment 
is  sound  and  his  point  of  view  always  original  and  stimulating. 
His  other  works  include  Griechische  Reiseskizzen  (1853),  Das 
moderne  Drama  (1852) — a  book  that  arose  from  a  correspondence 
with  Gottfried  Keller — Italienische  Siudien  (1879),  and  several 
works  descriptive  of  the  Dresden  art  collections.  His  Kleine 
Schriflen  were  collected  and  published  in  1884. 

See  A.  Stern,  Hermann  Hettner,  ein  Lebensbild  (1885);  H.  Spitzer, 
H.  Hettners  kunstphilosophische  Anfdnge  und  Literaturasthetik  (1903). 

HETTSTEDT,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  Prussian  Saxony,  or.  the 
Wipper,  and  at  the  junction  of  the  railways  Berlin-Blanken- 
heim  and  Hettstedt-Halle,  23  m.  N.W.  of  the  last  town.  Pop. 
(1905),  9230.  It  has  a  Roman  Catholic  and  four  Evangelical 
churches,  and  has  manufactures  of  machinery,  pianofortes  and 
artificial  manure.  In  the  neighbourhood  are  mines  of  argenti- 
ferous copper,  and  the  surrounding  district  and  villages  are 
occupied  with  smelting  and  similar  works.  Silver  and  sulphuric 
acid  are  the  other  chief  products;  nickel  and  gold  are  also  found 
in  small  quantities.  In  the  Kaiser  Friedrich  mine  close  by,  the 
first  steam-engine  in  Germany  was  erected  on  the  23rd  of  August 
1785.  Hettstedt  is  mentioned  as  early  as  1046;  in  1220  it 
possessed  a  castle;  and  in  1380  it  received  civic  privileges. 
When  the  countship  of  Mansfeld  was  sequestrated,  Hettstedt 
came  into  the  possession  of  Saxony,  passing  to  Prussia  in  1815. 

HEUGLIN,  THEODOR  VON  (1824-1876),  German  traveller 
in  north-east  Africa,  was  born  on  the  2oth  of  March  1824  at 
Hirschlanden  near  Leonberg  in  Wurttemberg.  His  father  was 
a  Protestant  pastor,  and  he  was  trained  to  be  a  mining  engineer. 
He  was  ambitious,  however,  to  become  a  scientific  investigator 
of  unknown  regions,  and  with  that  object  studied  the  natural 
sciences,  especially  zoology.  In  1850  he  went  to  Egypt  where 
he  learnt  Arabic,  afterwards  visiting  Arabia  Petraea.  In  1852 
he  accompanied  Dr  Reitz,  Austrian  consul  at  Khartum,  on  a 
journey  to  Abyssinia,  and  in  the  next  year  was  appointed 
Dr  Reitz's  successor  in  the  consulate.  While  he  held  this 
post  he  travelled  in  Abyssinia  and  Kordofan,  making  a 
valuable  collection  of  natural  history  specimens.  In  1857 
he  journeyed  through  the  coast  lands  of  the  African  side  of  the 
Red  Sea,  and  along  the  Somali  coast.  In  1860  he  was  chosen 


416 


HEULANDITE— HEVELIUS 


leader  of  an  expedition  to  search  for  Eduard  Vogel,  his  com- 
panions including  Werner  Munzinger,  Gottlob  Kinzelbach, 
and  Dr  Hermann  Steudner.  In  June  1861  the  party  landed  at 
Massawa,  having  instructions  to  go  direct  to  Khartum  and  thence 
to  Wadai,  where  Vogel  was  thought  to  be  detained.  Heuglin, 
accompanied  by  Dr  Steudner,  turned  aside  and  made  a  wide 
detour  through  Abyssinia  and  the  Galla  country,  and  in  con- 
sequence the  leadership  of  the  expedition  was  taken  from  him. 
He  and  Steudner  reached  Khartum  in  1862  and  there  joined  the 
party  organized  by  Miss  Tinne.  With  her  or  on  their  own 
account,  they  travelled  up  the  White  Nile  to  Gondokoro  and 
explored  a  great  part  of  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal,  where  Steudner 
died  of  fever  on  the  loth  of  April  1863.  Heuglin  returned  to 
Europe  at  the  end  of  1864.  In  1870  and  1871  he  made  a  valuable 
series  of  explorations  in  Spitsbergen  and  Novaya  Zemlya;  but 
1875  found  him  again  in  north-east  Africa,  in  the  country  of 
the  Beni  Amer  and  northern  Abyssinia.  He  was  preparing 
for  an  exploration  of  the  island  of  Sokotra,  when  he  died,  at 
Stuttgart,  on  the  sth  of  November  1876.  It  is  principally  by 
his  zoological,  and  more  especially  his  ornithological,  labours 
that  Heuglin  has  taken  rank  as  an  independent  authority. 

His  chief  works  are  Systematische  Vbersicht  der  Vogel  Nordost- 
Afrikas  (1855);  Reisen  in  Nordost-Afrika,  1852-1853  (Gotha, 
1857);  Syst.  Obersicht  der  Sdugetiere  Nordosl-Afrikas  (Vienna, 
1867);  Reise  nach  Abessinien,  den  Gala-Ldndern,  &c.,  1861—1862 
(Jena,  1868);  Reise  in  das  Gebiet  des  Weissen  Nil,  &c.  1862-1864 
(Leipzig,  1869);  Reisen  nach  dem  Nordpolarmeer,  1870-1871  (Bruns- 
wick, 1872-1874);  Ornithologie  von  Nordost-Afrika  (Cassel,  1869— 
1875);  Reise  in  Nordost-Afrika  (Brunswick,  1877,  2  vols.).  A  list 
of  the  more  important  of  his  numerous  contributions  to  Peter/nann's 
Mitteilungen  will  be  found  in  that  serial  for  1877  at  the  close  of  the 
necrological  notice. 

HEULANDITE,  a  mineral  of  the  zeolite  group,  consisting 
of  hydrous  calcium  and  aluminium  silicate,  H-iCaA^SiOsJe 
+  3H;O.  Small  amounts  of  sodium  and  potassium  are  usually 
present  replacing  part  of  the  calcium.  Crystals  are  monoclinic, 
and  have  a  characteristic  coffin-shaped  habit.  They  have  a 
perfect  cleavage  parallel  to  the  plane  of  symmetry  (M  in  the 
figure),  on  which  the  lustre  is  markedly  pearly;  on  other  faces 
the  lustre  is  of  the  vitreous  type.  The  mineral  is 
usually  colourless  or  white,  sometimes  brick-red, 
and  varies  from  transparent  to  translucent.  The 
hardness  is  3^-4,  and  the  specific  gravity  2-2. 

Heulandite  closely  resembles  stilbite  (q.v.)  in 
appearance,  and  differs  from  it  chemically  only 
in  containing  rather  less  water  of  crystallization. 
The  two  minerals  may,  however,  be  readily  dis- 
tinguished by  the  fact  that  in  heulandite  the 
acute  positive  bisectrix  of  the  optic  axes  emerges 
perpendicular  to  the  cleavage.  Heulandite  was 
first  separated  from  stilbite  by  A.  Breithaupt  in  1818,  and 
named  by  him  euzeolite  (meaning  beautiful  zeolite);  independ- 
ently, in  1822,  H.  J.  Brooke  arrived  at  the  same  result,  giving 
the  name  heulandite,  after  the  mineral  collector,  Henry  Heuland. 

Heulandite  occurs  with  stilbite  and  other  zeolites  in  the 
amygdaloidal  cavities  of  basaltic  volcanic  rocks,  and  occasion- 
ally in  gneiss  and  metalliferous  veins.  The  best  specimens  are 
from  the  basalts  of  Berufjord,  near  Djupivogr,  in  Iceland  and 
the  Faroe  Islands,  and  the  Deccan  traps  of  the  Sahyadri 
mountains  near  Bombay.  Crystals  of  a  brick-red  colour  are 
from  Campsie  Fells  in  Stirlingshire  and  the  Fassathal  in  Tirol. 
A  variety  known  as  beaumontite  occurs  as  small  yellow  crystals 
on  syenitic  schist  near  Baltimore  in  Maryland. 

Isomorphous  with  heulandite  is  the  strontium  and 
barium  zeolite  brewsterite,  named  after  Sir  David  Brewster. 
The  greyish  monoclinic  crystals  have  the  composition 
H4(Sr,  Ba,  Ca)Al2(Si03)6-l-3H2O,  and  are  found  in  the  basalt 
of  the  Giant's  Causeway  in  Co.  Antrim,  and  with  harmotome 
in  the  lead  mines  at  Strontian  in  Argyllshire.  (L.  J.  S.) 

HEUSCH,  WILLEM,  or  GUILLIAM  DE,  a  Dutch  landscape 
painter  in  the  1 7th  century  at  Utrecht.  The  dates  of  this  artist's 
birth  and  death  are  unknown.  Nothing  certain  is'  recorded 
of  him  except  that  he  presided  over  the  gild  of  Utrecht,  whilst 
Cornells  Poelemburg,  Jan  Both  and  Jan  Weenix  formed  the 


council  of  that  body,  in  1649.  According  to  the  majority  of 
historians,  Heusch  was  born  in  1638,  and  was  taught  by  Jan 
Both.  But  each  of  these  statements  seems  open  to  doubt; 
and  although  it  is  obvious  that  the  style  of  Heusch  is  identical 
with  that  of  Both,  it  may  be  that  the  two  masters  during  their 
travels  in  Italy  fell  under  the  influence  of  Claude  Lorraine, 
whose  "  Arcadian  "  art  they  imitated.  Heusch  certainly  painted 
the  same  effects  of  evening  in  wide  expanses  of  country  varied 
by  rock  formations  and  lofty  thin-leaved  arborescence  as  Both. 
There  is  little  to  distinguish  one  master  from  the  other,  except 
that  of  the  two  Both  is  perhaps  the  more  delicate  colourist. 
The  gild  of  Utrecht  in  the  middle  of  the  i7th  century  was  com- 
posed of  artists  who  clung  faithfully  to  each  other.  Poelemburg, 
who  painted  figures  for  Jan  Both,  did  the  same  duty  for  Heusch. 
Sometimes  Heusch  sketched  landscapes  for  the  battlepieces  of 
Molenaer.  The  most  important  examples  of  Heusch  are  in  the 
galleries  of  the  Hague  and  Rotterdam,  in  the  Belvedere  at 
Vienna,  the  Stadel  at  Frankfort  and  the  Louvre.  His  pictures 
are  signed  with  the  full  name,  beginning  with  a  monogram 
combining  a  G  (for  Guilliam),  D  and  H.  Heusch's  etchings,  of 
which  thirteen  are  known,  are  also  in  the  character  of  those  of 
Both. 

After  Guilliam  there  also  flourished  at  Utrecht  his  nephew, 
Jacob  de  Heusch,  who  signs  like  his  uncle,  substituting  an 
initial  J  for  the  initial  G.  He  was  born  at  Utrecht  in  1657, 
learnt  drawing  from  his  uncle,  and  travelled  early  to  Rome, 
where  he  acquired  friends  and  patrons  for  whom  he  executed 
pictures  after  his  return.  He  settled  for  a  time  at  Berlin,  but 
finally  retired  to  Utrecht,  where  he  died  in  1701.  Jacob  was  an 
"  Arcadian,"  like  his  relative,  and  an  imitator  of  Both,  and  he 
chiefly  painted  Italian  harbour  views.  But  his  pictures  are  now 
scarce.  Two  of  his  canvases,  the  "  Ponte  Rotto  "  at  Rome,  in  the 
Brunswick  Gallery,  and  a  lake  harbour  with  shipping  in  the 
Lichtenstein  collection  at  Vienna,  are  dated  1606.  A  harbour 
with  a  tower  and  distant  mountains,  in  the  Belvedere  at  Vienna, 
was  executed  in  1699.  Other  examples  may  be  found  in  English 
private  galleries,  in  the  Hermitage  of  St  Petersburg  and  the 
museums  of  Rouen  and  Montpellier. 

HEVELIUS  [HEVEL  or  HOWELCKE],  JOHANN  (1611-1687), 
German  astronomer,  was  born  at  Danzig  on  the  28th  of  January 
1611.  He  studied  jurisprudence  at  Leiden  in  1630;  travelled 
in  England  and  France;  and  in  1634  settled  in  his  native  town 
as  a  brewer  and  town  councillor.  From  1639  his  chief  interest 
became  centred  in  astronomy,  though  he  took,  throughout  his 
life,  a  leading  part  in  municipal  affairs.  In  1641  he  built  an 
observatory  in  his  house,  provided  with  a  splendid  instrumental 
outfit,  including  ultimately  a  tubeless  telescope  of  150  ft.  focal 
length,  constructed  by  himself.  It  was  visited,  on  the  29th 
of  January  1660,  by  John  II.  and  Maria  Gonzaga,  king  and 
queen  of  Poland.  Hevelius  made  observations  of  sunspots,  1642- 
1645,  devoted  four  years  to  charting  the  lunar  surface,  discovered 
the  moon's  libration  in  longitude,  and  published  his  results  in 
Selenographia  (1647),  a  work  which  entitles  him  to  be  called 
the  founder  of  lunar  topography.  He  discovered  four  comets 
in  the  several  years  1652,  1661,  1672  and  1677,  and  suggested- 
the  revolution  of  such  bodies  in  parabolic  tracks  round  the  sun. 
On  the  26th  of  September  1679,  his  observatory,  instruments 
and  books  were  maliciously  destroyed  by  fire,  the  catastrophe 
being  described  in  the  preface  to  his  Annus  dimactericus  (1685). 
He  promptly  repaired  the  damage,  so  far  as  to  enable  him  to 
observe  the  great  comet  of  December  1680;  but  his  health 
suffered  from  the  shock,  and  he  died  on  the  28th  of  January  1687. 
Among  his  works  were:  Prodromus  cometicus  (1665);  Cometo- 
graphia  (1668);  Machina  coelestis  (first  part,  1673),  containing 
a  description  of  his  instruments;  the  sfecond  part  (1679)  is 
extremely  rare,  nearly  the  whole  issue  having  perished  in  the 
conflagration  of  1679.  The  observations  made  by  Hevelius 
on  the  variable  star  named  by  him  "  Mira  "  are  included  in 
Annus  dimactericus.  His  catalogue  of  1564  stars  appeared 
posthumously  in  Prodromus  astronomiae  (1690).  Its  value 
was  much  impaired  by  his  preference  of  the  antique  "  pinnules  " 
to  telescopic  sights  on  quadrants.  This  led  to  an  acrimonious 


HEWETT,  SIR  P.— HEXAMETER 


controversy  with  Robert  Hooke.  In  an  Alias  of  56  sheets, 
corresponding  to  his  catalogue,  and  entitled  Firmamentum 
Sobiescianum  (1690),  he  delineated  seven  new  constellations, 
still  in  use.  Hevelius  had  his  book  printed  in  his  own  house, 
at  lavish  expense,  and  himself  not  only  designed  but  engraved 
many  of  the  plates. 

See  J.  H.  Westphal,  Leben,  Studien,  und  Schriften  des  Astronomen 
Johann  Hevelius  (1820);  C.  B.  Lengnich,  Anekdoten  und  Nachrichten 
(1780);  Allgemeine  deutsche  Biographic  (C.  Bruhns);  J.  B.  J. 
Delambre,  Histoire  de  I' astronomic  moderne,  ii.  471;  J.  F.  Weidler, 
Historia  astronomiae,  p.  486;  F.  Baily's  edition  of  the  Catalogue 
of  Hevelius,  Memoirs  Roy.  Aslr.  Society,  xiii.  (1843);  R.  Wolf, 
Ceschichte  der  Astronomie,  p.  396;  J.  C.  Poggendorff,  Biog.-lit. 
Handworterbuch.  For  an  account  of  the  epistolary  remains  of 
Hevelius,  see  C.  G.  Hecker,  Monatl.  Correspondent,  viii.  30;  also 
Astr.  Nachrichten,  vols.  xxiii.,  xxiv.  (A.  M.  C.) 

HEWETT,  SIR  PRESCOTT  GARDNER,  Bart.  (1812-1891), 
British  surgeon,  was  born  on  the  3rd  of  July  1812,  being  the  son 
of  a  Yorkshire  country  gentleman.  He  lived  for  some  years 
in  early  life  in  Paris,  and  started  on  a  career  as  an  artist,  but 
abandoned  it  for  surgery.  He  entered  St  George's  Hospital, 
London  (where  his  half-brother,  Dr  Cornwallis  Hewett,  was 
physician  from  1825  to  1833)  becoming  demonstrator  of  anatomy 
and  curator  of  the  museum.  He  was  the  pupil  and  intimate 
friend  of  Sir  B.  C.  Brodie,  and  helped  him  in  much  of  his  work. 
Eventually  he  rose  to  be  anatomical  lecturer,  assistant-surgeon 
and  surgeon  to  the  hospital.  In  1876  he  was  president  of  the 
College  of  Surgeons;  in  1877  he  was  made  serjeant-surgeon 
extraordinary  to  Queen  Victoria,  in  1884  serjeant-surgeon,  and 
in  1883  he  was  created  a  baronet.  He  was  a  very  good  lecturer, 
but  shrank  from  authorship ;  his  lectures  on  Surgical  Affections 
of  the  Head  were,  however,  embodied  in  his  treatise  on  the  subject 
in  Holmes's  System  of  Surgery.  As  a  surgeon  he  was  always 
extremely  conservative,  but  hesitated  at  no  operation,  however 
severe,  when  convinced  of  its  expediency.  He  was  a  perfect 
operator,  and  one  of  the  most  trustworthy  of  counsellors.  He 
died  on  the  igth  of  June  1891. 

HEWITT,  ABRAM  STEVENS.  (1822-1903),  American  manu- 
facturer and  political  leader,  was  born  in  Haverstraw,  New  York, 
on  the  3ist  of  July  1822.  His  father,  John,  a  Staffordshire  man, 
was  one  of  a  party  of  four  mechanics  who  were  sent  by  Boulton 
and  Watt  to  Philadelphia  about  1790  to  set  up  a  steam  engine 
for  the  city  water-works  and  who  in  1 793-1 794  built  at  Belleville, 
N.J.,  the  first  steam  engine  constructed  wholly  in  America; 
he  made  a  fortune  in  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  but  lost  it 
by  the  burning  of  his  factories.  The  boy's  mother  was  of  Huguenot 
descent.  He  graduated  with  high  rank  from  Columbia  College 
in  1842,  having  supported  himself  through  his  course.  He 
taught  mathematics  at  Columbia,  and  in  1845  was  admitted 
to  the  bar,  but,  owing  to  defective  eyesight,  never  practised. 
With  Edward  Cooper  (son  of  Peter  Cooper,  whom  Hewitt 
greatly  assisted  in  organizing  Cooper  Union,  and  whose  daughter 
he  married)  he  went  into  the  manufacture  of  iron  girders  and 
beams  under  the  firm  name  of  Cooper,  Hewitt  &  Co.  His  study 
of  the  making  of  gun-barrel  iron  in  England  enabled  him  to  be 
of  great  assistance  to  the  United  States  government  during  the 
Civil  War,  when  he  refused  any  profit  on  such  orders.  The  men 
in  his  works  never  struck — indeed  in  1873-1878  his  plant  was 
run  at  an  annual  loss  of  $100,000.  In  politics  he  was  a  Democrat. 
In  1871  he  was  prominent  in  the  re-organization  of  Tammany 
after  the  fall  of  the  "  Tweed  Ring  ";  from  1875  until  the  end 
of  1886  (exceptin  1879-1881)  he  was  a  representative  in  Congress  ; 
in  1876  he  left  Tammany  for  the  County  Democracy;  in  the 
Hayes-Tilden  campaign  of  that  year  he  was  chairman  of  the  Demo- 
cratic National  Committee,  and  in  Congress  he  was  one  of  the 
House  members  of  the  joint  committee  which  drew  up  the  famous 
Electoral  Count  Act  providing  for  the  Electoral  Commission. 
In  1886  he  was  elected  mayor  of  New  York  City,  his  nomination 
having  been  forced  upon  the  Democratic  Party  by  the  strength 
of  the  other  nominees,  Henry  George  and  Theodore  Roosevelt; 
his  administration  (1887-1888)  was  thoroughly  efficient  and 
creditable,  but  he  broke  with  Tammany,  was  not  renominated, 
ran  independently  for  re-election,  and  was  defeated.  In  1896 
XIH.  14 


and  1900  he  voted  the  Republican  ticket,  but  did  not  ally  himself 
with  the  organization.  He  died  in  New  York  City  on  the  i8th  of 
January  1903.  _  In  Congress  he  was  a  consistent  defender  of 
sound  money  and  civil  service  reform;  in  municipal  politics 
he  was  in  favour  of  business  administrations  and  opposed  to 
partisan  nominations.  He  was  a  leader  of  those  who  contended 
for  reform  in  municipal  government,  was  conspicuous  for  his 
public  spirit,  and  exerted  a  great  influence  for  good  not  only  in 
New  York  City  but  in  the  state  and  nation.  His  most  famous 
speech  was  that  made  at  the  opening  of  the  Brooklyn  Bridge  in 
1883.  He  was  a  terse,  able  and  lucid  speaker,  master  of  wit  and 
sarcasm,  and  a  fearless  critic.  He  gave  liberally  to  Cooper 
Union,  of  which  he  was  trustee  and  secretary,  and  which  owes 
much  of  its  success  to  him;  was  a  trustee  of  Columbia  University 
from  1901  until  his  death,  chairman  of  the  board  of  trustees  of 
Barnard  College,  and  was  one  of  the  original  trustees,  first 
chairman  of  the  board  of  trustees,  and  a  member  of  the  executive 
committee  of  the  Carnegie  Institution. 

HEWLETT,  MAURICE  HENRY  (1861-  ),  English  novelist, 
was  born  on  the  22nd  of  January  1861,  the  eldest  son  of  Henry 
Gay  Hewlett,  of  Shaw  Hall,  Addington,  Kent.  He  was  educated 
at  the  London  International  College,  Spring  Grove,  Isleworth, 
and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1891.  From  1896  to  1900  he  was 
keeper  of  the  land  revenue  records  and  enrolments.  He  pub- 
lished in  1895  two  books  on  Italy,  Earthwork  out  of  Tuscany, 
and  (in  verse)  The  Masque  of  Dead  Florentines.  Songs  and 
Meditations  followed  in  1897,  and  in  1898  he  won  an  immediate 
reputation  by  his  Forest  Lovers,  a  romance  of  medieval  England, 
full  of  rapid  movement  and  passion.  In  the  same  year  he  printed 
the  pastoral  and  pagan  drama  of  Pan  and  the  Young  Shepherd, 
shortened  for  purposes  of  representation  and  produced  at  the 
Court  Theatre  in  March  1905,  when  it  was  followed  by  the 
Youngest  of  the  Angels,  dramatized  from  a  chapter  in  his  Fool 
Errant.  In  Little  Novels  of  Italy  (1899),  a  collection  of  brilliant 
short  stories,  he  showed  again  his  power  of  literary  expression 
together  with  a  close  knowledge  of  medieval  Italy.  The  new  and 
vivid  portraits  of  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion  in  his  Richard  Yea-and- 
Nay  (1900),  and  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  in  The  Queen's  Quair 
(1904)  showed  the  combination  of  fiction  with  real  history 
at  its  best.  The  New  Canterbury  Tales  (1901)  was  another 
volume  of  stories  of  English  life,  but  he  returned  to  Italian 
subjects  with  The  Road  in  Tuscany  (1904);  in  Fond  Adventures, 
Tales  of  the  Youth  of  the  World  (1905),  two  are  Italian  tales,  and 
The  Fool  Errant  (1905)  purports  to  be  the  memoirs  of  Francis 
Antony  Stretley,  citizen  of  Lucca.  Later  works  were  the  novel 
The  Stooping  Lady  (1907),  and  a  volume  of  poems,  Artemision 
(1909). 

HEXAMETER,  the  name  of  the  earliest  and  most  important 
form  of  classical  verse  in  dactylic  rhythm.  The  word  is  due 
to  each  line  containing  six  feet  or  measures  (jn^rpa),  the  last  of 
which  must  be  a  spondee  and  the  penultimate  a  dactyl,  though 
occasionally,  for  some  special  effect,  a  spondee  may  be  allowed 
in  the  fifth  foot,  when  the  line  is  said  to  be  spondaic.  The  four 
other  feet  may  be  either  spondees  or  dactyls.  All  the  great 
heroic  and  epic  verse  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  poets  is  in  this 
metre,  of  which  the  finest  examples  are  to  be  found  in  Homer 
and  in  Virgil.  Varied  cadences  and  varied  caesura  are  essential 
to  this  form  of  verse,  otherwise  the  monotony  is  wearying  to  the 
ear.  The  most  usual  places  for  the  caesura  are  at  the  middle 
of  the  third,  or  the  middle  of  the  fourth  foot:  the  former  is 
known  as  the  penthemimeral  and  the  latter  as  hepthemimeral 
caesura.  There  are  several  more  or  less  successful  examples 
of  English  poems  in  this  metre,  for  example  Longfellow's  Evan- 
geline,  Kingsley's  Andromeda  and  dough's  Bolhie  of  Tober-na- 
Vuoilich,  but  it  does  not  really  suit  the  genius  of  the  English 
language.  In  English  the  lack  of  true  spondees  is  severely 
felt,  even  though  the  English  metre  depends,  not,  as  in  Greek 
and  Latin,  on  the  distinction  between  long  and  short  syllables, 
but  on  that  between  accented  and  unaccented  syllables.  The 
accent  must  always  (or  it  sounds  very  ugly)  fall  on  the  first 
syllable,  whatever  may  have  been  the  case  in  Greek  and  Latin — 
Voss,  Klopstock  and  Goethe  have  written  hexameter  poems 


HEXAPLA— HEXAPODA 


[CHARACTERS 


of  varying  merit  and  the  metre  suits  the  German  language 
distinctly  better  than  the  English.  The  customary  form  of 
hexameter  in  English  verse  is  exemplified  by  Coleridge's  descrip- 
tive line: — 

"  In  the  hex  |  ameter  |  rises  the  |  fountain's  |  silvery  |  column." 
Several  modern  poets,  and  in  particular  Robert  Browning, 
and  Lord  Bowen  (1835-1894)  have  used  with  effect  a  truncated 
hexameter  consisting  of  the  usual  verse  deprived  of  its  last 
syllable.  Thus  Browning: — 

"  Well,  it  is  |  gone  at  |  last,  the  |  palace  of  |  music  I  |  reared." 
It  is  not  sufficiently  observed  that  even  the  classic  Greek 
poets  introduced  considerable  variations  into  their  treatment 
of  the  hexameter.  These  have  been  treated  with  erudition  in 
G.  Hermann's  De  aetate  scriptoris  Argonauticorum.  The  differ- 
ences in  the  hexameters  of  the  Latin  poets  were  not  so  remarkable, 
but  even  these  varied,  in  various  epochs,  their  treatment  of 
the  separate  feet,  and  the  position  of  the  caesura.  The  satirists 
in  particular  allowed  themselves  an  extraordinary  licence: 
these  hexameters,  from  Persius,  are  as  far  removed  from  the 
rhythm  of  Homer,  or  even  of  Virgil,  as  possible,  if  they  are  to 
remain  hexameters: — 

"  Mane  piger  stertis.    '  Surge  ! '  inquit  Avaritia,  '  heia 

Surge  !  '  negas;  instat  '  Surge  !  '  inquit  '  Non  queo.'  '  Surge  !  ' 
'  Et  quid  agam  ?  '    '  Rogitas  ?  en  saperdam  advehe  Ponto.  " 

It  is  also  to  be  noted  that  various  prosodical  liberties,  due  origin- 
ally to  the  extreme  antiquity  of  the  hexameter,  and  long  reformed 
and  repressed  by  the  culture  of  poets,  were  apt  to  be  revived 
in  later  ages,  by  writers  who  slavishly  copied  the  most  antique 
examples  of  the  art  of  verse. 

See  Wilhelm  Christ,  Melrik  der  Griechen  und  Romer,  2te  Aufl. 
(1879). 

HEXAPLA  (Gr.  for  "  sixfold  "),  the  term  for  an  edition  of 
the  Bible  in  six  versions,  and  especially  the  edition  of  the  Old 
Testament  compiled  by  Origen,  which  placed  side  by  side 
(i)  Hebrew,  (2)  Hebrew  in  Greek  character,  (3)  Aquila,  (4) 
Symmachus,  (5)  Septuagint,  (6)  Theodotion.  See  BIBLE: 
'Old  Testament,  Texts  and  Versions. 

HEXAPODA  (Gr.  e£,  six,  and  TTOUJ,  foot),  a  term  used  in 
systematic  zoology  for  that  class  of  the  ARTHROPODA,  popularly 
known  as  insects.  Linnaeus  in  his  Systema  naturae  (1735) 
grouped  under  the  class  Insecta  all  segmented  animals  with 
firm  exoskeleton  and  jointed  limbs — that  is  to  say,  the  insects, 
centipedes,  millipedes,  crustaceans,  spiders,  scorpions  and  their 
allies.  This  assemblage  is  now  generally  regarded  as  a  great 
division  (phylum  or  sub-phylum)  of  the  animal  kingdom  and 
known  by  K.  T.  E.  von  Siebold's  (1848)  name  of  Arthropoda. 
For  the  class  of  the  true  insects  included  in  this  phylum,  Lin- 
naeus's  old  term  Insecta,  first  used  in  a  restricted  sense  by  M.  J. 
Brisson  (1756),  is  still  adopted  by  many  zoologists,  while  others 
prefer  the  name  Hexapoda,  first  used  systematically  in  its 
modern  sense  by  P.  A.  Latreille  in  1825  (Families  naturelles 
du  regne  animal),  since  it  has  the  advantage  of  expressing,  in 
a  single  word,  an  important  characteristic  of  the  group.  The 
terms  "  Hexapoda  "  and  "  hexapod  "  had  already  been  used 
by  F.  Willughby,  J.  Ray  and  others  in  the  late  i7th  century 
to  include  the  active  larvae  of  beetles,  as  well  as  bugs,  lice, 
fleas  and  other  insects  with  undeveloped  wings. 

Characters. 

A  true  insect,  or  member  of  the  class  Hexapoda,  may  be 
known  by  the  grouping  of  its  body-segments  in  three  distinct 
regions — a  head,  a  thorax  and  an  abdomen — each  of  which 
consists  of  a  definite  number  of  segments.  In  the  terminology 
proposed  by  E.  R.  Lankester  the  arrangement  is  "  nomomer- 
istic  "  and  "  nomotagmic."  The  head  of  an  insect  carries  usually 
four  pairs  of  conspicuous  appendages  —  feelers,  mandibles 
and  two  pairs  of  maxillae,  so  that  the  presence  of  four  primitive 
somites  is  immediately  evident.  The  compound  eyes  of  insects 
resemble  so  closely  the  similar  organs  in  Crustaceans  that 
there  can  hardly  be  reasonable  doubt  of  their  homology,  and 
the  primitively  appendicular  nature  of  the  eyes  in  the  latter 
class  suggests  that  in  the  Hexapoda  also  they  represent  the 


appendages  of  an  anterior  (protocerebral)  segment.  Behind 
the  antennal  (or  deutocerebral)  segment  an  "  intercalary " 
or  tritocerebral  segment  has  been  demonstrated  by  W.  M. 
Wheeler  (1893)  and  others  in  various  insect  embryos,  while 
in  the  lowest  insect  order — the  Aptera — a  pair  of  minute  jaws — 
the  maxillulae— in  close  association  with  the  tongue  are  present, 
as  has  been  shown  by  H.  J.  Hansen  (1893)  and  J.  W.  Folsom 
(1900).  Distinct  vestiges  of  the  maxillulae  exist  also  in  the 
earwigs  and  booklice,  according  to  G.  Enderlein  and  C.  Borner 
(1904),  and  they  are  very  evident  in  larval  may-flies.  The 
number  of  limb-bearing  somites  in  the  insectan  head  is  thus 
seen  to  be  seven.  All  of  these  are  to  be  regarded  as  primitively 
post-oral,  but  in  the  course  of  development  the  mouth  moves 
back  to  the  mandibular  segment,  so  that  the  first  three  somites — 
ocular,  antennal  and  intercalary — lie  in  front  of  it.  In  Lan- 
kester's  terminology,  therefore,  the  head  of  an  insect  is  "  tripros- 
thomerous."  The  maxillae  of  the  hinder  pair  become  more 
or  less  fused  together  to  form  a  "  lower  lip  "  or  labium,  and  the 
segment  of  these  appendages  is,  in  some  insects,  only  imperfectly 
united  with  the  head-capsule. 

The  thorax  is  composed  of  three  segments;  each  bears  a  pair 
of  jointed  legs,  and  in  the  vast  majority  of  insects  the  two  hind- 
most bear  each  a  pair  of  wings.  From  these  three  pairs  of 
thoracic  legs  comes  the  name — Hexapoda — which  distinguishes 
the  class.  And  the  wings,  though  not  always  present,  are  highly 
characteristic  of  the  Hexapoda,  since  no  other  group  of  the 
Arthropoda  has  acquired  the  power  of  flight.  In  the  more 
generalized  insects  the  abdomen  evidently  consists  of  ten  seg- 
ments, the  hindmost  of  which  often  carries  a  pair  of  tail-feelers, 
(cerci  or  cercopods)  and  a  terminal  anal  segment.  In  some  cases, 
however,  it  can  be  shown  that  the  cerci  really  belong  to  an 
eleventh  abdominal  segment  which  usually  becomes  fused  with  the 
tenth.  With  very  few  exceptions  the  abdomen  is  without  loco- 
motor  limbs.  Paired  processes  on  the  eighth  and  ninth  abdominal 
segments  may  be  specialized  as  external  organs  of  reproduction, 
but  these  are  probably  not  appendages.  The  female  genital 
opening  usually  lies  in  front  of  the  eighth  abdominal  segment,  the 
male  duct  opens  on  the  ninth. 

In  all  main  points  of  their  internal  structure  the  Hexapoda 
agree  with  other  Arthropoda.  Specially  characteristic  of  the 
class,  however,  is  the  presence  of  a  complex  system  of  air-tubes 
(tracheae)  for  respiration,  usually  opening  to  the  exterior  by  a 
series  of  paired  spiracles  on  certain  of  the  body  segments.  The 
possession  of  a  variable  number  of  excretory  tubes  (Malpighian 
tubes),  which  are  developed  as  outgrowths  of  the  hind-gut  and 
pour  their  excretion  into  the  intestine,is  also  a  distinctive  character 
of  the  Hexapoda. 

The  wings  of  insects  are,  in  all  cases,  developed  after  hatching, 
the  younger  stages  being  wingless,  and  often  unlike  the  parent  in 
other  respects.  In  such  cases  the  development  of  wings  and  the 
attainment  of  the  adult  form  depend  upon  a  more  or  less  profound 
transformation  or  metamorphosis. 

With  this  brief  summary  of  the  essential  characters  of  the 
Hexapoda,  we  may  pass  to  a  more  detailed  account  of  their 
structure. 

EXOSKELETON 

The  outer  cellular  layer  (ectoderm  or  "  hypodermis  ")  of  insects 
as  of  other  Arthropods,  secretes  a  chitinous  cuticle  which  has  to  be 
periodically  shed  and  renewed  during  the  growth  of  the  animal. 
The  regions  of  this  cuticle  have  a  markedly  segmental  arrangement, 
and  the  definite  hardened  pieces  (sclerites)  of  the  exoskeleton  are 
in  close  contact  with  one  another  along  linear  sutures,  or  are  united 
by  regions  of  the  cuticle  which  are  less  chitinous  and  more  membran- 
ous, so  as  to  permit  freedom  of  movement. 

Head. — The  head-capsule  of  an  insect  (figs.  I,  2)  is  composed  of  a 
number  of  sclerites  firmly  sutured  together,  so  that  the  primitive 
segmentation  is  masked.  Above  is  the  crown  (vertex  or  epicranium), 
on  which  or  on  the  "  front  "  may  be  seated  three  simple  eyes  (ocelli). 
Below  this  comes  the  front,  and  then  the  face  or  clypeus,  to  which  a 
very  distinct  upper  lip  (labrum)  is  usually  jointed.  Behind  the  labrum 
arises  a  process — the  epipharynx^ — which  in  some  blood-sucking 
insects  becomes  a  formidable  piercing-organ.  On  either  side  a 
variable  amount  of  convex  area  is  occupied  by  the  compound  eye ; 
in  many  insects  of  acute  sense  and  accurate  flight  these  eyes  are  ve  y 
large  and  sub-globular,  almost  meeting  on  the  middle  line  of  the 


CHARACTERS] 


HEXAPODA 


419 


head.  Below  each  eye  is  a  cheek  area  (gena),  often  divided  into  an 
anterior  and  a  posterior  part,  while  a  distinct  chin-sclerite  (gula)  is 
often  developed  behind  the  mouth. 

Feelers. — Most  conspicuous  among  the  appendages  of  the  head  are 
the  feelers  or  antennae,  which  correspond  to  the  anterior  feelers 


jointed  limb  or  palp  (fig  i,C,pa).  Such  maxillae  are  tourid  in  most 
biting  insects.  In  insects  whose  mouths  are  adapted  for  sucking  and 
piercing,  remarkable  modifications  may  occur.  In  many  blood- 
sucking flies,  for  example,  the  galea  is  absent,  while  the  lacinia 
becomes  a  strong  knife-like  piercer  and  the  palp  is  well  developed. 
In  bugs  and  aphids  the  lacinia  is  a 


slender  needle-like  piercer  (fig.  2,  III), 
while  the  palp  is  wanting.  In  butterflies 
and  moths  the  lacinia  is  absent  while 
the  galea  becomes  a  flexible  process, 
grooved  on  its  inner  face,  so  as  to  make 
with  its  fellow  a  hollow  sucking-trunk, 
and  the  palp  is  usually  very  small. 

The  second  pair  of  maxillae  are  more 
or  less  completely  fused  together  to 
form  what  is  known  as  the  labium  or 
"  lower  lip."  In  generalized  biting 
insects,  such  as  cockroaches  and  locusts 
(Orthoptera),  the  parts  of  a  typical 
maxilla  can  be  easily  recognized  in  the 
labium.  The  fused  cardines  form  a 
broad  basal  plate  (sub-mentum)  and  the 
stipites  a  smaller  plate  (mentum)  —  see 
fig.  I,  C,  sm,  m—  jointed  on  to  the  sub- 
mentum,  while  the  galeae,  laciniae  and 
palps  remain  distinct.  In  specialized 
biting  insects,  such  as  beetles  (Coleo- 
ptera),  the  labium  tends  to  become  a 
hard  transverse  plate  bearing  the  pair  of 
from  Midland  Denny,  TkeCockroack,U,nH  Reeve  &  Co.  palps,  a  median  structure—  known  as 

FIG.  I.  —  Head  and  Jaws  of  Cockroach  (Blatta).  Magnified  10  times.  A,  Front;  B,  side;  the  ligula  —  formed  of  the  conjoined 
C,  back;  »,  vertex;  /,  frons;  cl,  clypeus;  Ibr,  labrum;  oc,  compound  eye;  ge,  gena;  mn,  laciniae,  and  a  pair  of  small  rounded 
mandible;  ca,  st,  pa,  ga,  la,  cardo,  stipes,  palp,  galea,  lacinia  of  first  maxilla;  sm,m,  pa',pg,  processes  —  the  reduced  galeae—  often 


submentum,  mentum,  palp,  galea  of  2nd  maxilla. 

(antennules)  of  Crustacea.  In  their  simpler  condition  they  are 
long  and  many-jointed,  the  segments  bearing  numerous  olfactory 
and  tactile  nerve-endings.  Elaboration  in  the  form  of  the  feelers, 
often  a  secondary  sexual  character  in  male  insects,  may  result  from 
a  distal  broadening  of  the  segments,  so  that  the  appendage  becomes 
serrate,  or  from  the  development  of  processes  bearing  sensory 
organs,  so  that  the  structure  is  pinnate  or  feather-like.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  number  of  segments  may  be  reduced,  certain  of  them 
often  becoming  highly  modified  in  form. 

Jaws. — The  mandibles  of  the  Hexapoda  are  usually  strong  jaws 
with  one  or  more  teeth  at  the  apex  (fig.  I,  A,  B,  mn),  articulating 
at  their  bases  with  the  head-capsule  by  sub-globular  condyles, 
and  provided  with  abductor  and  adductor  muscles  by  means  of  which 
they  can  be  separated  or  drawn  together  so  as  to  bite  solid  food,  or 
seize  objects  which  have  to  be  carried  about.  They  never  bear  seg- 
mented limbs  (palps) 
and  only  exception- 
ally (as  in  the  chafers) 
s  is  the  skeleton  com- 
posed of  more  than  one 
sclerite.  The  mandibles 
often  furnish  a  good 
example  of  "secondary 
sexual  characters,  ' 
being  more  strongly 
developed  in  the  male 
than  in  the  female  of 
the  same  species.  In 
most  insects  that  feed 
by  suction  the  mandi- 
bles are  modified.  In 
bugs  (Heteroptera)  and 
many  flies,  for  example, 
they  are  changed  into 
needle-like  piercers  (fig. 
2,  II),  while  in  moths 
and  caddis-flies  they 
are  reduced  to  mere 
vestiges  or  altogether 
suppressed. 

As   previously    men- 


After  Marlatt  Entom.  Bull.  14,  n.  s.  (U.S.  Dept.  Agric.). 

FIG.  2— Head  of  Cicad,  front  view,    la,  tioned;  a  pair  of  minute 
frons;    6,  clypeus     (the    ppinted    labrum  jaws_ th(! .  maxillulae— 


,. 
III,   first 


-.  ,  -  -     , 

beneath  it);        II,  mandible;  ,     rst     re     oresent     ;n     the 

maxilla;    (a,  base;    t,  sheath;    ',  piercer)    lowestHorder  of  ;nsectSi 
111  ,    inner   view   ot    sheath;    IV,    second 
maxillae  forming  rostrum  (b,  mentum; 
ligula).    Magnified  6  times. 


between  the  mandibles 
c'  and  the  first  maxillae. 
They  usually  consist  of 
an  inner  and  an  outer 
lobe  arising  from  a  basal  piece,  which  bears  also  in  some  genera  a 
small  palp  (see  APTERA). 

In  their  typical  state  of  development,  the  first  maxillae  offer  a 
striking  contrast  to  the  mandibles,  being  composed  of  a  two-segmented 
basal  piece  (cardo  and  stipes,  fig.  I,  C,  ca,  st)  bearing  a  distinct  inner 
and  outer  lobe  (lacinia  and  galea,  fig.  I,  C,  la,  ga)  and  externally  a 


called  the  "  paraglossae,"  a  term  better 
avoided  since  it  has  been  applied  also 
to  the  rnaxillulae  of  Aptera,  entirely  different  structures.  The  long 
sucking  "  tongue  "  of  bees  is  probably  a  modification  of  the  ligula. 
In  bugs  and  aphids  (Hemiptera),  the  fused  second  maxillae  form 
a  jointed  grooved  beak  or  rostrum  (fig.  2,  IV)  in  which  the  slender 
piercers  (mandibles  and  first  maxillae)  work  to  and  fro. 

This  second  pair  of  maxillae  (or  labium)  form  then  the  hinder 
or  lower  boundary  of  the  mouth.  In  front  or  above  the  mouth 
is  bounded  by  the  labrum,  while  the  mandibles  and  first  maxillae 
lie  on  either  side  of  it.  A  median  process,  known  as  the  hypopharynx 
or  tongue,  arises  from  the  floor  of  the  mouth  in  front  of  the  labium, 
and  becomes  most  variously  developed  or  specialized  in  different 
insects.  The  salivary  duct  opens  on  its  hinder  surface.  It  does  not 
appear  to  represent  a  pair  of  appendages,  but  the  rnaxillulae  of 
the  Aptera  become  closely  associated  with  it.  According  to  the  view 
of  R.  Heymons,  the  hypopharynx  represents  the  sterna  of  all  the 
jaw-bearing  somites,  but  other  students  consider  that  it  belongs 
to  the  mandibular  and  first  maxillary  segments,  or  entirely  to  the 
segment  of  the  first  maxillae. 

Neck. — The  head  is  usually  connected  with  the  thorax  by  a  distinct 
membranous  neck,  strengthened  in  the  more  generalized  orders  with 
small  chitinous  plates  (cervical  sclerites).  These  have  been  inter- 
preted as  indicating  one  or  more  primitive  segments  between  the 
head  and  thorax.  Probably,  however,  as  suggested  by  T.  H. 
Huxley  {Anal.  Invert.  Animals,  1877),  they  really  belong  to  the  labial 
segment  which  has  not  become  completely  fused  with  the  head- 
capsule.  It  has  been  shown  by  C.  Janet1  (1889),  from  careful  studies 
of  the  musculature,  that  the  greater  part  of  the  head-capsule  is  built 
up  of  the  four  anterior  head-segments,  the  hindmost  of  which  has 
the  mandibles  for  its  appendages,  and  this  conclusion  is  in  the  main 
supported  by  the  recent  work  on  the  head  skeleton  of  J.  H.  Comstock 
and  C.  Kochi  (1902)  and  W.  A.  Riley  (1904). 

Thorax. — The  three  segments  which  make  up  the  thorax  or  fore- 
trunk  are  known  as  the  prothorax,  mesothorax  and  metathorax  (see 
fig.  3).  The  dorsal  area  of  the  prothorax  is  occupied  by  a  single 
sclerite,  the  pronotum  (fig.  3,  d),  which  is  large  and  conspicuous  in 
those  insects,  such  as  cockroaches,  bugs  (Heteroptera)  and  beetles, 
which  have  the  prothorax  free — i.e.  readily  movable  on  the  segment 
(mesothorax)  immediately  behind — smaller  and  of  less  importance 
where  the  prothorax  is  fixed  to  the  mesothorax,  as  in  bees  and  flies. 
The  dorsal  area  of  the  mesothorax.,  and  also  of  the  metathorax, 
may  be  made  up  of  a  series  of  sclerites  arranged  one  behind  the  other 
— prescutvm,  scutum,  scutellum  and  post-scutellum  (fig.  3,  e,  f,  g,  h), 
the  scutellum  of  the  mesothorax  being  often  especially  conspicuous. 
Ventrally,  each  segment  of  the  thorax  has  a  sternum  with  which  a 
median  pre-sternum  and  paired  episterna  and  epimera  are  often 
associated  (see  figs.  3,  4).  The  recent  suggestion  of  K.  W.  Verhoeff 
(1904)  that  the  hexappdan  thorax  in  reality  contains  six  primitive 
segments  is  entirely  without  embryological  support. 

Legs. — Each  segment  of  the  thorax  carries  a  pair  of  legs.  In 
most  insects  the  Teg  is  built  up  of  nine  segments:  (l)  a  broad 
triangular,  sub-globular,  conical  or  cylindrical  haunch  (coxa) ;  (2) 
a  small  trochanter;  (3)  an  elongate  stout  thigh  (femur);  (4)  a  more 
slender  shin  (tibia) ;  and  (5-9)  a  foot  consisting  of  five  tarsal  segments. 
The  fifth  (distal)  tarsal  segment  carries  a  median  adhesive  pad — 
the  pulvillus — on  either  side  of  which  is  a  claw.  The  pulvillus  is 


420 


HEXAPODA 


[CHARACTERS 


probably  to  be  regarded  as  a  true  terminal  (tenth)  segment  of  the  leg, 
while  the  claws  are  highly  modified  bristles.     Numerous  bristles  are 


After  Marlatt,  Enl.  Bull.  3,  n.  s.  (U.S.  Dept.  Agr.). 

FIG.   3. — Thorax  of  Saw-Fly  (Pachynematus). 


I,  Dorsal  view.  d,  Pronotum. 

II,  Ventral  view.  Mesothorax: 

III,  Lateral  view.  e,  Prescutum. 

IV,  Lateral  view  with  /,  Scutum, 
segments  separated,   g,  Scutellum. 

Prothorax:  h,  Post-scutellum, 

a,  Episternum.  »,  Mesophragma. 

b,  Sternum.  j,  Epimeron. 

c,  Coxa  of  fore-leg.         k,  Episternum. 

usually  present  on  the  thighs,  shins  and  feet  of  insects,  some  of  them 
so  delicate  as  to  be  termed  "  hairs  "  others  so  stout  and  hard  that 


/,    Coxa  of  middle  leg. 

Metathorax : 
tn,  Scutum. 
o,  Epimeron. 
p.  Coxa  of  hind  leg. 
n,  First       Abdominal 

Segment, 
t,    Tegula  at  base  of 

fore- wing. 


After  Miall  and  Denny,  The  Cockroach,  Lovell  Reeve  &  Co. 

FIG.  4. — Legs  and  Ventral  Thoracic  Sclerites  of  Female  Cockroach 

(Blatta). 

I,    Fore-leg  and  pro-sternum  (S)     ta,    Tarsal  segments, 
in   front 
ventral 


of  which  are  the 
cervical     sclerites 
(c). 

ex,    Coxa.         tr,  Trochanter. 
fe,     Thigh.       tb.  Shin. 

they  are  named  "  spines  "  or  "  spurs."    In  the  relative  development 
and  shape  of  the  various  segments  of  the  leg  there  is  almost  endless 


II,  Middle  leg  and  mesosternum. 

III,  Hind  leg  and  metasternum. 
In  IIlA,  the  episternum  (a)  and 

epimeron  (b)  are  slightly  separ- 
ated.  Twice  natural  size. 


variety,  dependent  on  the  order  to  which  the  insect  belongs,  and 
the  special  function — walking,  running,  climbing,  digging  or 
swimming — for  which  the  limb  is  adapted.  The  walking  of  insects 
has  been  carefully  studied  by  V.  Graber  (1877)  and  J.  Demoor  (1890), 
who  find  that  the  legs  are  usually  moved  in  two  sets  of  three,  the  first 
and  third  legs  of  one  side  moving  with  the  second  leg  of  the  other. 
One  tripod  thus  affords  a  firm  base  of  support  while  the  legs  of  the 
other  tripod  are  brought  forward  to  their  new  positions. 

Wings. — Two  pairs  of  wings  are  present  in  the  vast  majority  of 
insects,  borne  respectively  on  the  mesothorax  and  metathorax. 
At  the  base  of  the  wing,  i.e.  its  attachment  to  the  trunk,  we  find  a 
highly  complex  series  of  small  sclerites  adapted  for  the  varied 
movements  necessary  for  flight.  Those  of  the  dragon-flies  (Odonata) 
have  been  described  in  detail  by  R.  von  Lendenfeld  (1881).  The  long 
axis  of  the  wings,  when  at  rest,  lies  parallel  to  the  body  axis.  In  this 
position  the  outer  margin  of  the  wing  is  the  costa,  the  inner  the 
dor  sum,  and  the  hind-margin  the  termen.  The  angle  between  the 
costa  and  termen  is  the  apex.  When  the  wing  is  spread,  its  long  axis 
is  more  or  less  at  a  right  angle  to  the  body  axis.  A  wing  is  an  out- 
growth trom  the  dorsal  and  pleural  regions  of  the  thoracic  segment 
that  bears  it,  and  microscopic  examination  shows  it  to  consist  of  a 
double  layer  of  cuticularized  skin,  the  two  layers  being  in  contact 
except  where  they  are  thickened  and  folded  to  form  the  firm  tubular 
nervures,  which  serve  as  a  supporting  framework  for  the,  wing 
membrane,  enclose  air-tubes,  and  convey  blood.  These  nervures 
consist  of  a  series  of  trunks  radiating  from  the  wing-base  and  usually 
branching  as  they  approach  the  wing-margins,  the  branches  being 
often  connected  by  short  transverse  nervures,  so  that  the  wing-area 
is  marked  off  into  a  number  oi  "  cells  "  or  areolets. 

The  details  of  the  nervuration  vary  greatly  in  the  different  orders, 
but  J.  H.  Comstock  and  J.  G.  Needham  have  lately  (1898-1899) 
shown  that  a  common  arrangement  underlies  all,  six  series  of  longi- 
tudinal or  radiating  nervures  being  present  in  the  typical  wing  (see 
fig.  5).  Along  the  costa  runs  a 
costal  nervure.  This  is  followed 
by  a  sub-costal  which  some- 
times shows  two  main  branches. 
Then  comes  the  radial — usually 
the  most  important  nervure  of 
the  wing — typically  with  five 
branches,  and  the  median  with 
four.  These  sets  arise  from  a 
main  trunk  towards  the  front 
region  of  the  wing-base.  From 
another  hinder  trunk  arise  the 
two-branched  cubital  nervure 
and  three  separate  anal 
nervures.  In  the  hind-wing  of 
many  insects  the  number  of 
radial  branches  becomes  re- 
duced, while  the  anal  area  is 
especially  well  developed  and 
undergoes  a  fan-like  folding  F,G  5._wing-Neuration  in  a 
when  the  wings  are  closed.  Cossid  Moth  6  sub-costal;  3, 
Great  diversity  exists  in  the  radial  median;  5,  cubital; 

texture  and   functions  of   fore    6   7   g  z^al  nervures. 
and  hind-wings  in  different  in-      '  '' 

sects;  these  differences  are  discussed  in  the  descriptions  of  the 
various  orders.  The  wings  often  afford  secondary  sexual  characters, 
being  not  infrequently  absent  or  reduced  in  the  female  when  well 
developed  in  the  male  (see  fig.  6).  Rarely  the  male  is  the  wingless 
sex. 

In  addition  to  the  wings  there  are  smaller  dorsal  outgrowths  of  the 
thorax  in  many  insects.  Paired  erectile  plates  (patagia)  are  borne  on 
the  prothorax  in  moths,  while  in  moths,  sawnies,  wasps,  bees  and 
other  insects  there  are  small  plates  (tegulae) — see  Fig.  3,  t — on  the 
mesothorax  at  the  base  of  the  fore-wings. 

Abdomen. — In  the  abdominal  exoskeleton  the  segmental  structure 
is  very  clearly  marked,  a  series  of  sclerites — dorsal  terga  and 
abdominal  sterna — being  connected  by  pale,  feebly  chitinized 
cuticle,  so  that  considerable  freedom  of  movement  between  the 
segments  is  possible.  The  first  and  second  abdominal  sterna  are  often 
suppressed  or  reduced,  on  account  of  the  strong  development  of  the 
hind-legs.  In  many  insects  ten,  and  in  a  few  eleven,  abdominal 
segments  can  be  clearly  distinguished  in  addition  to  a  small  terminal 
anal  segment.  The  female  genital  opening  usually  lies  between  the 
seventh  and  eighth  segments,  the  male  on  the  ninth.  Prominent 
paired  limbs  are  often  borne  on  the  tenth  segment,  the  elongate 
tail-feelers  (cerci)  of  bristle-tails  and  may-flies,  or  the  forceps  of 
earwigs,  for  example.  In  the  Embiidae,  a  family  of  Isoptera,  it  has 
been  shown  by  G.  Enderlein  (1901)  that  these  cerci  clearly  belong 
to  a  partially  suppressed  eleventh  segment,  and  R.  Heymons  (1895- 
1896)  has  proved  by  embryological  study  that  in  all  cases  they 
really  belong  to  this  eleventh  segment,  which  in  the  course  of 
development  becomes  fused  with  the  tenth.  Smaller  appendages 
(such  as  the  stylets  of  male  cockroaches)  may  be  carried  on  the  ninth 
segment.  Pairs  of  processes  carried  on  the  eighth  and  ninth  segments 
often  become  specialized  to  form  the  ovipositor  of  the  female  (see 
fig.  14)  and  the  genital  armature  of  the  male.  A  marked  modifica- 
tion of  the  hinder  abdominal  segments  may  be  noticed  in  most  insects. 


INTERNAL  ORGANS] 


HEXAPODA 


421 


the  sclerites  of  the  eighth  and  ninth  being  frequently  hidden  by  those 
of  the  seventh.  In  the  higher  orders  several  of  the  hinder  segments 
may  be  altogether  suppressed. 


From  Miall  and  Denny,  The  Cockroach,  Lovell  Reeve  &  Co. 

FIG.  6.—  Outline  of  Maje  (rj1)  and  Female  (  ?  )  Cockroaches  (Blatta) 
from  the  side,  showing  Abdominal  Stgments  (numbered  i-io). 
Magnified  4  times. 

INTERNAL  ORGANS 

Nervous  System.  —  The  nervous  system  in  the  Hexapoda  is  built 
up  on  the  typical  arthropodan  plan  of  a  double  ventral  nerve-cord 
with  a  pair  of  ganglia  in  each  segment,  the  cords  passing  on  either 
side  of  the  gullet  and  connecting  with  an  anterior  nerve-centre  or 
brain  (fig.  7)  in  the  head.  The  brain  innervates  the  eyes  and  feelers, 

and  must  be  regarded  as 
a  "  syncerebrum  "  repre- 
senting the  ganglia  of  the 
three  foremost  limb-bear- 
ing somites  united  with 
the  primitive  cephalic 
lobes.  Behind  the  gullet 
lies  the  sub-oesophageal 
nerve-centre  (fig.  7,  sb), 
composed  of  the  ganglia 
of  the  four  hinder  head- 
somites  and  sending 
nerves  to  the  jaws.  A 
pair  of  ganglia  in  each 
thoracic  segment  is  usual 
(fig.  8),  and  as  many  as 
eight  distinct  pairs  of 
abdominal  ganglia  may 
often  be  distinguished,  the 
hindmost  of  which  repre- 
sents the  fused  ganglia  of 
the  last  four  seg- 
ments. But  in  many 
highly  organized 
insects  a  remark- 

\     \     'I  VMi  able     concentration 

\     \      ™  of  the  trunk-ganglia 

takes  place,  all  the 
nerve-centres  of  the 
thorax  and  abdo- 
men in  the  chafers 
and  in  the  Hemi- 
ptera,  for  instance, 
being  represented 
by  a  single  mass 
situated  in  the 

thorax.  The  legs,  wings  and  other  organs  of  the  trunk  receive 
their  nerves  from  the  thoracic  and  abdominal  ganglia,  and  the 
fusion  of  several  pairs  of  these  ganglia  may  be  regarded  as 
corresponding  to  a  centralization  of  individuality.  A  special 
"  sympathetic  "  system  arises  by  paired  nerves  from  I  he 
oesophageal  connectives;  these  nerves  unite,  and  send  back 
a  median  recurrent  nerve  associated  with  ganglia  on  the 
gullet  and  crop,  whence  proceed  cords  to  various  parts  of  the 
digestive  system. 

In  connexion  with  the  central  nervous  system  there  are 
usually  numerous  organs  of  special  sense.  Most  insects 
possess  a  pair  of  compound  eyes,  and  many  have,  in  addi- 
tion, three  simple  eyes  or  ocelli  on  the  vertex.  The  nature 
of  these  organs  is  described  in  the  article  ARTHROFODA.  The 
surface  of  a  compound  eye  is  seen  to  be  covered  with  a 
large  number  of  hexagonal  corneal  facets,  each  of  which  over- 


Head 

muscles 


Add.  of  Coia 


Abd.  of  Coxa 


either  side  of  the  first  abdominal  segment;  on  the  inner  surface 
of  this  membrane  are  two  horn-like  processes  in  contact  with  a 
delicate  sac  con- 
taining fluid,  con- 
nected with  which 
are  the  actual 
nerve-endings.  In 
the  nearly-related 
crickets  and  long- 
horned  grasshop- 
pers (Locuslidae) 
the  ears  are  situ- 
ated in  the  shins 
of  the  fore-legs  (see 
fig-  9.  F).  Just 
below  the  knee- 
joint  there  is  a 
swelling,  along 
which  two  narrow 
slits  ru  n  lengthwise. 
They  lead  into 
chambers,  formed 
by  inpushing  of 

I  the  cuticle,  whose 

j  delicate  inner  walls 

•  are  in  contact  with 
air-tubes;  on  the 
outer  surface  of 
these  latter  are 
ridges,  along  which 
the  special  nerve- 
endings  are  ar- 
ranged. An  ear  of 
another  type  is 
found  in  the  swollen 
second  segment  of 
the  feeler  in  many 
male  gnats  and  After  Miall  and  Denny,  The  Cockroach,  Lovell  Reeve  &  Co. 
midges,  the  cuticle  FIG.  8. — Ventral  Muscles  and  Nerve  Cord  of 
between  this  seg-  Cockroach.  Magnified  2\  times, 

ment  and  the  third 

forming  an  annular  drum  which  is  connected  with  numerous  nerve- 
endings,  while  the  fine  bristles  on  the  more  distal  segments  vibrate 
in  response  to  the  note  produced  by  the  humming  of  the  female. 

Many  of  the  numerous  hairs  (fig.  9,  E)  that  cover  the  body  of  an 
insect  have  a  tactile  function.  The  sense  of  smell  resides  chiefly  in 
the  feelers,  on  whose  segments  occur  tiny  pits,  often  guarded  by 
peg-like  or  tooth-like  structures  and  containing  rod-like  cells  (fig. 

9,  C)  in  connexion  with  large  nerve-cells.  It  is  said  that  13,000  such 
olfactory  organs  are  present  on  the  feeler  of  a  wasp,  and  40,000  on 


Obi.  sternal 


Tergo-stern. 


From  Miall  and  Denny  (after  Newton),  The  Cock- 
roach, Lovell  Reeve  &  Co. 

FIG.  7. — Brain  of  Cockroach  from 
side,  oe,  Gullet;  op,  optic  nerve;  sb, 
sub-oesophageal  ganglion;  mn,  mx, 
mx',  nerves  to  jaws;  /,  tentorium. 
Magnified  25  times. 


_ 
**» 


,  FIG.  9.—  Single  Ommatidium  of  Cockroach's  Eye  (after  Grenacher).     B, 

lies  an  ommatidium  or  series  of  cell  elements  (fig.  9,  A,  B).   Section  through  compound  eye  (after  Miall  and  Denny)  ;  C,  organs  of  smell 
re  are  over  25,000  ommatidia  in  the  eye  of  a  hawk  moth.   ;n    cockchafer    (after  Kraepelin);    D,  a,  b,  sensory  pits  on  cercopods  of 
rtitory   organs   of  a   simple   type  are   present    in    most   golden-eye  fly;  c,  sensory  pit  on  palp  of  stone-fly   (after    Packard);   E, 
insects.      Ihese  consist  of  fine  rods  suspended  between  two   sensory  hair  (after  Miall  and  Denny);   F,  ear  of  long-horned  grasshopper; 
s  of  the  cuticle,  and  connected  with  nerve-fibres;    they  a<   Front   shin    showing   outer   opening   and   air-tube;    b,  section  (after 
:  known  as  chordotonal  organs.     In  many  cases  a  more   Graber)  ;  G,  ear  of  locust  from  within  (after  Graber).  All  highly  magnified. 
complex  ear  is  developed,  which  may  be  situated  in  strangely 

Jtverse   regions  of  the  insect's  body.      In   locusts   (Acridiidae)   a  i  the  complex  antennae  of  a  male  cockchafer.   Organs  of  similar  type  on 
large  ovate,   tympanic   membrane   (fig.   9,   G)   is  conspicuous   on  I  the  maxillae  and  epipharynx  appear  to  exercise  the  function  of  taste 


422 


HEXAPODA 


[INTERNAL  ORGANS 


Muscular  System. — The  muscles   in  the  Hexappda  are  striated, 
as  in  Arthropods  generally,  the  large  fibres  being  associated  in 

bundles  which  are  at- 
tached from  point  to 
point  of  the  cuticle,  so 
as  to  move  adjacent  scler- 
ites  with  respect  to  one 
another  (see  figs.  8,  10). 
For  example,  the  con- 
traction of  the  tergo- 
sternal  muscles,  connect- 
ing the  dorsal  with  the 
ventral  sclerites  of  the 
abdomen,  lessens  the 

capacity     of    the    abdo- 
___ __  *    — •  *  'i     ^i  - 

External  femoral     _i 


Head  muscles 


Lateral  thoracic 


Longit.  tergal 
Adductor  of  coxa 


Longit.  tergal 


Oblique  tergal 


Alary  tendon  cf 
pericardium 


Tergo-stemal    »•*— 


minal  region,  while  the 
contraction  of  the  power- 
ful muscles  arising  from 
the  thoracic  walls,  and 
inserted  into  the  proxi- 
mal ends  of  the  thighs, 
flexes  or  extends  the  legs. 
Circulatory  System. — 
Insects  afford  an  excel- 
lent illustration  of  the 
remarkable  type  of  blood- 
system  characterizing  the 
Arthropoda.  The  dorsal 
vessel  is  an  elongate  tube, 
whose  abdominal  portion 
is  usually  cham  bered, 
forming  a  contractile 
heart  (fig.  10).  At  the 
constrictions  between  the 
chambers  are  paired  slits, 
through  which  the  blood 
passes  from  the  surround- 
ing pericardia)  sinus.  The 
dorsal  vessel  is  prolonged 
anteriorly  into  an  aorta, 
through  which  the  blood 
is  propelled  into  the  great 
After  Miall  and  Denny,  The  Cockroach,  Lovell  body-cavity  or  haemo- 
Reeve&Co.  coel.  After  bathing  the 

FIG.  10. — Dorsal  Muscles,  Heart  and  various  tissues  and 
Pericardial  Tendons  of  Cockroach,  organs,  the  blood  returns 
Magnified  2§  times.  dorsalwards  into  the  peri- 

cardial  sinus  through  fine  perforations  of  its  floor,  and  so  makes  its 

way  into  the  heart  again.  Some 
water-bugs,  e.g.  of  the  families  Belo- 
stomatidae,  Nepidae,  Corixidae  and 
Hydrometridae  have  a  pulsating  sac 
at  each  knee-joint  to  assist  the  flow 
of  blood  through  the  legs,  while  in 
dragon-flies  and  locusts  (Acridiidae) 
there  is  a  ventral  pulsating  dia- 
phragm, which  forms  the  roof  of  a 
sinus  enclosing  the  nerve-cords. 

Respiratory  System. — As  mentioned 
above,  respiration  by  means  of  air- 
tubes  (tracheae)  is  a  most  character- 
istic feature  of  the  Hexapoda.  An 
air-tube  consists  of  an  epithelium  of 
large  polygonal  cells  with  a  thin 
basement-membrane  externally  and 
a  chitinous  layer  internally,  the  last- 
named  being  continuous  with  the 
outer  cuticle.  The  chitinous  layer 
is  usually  strengthened  by  thread-like 
thickenings  which,  in  the  region  close 
to  the  outer  opening  of  the  tube, 
form  a  network  enclosing  polygonal 
areas,  but  which,  through  most  of 
the  tracheal  system,  are  arranged 
spirally,  the  strengthening  thread  not 
forming  a  continuous  spiral,  but 
being  interrupted  after  a  few  turns 
around  the  tube.  The  tracheal 
system  in  Hexapods  is  very  complex, 
forming  a  series  of  longitudinal  trunks 
with  transverse  anastomosing  con- 
nexions (fig.  n),  and  extending  by 
the  finest  sub-division  and  by  re- 
After  Miall  and  Denny,  The  Cock-  peatecj  branching  into  all  parts  of 
road,,  Lovell  Reeve  &  Co  the  body.  In  insects  of  active  flight 

FIG.  n. — Ventral  Portion  the  tubes  swen  out  mto  numerous 
of  Air-Tubes  in  Cockroach.  a;r.sacSi  by  which  the  breathing 
Magnified  2j  times.  capacity  is  much  increased. 

Atmospheric  air  gains  access  to  the  air-tubes  through  paired 
spiracles  or  stigmata,  which  usually  occur  laterally  on  most  of  the 


body-segments.  These  spiracles  have  firm  chitinous  edges,  and  can 
be  closed  by  valves  moved  by  special  muscles.  When  the  spiracles 
are  open  and  the  body  contracts,  air  is  expired.  The  subsequent 
expansion  of  the  body  causes  fresh  air  to  enter  the  tracheal  system, 
and  if  the  spiracles  be  then  closed  and  the  body  again  contracted, 
this  air  is  driven  to  the  finest  branches  of  the  air-tubes,  where  a  direct 
oxygenation  of  the  tissues  takes  place.  The  physiology  of  respiration 
has  been  carefully  studied  by  F.  Plateau  (1884).  In  aquatic  insects 
various  devices  for  obtaining  or  entangling  air  are  found;  these 
modifications  are  described  in  the  special  articles  on  the  various 
orders  of  insects  (COLEOPTERA,  HEMIPTERA,  £c.).  Many  insects  have 
aquatic  larvae,  some  of  which  take  in  atmospheric  air  at  intervals, 
while  others  breathe  dissolved  air  by  means  of  tracheal  gills.  These 
modifications  are  mentioned  below  in  the  section  on  metamorphosis. 

Digestive  System. — A  striking  feature  in  the  food-canal  of  the 
Hexapoda,  as  in  other  Arthropods,  is  the  great  extent  of  the  "  fore- 
gut  "  and  "  hind-gut," 
lined  with  a  chitinous 
cuticle,  continuous  with 
the  exoskeleton.  The 
fore-gut  is  composed  of 
a  tubular  gullet,  a  large 
sac-like  crop  (fig.  12,  c) 
and  a  proventriculus  or 
"  gizzard,"  whose  func- 
tion is  to  strain  the  food- 
substances  before  they 
pass  on  into  the  tubular 
stomach,  which  has  no 
chitinous  lining.  This 
organ,  usually  regarded  as 
a  "  mid-gut,  gives  off  a 
number  of  secretory  caecal 
tubes  (fig.  12,  coe).  At 
its  hinder  end  it  is  con- 
tinuous with  the  hind-gut, 
which  is  usually  differen- 
tiated into  a  tubular  coiled 
intestine  (fig.  12,  i)  and  a 
swollen  rectum  (fig.  12,  r). 
From  the  fpre-end  of  the 
hind-gut  arise  the  slender 
Malpighian  tubes  (fig.  12, 
k),  which  have  a  renal 
function. 

On  either  side  of  the 
gullet  are  from  one  to 
ten  pairs  of  salivary 
glands  (fig.  12,  s)  whose 
ducts  open  into  the 
mouth.  Some  of  these 
glands  may  be  modified 
for  special  purposes — as 
silk-producing  glands  in 
caterpillars  or  as  poison- 
glands  in  blood-sucking 
flies  and  bugs.  The  food 
passing  into  the  crop  is 
there  acted  on  by  the 
saliva  and  also  by  an 
acid  gastric  juice  which 
passes  forwards  from  the 
stomach  through  the  pro- 
ventriculus.  As  the 
various  portions  of  the 
food  undergo  digestion, 


From  Miall  and  Denny,  The  Cockroach,  Lovell 
Reeve  &  Co. 

FIG.  12. — Food  Canal  of  Cockroach. 
Twice  natural  size. 

s,      Salivary  glands  and  reservoir. 

c.      Crop  (the  gizzard  below  it). 

coe,  Caecal  tubes  (below  them  the 
stomach). 

k,      Kidney  tubes. 

i,      Intestine. 

r,      Rectum. 

they  arc  allowed"  to  pass  through    the   proventriculus   into  the 
stomach,  where  the  nutrient  substances  are  absorbed. 

Excretory  System. — Nitrogenous  waste-matter  is  removed  from 
the  body  by  the  Malpighian  tubes  which  open  into  the  food-canal, 
usually  where  the  hind-gut  joins  the  stomach.  These  tubes  vary 
in  number  from  four  to  over  a  hundred  in  different  orders  of  insects. 
The  cells  which  line  them  and  also  the  cavities  of  the  tubes  contain 
urates,  which  are  excreted  from  the  blood  in  the  surrounding  body- 
cavity.  This  cavity  contains  an  irregular  mass  of  whitish  tissue, 
the  fat-body,  consisting  of  fat-cells  which  undergo  degradation 
and  become  more  or  less  filled  with  urates.  When  the  worn-out 
cells  are  broken  down,  the  urates  are  carried  dissolved  in  the  blood 
to  the  Malpighian  tubes  for  excretion.  The  fat-body  is  therefore  the 
seat  of  important  metabolic  processes  in  the  hexapod  body. 

Reproductive  System. — All  the  Hexapoda  are  of  separate  sexes. 
The  ovaries  (fig.  13)  in  the  female  are  paired,  each  ovary  consisting 
of  a  variable  number  of  tubes  (one  in  the  bristle-tail  Campodea  and 
fifteen  hundred  in  a  queen  termite)  in  which  the  eggs  are  developed. 
From  each  ovary  an  oviduct  (fig.  13,  od)  leads,  and  in  some  of  the 
more  primitive  insects  (bristle-tails,  earwigs,  may-flies)  the  two 
oviducts  open  separately  direct  to  the  exterior.  Usually  they  open 
into  a  median  vagina,  formed  by  an  ectodermal  inpushing  and 
lined  with  chitin.  The  vagina  usually  opens  in  front  of  the  eighth 
abdominal  sternite.  Behind  it  is  situated  a  spermatheca  (fig.  14,  sto) 


EMBRYOLOGY] 

and  the  ovipositor  previously  mentioned,  with  its  three  pairs  of 
processes  (Fig.  14,  G,  g). 
The  paired  testes  of  the  male  consist  of  a  variable  number  of  seminal 


HEXAPODA 


423 


CG. 


From  Miall  and  Denny,  The  Cockroach,  Lovell  Reeve  &  Co. 

FIG.  13. — Ovaries  of  Cockroach,  with  Oviducts  Od  and  Colleterial 
Glands  CG.    Magnified  14  times. 

tubes,  those  of  each  testis  opening  into  a  vas  deferens.  In  some 
bristle-tails  and  may-flies,  the  two  vasa  deferentia  open  separately, 
but  usually  they  lead  into  a  sperm-reservoir,  whence  issues  a  median 


From  Miall  and  Denny,  The  Cockroach,  Lovell  Reeve  &  Co. 

FIG.  14. — Hinder  Abdominal  Segment  and  Ovipositor  of  Female 
Cockroach.    Magnified. 

T8  &c.  Tergites.  Od,  Vagina. 

57,  7th  Sternite.  sp,    Spermatheca. 

58,  Sclerite  between  7th  and  8th     G,     Anterior,  and    g,    pos- 

59,  8th  Sclerite.  [sterna.  terior  gonapophyses. 


ejaculatory  duct.  The  male  opening  is  on  the  ninth  abdominal 
segment,  to  which  belong  the  processes  that  form  the  claspers  or 
genital  armature.  Accessory  glands  are  commonly  present  in  con- 
nexion both  with  the  male  and  the  female  reproductive  organs. 
The  poison-glands  of  the  sting  in  wasps  and  bees  are  well-known 
examples  of  these. 

EMBRYOLOGY 

The  Egg.  —  Among  the  Hexapoda,  as  in  Arthropods  generally, 
the  egg  is  Targe,  containing  an  accumulation  of  yolk  for  the  nourish- 
ment of  the  growing  embryo.  Most  insect  eggs  are  of  an  elongate 
oval  shape;  some  are  globular,  others  flattened,  while  others  again 
are  flask-shaped,  and  the  outer  envelope  (chorion)  is  often  beautifully 
sculptured  (figs.  20,  d;  21,  a,  b).  Various  devices  are  adopted  for 
the  protection  of  the  eggs  from  mechanical  injury  or  from  the  attacks 
of  enemies,  and  for  fixing  them  in  appropriate  situations.  For 
example,  the  egg  may  be  raised  above  the  surface  on  which  it  is  laid 
by  an  elongate  stalk  ;  the  eggs  may  be  protected  by  a  secretion,  which 
in  some  cases  forms  a  hard  protective  capsule  or  "  purse  "  ;  or  they 
may  be  covered  with  shed  hairs  of  the  mother,  while  among  water- 
insects  a  gelatinous  envelope,  often  of  rope-like  form,  is  common. 
In  various  groups  of  the  Hexapoda  —  aphids  and  some  flesh-flies 
(Sarcophaga),  for  example  —  the  egg  undergoes  development  within 
the  body  of  the  mother,  and  the  young  insect  is  born  in  an  active 
state;  such  insects  are  said  to  be  viviparous." 

Parthenogenesis.  —  A  number  of  cases  are  known  among  the 
Hexapoda  of  the  development  of  young  from  the  eggs  of  virgin 
females.  In  insects  so  widely  separated  as  bristle-tails  and  moths 
this  occurs  occasionally.  In  certain  gall-flies  (Cynipidae)  no  males 
are  known  to  exist  at  all,  and  the  species  seems  to  be  preserved 
entirely  by  successive  parthenogenetic  generations.  In  other  gall- 
flies and  in  aphids  we  find  that  a  sexual  generation  alternates  with 
one  or  with  many  virgin  generations.  The  offspring  of  the  virgin 
females  are  in  most  of  these  instances  females  ;  but  among  the  bees 
and  wasps  parthenogenesis  occurs  normally  and  always  results  in 
the  development  of  males,  the  "  queen  "  insect  laying  either  a 
fertilized  or  unfertilized  egg  at  will. 

Maturation,  Fertilization  and  Segmentation.  —  Polar  bodies  were 
first  observed  in  the  eggs  of  Hexapoda  by  F.  Blochmann  in  1887. 
The  two  nuclei  are  successively  divided  from  the  egg  nucleus  in  the 
usual  way,  but  they  frequently  become  absorbed  in  the  peripheral 
protoplasm  instead  of  being  extruded  from  the  egg-cell  altogether. 
It  appears  that  in  parthenogenetic  eggs  two  polar  nuclei  are  formed. 
According  to  A.  Petrunkevich  (1901—1903),  the  second  polar  nucleus 
uniting  with  one  daughter-nucleus  of  the  first  polar  body  gives  rise 
to  the  germ-cells  of  the  parthenogenetically-produced  male.  There 
is  no  reunion  of  the  second  polar  nucleus  with  the  female  pronucleus, 
but,  according  to  the  recent  work  of  L.  Doncaster  (1906-1907)  on 
the  eggs  of  sawflies,  the  number  of  chromosomes  is  not  reduced  in 
parthenogenetic  egg-nuclei,  while,  in  eggs  capable  of  fertilization, 
the  usual  reduction-divisions  occur.  Fertilization  takes  place  as 
the  egg  is  laid,  the  spermatozoa  being  ejected  from  the  spermatheca 
of  the  female  and  making  their  way  to  the  protoplasm  of  the  egg 
through  openings  (micropyles)  in  its  firm  envelope.  The  segmenta- 
tion of  the  fertilized  nucleus  results  in  the  formation  of  a  number 
of  nuclei  which  arrange  themselves  around  the  periphery  of  the  egg 
and,  the  protoplasm  surrounding  them  becoming  constricted,  a 
blastoderm  or  layer  of  cells,  enclosing  the  central  yolk,  is  formed. 
Within  the  yolk  the  nuclei  of  some  "  yolk  cells  "  can  be  distinguished. 

Germinal  Layers  and  Food-Canal.  —  The  embryo  begins  to  develop 
as  an  elongate,  thickened,  ventral  region  of  the  blastoderm  which  is 
known  as  the  ventral 
plate  or  germ  band. 
Along  this  band  a 
median  furrow  ap- 
pears, and  a  mass  of 
cells  sinks  within,  the 
one-layered  germ 
band  thus  becoming 
transformed  into  a 
band  of  two  cell-layers 
(fig.  15).  _  In  some 
cases  the  inner  layer 
is  formed  not  by  in- 
vagination  but  by 
proliferation  or  by  de- 

outer  ""tf^e    Two 

^ectoderm5'  With 
regard  to  The  ±r 
layer  (endoblast  of 
some  authors,  fig.  15,  M)  much  difference  of  opinion  has  pre- 
vailed. It  has  usually  been  regarded  as  representing  both  endoderm 
and  mesoderm,  and  the  groove  which  usually  leads  to  its  forma- 
tion has  been  compared  to  the  abnormally  elongated  blastopore 
of  a  typical  gastrula.  No  doubt  can  be  entertained  that  the  greater 
part  of  the  inner  layer  corresponds  to  the  mesoderm  of  more  ordinary 
embryos,  for  the  coelomic  pouches,  the  germ-cells,  the  musculature 
and  the  vascular  system  all  arise  from  it.  Further,  there  is  general 
agreement  that  the  chitin-lined  fore-gat  and  hind-gut,  which  form 


& 


FlG<  ^--Diagram  showing  Formation  of 
E'eCt°derm;     M'  inner 


424 


HEXAPODA 


[EMBRYOLOGY 


the  greater  part  of  the  digestive  tract,  arise  from  ectodermal  invagina- 
tions  (stomodaeum  and  proctodaeum  respectively)  at  the  positions 
of  the  future  mouth  and  anus.  The  origin  of  the  mid-gut  (mesenteron) , 
that  has  no  chitinous  lining  in  the  developed  insect,  is  the  disputed 
point.  According  to  the  classical  researches  of  A.  Kowalevsky 
(1871  and  1887)  on  the  embryology  of  the  water-beetle  Hydrophilus 
and  of  the  muscid  flies,  an  anterior  and  a  posterior  endoderm- 
rudiment  both  derived  from  the  "  endoblast  "  become  apparent 
at  an  early  stage,  in  close  association  with  the  stomodaeum  and 
the  proctodaeum  respectively.  These  two  endoderm-rudiments 
ultimately  grow  together  and  give  rise  to  the  epithelium  of  the  mid- 
gut.  These  results  were  confirmed  by  the  observations  of  K.  Heider 
and  W.  M.  Wheeler  (1889)  on  the  embryos  of  two  beetles — Hydro- 
philus and  Doryphora  respectively.  V.  Graber,  however  (1889), 
stated  that  in  the  Muscidae,  while  the  anterior  endoderm-rudiment 
arises  as  Kowalevsky  had  observed,  the  posterior  part  of  the  "  mid- 
gut  "  has  its  origin  as  a  direct  outgrowth  from  the  proctodaeum. 
The  recent  researches  of  R.  Heymons  (1895)  on  the  Orthoptera,  and 
of  A.  Lecaillon  (1898)  on  various  leaf  beetles,  tend  to  show  that  the 
whole  of  the  "  mid-gut "  arises  from  the  proliferation  of  cells  at  the 
extremity  of  the  stomadaeum  and  of  the  proctodaeum.  On  this  view 
the  entire  food-canal  in  most  Hexapoda  must  be  regarded  as  of 
ectodermal  origin,  the  "  endoblast  represents  mesoderm  only, 
and  the  median  furrow  whence  it  arises  can  be  no  longer  compared 
with  the  blastopore.  According  to  Heymons,  the  yolk-cells  must  be 
regarded  as  the  true  endoderm  in  the  hexappd  embryo,  for  he  states 
(1897)  that  in  the  bristle-tail  Lepisma  and  in  dragon-flies  they  give 
rise  to  the  mid-gut.  These  views  are  not,  however,  supported 
by  other  recent  observers.  J.  Carriere's  researches  (1897)  on  the 
embryology  of  the  mason  bee  (Chalicodoma)  agree  entirely  with  the 
interpretations  of  Kowalevsky  and  Heider,  and  so  on  the  whole  do 
those  of  F.  Schwangart,  who  has  studied  (1904)  the  embryonic 
development  of  Lepidoptera.  He  finds  that  the  endoderm  arises 
from  an  anterior  and  a  posterior  rudiment  derived  from  the  "  endo- 
blast," that  many  of  the  cells  of  these  rudiments  wander  into  the 
yolk,  and  that  the  mesenteric  epithelium  becomes  reinforced  by 
cells  that  migrate  from  the  yolk.  K.  Escherich  (1901),  after  a  new 
research  on  the  embryology  of  the  muscid  Diptera,  claims  that  the 
fore  and  hind  endodermal  rudiments  arise  from  the  blastoderm  by 
invagination,  and  are  from  their  origin  distinct  from  the  mesoderm. 
On  the  whole  it  seems  likely  that  the  endoderm  is  represented  in 
part  by  the  yolk,  and  in  part  by  those  anterior  and  posterior  rudiments 
which  usually  form  the  mesenteron,  but  that  in  some  Hexapoda 
the  whole  digestive  tract  may  be  ectodermal.  It  must  be  admitted 
that  some  of  the  later  work  on  insect  embryology  has  justified  the 
growing  scepticism  in  the  universal  applicability  of  the  "  germ-layer 
theory."  Heider  has  suggested,  however,  that  the  apparent  origin 
of  the  mid-gut  from  the  stomodaeum  and  proctodaeum  may  be 
explained  by  the  presence  of  a  "  latent  endoderm-group  "  in  those 
invaginations. 

Embryonic  Membranes. — A  remarkable  feature  in  the  embryonic 
development  of  most  Hexapoda  is  the  formation  of  a  protective 


of  the  germ  band  a  double  fold  in  the  undifferentiated  blastoderm, 
which  grows  over  the  surface  of  the  embryo,  so  that  its  inner  and 
outer  layers  become  continuous,  forming  respectively  the  amnion 
and  the  serosa  (fig.  16,  A,  S).  The  embryo  of  a  moth,  a  dragon-fly 
or  a  bug  is  invaginated  into  the  yolk  at  the  head  end,  the  portion  of 
the  blastoderm  necessarily  pushed  in  with  it  forming  the  amnion. 
The  embryo  thus  becomes  transferred  to  the  dorsal  face  of  the  egg, 
but  at  a  later  stage  it  undergoes  reversion  to  its  original  ventral 
position.  In  some  parasitic  Hymenoptera  there  is  only  a  single 
embryonic  membrane  formed  by  delamination  from  the  blastoderm, 
while  in  a  few  insects,  including  the  wingless  spring-tails,  the  em- 
bryonic membranes  are  vestigial  or  entirely  wanting.  In  the  bristle- 
tails  Lepisma  and  Machilis,  an  interesting  transitional  condition 
of  the  embryonic  membranes  has  lately  been  shown  by  Heymons. 
The  embryo  is  invaginated  into  the  yolk,  but  the  surface  edges  of 
the  blastoderm  do  not  close  over,  so  that  a  groove  or  pore  puts 
the  insunken  space  that  represents  the  amniotic  cavity  into  com- 
munication with  the  outside.  Heymons  believes  that  the  "  dorsal 
organ  "  in  the  embryos  of  the  lower  Arthropoda  corresponds  with 
the  region  invaginated  to  form  the  serosa  of  the  hexapod  embryo. 
Wheeler,  however,  compares  with  the  "  dorsal  organ  "  the  peculiar 
extra  embryonic  membrane  or  indusium  which  he  has  observed 
between  serosa  and  amnion  in  the  embryo  of  the  grasshopper 
Xiphidium. 

Metameric  Segmentation. — The  segments  are  perceptible  at  a  very 
early  stage  of  the  development  as  a  number  of  transverse  bands 
arranged  in  a  linear  sequence.  The  first  segmentation  of  the  ventral 
plate  is  not,  however,  very  definite,  and  the  segmentation  does  not 
make  its  appearance  simultaneously  throughout  the  whole  length  of 
the  plate ;  the  anterior  parts  are  segmented  before  the  posterior.  In 
Orthoptera  and  Thysanura,  as  well  as  some  others  of  the  lower 
insects,  twenty-one  of  these  divisions — not,  however,  all  similar — 
may  be  readily  distinguished,  six  of  which  subsequently  enter  into 
the  formation  of  the  head,  three  going  to  the  thorax  and  twelve  to 
the  abdomen.  In  Hemiptera  only  eleven  and  in  Collembola  only 
six  abdominal  segments  have  been  detected.  The  first  and  last 
of  these  twenty-one  divisions  are  so  different  from  the  others  that 
they  can  scarcely  be  considered  true  segments. 

Head  Segments. — In  the  adult  insect  the  head  is  insignificant  in 
size  compared  with  the  thorax  or  abdomen,  but  in  the  embryo  it 
forms  a  much  larger  portion  of  the  body  than  it  does  in  the  adult. 
Its  composition   has   been   the   subject   of   prolonged   difference  of 
opinion.     Formerly  it  was  said  that  the  head  consisted  of  four 
divisions,  viz.  three  segments  and  the  procephalic  or  prae-oral  lobes. 
It  is  now  ascertained  that  the  procephalic  lobes  consist  of  three 
divisions,  so  that  the  head  must  certainly  be  formed  from  at  least 
six  segments.     The  first  of  these,  according  to  the  nomenclature 
of  Heymons  (see  fig.  17),  is  the  mouth  or  oral  piece;  the  second, 
the  antennal  segment;  the  third,  the  intercalary  or  prae-mandibular 
segment;  while  the   fourth,   fifth,   and   sixth  are   respectively  the 
segments  of  the  mandibles  and  of  the  first  and  second  maxillae. 
These  six  divisions  of  the  head  are  diverse  in  kind,  and  subsequently 
undergo  so  much  change  that  the  part  each  of  them  takes  in 
the  formation  of  the  head-capsule  is  not  finally  determined.    The 
labrum  and  clypeus  are  developed  as  a  single  prolongation  of  the 
oral  piece,  not  as  a  pair  of  appendages.     The  antennal  segment 
apparently  entirely  disappears,  with  the  exception  of  a  pair  of 
appendages  it  bears;  these  become  the  antennae;  it  is  possible 
that  the  original  segment,  or  some  part  of  it,  may  even  become  a 
portion  of  the  actual  antennae.    The  intercalary  segment  has  no 
appendages,  nor  rudiments  thereof,  except,  according  to  H.  Uzel 
(1897),  in  the  thysanuran  Campodea,  and  probably  entirely  dis- 
appears, though  J.  H.  Comstock  and  C.  Kochi  believe  that  the 
labrum  belongs  to  it.     The  appendages  of  the  posterior  three  or 
trophal   segments  become   the   parts  of   the   mouth.     The   ap- 
pendages of  the  two  maxillary  segments  arise  as  treble  instead 
of    single    projections,    thus    differing    from    other    appendages. 
From  these  facts  it  appears  that  the  anterior  three  divisions  of 
the  head  differ  strongly  from  the  posterior  three,  which  greatly 
resemble  thoracic  segments;  hence  it  has  been  thought  possible 
that  the  anterior  divisions  may  represent  a  primitive  head,  to 
which  three  segments  and  their  leg-like  appendages  were  sub- 
sequently added  to  form  the  head  as  it  now  exists.    This  is,  how- 
ever, very  doubtful,  and  an  entirely  different  inference  is  possible. 
Besides  the  five  limb-bearing  somites  just  enumerated,  two  others 
must  now  be  recognized  in  the  head.    One  of  these  is  the  ocular 
segment,  in  front  of  the  antennal,  and  behind  the  primitive  pre- 
oral  segment.     The  other  is  the  segment  of  the  maxillulae  (see 
above,  under  Jaws),  behind  the  mandibular  somite;  the  presence 
of  this  in  the  embryo  of  the  collembolan  Anurida  has  been  lately 
shown   (1900)  by  J.  W.  Folsom   (fig.   18,  v.  5),  who  terms  the 
maxillulae  "  superfinguae  "  on  account  of  their  close  association 
with  the  hypopharynx  or  lingua.     In  reference  to  the  structure 
From  Nussbaum  in  Miall  and  Denny,  The  Cockroach,  Lovell  Reeve  &  Co.  of  the  head-capsule  in  the  imago,  it  appears  that  the  clypeus  and 

FlG.  16. — Cross  section  of  Embryo  of  German  Cockroach  (Phyllo-  labrum  represent,  as  already  said,  an  unpaired  median  outgrowth 
dromia).  S,  serosa;  A,  amnion;  E,  ectoderm;  N,  rudiment  of  nerve-  of  the  oral  piece.  According  to  W.  A.  Riley  (1904)  the  epicranium 
cord ;  M ,  mesodermal  pouches.  Magnified  500  times.  or  "vertex,"  the  compound  eyes  and  the  front  divisions  of  the 

genae  are  formed  by  the  cephalic  lobes  of  the  embryo  (belonging 


membrane  analogous  to  the  amnion   of  higher  Vertebrates  and 
known  by  the  same  term.     Usually  there  arises  around  the  edge 


to  the  ocular  segment),  while  the  mandibular  and  maxillary  segments 
form  the  hinder  parts  of  the  genae  and  the  hypopharynx. 


EMBRYOLOGY] 


HEXAPODA 


425 


Abx, 


Great  difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to  the  hypopharynx,  which 
has  even  been  thought  to  represent  a  distinct  segment,  or  the  pair 
of  appendages  of  a  distinct  segment.  Heymons  considers  that  it 
represents  the  sternites  of  the  three  trophal  segments,  and  that  the 
gula  is  merely  a  secondary  development.  Fclsom  looks  on  the 

hypopharynx  as  a  secondary 
development.  Riley  holds 
that  the  hypopharynx  be- 
longs to  the  mandibular 
and  maxillary  segments, 
while  the  cervical  sclerites 
or  gula  represent  the  ster- 
num of  the  labial  segment. 
The  ganglia  of  the  nervous 
system  offer  some  important 
evidence  as  to  the  mor- 
phology of  the  head,  and 
are  alluded  to  below. 

Thoracic  Segments.  — 
These  are  always  three  in 
number.  The  three  pairs 
of  legs  appear  very  early 
as  rudiments.  Though  the 
(•-•-Thx,  thoracic  segments  bear  the 
wings,  no  trace  of  these 
appendages  exists  till  the 
close  of  the  embryonic  life, 
nor  even,  in  many  cases,  till 
much  later.  The  thoracic 
segments,  as  seen  in  an  early 
stage  of  the  ventral  plate, 
display  in  a  well-marked 
manner  the  essential  ele- 
ments of  the  insect  seg- 
ment. These  elements  are 
a  central  piece  or  sternite, 
and  a  lateral  field  on  each 
side  bearing  the  leg-rudi- 
ment. The  external  part  of 
the  lateral  field  subsequently 
grows  up,  and  by  coalescence 
with  its  fellow  forms  the 
tergite  or  dorsal  part  of  the 
segment. 

Abdominal  Segments  and 
A  ppendages. — We  have  al- 
ready seen  that  in  numerous 
lower  insects  the  abdomen 
is  formed  from  twelve  divi- 
sions placed  in  linear  fashion. 
Eleven  of  these  may  perhaps 
be  considered  as  true  seg- 
ments, but  the  twelfth  or 
terminal  one  is  different,  and 
is  called  by  Heymons  a 
telson;  in  it  is  placed  the 
FIG.  17— Morphology  of  an  Insect:  anal  orince|  and  the  mass 
the  embryo  of  Gryllotalpa,  somewhat  subsequently  becomes  the 
diagrammatic.  The  longitudinal  seg-  upper  and  lower  laminae 
mented  band  along  the  middle  line  re-  anaies.  in  Hemiptera  this 
presents  the  early  segmentation  ot  the  teison  js  absent,  and  the 
nervous  system  and  the  subsequent  ana]  orifi-e  is  placed  quite 
median  field  of  each  sternite;  the  lateral  at  the  terrnination  of  the 
transverse  unshaded  bands  are  the  eleventh  segment.  More- 
lateral  fields  of  each  segment;  the  over  ;n  tnjs  order  the  ab- 
shaded  areas  indicate  the  more  inter-  domen  shows  at  first  a 
nally  placed  mesoderm  layer.  The  seg-  division  into  only  nine  seg- 
ments are  numbered  I -2 1 ;  i -6  will  form  ments  and  a  terminai  mass, 
the  head,  7-9  the  thorax,  1 0-2 1  the  abdo-  which  last  subsequently  be- 
men.  A,  anus;  AbxiAbxu,  appendage  comes  divided  into  two. 
of  1st  and  of  nth  abdominal  segments;  -phe  appendages  of  the 
4ns,  anal  piece  =  telson  or  1 2th  abdo-  abdomen  are  called  cerci, 
mmal  segment;  Ant, antenna;  D«,  styiets  and  gonapophyses. 
deuterencephalon;  Md,  mandible;  Th  differ  much  according 
MX,  first  maxilla;  Mxt  second  to  the  kind  of  insect  and 
maxilla  or  labium;  0,  mouth;  Obcl, 
rudimentary  labrum  and  clypeus; 
Pre,  protencephalon;  5<i,  5/io,  stig- 
mata I  and  10 ;  Terg,  tergite;  Thxt,  IbdominaT  appendages  pre- 
appendage  of  first  thoracic  segment;  vai,s  The  cercii  when 
Trt r,  mtencephalon;  VI,  a  thickening  present  appear  ;n  the 
at  hinder  margin  of  the  mouth.  mature  insect;  to  be  attached 

to  the  tenth  segment,  but 

according  to  Heymons  they  are  really  appendages  of  the  eleventh  seg- 
ment, their  connexion  with  the  tenth  being  secondary  and  the  result 
of  considerable  changes  that  take  place  in  the  terminal  segments. 
It  has  been  disputed  whether  any  true  cerci  exist  in  the  higher  insects, 
but  they  are  probably  represented  in  the  Diptera  and  in  the  scorpion- 
flies  (Mecaptera).  In  those  insects  in  which  a  median  terminal 
appendage  exists  between  the  two  cerci  this  is  considered  to  be  a 


-Abx,,. 


AnS 


After  Heymons. 


in   the   adult   according   to 

Difference  of  opinion 
to    the    nature    of    the 


After     Wheeler,   Journ. 
vol.  viii.,  *:nd  Folsom, 
rus.  Harvard,  xxxvi. 

Fl        TT    I 

FIG.    1 8. — Embryos  of 


prolongation  of  the  eleventh  tergite.  The  stylets,  when  present, 
are  placed  on  the  ninth  segment,  and  in  some  Thysanura  exist  also 
on  the  eighth  segment;  their  development  takes  place  later  in  life 
than  that  of  the  cerci.  The  gonapophyses  are  the  projections  near 
the  extremity  of  the  body  that  surround  the  sexual  orifices,  and 
vary  extremely  according  to  the  kind  of  insect.  They  have  chiefly 
been  studied  in  the  female,  and  form  the  sting  and  ovipositor, 
organs  peculiar  to  this  sex.  They  are  developed  on  the  ventral 
surface  of  the  body  and  are  six  in  number,  one  pair  arising  from  the 
eighth  ventral  plate  and  two  pairs  from  the  ninth.  This  has  been 
found  to  be  the  case  in  insects  so  widely  different  as  Orthoptera  and 
Aculeate  Hymenoptera.  The  genital  armature  of  the  male  is  formed 
to  a  considerable  extent  by  modifications  of  the  segments  them- 
selves. The  development  of  the  armature  has  been  little  studied, 
and  the  question  whether  there  may  be  present  gonapophyses  homo- 
logous with  those  of  the  female  is  open. 

In  the  adult  state  no  insect  possesses  more  than  six  legs,  and 
they  are  always  attached  to  the  thorax;  in  many  Thysanura  there 
are,  however,  processes  on  the  abdomen  that,  as  to  their  position, 
are  similar  to  legs.  In  the  embryos  of  many  insects  there  are  pro- 
jections from  the  segments  of  the  abdomen  similar,  to  a  considerable 
extent,  to  the  rudimentary  thoracic  legs. 
The  question  whether  these  projections 
can  be  considered  an  indication  of  former 
polypody  in  insects  has  been  raised. 
They  do  not  long  persist  in  the  embryo, 
but  disappear,  and  the  area  each  one 
occupied  becomes  part  of  the  sternite. 
In  some  embryos  there  is  but  a  single 
pair  of  these  rudiments  (or  vestiges) 
situate  on  the  first  abdominal  segment, 
and  in  some  cases  they  become  invagina- 
tions  of  a  glandular  nature.  Whether 
cerci,  stylets  and  gonapophyses  are 
developed  from  these  rudiments  has  been 
much  debated.  It  appears  that  it  is 
possible  to  accept  cerci  and  stylets  as 
modifications  of  the  temporary  pseudo- 
pods,  but  it  is  more  difficult  to  believe 
that  this  is  the  case  with  the  gona- 
pophyses, for  they  apparently  commence 
their  development  considerably  later 
than  cerci  and  stylets  and  only  after  the 
apparently  complete  disappearance  of  the  _ 

embryonic  pseudopods.  The  fact  that  Spr\nKtai\(Anurid'amari- 
there  are  two  pairs  of  gonapophyses  on  tuna).  Magnified.  A, 
the  ninth  abdominal  segment  would  be  Head-region  of  germ 
fatal  to  the  view  that  they  are  in  any  way  band.  B,  Section  through 
homologous  with  legs,  were  it  not  that  head  and  thorax.  The 
there  is  some  evidence  that  the  division  neuromeres  are  shown  in 
into  two  pairs  is  secondary  and  incom-  Arabic,  the  appendages 
plete.  But  another  and  apparently  in-  ;n  Roman  numerals, 
superable  objection  may  be  raised — that 
the  appendages  of  the  ninth  segment  are 
the  stylets,  and  that  the  gonapophyses 
cannot  therefore  be  appendicular.  The 
pseudopods  that  exist  on  the  abdomen  of 
numerous  caterpillars  may  possibly  arise 
from  the  embryonic  pseudopods,  but  this 
also  is  far  from  being  established. 

Nervous  System.— The  nervous  system  is  w^^^,*^. 

ectodermal  in  origin,  and  is  developed  and  IO|  Metathoracic. 
segmented  to  a  large  extent  in  connexion 
with  the  outer  part  of  the  body,  so  that  it  affords  important  evidence 
as  to  the  segmentation  thereof.  The  continuous  layer  of  cells  from  _ 
which  the  nervous  system  is  developed  undergoes  a  segmentation 
analogous  with  that  we  have  described  as  occurring  in  the  ventral 
plate;  there  is  thus  formed  a  pair  of  contiguous  ganglia  for  each 
segment  of  the  body,  but  there  is  no  ganglion  for  the  telson.  The 
ganglia  become  greatly  changed  in  position  during  the  later  life, 
and  it  is  usually  said  that  there  are  only  ten  pairs  of  abdominal 
ganglia  even  in  the  embryo.  In  Orthoptera,  Heymons  has  demon- 
strated the  existence  of  eleven  pairs,  the  terminal  pair  becoming, 
however,  soon  united  with  the  tenth.  The  nervous  system  of  the 
embryonic  head  exhibits  three  ganglionic  masses,  anterior  to  the 
thoracic  ganglionic  masses;  these  three  masses  subsequently  amal- 
gamate and  form  the  sub-oesophageal  ganglion,  which  supplies  the 
trophal  segments.  In  front  of  .the  three  masses  that  will  form 
the  sub-oesophageal  ganglion  the  mass  of  cells  that  is  to  form  the 
nervous  system  is  very  large,  and  projects  on  each  side;  this  anterior 
or  "  brain  "  mass  consists  of  three  lobes  (the  prot-,  deut-,  and  trit- 
encephalon  of  Viallanes  and  others),  each  of  which  might  be  thought 
to  represent  a  segmental  ganglion.  But  the  protocerebrum  con- 
tains the  ganglia  of  the  ocular  segment  in  addition  to  those  of 
the  procephalic  lobes.  These  three  divisions  subsequently  form 
the  supra-oesophageal  ganglion  or  brain  proper.  There  are  other 
ganglia  in  addition  to  those  of  the  ventral  chain,  and  Janet  supposes 
that  the  ganglia  of  the  sympathetic  system  indicate  the  existence 
of  three  anterior  head-segments;  the  remains  of  the  segments 
themselves  are,  in  accordance  with  this  view,  to  be  sought  in  the 


Ocular  segment. 

Antennal. 

Trito-cerebral. 

Mandibular. 

Maxillular. 

Maxillary. 

Labial. 

Prothoracic. 

Mesothoracic. 


426 


HEXAPODA 


[GROWTH  AND  CHANGE 


stomodaeum.     Folsom  has  detected  in  the  embryo  of  Anurida  a 
pair  of  ganglia  (fig.  18,  5)  belonging  to  the  maxillular  (or  superlingual) 
segment,  thus  establishing  seven  sets  of  cephalic  ganglia,  and  sup- 
porting his  view  as  to  the  composition  of  the  head. 

Air-tubes. — The  air-tubes,  like  the  food-canal,  are  formed  by  in- 
vaginations  of  the  ectoderm,  which  arise  close  to  the  developing 
appendages,  the  rudimentary  spiracles  appearing  soon  after  the 
budding  limbs.  The  pits  leading  from  these  lengthen  into  tubes, 
and  undergo  repeated  branching  as  development  proceeds. 

Dorsal  Closure, — The  germ  band  evidently  marks  the  ventral 
aspect  of  the  developing  insect,  whose  body  must  be  completed 
by  the  extension  of  the  embryo  so  as  to  enclose  the  yolk  dorsally. 
The  method  of  this  dorsal  closure  varies  in  different  insects.  In  the 
Colorado  beetle  (Doryphora),  whose  development  has  been  studied 
by  W.  M.  Wheeler,  the  amnion  is  ruptured  and  turned  back  from 
covering  the  germ  band,  enclosing  the  yolk  dorsally  and  becoming 
finally  absorbed,  as  the  ectoderm  of  the  germ  band  itself  spreads 
to  form  the  dorsal  wall.  In  some  midges  and  in  caddis-flies  the 
serosa  becomes  ruptured  and  absorbed,  while  the  germ  band,  still 
clothed  with  the  amnion,  grows  around  the  yolk.  In  moths  and 
certain  saw-flies  there  is  no  rupture  of  the  membranes;  the  Russian 
zoologists  Tichomirov  and  Kovalevsky  have  described  the  growth 
of  both  amnion  and  embryonic  ectoderm  around  the  yolk,  the 
embryo  being  thus  completely  enclosed  until  hatching  time  by  both 
amnion  and  serosa.  V.  Graber  has  described  a  similar  method  of 
dorsal  closure  in  the  saw-fly  Hylotoma. 

Mesoderm,  Coelom  and  Blood-System. — From  the  mesoderm 
most  of  the  organs  of  the  body — muscular,  circulatory,  reproductive — 

take  their  origin.    The 
l»  mass  of  cells  undergoes 

segmentation  corre- 
sponding with  the  outer 
segmentation     of     the 
embryo,  and  a  pair  of 
8    cavities — the    coelomic 
pouches  (fig.  1 6,  M) — 
sp  are  formed  in  each  seg- 
f     merit.     Each    coelomic 
pouch — as     traced    by 
Heymons  in  his  study 
ec  on  the  development  of 
the  cockroach  (Phyllo- 
dromia)— divides     into 
three    parts,    of   which 
the    most    dorsal    con- 
tains     the      primitive 

After  Heymons,  Zat.  Wiss.  Zaolog.  vol.  53.  germ-cells,  the  median 

FIG.  19.— Cross  sections  through  Ab-  disappears,  and  the 
domen  of  German  Cockroach  Embryo.  A  ventral  loses  its  boun- 
(later  than  fig.  16)  magnified  65  times.  B  danes  as  ' 
(still  more  advanced,  dorsal  closure  com- 
plete) magnified  48  times. 
ec,  Ectoderm. 
en,  Endoderm. 

sp,  Splanchnic  layer  of  mesoderm. 
y,    Yolk. 
h,    Heart. 

p,   Pericardial  septum. 
c,    Coelom.  -. 

Germ-cells  surrounded  by  rudiment-cells  went    and    coalescence 
of  ovarian  tubes.  of   the   blood   channels 

m,  Muscle-rudiment.  and  by  the  splitting  of 

n,   Nerve-chain.  the    fat    body.      It    is 

/     Fat  body  therefore  a  haemocoel, 

s,    I npushing  of  ectoderm  to  form  air-tubes,   the  coelom  of  the  de- 
ar,   Secondary  body-cavity.  veloped     insect     being 

represented     only     by 
the  cavities  of  the  genital  glands  and  their  ducts. 

Reproductive  Organs. — In  the  cockroach  embryo,  before  the  seg- 
mentation of  the  germ-band  has  begun,  the  primitive  germ-cells 
can  be  recognized  at  the  hinder  end  of  the  mesoderm,  from  whose 
ordinary  cells  they  can  be  distinguished  by  their  larger  size.  At  a 
later  stage  further  germ-cells  arise  from  the  epithelium  of  the  coelomic 
pouches  from  the  second  to  the  seventh  abdominal  segments,  and 
become  surrounded  by  other  mesoderm  cells  which  form  the  ovarian 
or  testicular  tubes  and  ducts  (fig.  19,  g).  In  the  male  of  Phyllo- 
dromia  the  rudiment  of  a  vestigial  ovary  becomes  separated  from  the 
developing  testis,  indicating  perhaps  an  originally  hermaphrodite 
condition.  An  exceedingly  early  differentiation  of  the  primitive 
germ-cells  occurs  in  certain  Diptera.  E.  Metchnikoff  observed 
(1866)  in  the  development  of  the  parthenogenetic  eggs  produced  by 
the  .precocious  larva  of  the  gall-midge  Cecidomyia  that  a  large 
"  polar-cell  "  appeared  at  one  extremity  during  the  primitive  cell- 
segmentation.  This  by  successive  divisions  forms  a  group  of  four  to 
eight  cells,  which  subsequently  pass  through  the  blastoderm,  and 
dividing  into  two  groups  become  symmetrically  arranged  and 
surrounded  by  the  rudiments  of  the  ovarian  tubes.  E.  G.  E&albiani 
and  R.  Ritter  (1890)  have  since  observed  a  similar  early  origin  for 
the  germ-cells  in  the  midge  Chironomus  and  in  the  Aphidae. 

The  paired  oviducts  and  vasa  deferentia  are,  as  we  have  seen, 


filled  up  with  the  grow- 
ing fat  body  (fig.  19). 
This  latter,  as  well  as  the 
heart  and  the  walls  of 
the  blood  spaces,  arises 
by  the  modification  of 
mesodermal  cells,  and 
the  body  cavity  is 
formed  by  the  enlarge- 


g 


mesodermal  in  origin.  The  median  vagina,  spermatheca  and 
ejaculatory  duct  are,  on  the  other  hand,  formed^  by  ectodermal 
inpushings.  The  classical  researches  of  J.  A.  Palmen  (1884)  on  these 
ducts  have  shown  that  in  may-flies  and  in  female  earwigs  the  paired 
mesodermal  ducts  open  directly  to  the  exterior,  while  in  male  earwigs 
there  is  a  single  mesodermal  duct,  due  either  to  the  coalescence  of  the 
two  or  to  the  suppression  of  one.  In  the  absence  of  the  external 
ectodermal  ducts  usual  in  winged  insects,  these  two  groups  resemble 
therefore  the  primitive  Aptera.  The  presence  of  rudiments  of  the 
genital  ducts  of  both  sexes  in  the  embryo  of  either  sex  is  interesting 
and  suggestive.  The  ejaculatory  duct  which  opens  on  the  ninth 
abdominal  sternum  in  the  adult  male  arises  in  the  tenth  abdominal 
embryonic  segment  and  subsequently  moves  forward. 

GKOWTH  AND  METAMORPHOSIS 

After  hatching  or  birth  an  insect  undergoes  a  process  of  growth 
and  change  until  the  adult  condition  is  reached.     The  varied 


a. 


After  Marlatt,  Ent.  Bull.  4,  n.  s.  (U.S.  Dept  Agr.). 

FIG.  20. — a,  Bed-bug  (Cimex  lectularius,  Linn.) ;  newly  hatched 
young  from  beneath;  6,  from  above;  d,  egg,  magnified  25  times; 
c,  toot  with  claws;  e,  serrate  spine,  more  highly  magnified. 

details  of  this  post-embryonic  development  furnish  some  of  the 
most  interesting  facts  and  problems  to  the  students  of  the 
Hexapoda.  Wingless  insects,  such  as  spring-tails  and  lice,  make 
their  appearance  in  the  form  of  miniature  adults.  Some  winged 
insects— cockroaches,  bugs  (fig.  20)  and  earwigs,  for  example—- 
when young  closely  resemble  their  parents,  except  for  the  absence 
of  wings.  On  the  other  hand,  we  find  in  the  vast  majority  of  the 
Hexapoda  a  very  marked  difference  between  the  perfect  insect 
(imago)  and  the  young  animal  when  newly  hatched  and  for  some 
time  after  hatching.  From  the  moth's  egg  comes  a  crawling 
caterpillar  (fig.  21,  c),  from  the  fly's  a  legless  maggot  (fig.  25,  a). 


From  Mally,  Entt  Bull.  24  (U.S.  Dept.  Agr.). 

FIG.  21. — e,f,   Owl   moth    (Heliothis  armigera);   a,b,  egg,  highly 
magnified;  c,  larva  or  caterpillar;  d,  pupa  in  earthen  cell. 

Such  a  young  insect  is  a  larva — a  term  used  by  zoologists  for 
young  animals  generally  that  are  decidedly  unlike  their  parents. 
It  is  obvious  that  the  hatching  of  the  young  as  a  larva  necessitates 


GROWTH  AND  CHANGE] 


HEXAPODA 


427 


a  more  or  less  profound  transformation  or  metamorphosis  before 
the  perfect  state  is  attained.  Usually  this  transformation  comes 
•with  apparent  suddenness,  at  the  penultimate  stage  of  the 
insect's  life-history,  when  the  passive  pupa  (fig.  21,  d)  is  revealed, 
exhibiting  the  wings  and  other  imaginal  structures,  which  have 
been  developed  unseen  beneath  the  cuticle  of  the  larva.  Hexapoda 
with  this  resting  pupal  stage  in  their  life-history  are  said  to 
undergo  "  a  complete  transformation,"  to  be  metabolic,  or 
holometabolic,  whereas  those  insects  in  which  the  young  form 
resembles  the  parent  are  said  to  be  ametabolic.  Such  insects  as 
dragon-flies  and  may-flies,  whose  young,  though  unlike  the  parent, 
develop  into  the  adult  form  without  a  resting  pupal  stage  are 
said  to  undergo  an  "  incomplete  transformation "  or  to  be 
hemimetabolic.  The  absence  of  the  pupal  stage  depends  upon 
the  fact  that  in  the  ametabolic  and  hemimetabolic  Hexapoda  the 
wing-rudiments  appear  as  lateral  outgrowths  (fig.  22)  of  the  two 
hinder  thoracic  segments  and  are  visible  externally  throughout 
the  life-history,  becoming  larger  after  each  moult  or  casting  of  the 
cuticle.  Hence,  as  has  been  pointed  out  by  D.  Sharp  (1898),  the 
marked  divergence  among  the  Hexapoda,  as  regards  life-history, 
is  between  insects  whose  wings  develop  outside  the  cuticle 
(Exopterygota)  and  those  whose  wings  develop  inside  the  cuticle 
(Endopterygota),  becoming  visible  only  when  the  casting  of  the 
last  larval  cuticle  reveals  the  pupa.  Metamorphosis  among  the 
Hexapoda  depends  upon  the  universal  acquisition  of  wings 


After  Howard,  Insect  Life,  vol.  vii. 

FIG.  22. — Nymph  of  Locust  (Schistocera  americana),  showing  wing- 
rudiments. 

during  post-embryonic  development — no  insect  being  hatched 
with  the  smallest  external  rudiments  of  those  organs — and  on  the 
necessity  for  successive  castings  or  "  moults  "  (ecdyses)  of  the 
cuticle. 

Ecdysis. — The  embryonic  ectoderm  of  an  insect  consists  of  a 
layer  of  cells  forming  a  continuous  structure,  the  orifices  in  it — 
mouth,  spiracles,  anus  and  terminal  portions  of  the  genital 
ducts — being  invaginations  of  the  outer  wall.  This  cellular  layer 
is  called  the  hypodermis;  it  is  protected  externally  by  a  cuticle, 
a  layer  of  matter  it  itself  excretes,  or  in  the  excretion  of  which  it 
plays,  at  any  rate,  an  important  part.  The  cuticle  is  a  dead 
substance,  and  is  composed  in  large  part  of  chitin.  The  cuticle 
contrasts  strongly  in  its  nature  with  the  hypodermis  it  protects. 
It  is  different  in  its  details  in  different  insects  and  in  different  stages 
of  the  life  of  the  same  insect.  The  "  sclerites  "  that  make  up  the 
skeleton  of  the  insect  (which  skeleton,  it  should  be  remembered, 
is  entirely  external)  are  composed  of  this  chitinous  excretion.  The 
growth  of  an  insect  is  usually  rapid,  and  as  the  cuticle  does  not 
share  therein,  it  is  from  time  to  time  cast  off  by  moulting  or 
ecdysis.  Before  a  moult  actually  occurs  the  cuticle  becomes 
separated  from  its  connexion  with  the  underlying  hypodermis. 
Concomitant  with  this  separation  there  is  commencement  of  the 
formation  of  a  new  cuticle  within  the  old  one,  so  that  when  the 
latter  is  cast  off  the  insect  appears  with  a  partly  completed  new 
cuticle.  The  new  instar — or  temporary  form — is  often  very 
different  from  the  old  one,  and  this  is  the  essential'fact  of  meta- 
morphosis. Metamorphosis  is,  from  this  point  of  view,  the  sum 
of  the  changes  that  take  place  under  the  cuticle  of  an  insect 
between  the  ecdyses,  which  changes  only  become  externally 
displayed  when  the  cuticle  is  cast  off.  The  hypodermis  is  the 
immediate  agent  in  effecting  the  external  changes. 


The  study  of  the  physiology  of  ecdysis  in  its  simpler  forms  has  un- 
fortunately been  somewhat  neglected,  investigators  having  directed 
their  attention  chiefly  to  the  cases  that  are  most  striking,  such  as 
the  transformation  of  a  maggot  into  a  fly,  or  of  a  caterpillar  into  a 
butterfly.  The  changes  have  been  found  to  be  made  up  of  two  sets 
of  processes:  histolysis,  by  which  the  whole  or  part  of  a  structure 
disappears:  and  histogenesis,  or  the  formation  of  the  new  structure. 
By  histolysis  certain  parts  of  the  hypodermis  are  destroyed,  while 
other  portions  of  it  develop  into  the  new  structures.  The  hypo- 
dermis is  composed  of  parts  of  two  different  kinds,  viz.  (i)  the  larger 
part  of  the  hypodermis  that  exists  in 
the  maggot  or  caterpillar  and  is  dis- 
solved at  the  metamorphosis;  (2)  parts 
that  remain  comparatively  quiescent 
previously,  and  that  grow  and  develop 
when  the  other  parts  degenerate.  These 
centres  of  renovation  are  called  imaginal 
disks  or  folds.  The  adult  caterpillar 
may  be  described  as  a  creature  the 
hypodermis  of  which  is  studded  with  Adapted  from  Koerschelt  and 
buds  that  expand  and  form  the  butter-  Herder-  ^  ^°me- 
fly,  while^the  parts  around  them  de- .  FIG.  23. — Diagram  show- 
generate.  In  some  insects  (e.g.  the  mgpositionof  imaginal  buds 
maggots  of  the  blowfly,  Calliphora  in  larva  of  fly.  I.,  II.,  III., 
vomitoria)  the  imaginal  disks  are  to  all  the  three  thoracic  segments 
appearance  completely  separated  from  °*  tne  larva;  I,  2,  3,  buds 
the  hypodermis,  with  which  they  are,  °f  the  legs  of  the  imago ;  h, 
however,  really  organically  connected  Dud  of  head-lobes;  /,  of 
by  strings  or  pedicels.  This  connexion  feeler;  e,oi  eye;  6,  brain, 
was  not  at  first  recognized  and  the  true  nature  of  imaginal  disks  was 
not  at  first  perceived,  even  by  Weismann,  to  whom  their  discovery  in 
Diptera  is  due.  In  other  insects  the  imaginal  disks  are  less  completely 
disconnected  from  the  superficies  of  the  larval  hypodermis,  and  may 
indeed  be  merely  patches  thereof.  The  number  of  imaginal  disks 
in  an  individual  is  large,  upwards  of  sixty  having  been  discovered 
to  take  part  in  the  formation  of  the  outer  body  of  a  fly.  With  regard 
to  the  internal  organs,  we  need  only  say  that  transformation  occurs 
in  an  essentially  similar  manner,  by  means  of  a  development  from 
centres  distributed  in  the  various  organs.  The  imaginal  disks  for 
the  outer  wall  of  the  body,  some  of  them,  at  any  rate,  include  meso- 
dermal  rudiments  (from  which  the  muscles  are  developed)  as  well  as 
hypodermis.  The  imaginal  disks  make  their  appearance  (that  is, 
have  been  first  detected)  at  very  different  epochs  in  the  life;  their 
absolute  origin  has  been  but  little  investigated.  Pratt  has  traced 
them  in  the  sheep-tick  (Melophagus)  to  an  early  stage  of  the  embryonic 
life. 

Histolysis  and  Histogtnesis. — The  process  of  destruction  of  the  larval 
tissues  was  first  studied  in  the  forms  where  metamorphosis  is  greatest 
and  most  abrupt,  viz.  in  the  Muscid  Diptera.  It  was  found  that 
the  tissues  were  attacked  by  phagocytic  cells  that  became  enlarged 
and  carried  away  fragments  of  the  tissue;  the  cells  were  subsequently 
identified  as  leucocytes  or  blood-cells.  Hence  the  opinion  arose  that 
histolysis  is  a  process  of  phagocytosis.  It  has,  however,  since  been 
found  that  in  other  kinds  of  insects  the  tissues  degenerate  and  break 
down  without  the  intervention  of  phagocytes.  It  has,  moreover, 
been  noticed  that  even  in  cases  where  phagocytosis  exists  a  greater  or 
less  extent  of  degeneration  of  the  tissue  may  be  observed  before 
phagocytosis  occurs.  This  process  can  therefore  only  be  looked 
on  as  a  secondary  one  that  hastens  and  perfects  the  destruction 
necessary  to  permit  of  the  accompanying  histogenesis.  This  view 
is  confirmed  by  the  fate  of  the  phagocytic  cells.  These  do  not  take  a 
direct  part  in  the  formation  of  the  new  tissue,  but  it  is  believed  merely 
yield  their  surplus  acquisitions,  becoming  ordinary  blood-cells  or 
disappearing  altogether.  As  to  the  nature  of  histogenesis,  nothing 
more  can  be  saidj  than  that  it  appears  to  be  a  phenomenon  similar 
to  embryonic  growth,  though  limited  to  certain  spots.  Hence  we 
are  inclined  to  look  on  the  imaginal  disks  as  cellular  areas  that  possess 
in  a  latent  condition  the  powers  of  growth  and  development  that 
exist  in  the  embryo,  powers  that  only  become  evident  in  certain 
special  conditions  of  the  organism.  What  the  more  essential  of  these 
conditions  may  be  is  a  question  on  which  very  little  light  has  been 
thrown,  though  it  has  been  widely  discussed. 

Much  consideration  has  been  given  to  the  nature  of  meta- 
morphosis in  insects,  to  its  value  to  the  creatures  and  to  the 
mode  of  it?  origin.  Insect  metamorphosis  may  be  briefly 
described  as  phenomena  of  development  characterized  by  abrupt 
changes  of  appearance  and  of  structure,  occurring  during  the 
period  subsequent  to  embryonic  development  and  antecedent  to 
the  reproductive  state.  It  is,  in  short,  a  peculiar  mode  of  growth 
and  adolescence.  The  differences  in  appearance  between  the 
caterpillar  and  the  butterfly,  striking  as  they  are  to  the  eye,  do 
not  sufficiently  represent  the  phenomena  of  metamorphosis  to  the 
intelligence.  The  changes  that  take  place  involve  a  revolution  in 
the  being,  and  may  be  summarized  under  three  headings:  (i) 
The  food-relations  of  the  individual  are  profoundly  changed,  an 
entirely  different  set  of  mouth-organs  appears  and  the  kind  and 


428 


HEXAPODA 


[GROWTH  AND  CHANGE 


quantity  of  the  food  taken  is  often  radically  different.  (2)  A 
wingless,  sedentary  creature  is  turned  into  a  winged  one  with 
superlative  powers  of  aerial  movement.  (3)  An  individual  in 
which  the  reproductive  organs  and  powers  are  functionally 
absent  becomes  one  in  which  these  structures  and  powers  are  the 
only  reason  for  existence,  for  the  great  majority  of  insects  die 
after  a  brief  period  of  reproduction.  These  changes  are  in  the 
higher  insects  so  extreme  that  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  how  they 
could  be  increased.  In  the  case  of  the  common  drone-fly, 
Eristalis  tenax,  the  individual,  from  a  sedentary  maggot  living  in 
filth,  without  any  relations  of  sex,  and  with  only  unimportant 
organs  for  the  ingestion  of  its  foul  nutriment,  changes  to  a 
creature  of  extreme  alertness,  with  magnificent  powers  of  flight, 
living  on  the  products  of  the  flowers  it  frequents,  and  endowed 
with  highly  complex  sexual  structures. 

Forms  of  Larva. — The  unlikeness  of  the  young  insect  to  its 
parent  is  one  of  the  factors  that  necessitates  metamorphosis. 
It  is  instructive,  further,  to  trace  among 
metabolic  insects  an  increase  in  the  degree 
of  this  dissimilarity.  An  adult  Hexapod 
is  provided  with  a  firm,  well-chitinized 
cuticle  and  six  conspicuous  jointed  legs. 
Many  larval  Hexapods  might  be  defined 
in  similar  general  terms,  unlike  as  they  are 
to  their  parents  in  most  points  of  detail. 
Examples  of  such  are  to  be  seen  in  the 
grubs  of  may-flies,  dragon-flies,  lace- 
wing-flies  and  ground-beetles  (fig.  24). 
This  type  of  active,  armoured  larva — • 
often  bearing  conspicuous  feelers  on  the 
head  and  long  jointed  cercopods  on  the 
tenth  abdominal  segment — was  styled  cam- 
podeiform by  F.  Brauer  (1869),  on  account 
of  its  likeness  in  shape  to  the  bristle-tail 
Campodea.  As  an  extreme  contrast  to  this 

After        W  t*  s  t  \M  n  nrl 

Modern  Classification.  '  campodeiform  type,  we  take  the  maggot 
FIG.  24. — Cam-  of  the  house-fly  (fig.  25) — a  vermiform 
podeiform  Larva  of  larva,  with  soft,  white,  feebly-chitinized 
a  Ground -Beetle  cuticle  and  without  either  head-capsule 
legs.  Between  these  two  extremes, 
numerous  intermediate  forms  can  be  traced: 
the  grub  (wireworm)  of  a  click-beetle,  with  narrow  elongate 
well-armoured  body,  but  with  the  legs  very  short;  the  grub 
of  a  chafer,  with  the  legs  fairly  developed,  but  with  the  cuticle 
of  all  the  trunk-segments  soft  and  feebly  chitinized;  the  well- 
known  caterpillar  of  a  moth  (fig.  2T,  e)  or  saw-fly,  with  its 
long  cylindrical  body,  bearing  the  six  shortened  thoracic  legs 
and  a  variable  number  of  pairs  of  "  pro-legs  "  on  the  abdomen 
(this  being  the  eruciform  type  of  larva);  the  soft,  white,  wood- 


(Aepus    marinus). 
Magnified  20  times. 


TERZI. 

After  Howard,  Etit.  Bull.  4.  n.  s.  (U.S.  Deft.  Agr.). 

FIG.  25. — Vermiform  Larva  (maggot)  of  House-fly  (Musca  domes- 
tica).  Magnified  5  times,  b,  spiracle  on  prothorax;  c,  protruded  head 
region ;  d,  tail-end  with  functional  spiracles ;  e,  f,  head  region  with 
mouth  hooks  protruded;  g,  hooks  retracted;  A, eggs.  All  magnified. 

boring  grub  of  a  longhorn-beetle  or  of  the  saw-fly  Sirex,  with 
its  stumpy  vestiges  of  thoracic  legs;  the  large-headed  but 
entirely  legless,  fleshy  grub  of  a  weevil;  and  the  legless  larva, 
with  greatly  reduced  head,  of  a  bee.  The  various  larvae  of 
the  above  series,  however,  have  all  a  distinct  head-capsule, 
which  is  altogether  wanting  in  the  degraded  fly  maggot.  These 
differences  in  larval  form  depend  in  part  on  the  surroundings 


among  which  the  larva  finds  itself  after  hatching;  the  active, 
armoured  grub  has  to  seek  food  for  itself  and  to  fight  its  own 
battles,  while  the  soft,  defenceless  maggot  is  provided  with 
abundant  nourishment.  But  in  general  we  find  that  elaboration 
of  imaginal  structure  is  associated  with  degradation  in  the  nature 
of  the  larva,  cruciform  and  vermiform  larvae  being  characteristic 
of  the  highest  orders  of  the  Hexapoda,  so  that  unlikeness 
between  parent  and  offspring  has  increased  with  the  evolution 
of  the  class. 

Hypermetamorphosis. — Among  a  few  of  the  beetles  or  Coleo- 
ptera  (q.v.),  and  also  in  the  neuropterous  genus  Mantispa,  are 
found  life-histories  in  which  the  earliest  instar  is  campodeiform 
and  the  succeeding  larval  stages  eruciform.  These  later  stages, 
comprising  the  greater  part  of  the  larval  history,  are  adapted 
for  an  inquiline  or  a  parasitic  life,  where  shelter  is  assured 
and  food  abundant,  while  the  short-lived,  active  condition 
enables  the  newly-hatched  insect  to  make  its  way  to  the  spot 
favourable  for  its  future  development,  clinging,  for  example, 
in  the  case  of  an  oil-beetle's  larva,  to  the  hairs  of  a  bee  as  she 
flies  towards  her  nest.  The  presence  of  the  two  successive 
larval  forms  in  the  life-history  constitutes  what  is  called  hyper- 
metamorphosis.  Most  significant  is  the  precedence  of  the 
eruciform  by  the  campodeiform  type.  In  conjunction  with 
the  association  mentioned  above  of  the  most  highly  developed 
imaginal  with  the  most  degraded  larval  structure,  it  indicates 
clearly  that  the  active,  armoured  grub  preceded  the  sluggish 
soft-skinned  caterpillar  or  maggot  in  the  evolution  of  the  Hexa- 
poda. 

Nymph. — The  term  nymph  is  applied  by  many  writers  on  the 
Hexapoda  to  all  young  forms  of  insects  that  are  not  sufficiently 
unlike  their  parents  to  be  called  larvae.  Other  writers  apply 
the  term  to  a  "  free  "  pupa  (see  infra).  It  is  in  wellnigh  universal 
use  for  those  instars  of  ametabolous  and  hemimetabolous 
insects  in  which  the  external  wing-rudiments  have  become 
conspicuous  (fig.  27).  The  mature  dragon-fly  nymph,  for 
example,  makes  its  way  out  of  the  water  in  which  the  early 
stages  have  been  passed  and,  clinging  to  some  water-plant, 
undergoes  the  final  ecdysis  that  the  imago  may  emerge  into 
the  air.  Like  most  ametabolic  and  hemimetabolic  Hexapoda, 
such  nymphs  continue  to  move  and  feed  throughout  their 
lives.  But  examples  are  not  wanting  of  a  more  or  less  complete 
resting  habit  during  the  latest  nymphal  instar.  In  some  cicads 
the  mature  nymph  ceases  to  feed  and  remains  quiescent  within 
a  pillar-shaped  earthen  chamber.  The  nymph  of  a  thrips-insect 
(Thysanoptera)  is  sluggish,  its  legs  and  wings  being  sheathed 
by  a  delicate  membrane,  while  the  nymph  of  the  male  scale- 
insect  rests  enclosed  beneath  a  waxy  covering. 

Sub-imago. — Among  the  Hexapoda  generally  there  is  no 
subsequent  ecdysis  nor  any  further  growth  after  the  assumption 
of  the  winged  state.  The  may-flies,  however,  offer  a  remarkable 
exception  to  this  rule.  After  a  prolonged  aquatic  larval  and 
nymphal  life-history,  the  winged  insect  appears  as  a  sub-imago, 
whence,  after  the  casting  of  a  delicate  cuticle,  the  true  imago 
emerges. 

Pupa. — In  the  metabolic  Hexapoda  the  resting  pupal  instar 
shows  externally  the  wings  and  other  characteristic  imaginal 
organs  which  have  been  gradually  elaborated  beneath  the 
larval  cuticle.  It  is  usual  to  distinguish  between  the  free 
pupae  (fig.  26,  b) — of  Coleoptera  and  Hymenoptera,  for  example 
— in  which  the  wings,  legs  and  other  appendages  are  not  fixed 
to  the  trunk,  and  the  obtect  pupae  (fig.  21,  d) — such  as  may 
be  noticed  in  the  majority  of  the  Lepidoptera — whose  append- 
ages are  closely  and  immovably  pressed  to  the  body  by  a  general 
hardening  and  fusion  of  the  cuticle.  In  the  degree  of  mobility 
there  is  great  diversity  among  pupae.  A  gnat  pupa  swims 
through  the  water  by  powerful  strokes  of  its  abdomen,  while 
the  caddis-fly  pupa,  in  preparation  for  its  final  ecdysis,  bites 
its  way  out  of  its  subaqueous  protective  case  and  rises  through 
the  water,  so  that  the  fly  may  emerge  into  the  air.  Some 
pupae  are  thus  more  active  than  some  nymphs;  the  essential 
character  of  a  pupa  is  not  therefore  its  passivity,  but  that  it 
is  the  instar  in  which  the  wings  first  become  evident  externally. 


GROWTH  AND  CHANGE] 


HEXAPODA 


429 


The  division  of  the  winged  Hexapoda  into  Exopteryga  and 
Endopteryga  is  thus  again  justified. 

If  we  admit  that  the  larva  has,  in  the  phylogeny  of  insects,  gradually 
diverged  from  the  imago,  and  if  we  recollect  that  in  the  ontogeny  the 
larva  has  always  to  become  the  imago  (and  of  course  still  does  so) 
notwithstanding  the  increased  difficulty  of  the  transformation,  we 
cannot  but  recognize  that  a  period  of  helplessness  in  which  the 
transformation  may  take  place  is  to  be  expected.  It  is  generally 
considered  that  this  is  sufficient  as  an  explanation  of  the  existence 
of  the  pupa.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case,  because  the  greater 
part  of  the  transformation  precedes  the  disclosure  of  the  pupa, 
which,  as  L.  C.  Miall  remarks,  is  structurally  little  other  "  than  the 
fly  enclosed  in  a  temporary  skin."  Moreover,  in  many  insects  with 
imperfect  metamorphosis  the  change  from  larva  or  (as  the  later  stage 
of  the  larva  is  called  in  these  cases)  nymph  to  imago  is  about  as  great 
as  the  corresponding  change  in  the  Holometabola,  as  the  student 
will  recognize  if  he  recalls  the  histories  of  Ephemeridae,  Odonata  and 
male  Coccidae.  But  in  none  of  these  latter  cases  have  the  wings  to 
be  changed  from  a  position  inside  the  body  to  become  external  and 
actively  functional  organs.  The  difference  between  the  nymph  or 
false  pupa  and  the  true  pupa  is  that  in  the  latter  a  whole  stage  is 
devoted  to  the  perfecting  of  the  wings  and  body-wall  after  the  wings 
have  become  external  organs;  the  stage  is  one  in  which  no  food  is  or 
can  be  taken,  however  prolonged  may  be  its  existence.  Amongst 
insects  with  imperfect  metamorphosis  the  nearest  approximations 
to  the  true  pupa  of  the  Holometabola  are  to  be  found  in  the  subimago 


From  Chittenden,  Bull.  4  (n.s.)  Din.  Ent.  U.S.  Dipt.  Air. 

FIG.  26. — a,  Saw-toothed  Grain- Beetle  (Silvanus  surinamensis) ; 
b,  pupa;  c,  larva,  magnified  12  times;  d,  feeler  of  larva. 

of  Ephemeridae  and  in  the  quiescent  or  resting  stages  of  Thysanoptera, 
Aleurodidae  and  Coccidae.  A  much  more  thorough  appreciation 
than  we  yet  possess  of  the  phenomena  in  these  cases  is  necessary  in 
order  completely  to  demonstrate  the  special  characteristics  of  the 
holometabolous  transformation.  But  even  at  present  we  can  cor- 
rectly state  that  the  true  pupa  is  invariably  connected  with  the 
transference  of  the  wings  from  the  interior  to  the  exterior  of  the  body. 
It  cannot  but  suggest  itself  that  this  transference  was  induced  by 
some  peculiarity  as  to  formation  of  cuticle,  causing  the  growth  of  the 
wings  to  be  directed  inwards  instead  of  outwards.  We  may  remark 
that  fleas  possess  no  wings,  but  are  understood  to  possess  a  true  pupa. 
This  is  a  most  remarkable  case,  but  unfortunately  very  little  informa- 
tion exists  as  to  the  details  of  metamorphosis  in  this  group. 

Life- Relations. — Only  a  brief  reference  can  be  made  here 
to  the  fascinating  subject  of  the  life-relations  of  the  larva, 
nymph  and  pupa,  as  compared  with  those  of  the  imago.  For 
details,  the  reader  may  consult  the  special  articles  on  the  various 
orders  and  groups  of  insects.  A  common  result  of  metamor- 
phosis is  that  the  larva  and  imago  differ  markedly  in  their 
habitat  and  mode  of  feeding.  The  larva  may  be  aquatic,  or 
subterranean,  or  a  burrower  in  wood,  while  the  imago  is  aerial. 
It  may  bite  and  devour  solid  food,  while  the  imago  sucks  liquids. 
It  may  eat  roots  or  refuse,  while  the  imago  lives  on  leaves  and 
flowers.  The  aquatic  habit  of  many  larvae  is  associated  with 
endless  beautiful  adaptations  for  respiration.  The  series  of 
paired  spiracles  on  most  of  the  trunk-segments  is  well  displayed, 
as  a  rule,  in  terrestrial  larvae — caterpillars  and  the  grubs  of  most 
beetles,  for  example.  In  many  aquatic  larvae  we  find  that  all 
the  spiracles  are  closed  up,  or  become  functionless,  except  a 
pair  at  the  hinder  end  which  are  associated  with  some  arrange- 
ment— such  as  the  valvular  flaps  of  the  gnat  larva  or  the  tele- 
scopic ::  tail  "  of  the  drone-fly  larva — for  piercing  the  surface 
film  and  drawing  periodical  supplies  of  atmospheric  air.  A 
similar  restriction  of  the  functional  spiracles  to  the  tail-end 


(fig.  25,  d)  is  seen  in  many  larvae  of  flies  (Diptera  )  that  live  and 
feed  buried  in  carrion  or  excrement.  Other  aquatic  larvae 
have  the  tracheal  system  entirely  closed,  and  are  able  to  breathe 
dissolved  air  by  means  of  tubular  or  leaf-like  gills.  Such  are 
the  grubs  of  stone-flies,  may-flies  (fig.  27)  and  some  dragon-flies 
and  midges.  An  interesting  feature  is  the  difference  often  to 
be  observed  between  an  aquatic  larva 
and  pupa  of  the  same  insect  in  the 
matter  of  breathing.  The  gnat  larva,  for 
example,  breathes  at  the  tail-end,  hanging 
head-downwards  from  the  surface-film. 
But  the  pupa  hangs  from  the  surface  by 
means  of  paired  respiratory  trumpets  on 
the  prothorax,  the  dorsal  thoracic  sur- 
face, where  the  cuticle  splits  to  allow  the 
emergence  of  the  fly,  being  thus  directed 
towards  the  upper  air. 

A  marked  disproportion  between  the 
life-term  of  larva  and  imago  is  common; 
the  former  often  lives  for  months  or 
years,  while  the  latter  only  survives  for 
weeks  or  days  or  hours.  Generally  the 
larval  is  the  feeding,  the  imaginal  the 
breeding,  stage  of  the  life-cycle.  The 
extreme  of  this  "  division  of  labour  "  is 
seen  in  those  insects  whose  jaws  are 
vestigial  in  the  winged  state,  when,  the 
need  for  feeding  all  behind  them,  they 
have  but  to  pair,  to  lay  eggs  and  to  die. 
The  acquisition  of  wings  is  the  sign  of 
developed  reproductive  power.  (.fc^'vJS)  ™TkeDl™l 

Paedogenesis. — Nevertheless,  the  func-  roach,  Lovell  Reeve  &  Co. 
lion  of  reproduction  is  occasionally  exer-  FIG.  27. — Nymph  of 
cised  by  larvae.  In  1865  N.  Wagner  May-fly  (Chloeon  dip- 
made  his  classical  observations  on  the  *S>$BS33i 
production  of  larvae  from  unfertilized  gill-plates  (b,  b).  Mag- 
eggs  developed  in  the  precociously-  nified  7  times.  (The 
formed  ovaries  of  a  larval  gall-midge  feelers  and  legs  are  cut 
(Cecidomyid),  and  subsequent  observers  s 
have  confirmed  his  results  by  studies  on  insects  of  the  same 
family  and  of  the  related  Chironomidae.  The  larvae  produced 
by  this  remarkable  method  (paedogenesis)  of  virgin-reproduction 
are  hatched  within  the  parent  larva,  and  in  some  cases  escape 
by  the  rupture  of  its  body. 

Polyembryony. — Occasionally  the  power  of  reproduction  is 
thrown  still  farther  back  in  the  life-history,  and  it  is  found 
that  from  a  single  egg  a  large  number  of  embryos  may  be  formed. 
P.  Marchal  has  (1904)  described  this  power  in  two  small  parasitic 
Hymenoptera — a  Chalcid  (Encyrlus)  which  lays  eggs  in  the 
developing  eggs  of  the  small  moth  Hyponomeula,  and  a  Procto- 
trypid  (Polygnotus)  which  infests  a  gall-midge  (Cecidomyid) 
larva.  In  the  egg  of  these  insects  a  small  number  of  nuclei 
are  formed  by  the  division  of  the  nucleus,  and  each  of  these 
nuclei  originates  by  division  the  cell-layers  of  a  separate  embryo. 
Thus  a  mass  or  chain  of  embryos  is  produced,  lying  in  a  common 
cyst,  and  developing  as  their  larval  host  develops.  In  this 
way  over  a  hundred  embryos  may  result  from  a  single  egg. 
Marchal  points  out  the  analogy  of  this  phenomenon  to  the 
artificial  polyembryony  that  has  bean  induced  in  Echinoderm 
and  other  eggs  by  separating  the  blastomeres,  and  suggests 
that  the  abundant  food-supply  afforded  by  the  host-larva  is 
favourable  for  this  multiplication  of  embryos,  which  may  be, 
in  the  first  instance,  incited  by  the  abnormal  osmotic  pressure 
on  the  egg. 

Duration  of  Life. — The  flour-moth  (Epheslia  kuhniella) 
sometimes  passes  through  five  or  six  generations  in  a  single 
year.  Although  one  of  the  characteristics  of  insects  is  the 
brevity  of  their  adult  lives,  a  considerable  number  of  exceptions 
to  the  general  rule  have  been  discovered.  These  exceptions 
may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows:  (i)  Certain  larvae, 
provided  with  food  that  may  be  adequate  in  quantity  but 
deficient  in  nutriment,  may  live  and  go  on  feeding  for  many 


430 


HEXAPODA 


[CLASSIFICATION 


years;  (2)  certain  stages  of  the  life  that  are  naturally  "  resting 
stages  "  may  be  in  exceptional  cases  prolonged,  and  that  to  a 
very  great  extent;  in  this  case  no  food  is  taken,  and  the  activity 
of  the  individual  is  almost  nil;  (3)  the  life  of  certain  insects 
in  the  adult  state  may  be  much  prolonged  if  celibacy  be  main- 
tained; a  female  of  Cybister  roeselii  (a  large  water-beetle) 
has  lived  five  and  a  half  years  in  the  adult  state  in  captivity. 
In  addition  to  these  abnormal  cases,  the  life  of  certain  insects 
is  naturally  more  prolonged  than  usual.  The  females  of  some 
social  insects  have  been  known  to  live  for  many  years.  In 
Tibicen  septemdecim  the  life  of  the  larva  extends  over  from 
thirteen  to  seventeen  years.  The  eggs  of  locusts  may  remain 
for  years  in  the  ground  before  hatching;  and  there  may  thus 
arise  the  peculiar  phenomenon  of  some  species  of  insect  appear- 
ing in  vast  numbers  in  a  locality  where  it  has  not  been  seen  for 
several  years. 

CLASSIFICATION 

Number  of  Species. — It  is  now  considered  that  2,000,000 
is  a  moderate  estimate  of  the  species  of  insects  actually  existing. 
Some  authorities  consider  this  total  to  be  too  small,  and  extend 
the  number  to  10,000,000.  Upwards  of  300,000  species  have  been 
collected  and  described,  and  at  present  the  number  of  named 
forms  increases  at  the  rate  of  about  8000  species  per  annum. 
The  greater  part  by  far  of  the  insects  existing  in  the  world  is 
still  quite  unknown  to  science.  Many  of  the  species  are  in  pro- 
cess of  extinction,  owing  to  the  extensive  changes  that  are 
taking  place  in  the  natural  conditions  of  the  world  by  the 
extension  of  human  population  and  of  cultivation,  and  by  the 
destruction  of  forests;  hence  it  is  probable  that  a  considerable 
proportion  of  the  species  at  present  existing  will  disappear  from 
the  face  of  the  earth  before  we  have  discovered  or  preserved 
any  specimens  of  them.  Nevertheless,  the  constant  increase  of 
our  knowledge  of  insect  forms  renders  classification  increasingly 
difficult,  for  gaps  in  the  series  become  filled,  and  while  the  number 
of  genera  and  families  increases,  the  distinctions  between  these 
groups  become  dependent  on  characters  that  must  seem  trivial 
to  the  naturalist  who  is  not  a  specialist. 

Orders  of  Hexapoda. — In  the  present  article  it  is  only  possible 
to  treat  of  the  division  of  the  Hexapoda  into  orders  and  sub-orders 
and  of  the  relations  of  these  orders  to  each  other.  For  further 
classificatory  details,  reference  must  be  made  to  the  special 
articles  on  the  various  orders.  As  regards  the  vast  majority 
of  insects,  the  orders  proposed  by  Linnaeus  are  acknowledged 
by  modern  zoologists.  His  classification  was  founded  mainly 
on  the  nature  of  the  wings,  and  five  of  his  orders — the  Hymeno- 
ptera  (bees,  ants,  wasps,  &c.),  Coleoptera  (beetles),  Diptera 
(two- winged  flies),  Lepidoptera  (moths  and  butterflies),  and 
Hemiptera  (bugs,  cicads,  &c.) — are  recognized  to-day  with  nearly 
the  same  limits  as  he  laid  down.  His  order  of  wingless  insects 
(Aptera)  included  Crustacea,  spiders,  centipedes  and  other 
creatures  that  now  form  classes  of  the  Arthropoda  distinct  from 
the  Hexapoda;  it  also  included  Hexapoda  of  parasitic  and 
evidently  degraded  structure,  that  are  now  regarded  as  allied 
more  or  less  closely  to  various  winged  insects.  Consequently 
the  modern  order  Aptera  comprises  only  a  very  small  proportion 
of  Linnaeus's  "  Aptera  " — the  spring-tails  and  bristle-tails,  wing- 
less Hexapoda  that  stand  evidently  at  a  lower  grade  of  develop- 
ment than  the  bulk  of  the  class.  The  earwigs,  cockroaches 
and  locusts,  which  Linnaeus  included  among  the  Coleoptera, 
were  early  grouped  into  a  distinct  order,  the  Orthoptera. 
The  great  advance  in  modern  zoology  as  regards  the  classifi- 
cation of  the  Hexapoda  lies  in  the  treatment  of  a  hetero- 
geneous assembly  which  formed  Linnaeus's  order  Neuroptera. 
The  characters  of  the  wings  are  doubtless  important  as  indications 
of  relationship,  but  the  nature  of  the  jaws  and  the  course  of 
the  life-history  must  be  considered  of  greater  value.  Linnaeus's 
Neuroptera  exhibit  great  diversity  in  these  respects,  and  the 
insects  included  in  it  are  now  therefore  distributed  into  a  number 
of  distinct  orders.  The  many  different  arrangements  that 
have  been  proposed  can  hardly  be  referred  to  in  this  article. 
Of  special  importance  in  the  history  of  systematic  entomology 
was  the  scheme  of  F.  Brauer  (1885),  who  separated  the  spring- 


tails  and  bristle-tails  as  a  sub-class  Apterygogenea  from  all 
the  other  Hexapoda,  these  forming  the  sub-class  Pterygogenea 
distributed  into  sixteen  orders.  Brauer  in  his  arrangement 
of  these  orders  laid  special  stress  on  the  nature  of  the  meta- 
morphosis, and  was  the  first  to  draw  attention  to  the  number 
of  Malpighian  tubes  as  of  importance  in  classification.  Sub- 
sequent writers  have,  for  the  most  part,  increased  the  number 
of  recognized  orders;  and  during  the  last  few  years  several 
schemes  of  classification  have  been  published,  in  the  most 
revolutionary  of  which— that  of  A.  Handlirsch  (1903-1904) 
— the  Hexapoda  are  divided  into  four  classes  and  thirty-four 
orders!  Such  excessive  multiplication  of  the  larger  taxonomic 
divisions  shows  an  imperfect  sense  of  proportion,  for  if  the 
term  "  class  "  be  allowed  its  usual  zoological  value,  no  student 
can  fail  to  recognize  that  the  Hexapoda  form  a  single  well- 
defined  class,  from  which  few  entomologists  would  wish  to 
exclude  even  the  Apterygogenea.  In  several  recent  attempts 
to  group  the  orders  into  sub-classes,  stress  has  been  laid  upon 
a  few  characters  in  the  imago.  C.  Borner  (1904),  for  example, 
considers  the  presence  or  absence  of  cerci  of  great  importance, 
while  F.  Klapalek  (1904)  lays  stress  on  a  supposed  distinction 
between  appendicular  and  non-appendicular  genital  processes. 
A  natural  system  must  take  into  account  the  nature  of  the 
larva  and  of  the  metamorphosis  in  conjunction  with  the 
general  characters  of  the  imago.  Hence  the  grouping  of  the 
orders  of  winged  Hexapoda  into  the  divisions  Exopterygota 
and  Endopterygota,  as  suggested  by  D.  Sharp,  is  unlikely  to 
be  superseded  by  the  result  of  any  researches  into  minute 
imaginal  structure.  Sharp's  proposed  association  of  the  parasitic 
wingless  insects  in  a  group  Anapterygota  cannot,  however,  be 
defended  as  natural;  and  recent  researches  into  the  structure 
of  these  forms  enables  us  to  associate  them  confidently  with 
related  winged  orders.  The  classification  here  adopted  is  based 
on  Sharp's  scheme,  with  the  addition  of  suggestions  from  some 
of  the  most  recent  authors — especially  Borner  and  Enderlein. 

Class:  HEXAPODA. 
Sub-class:  APTERYGOTA. 

Primitively  (?)  wingless  Hexapods  with  cumacean  mandibles, 
distinct  maxillulae,  and  locomotor  abdominal  appendages.  Without 
ectodermal  genital  ducts.  Young  closely  resemble  adults. 

The  sub-class  contains  a  single 

Order:  Aptera, 
which  is  divided  into  two  sub-orders: — 

1.  Thysanura  (Bristle-tails) :  with  ten  abdominal  segments;  number 
of  abdominal  appendages  variable.     Cerci  prominent.     Developed 
tracheal  system. 

2.  Collembola   (Spring-tails):  with  six  abdominal  segments;  ap- 
pendages of  the  first  forming  an  adherent  ventral  tube,  those  of 
the  third  a  minute  "  catch,"  those  of  the  fourth  (fused  basally)  a 
"  spring."     Tracheal  system  reduced  or  absent. 

Sub-class:  EXOPTERYGOTA. 

Hexapoda  mostly  with  wings,  the  wingless  forms  clearly  degraded. 
Maxillulae  rarely  distinct.  No  locomotor  abdominal  appendages. 
The  wing-rudiments  develop  visibly  outside  the  cuticle.  Young  like 
or  unlike  parents. 

Order:  Dermaptera. 

Biting  mandibles;  minute  but  distinct  maxillulae;  second  maxil- 
lae incompletely  fused.  When  wings  are  present,  the  fore-wings 
are  small  firm  elytra,  beneath  which  the  delicate  hind-wings  are 
complexly  folded.  Many  forms  wingless.  Genital  ducts  entirely 
mesodermal.  Cerci  always  present;  usually  modified  into  un- 
jointed  forceps.  Numerous  (30  or  more)  Malpighian  tubes.  Young 
resembling  parents. 

Includes  two  families — the  Forficulidae  or  earwigs  (q.v.)  and  the 
Hemimeridae. 

Order:  Orthoptera. 

Biting  mandibles;  vestigial  maxillulae;  second  maxillae  incom- 
pletely fused.  Wings  usually  well  developed,  net-veined;  the  fore- 
wings  of  firmer  texture  than  the  hind-wings,  whose  anal  area  folds 
fanwise  beneath  them.  Jointed  cerci  always  present;  ovipositor 
well  developed.  Malpighian  tubes  numerous  (100-150).  Young 
resemble  parents. 

Includes  stick  and  leaf  insects,  cockroaches,  mantids,  grasshoppers, 
locusts  and  crickets  (see  ORTHOPTERA). 

Order:  Plecoptera. 

Biting  mandibles;  second  maxillae  incompletely  fused.  Fore- 
wings  similar  in  texture  to  hind-wings,  whose  anal  area  folds  fanwise. 
Jointed,  often  elongate,  cerci.  Numerous  (50-60)  Malpigl.ian  tubes. 


GEOLOGICAL  HISTORY] 


HEXAPODA 


43 


Young  resembling  parents,  but  aquatic  in  habit,  breathing  dissolved 
air  by  thoracic  tracheal  gills 

Includes  the  single  family  of  the  Perlidae  (Stone-flies),  formerly 
grouped  with  the  Neuroptera. 

Order :  Isoptera. 

Biting  mandibles;  second  maxillae  incompletely  fused.  Fore- 
wings  similar  in  shape  and  texture  to  hind-wings,  which  do  not  fold. 
In  most  species  the  majority  of  individuals  are  wingless.  Short, 
jointed  cerci.  Six  or  eight  Malpighian  tubes.  Young  resembling 
adults;  terrestrial  throughout  life. 

Includes  two  families,  formerly  reckoned  among  the  Neuroptera 
— the  Embiidae  and  the  Termitidae  or  "  White  Ants  "  (see  TERMITE). 
Order:  Corrodentia. 

Biting  mandibles;  second  maxillae  incompletely  fused;  maxil- 
lulae  often  distinct.  Cerci  absent.  Four  Malpighian  tubes. 

Includes  two  sub-orders,  formerly  regarded  as  Neuroptera : — 

1.  Copeognatha :  Corrodentia  with  delicate  cuticle.     Wings  usually 
developed;  the  fore-wings  much  larger  than  the  hind-wings.     One 
family,  the  Psocidae  (Book-lice).     These  minute  insects  are  found 
amongst  old  books  and  furniture. 

2.  Mallophaga:  Parasitic  wingless  Corrodentia  (Bird-lice). 

Order:  Ephemeroptera. 

Jaws  vestigial.  Fore-wings  much  larger  than  hind-wings.  Elon- 
gate, jointed  cerci.  Genital  ducts  paired  and  entirely  mesodermal. 
Malpighian  tubes  numerous  (40).  Aquatic  larvae  with  distinct 
maxillulae,  breathing  dissolved  air  by  abdominal  tracheal  gills. 
Penultimate  instar  a  flying  sub-imago.  [Includes  the  single  family 
of  the  Ephemeridae  or  may-flies.  See  also  NEUROPTERA,  in  which 
this  order  was  formerly  comprised.] 

Order:  Odonata. 

Biting  mandibles.  Wings  of  both  pairs  closely  alike;  firm  and 
glassy  in  texture.  Prominent,  unjointed  cerci,  male  with  genital 
armature  on  second  abdominal  segment.  Malpighian  tubes  numer- 
ous (50-60).  Aquatic  larvae  with  caudal  leaf -gills  or  with  rectal 
tracheal  system. 

Includes  the  three  families  of  dragon-flies.  Formerly  comprised 
among  the  Neuroptera. 

Order :  Thysanoptera. 

Piercing  mandibles,  retracted  within  the  head-capsule.  First 
maxillae  also  modified  as  piercers;  maxillae  of  both  pairs  with 
distinct  palps.  Both  pairs  of  wings  similar,  narrow  and  fringed. 
Four  Malpighian  tubes.  Cerci  absent.  Ovipositor  usually  present. 
Young  resembling  parents,  but  penultimate  instar  passive  and 
enclosed  in  a  filmy  pellicle. 

Includes  three  families  of  Thrips  (see  THYSANOPTERA). 
Order:  Hemiptera. 

Mandibles  and  first  maxillae  modified  as  piercers;  second  maxillae 
fused  to  form  a  jointed,  grooved  rostrum.  Wings  usually  present. 
Four  Malpighian  tubes.  Cerci  absent.  Ovipositor  developed. 

Includes  two  sub-orders: — 

1.  Heteroptera:  Rostrum  not  in  contact  with  haunches  of  fore-legs. 
Fore--wings  partly  coriaceous.     Young  resembling  adults. 

Includes  the  bugs,  terrestrial  and  aquatic. 

2.  Homoptera:  Rostrum  in  contact  with  haunches  of  fore-legs. 
Fore-wings  uniform  in  texture.     Young  often  larvae.     Penultimate 
instar  passive  in  some  cases. 

Includes  the  cicads,  aphides  and  scale-insects  (see  HEMIPTERA). 
Order:  Anoplura. 

Piercing  jaws  modified  and  reduced,  a  tubular,  protrusible  sucking- 
trunk  being  developed;  mouth  with  hooks.  Wingless,  parasitic 
forms.  Cerci  absent.  Four  Malpighian  tubes.  Young  resembling 
adults. 

Includes  the  family  of  the  Lice  (Pediculidae),  often  reckoned  as 
Hemiptera  (q.v.).  See  also  LOUSE. 

Sub-class:  ENDOPTERYGOTA. 

Hexapoda  mostly  with  wings;  the  wingless  forms  clearly  degraded 
or  modified.  Maxillulae  vestigial  or  absent.  No  locomotor  abdominal 
appendages  (except  in  certain  larvae).  Young  animals  always  unlika 
parents,  the  wing-rudiments  developing  beneath  the  larval  cuticle 
and  only  appearing  in  a  penultimate  pupal  instar,  which  takes  no 
food  and  is  usually  passive. 

Order:  Neuroptera. 

Biting  mandibles;  second  maxillae  completely  fused.  Prothorax 
large  and  free.  Membranous,  net-veined  wings,  those  of  the  two 
pairs  closely  alike.  Six  or  eight  Malpighian  tubes.  Cerci  absent. 
Larva  campodeiform,  usually  feeding  by  suction  (exceptionally 
hypermetamorphic  with  subsequent  cruciform  instars).  Pupa  free. 

Includes  the  alder-flies,  ant-lions  and  lacewing-flies.  See  NEURO- 
PTERA. 

Order:  Coleoptera. 

Biting  mandibles;  second  maxillae  very  intimately  fused.  Pro- 
thorax  large  and  free.  Fore-wings  modified  into  firm  elytra, 
beneath  which  the  membranous  hind-wings  (when  present)  can  be 
folded.  Cerci  absent.  Four  or  six  Malpighian  tubes.  Larva  cam- 
podeiform or  cruciform.  Pupa  free. 


Includes  the  beetles  and  the  parasitic  Stylopidae,  often  regarded 
as  a  distinct  order  (Strepsiptera).     (See  COLEOPTERA.) 
Order:  Mecaptera. 

Biting  mandibles;  first  maxillae  elongate;  second  maxillae  com- 
pletely fused.  Prothorax  small.  Two  pairs  of  similar,  membranous 
wings,  with  predominantly  longitudinal  neuration.  Six  Malpighian 
tubes.  Larva  eruciform.  PuPa  free.  Cerci  present. 

Includes  the  single  family  of  Panorpidae  (scorpion-flies),  often  com- 
prised among  the  Neuroptera. 

Order:  Trichoptera. 

Mandibles  present  in  pupa,  vestigial  in  imago;  maxillae  suctorial 
without  specialization;  first  maxillae  with  lacinia,  galea  and  palp. 
Prothorax  small.  Two  pairs  of  membranous,  hair-covered  wings, 
with  predominantly  longitudinal  neuration.  Larvae  aquatic  and 
eruciform.  Pupa  free.  Six  Malpighian  tubes.  Cerci  absent. 

Includes  the  caddis-flies.  See  NEUROPTERA,  among  which  these 
insects  were  formerly  comprised. 

Order :  Lepidoptera. 

Mandibles  absent  in  imago,  very  exceptionally  present  in  pupa; 
first  maxillae  nearly  always  without  laciniae  and  often  without  palps, 
or  only  with  vestigial  palps,  their  galeae  elongated  and  grooved 
inwardly  so  as  to  form  a  sucking  trunk.  Prothorax  small.  Wings 
with  predominantly  longitudinal  neuration,  covered  with  flattened 
scales.  Fore-wings  larger  than  hind-wings.  Cerci  absent.  Four 
(rarely  6  or  8)  Malpighian  tubes.  Larvae  eruciform,  with  rarely 
more  than  five  pairs  of  abdominal  prolegs.  Pupa  free  in  the  lowest 
families,  in  most  cases  incompletely  or  completely  obtect. 

Includes  the  moths  and  butterflies.     See  LEPIDOPTERA. 
Order:  Diptera. 

Mandibles  rarely  present,  adapted  for  piercing;  first  maxillae 
with  palps;  second  maxillae  forming  with  hypopharynx  a  suctorial 
proboscis.  Prothorax  small,  intimately  united  to  mesothorax. 
Fore- wings  well  developed;  hind-wings  reduced  to  stalked  knobs 
("  halteres  ").  Cerci  present  but  usually  reduced.  Four  Malpi- 
ghian tubes.  Larvae  eruciform  without  thoracic  legs,  or  vermiform 
without  head-capsule.  Pupa  incompletely  obtect  or  free,  and 
enclosed  in  the  hardened  cuticle  of  the  last  larval  instar  (puparium). 

Includes  the  two- winged  flies  (see  DIPTERA),  which  may  be  divided 
into  two  sub-orders: — 

1.  Orthorrhapha:  Larva  eruciform.     Cuticle  of  pupa  or  puparium 
splitting  longitudinally  down  the  back,  to  allow  escape  of  imago. 

Comprises  the  midges,  gnats,  crane-flies,  gad-flies,  &c. 

2.  Cyclorrhapha:  Larva  vermiform  (no  head-capsule).     Puparium 
opening  by  an  anterior  "  lid." 

Comprises  the  hover-flies,  flesh-flies,  bot-flies,  &c. 
Order:  Siphonaptera. 

Mandibles  fused  into  a  piercer ;  first  maxillae  developed  as  piercers ; 
palps  of  both  pairs  of  maxillae  present;  hypopharynx  wanting. 
Prothorax  large.  Wings  absent  or  vestigial.  Larva  eruciform, 
limbless. 

Includes  the  fleas. 

Order:  Hymenoptera. 

Biting  mandibles;  second  maxillae  incompletely  or  completely 
fused;  often  forming  a  suctorial  proboscis.  Prothorax  small,  and 
united  to  mesothorax.  First  abdominal  segment  united  to  meta- 
thorax.  Wings  membranous,  fore-wings  larger  than  hind-wings. 
Ovipositor  always  well  developed,  and  often  modified  into  a  sting. 
Numerous  (20-150)  Malpighian  tubes  (in  rare  cases,  6-12  only). 
Larva  eruciform,  with  seven  or  eight  pairs  of  abdominal  prolegs, 
or  entirely  legless.  Pupa  free. 

Includes  two  sub-orders: — 

1.  Symphyta:  Abdomen  not  basally  constricted.     Larvae  cater- 
pillars with  thoracic  legs  and  abdominal  prolegs. 

Comprises  the  saw-flies. 

2.  Apocrita:  Abdomen  markedly  constricted  at  second  segment. 
Larvae  legless  grubs. 

Comprises  gall-flies,  ichneumon-flies,  ants,  wasps,  bees.  See 
HYMENOPTERA. 

GEOLOGICAL    HISTORY 

The  classification  just  given  has  been  drawn  up  with  reference 
to  existing  insects,  but  the  great  majority  of  the  extinct  forms 
that  have  been  discovered  can  be  referred  with  some  confidence 
to  the  same  orders,  and  in  many  cases  to  recent  families.  The 
Hexapoda,  being  aerial,  terrestrial  and  fresh-water  animals, 
are  but  occasionally  preserved  in  stratified  rocks,  and  our  know- 
ledge of  extinct  members  of  the  class  is  therefore  fragmentary, 
while  the  description,  as  insects,  of  various  obscure  fossils, 
which  are  perhaps  not  even  Arthropods,  has  not  tended  to  the 
advancement  of  this  branch  of  zoology.  Nevertheless,  much 
progress  has  been  made.  Several  Silurian  fossils  have  been 
identified  as  insects,  including  a  Thysanuran  from  North  America, 
but  upon  these  considerable  doubt  has  been  cast. 


432 


HEXAPODA 


[GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION 


The  Devonian  rocks  of  Canada  (New  Brunswick)  have  yielded 
several  fossils  which  are  undoubtedly  wings  of  Hexapods. 
These  have  been  described  by  S.  H.  Scudder,  and  include  gigantic 
forms  related  to  the  Ephemeroptera. 

In  the  Carboniferous  strata  (Coal  measures)  remains  of 
Hexapods  become  numerous  and  quite  indisputable.  Many 
European  forms  of  this  age  have  been  described  by  C.  Brongniart, 
and  American  by  S.  H.  Scudder.  The  latter  has  established, 
for  all  the  Palaeozoic  insects,  an  order  Palaeodictyoptera, 
there  being  a  closer  similarity  between  the  fore-wings  and  the 
hind-wings  than  is  to  be  seen  in  most  living  orders  of  Hexapoda, 
while  affinities  are  shown  to  several  of  these  orders — notably 
the  Orthoptera,  Ephemeroptera,  Odonata  and  Hemiptera.  It 
is  probable  that  many  of  these  Carboniferous  insects  might 
be  referred  to  the  Isoptera,  while  others  would  fall  into  the 
existing  orders  to  which  they  are  allied,  with  some  modification 
of  our  present  diagnoses.  Of  special  interest  are  cockroach- 
like  forms,  with  two  pairs  of  similar  membranous  wings  and 
a  long  ovipositor,  and  gigantic  insects  allied  to  the  Odonata, 
that  measured  2  ft.  across  the  outspread  wings.  A  remark- 
able fossil  from  the  Scottish  Coal-measures  (Lithomantis)  had 
apparently  small  wing-like  structures  on  the  prothorax,  and 
in  allied  genera  small  veined  outgrowths — like  tracheal  gills — 
occurred  on  the  abdominal  segments.  To  the  Permian  period 
belongs  a  remarkable  genus  Eugereon,  that  combines  hemipteroid 
jaws  with  orthopteroid  wing-neuration.  With  the  dawn  of  the 
Mesozoic  epoch  we  reach  Hexapods  that  can  be  unhesitatingly 
referred  to  existing  orders.  From  the  Trias  of  Colorado,  Scudder 
has  described  cockroaches  intermediate  between  their  Carboni- 
ferous precursors  and  their  present-day  descendants,  while 
the  existence  of  endopterygotous  Hexapods  is  shown  by  the 
remains  of  Coleoptera  of  several  families.  In  the  Jurassic  rocks 
are  found  Ephemeroptera  and  Odonata,  as  well  as  Hemiptera, 
referable  to  existing  families,  some  representatives  of  which 
had  already  appeared  in  the  oldest  of  the  Jurassic  ages — the 
Lias.  To  the  Lias  also  can  be  traced  back  the  Neuroptera, 
the  Trichoptera,  the  orthorrhaphous  Diptera  and,  according 
to  the  determination  of  certain  obscure  fossils,  also  the  Hymeno- 
ptera  (ants).  The  Lithographic  stone  of  Kimmeridgian  age, 
at  Solenhofen  in  Bavaria,  is  especially  rich  in  insect  remains, 
cyclorrhaphous  Diptera  appearing  here  for  the  first  time.  In 
Tertiary  times  the  higher  Diptera,  besides  Lepidoptera  and 
Hymenoptera,  referable  to  existing  families,  become  fairly 
abundant.  Numerous  fossil  insects  preserved  in  the  amber 
of  the  Baltic  Oligocene  have  been  described  by  G.  L.  Mayr 
and  others,  while  Scudder  has  studied  the  rich  Oligocene  faunas 
of  Colorado  (Florissant)  and  Wyoming  (Green  River).  The 
Oeningen  beds  of  Baden,  of  Miocene  age,  have  also  yielded 
an  extensive  insect  fauna,  described  fifty  years  ago  by  O.  Heer. 
Further  details  of  the  geological  history  of  the  Hexapoda  will 
be  found  in  the  special  articles  on  the  various  orders.  Frag- 
mentary as  the  records  are,  they  show  that  the  Exopterygota 
preceded  the  Endopterygota  in  the  evolution  of  the  class, 
and  that  among  the  Endopterygota  those  orders  in  which 
the  greatest  difference  exists  between  imago  and  larva — the 
Lepidoptera,  Diptera  and  Hymenoptera — were  the  latest 
to  take  their  rise. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION 

The  class  Hexapoda  has  a  world- wide  range,  and  so  have  most 
of  its  component  orders.  The  Aptera  have  perhaps  the  most 
extensive  distribution  of  all  animals,  being  found  in  Franz  Josef 
Land  and  South  Victoria  Land,  on  the  snows  of  Alpine  glaciers, 
and  in  the  depths  of  the  most  extensive  caves.  Most  of  the 
families  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  genera  of  insects  are 
exceedingly  widespread,  but  a  study  of  the  genera  and  species  in 
any  of  the  more  important  families  shows  that  faunas  can  be 
distinguished  whose  headquarters  agree  fairly  with  the  regions 
that  have  been  proposed  to  express  the  distribution  of  the  higher 
vertebrates.  Many  insects,  however,  can  readily  extend  their 
range,  and  a  careful  study  of  their  distribution  leads  us  to  dis- 
criminate between  faunas  rather  than  definitely  to  map  regions. 


A  large  and  dominant  Holoarctic  fauna,  with  numerous  sub- 
divisions, ranges  over  the  great  northern  continents,  and  is 
characterized  by  the  abundance  of  certain  families  like  the 
Carabidae  and  Staphylinidae  among  the  Coleoptera  and  the 
Tenthredinidae  among  the  Hymenoptera.  The  southern  territory 
held  by  this  fauna  is  invaded  by  genera  and  species  distinctly 
tropical.  Oriental  types  range  far  northwards  into  China  and 
Japan.  Ethiopian  forms  invade  the  Mediterranean  area. 
Neotropical  and  distinctively  Sonoran  insects  mingle  with 
members  of  the  Holoarctic  fauna  across  a  wide  "  transition  zone  " 
in  North  America.  "  Wallace's  line  "  dividing  the  Indo-Malayan 
and  Austro-Malayan  sub-regions  is  frequently  transgressed  in  the 
range  of  Malayan  insects.  The  Australian  fauna  is  rich  in 
characteristic  and  peculiar  genera,  and  New  Zealand,  while 
possessing  some  remarkable  insects  of  its  own,  lacks  entirely 
several  families  with  an  almost  world-wide  range — forexample,  the 
N olodontidae ,  Lasiocampidae,  and  other  families  of  Lepidoptera. 
Interesting  relationships  between  the  Ethiopian  and  Oriental,  the 
Neotropical  and  West  African,  the  Patagonian  and  New  Zealand 
faunas  suggest  great  changes  in  the  distribution  of  land  and 
water,  and  throw  doubt  on  the  doctrine  of  the  permanence  of 
continental  areas  and  oceanic  basins.  Holoarctic  types  reappear 
on  the  Andes  and  in  South  Africa,  and  even  in  New  Zealand. 
The  study  of  the  Hexapoda  of  oceanic  islands  is  full  of  interest. 
After  the  determination  of  a  number  of  cosmopolitan  insects 
that  may  well  have  been  artificially  introduced,  there  remains  a 
large  proportion  of  endemic  species — sometimes  referable  to 
distinct  genera — which  suggest  a  high  antiquity  for  the  truly 
insular  faunas. 

RELATIONSHIPS    AND    PHYLOGENY 

The  Hexapoda  form  a  very  clearly  defined  class  of  the  Arthro- 
poda,  and  many  recent  writers  have  suggested  that  they  must 
have  arisen  independently  of  other  Arthropods  from  annelid 
worms,  and  that  the  Arthropoda  must,  therefore,  be  regarded 
as  an  "  unnatural, ".polyphyletic  assemblage.  The  cogent  argu- 
ments against  this  view  are  set  forth  in  the  article  on  Arthropoda. 
A  near  relationship  between  the  Apterygota  and  the  Crustacea 
has  been  ably  advocated  by  H.  J.  Hansen  (1893).  It  is  admitted 
on  all  hands  that  the  Hexapoda  are  akin  to  the  Chilopoda. 
Verhoeff  has  lately  (1904)  put  forward  the  view  that  there  are 
really  six  segments  in  the  hexapodan  thorax  and  twenty  in  the 
abdomen — the  cerci  belonging  to  the  seventeenth  abdominal 
segment  thus  showing  a  close  agreement  with  the  centipede 
Scolopendra.  On  the  other  hand,  G.  H.  Carpenter  (1899,  1902- 
1904)  has  lately  endeavoured  to  show  an  exact  numerical 
correspondence  in  segmentation  between  the  Hexapoda,  the 
Crustacea,  the  Arachnida,  and  the  most  primitive  of  the  Diplopoda. 
On  either  view  it  may  be  believed  that  the  Hexapoda  arose  with 
the  allied  classes  from  a  primitive  arthropod  stock,  while  the 
relationships  of  the  class  are  with  the  Crustacea,  the  Chilopoda 
and  the  Diplopoda,  rather  than  with  the  Arachnida. 

Nature  of  Primitive  Hexapoda. — Two  divergent  views  have 
been  held  as  to  the  nature  of  the  original  hexapod  stock.  Some 
of  those  zoologists  who  look  to  Peripatus,  or  a  similar  worm-like 
form,  as  representing  the  direct  ancestors  of  the  Hexapoda  have 
laid  stress  on  a  larva  like  the  caterpillar  of  a  moth  or  saw-fly  as 
representing  a  primitive  stage.  On  the  other  hand,  the  view  of 
F.  Miiller  and  F.  Brauer,  that  the  Thysanura  represent  more 
nearly  than  any  other  existing  insects  the  ancestors  of  the  class, 
has  been  accepted  by  the  great  majority  of  students.  And  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  this  belief  is  justified.  The  caterpillar, 
or  the  maggot,  is  a  specialized  larval  form  characteristic  of  the 
most  highly  developed  orders,  while  the  campodeiform  larva  is 
the  starting-point  for  the  more  primitive  insects.  The  occurrence 
in  the  hypermetamorphic  Coleoptera  (see  supra)  of  a  campodei- 
form preceding  an  cruciform  stage  in  the  life-history  is  most 
suggestive.  Taken  in  connexion  with  the  likeness  of  the  young 
among  the  more  generalized  orders  to  the  adults,  it  indicates 
clearly  a  thysanuroid  starting-point  for  the  evolution  of  the 
hexapod  orders.  And  we  must  infer  further  that  the  specializa- 
tion of  the  higher  orders  has  been  accompanied  by  an  increase  in 


RELATIONSHIPS] 


HEXAPODA 


433 


the  extent  of  the  metamorphosis — a  very  exceptional  condition 
among  animals  generally,  as  has  been  ably  pointed  out  by 
L.  C.  Miall  (1895). 

Origin  of  Wings. — The  post-embryonic  growth  of  Hexapods 
with  or  without  metamorphosis  is  accompanied  in  most  cases  by 
the  acquisition  of  wings.  These  organs,  thus  acquired  during  the 
lifetime  of  the  individual,  must  have  been  in  some  way  acquired 
during  the  evolution  of  the  class.  Many  students  of  the  group, 
following  Brauer,  have  regarded  the  Apterygota  as  representing 
the  original  wingless  progenitors  of  the  Pterygota,  and  the  many 
primitive  characters  shown  by  the  former  group  lend  support  to 
this  view.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  argued  that,  the 
presence  of  wings  in  a  vast  majority  of  the  Hexapoda  suggests 
their  presence  in  the  ancestors  of  the  whole  class.  It  is  most 
unlikely  that  wings  have  been  acquired  independently  by  various 
orders  of  Hexapoda,  and  if  we  regard  the  Thysanura  as  the 
slightly  modified  representatives  of  a  primitively  wingless  stock, 
we  must  postulate  the  acquisition  of  wings  by  some  early  offshoot 
of  that  stock,  an  offshoot  whence  the  whole  group  of  the  Pterygota 
took  its  rise.  How  wings  were  acquired  by  these  primitive 
Pterygota  must  remain  for  the  present  a  subject  for  speculation. 
Insect  wings  are  specialized  outgrowths  of  certain  thoracic 
segments,  and  are  quite  unrepresented  in  any  other  class  of 
Arthropods.  They  are  not,  therefore,  like  the  wings  of  birds, 
modified  from  some  pre-existing  structures  (the  fore-limbs) 
common  to  their  phylum;  they  are  new  and  peculiar  structures. 
Comparison  of  the  tracheated  wings  with  the  paired  tracheated 
outgrowths  on  the  abdominal  segments  of  the  aquatic  campodei- 
form  larva  of  may-flies  (see  fig.  27)  led  C.  Gegenbaur  to  the 
brilliant  suggestion  that  wings  might  be  regarded  as  specialized 
and  transformed  gills.  But  a  survey  of  the  Hexapoda  as  a 
whole,  and  especially  a  comparative  study  of  the  tracheal  system, 
can  hardly  leave  room  for  doubt  that  this  system  is  primitively 
adapted  for  atmospheric  breathing,  and  that  the  presence  of 
tracheal  gills  in  larvae  must  be  regarded  as  a  special  adaptation 
for  temporary  aquatic  life.  The  origin  of  insect  wings  remains, 
therefore,  a  mystery,  deepened  by  the  difficulty  of  imagining  any 
probable  use  for  thoracic  outgrowths,  comparable  to  the  wing- 
rudiments  of  the  Exopterygota,  in  the  early  stages  of  their 
evolution. 

Origin  of  Metamorphosis. — In  connexion  with  the  question 
whether  metamorphosis  has  been  gradually  acquired,  we  have  to 
consider  two  aspects,  viz.  the  bionomic  nature  of  metamorphosis, 
and  to  what  extent  it  existed  in  primitive  insects.  Bionomically, 
metamorphosis  may  be  defined  as  the  sum  of  adaptations  that 
have  gradually  fitted  the  larva  (caterpillar  or  maggot)  for  one 
kind  of  life,  the  fly  for  another.  So  that  we  may  conclude  that 
the  factors  of  evolution  would  favour  its  development.  With 
regard  to  its  occurrence  in  primitive  insects,  our  knowledge  of  the 
geological  record  is  most  imperfect,  but  so  far  as  it  goes  it  supports 
the  conclusion  that  holometabolism  (i.e.  extreme  metamorphosis) 
is  a  comparatively  recent  phenomenon  of  insect  life.  None  of 
the  groups  of  existing  Endopterygota  have  been  traced  with 
certainty  farther  back  than  the  Mesozoic  epoch,  and  all  the 
numerous  Palaeozoic  insect-fossils  seem  to  belong  to  forms  that 
possessed  only  imperfect  metamorphosis.  The  only  doubt  arises 
from  the  existence  of  insect  remains,  referred  to  the  order 
Coleoptera,  in  the  Silesian  Culm  of  Steinkunzendorf  near 
Reichenbach.  The  oldest  larva  known,  Mormolucoides  arli- 
culatus,  is  from  the  New  Red  Sandstone  of  Connecticut;  it 
belongs  to  the  Sialidae,  one  of  the  lowest  forms  of  Holometabola. 
It  is  now,  in  fact,  generally  admitted  that  metamorphosis  has 
been  acquired  comparatively  recently,  and  Scudder  in  his 
review  of  the  earliest  fossil  insects  states  that  "  their  meta- 
morphoses were  simple  and  incomplete,  the  young  leaving  the 
egg  with  the  form  of  the  parent,  but  without  wings,  the  assump- 
tion of  which  required  no  quiescent  stage  before  maturity." 

It  has  been  previously  remarked  that  the  phenomena  of 
holometabolism  are  connected  with  the  development  of  wings 
inside  the  body  (except  in  the  case  of  the  fleas,  where  there 
are  no  wings  in  the  perfect  insect).  Of  existing  insects  90% 
belong  to  the  Endopterygota.  At  the  same  time  we  have  no 


evidence  that  any  Endopterygota  existed  amongst  Palaeozoic 
insects,  so  that  the  phenomena  of  endopterygotism  are  compara- 
tively recent,  and  we  are  led  to  infer  that  the  Endopterygota  owe 
their  origin  to  the  older  Exopterygota.  In  Endopterygota  the 
wings  commence  their  development  as  invaginations  of  the 
hypodermis,  while  in  Exopterygota  the  wings  begin — and  always 
remain — as  external  folds  or  evaginations.  The  two  modes 
of  growth  are  directly  opposed,  and  at  first  sight  it  appears  that 
this  fact  negatives  the  view  that  Endopterygota  have  been 
derived  from  Exopterygota. 

Only  three  hypotheses  as  to  the  origin  of  Endopterygota 
can  be  suggested  as  possible,  viz.: — (i)  That  some  of  the  Palaeo- 
zoic insects,  though  we  infer  them  to  have  been  exopterygotous, 
were  really  endopterygotous,  and  were  the  actual  ancestors 
of  the  existing  Endopterygota;  (2)  that  Endopterygota  are 
not  descended  from  Exopterygota,  but  were  derived  directly 
from  ancestors  that  were  never  winged;  (3)  that  the  predominant 
division — i.e.  Endopterygota — of  insects  of  the  present  epoch 
are  descended  from  the  predominant — if  not  the  sole — group 
that  existed  in  the  Palaeozoic  epoch,  viz.  the  Exopterygota. 
The  first  hypothesis  is  not  negatived  by  direct  evidence,  for 
we  do  not  actually  know  the  ontogeny  of  any  of  the  Palaeozoic 
insects;  it  is,  however,  rendered  highly  improbable  by  the 
modern  views  as  to  the  nature  and  origin  of  wings  in  insects, 
and  by  the  fact  that  the  Endopterygota  include  none  of  the 
lower  existing  forms  of  insects.  The  second  hypothesis — to 
the  effect  that  Endopterygota  are  the  descendants  of  apterous 
insects  that  had  never  possessed  wings  (i.e.  the  Apterygogenea 
of  Brauer  and  others,  though  we  prefer  the  shorter  term  Aptery- 
gota)— is  rendered  improbable  from  the  fact  that  existing 
Apterygota  are  related  to  Exopterygota,  not  to  Endopterygota, 
and  by  the  knowledge  that  has  been  gained  as  to  the  morphology 
and  development  of  wings,  which  suggest  that — if  we  may  so 
phrase  it — were  an  apterygotous  insect  gradually  to  develop 
wings,  it  would  be  on  the  exopterygotous  system.  From  all 
points  of  view  it  appears,  therefore,  probable  that  Endopterygota 
are  descended  from  Exopterygota,  and  we  are  brought  to  the 
question  as  to  the  way  in  which  this  has  occurred. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  believe  that  any  species  of  insect 
that  has  for  a  long  period  developed  the  wings  outside  the  body 
could  change  this  mode  of  growth  suddenly  for  an  internal 
mode  of  development  of  the  organs  in  question,  for,  as  we  have 
already  explained,  the  two  modes  of  growth  are  directly  opposed. 
The  explanation  has  to  be  sought  in  another  direction.  Now 
there  are  many  forms  of  Exopterygota  in  which  the  creatures 
are  almost  or  quite  destitute  of  wings.  This  phenomenon 
occurs  among  species  found  at  high  elevations,  among  others 
found  in  arid  or  desert  regions,  and  in  some  cases  in  the  female 
sex  only,  the  male  being  winged  and  the  female  wingless.  This 
last  state  is  very  frequent  in  Blallidae,  which  were  amongst 
the  most  abundant  of  Palaeozoic  insects.  The  wingless  forms 
in  question  are  always  allied  to  winged  forms,  and  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  they  have  been  really  derived  from 
winged  forms.  There  are  also  insects  (fleas,  &c.)  in  which 
metamorphosis  of  a  "  complete  "  character  exists,  though  the 
insects  never  develop  wings.  These  cases  render  it  highly 
probable  that  insects  may  in  some  circumstances  become  wing- 
less, though  their  ancestors  were  winged.  Such  insects  have  been 
styled  anapterygotous.  In  these  facts  we  have  one  possible 
clue  to  the  change  from -exopterygotism  to  endopterygotism, 
namely,  by  an  intermediate  period  of  anapterygotism. 

Although  we  cannot  yet  define  the  conditions  under  which 
exopterygotous  wings  are  suppressed  or  unusually  developed, 
yet  we  know  that  such  fluctuations  occur.  There  are,  in  fact, 
existing  forms  of  Exopterygota  that  are  usually  wingless,  and 
that  nevertheless  appear  in  certain  seasons  or  localities  with 
wings.  We  are  therefore  entitled  to  assume  that  the  suppressed 
wings  of  Exopterygota  tend  to  reappear;  and,  speaking  of  the 
past,  we  may  say  that  if  after  a  period  of  suppression  the  wings 
began  to  reappear  as  hypodermal  buds  while  a  more  rigid  pressure 
was  exerted  by  the  cuticle,  the  growth  of  the  buds  would  neces- 
sarily be  inwards,  and  we  should  have  incipient  endopterygotism. 


434 


HEXAPODA 


[RELATIONSHIPS 


The  change  that  is  required  to  transform  Exopterygota  into 
Endopterygota  is  merely  that  a  cell  of  hypodeimis  should 
proliferate  inwards  instead  of  outwards,  or  that  a  minute  hypo- 
dermal  evaginated  bud  should  be  forced  to  the  interior  of  the 
body  by  the  pressure  of  a  contracted  cuticle. 

If  it  should  be  objected  that  the  wings  so  developed  would 
be  rudimentary,  and  that  there  would  be  nothing  to  encourage 
their  development  into  perfect  functional  organs,  we  may 
remind  the  reader  that  we  have  already  pointed  out  that  im- 
perfect wings  of  Exopterygota  do,  even  at  the  present  time  under 
certain  conditions,  become  perfect  organs;  and  we  may  also 
add  that  there  are,  even  among  existing  Endopterygota,  species 
in  which  the  wings  are  usually  vestiges  and  yet  sometimes 
become  perfectly  developed.  In  fact,  almost  every  condition 
that  is  required  for  the  change  from  exopterygotism  to  endo- 
pterygotism  exists  among  the  insects  that  surround  us. 

But  it  may  perhaps  be  considered  improbable  that  organs 
like  the  wings,  having  once  been  lost,  should  have  been  re- 
acquired  on  the  large  scale  suggested  by  the  theory  just  put 
forward.  If  so,  there  is  an  alternative  method  by  which  the 
endopterygotous  may  have  arisen  from  the  exopterygotous 
condition.  The  sub-imago  of  the  Ephemeroptera  suggests  that 
a  moult,  after  the  wings  had  become  functional,  was  at  one  time 
general  among  the  Hexapoda,  and  that  the  resting  nymph  of 
the  Thysanoptera  or  the  pupa  of  the  Endopterygota  represents 
a  formerly  active  stage  in  the  life-history.  Further,  although 
the  wing-rudiments  appear  externally  in  an  early  instar  of  an 
exopterygotous  insect,  the  earliest  instars  are  wingless  and 
wing-rudiments  have  been  previously  developing  beneath 
the  cuticle,  growing  however  outwards,  not  inwards  as  in  the 
larva  of  an  endopterygote.  The  change  from  an  exopterygote 
to  an  endopterygote  development  could,  therefore,  be  brought 
about  by  the  gradual  postponement  to  a  later  and  later  instar 
of  the  appearance  of  the  wing-rudiments  outside  the  body, 
and  their  correlated  growth  inwards  as  imaginal  disks.  For 
in  the  post-embryonic  development  of  the  ancestors  of  the 
Endopterygota  we  may  imagine  two  or  three  instars  with 
wing-rudiments  to  have  existed,  the  last  represented  by  the 
sub-imago  of  the  may-flies.  As  the  life-conditions  and  feeding- 
habits  of  the  larva  and  imago  become  constantly  more  divergent, 
the  appearance  of  the  wing-rudiments  would  be  postponed  to 
the  pre-imaginal  instar,  and  that  instar  would  become  pre- 
dominantly passive. 

Relationships  of  the  Orders. — Reasons  have  been  given  for 
regarding  the  Thysanura  as  representing,  more  nearly  than 
any  other  living  group,  the  primitive  stock  of  the  Hexapoda. 
It  is  believed  that  insects  of  this  group  are  represented  among 
Silurian  fossils.  We  may  conclude,  therefore,  that  they  were  pre- 
ceded, in  Cambrian  times  or  earlier,  by  Arthropods  possessing  well 
developed  appendages  on  all  the  trunk-segments.  Of  such  Arthro- 
pods the  living  Symphyla — of  which  the  delicate  little  Scutigerella 
is  a  fairly  well-known  example — give  us  some  representation. 

No  indications  beyond  those  furnished  by  comparative 
anatomy  help  us  to  unravel  the  phylogeny  of  the  Collembola. 
In  most  respects,  the  shortened  abdomen,  for  example,  they 
are  more  specialized  than  the  Thysanura,  and  most  of  the 
features  in  which  they  appear  to  be  simple,  such  as  the  absence 
of  a  tracheal  system  and  of  compound  eyes,  can  be  explained 
as  the  result  of  degradation.  In  their  insunken  mouth  and  their 
jaws  retracted  within  the  head-capsule,  the  Collembola  resemble 
the  entotrophous  division  of  the  Thysanura  (see  APTERA),  from 
which  they  are  probably  descended. 

From  the  thysanuroid  stock  of  the  Apterygota,  the  Exoptery- 
gota took  their  rise.  We  have  undoubted  fossil  evidence  that 
winged  insects  lived  in  the  Devonian  and  became  numerous 
in  the  Carboniferous  period.  These  ancient  Exopterygota 
were  synthetic  in  type,  and  included  insects  that  may,  with 
probability,  be  regarded  as  ancestral  to  most  of  the  existing 
orders.  It  is  hard  to  arrange  the  Exopterygota  in  a  linear 
series,  for  some  of  the  orders  that  are  remarkably  primitive 
in  some  respects  are  rather  highly  specialized  in  others.  As 
regards  wing-structure,  the  Isoptera  with  the  two  pairs  closely 


similar  are  the  most  primitive  of  all  winged  insects;  while 
in  the  paired  mesodermal  genital  ducts,  the  elongate  cerci  and 
the  conspicuous  maxillulae  of  their  larvae  the  Ephemeroptera 
retain  notable  ancestral  characters.  But  the  vestigial  jaws, 
numerous  Malpighian  tubes,  and  specialized  wings  of  may-flies 
forbid  us  to  consider  the  order  as  on  the  whole  primitive.  So 
the  Dermaptera,  which  retain  distinct  maxillulae  and  have  no 
ectodermal  genital  ducts,  have  either  specialized  or  aborted 
wings  and  a  large  number  of  Malpighian  tubes.  The  Corrodentia 
retain  vestigial  maxillulae  and  two  pairs  of  Malpighian  tubes, 
but  the  wings  are  somewhat  specialized  in  the  Copeognatha  and 
absent  in  the  degraded  and  parasitic  Mallophaga.  The  Pleco- 
ptera  and  Orthoptera  agree  in  their  numerous  Malpighian  tubes 
and  in  the  development  of  a  folding  anal  area  in  the  hind-wing. 
As  shown  by  the  number  and  variety  of  species,  the  Orthoptera 
are  the  most  dominant  order  of  this  group.  Eminently  terres- 
trial in  habit,  the  differentiation  of  their  fore-wings  and  hind- 
wings  can  be  traced  from  Carboniferous,  isopteroid  ancestors 
through  intermediate  Mesozoic  forms.  The  Plecoptera  resemble 
the  Ephemeroptera  and  Odonata  in  the  aquatic  habits  of  their 
larvae,  and  by  the  occasional  presence  of  tufted  thoracic  gills 
in  the  imago  exhibit  an  aquatic  character  unknown  in  any  other 
winged  insects.  The  Odonata  are  in  many  imaginal  and  larval 
characters  highly  specialized;  yet  they  probably  arose  with  the 
Ephemeroptera  as  a  divergent  offshoot  of  the  same  primitive 
isopteroid  stock  which  developed  more  directly  into  the  living 
Isoptera,  Plecoptera,  Dermaptera  and  Orthoptera. 

All  these  orders  agree  in  the  possession  of  biting  mandibles, 
while  their  second  maxillae  have  the  inner  and  outer  lobes 
usually  distinct.  The  Hemiptera,  with  their  piercing  mandibles 
and  first  maxillae  and  with  their  second  maxillae  fused  to  form 
a  jointed  beak,  stand  far  apart  from  them.  This  order  can  be 
traced  with  certainty  back  to  the  early  Jurassic  epoch,  while 
the  Permian  fossil  Eugereon,  and  the  living  order — specially 
modified  in  many  respects — of  the  Thysanoptera  indicate  steps 
by  which  the  aberrant  suctorial  and  piercing  mouth  of  the  Hemi- 
ptera may  have  been  developed  from  the  biting  mouth  of  primitive 
Isopteroids,  by  the  elongation  of  some  parts  and  the  suppression 
of  others.  The  Anoplura  may  probably  be  regarded  as  a  degraded 
offshoot  of  the  Hemiptera. 

The  importance  of  great  cardinal  features  of  the  life-history 
as  indicative  of  relationship  leads  us  to  consider  the  Endoptery- 
gota as  a  natural  assemblage  of  orders.  The  occurrence  of 
weevils — among  the  most  specialized  of  the  Coleoptera — in 
Triassic  rocks  shows  us  that  this  great  order  of  metabolous 
insects  had  become  differentiated  into  its  leading  families  at 
the  dawn  of  the  Mesozoic  era,  and  that  we  must  go  far  back 
into  the  Palaeozoic  for  the  origin  of  the  Endopterygota.  In 
this  view  we  are  confirmed  by  the  impossibility  of  deriving  the 
Endopterygota  from  any  living  order  of  Exopterygota.  We 
conclude,  therefore,  that  the  primitive  stock  of  the  former  sub- 
class became  early  differentiated  from  that  of  the  latter.  So 
widely  have  most  of  the  higher  orders  of  the  Hexapoda  now 
diverged  from  each  other,  that  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  in  most 
cases  to  trace  their  relationships  with  any  confidence.  The 
Neuroptera,  with  their  similar  fore-  and  hind-wings  and  their 
campodeiform  larvae,  seem  to  stand  nearest  to  the  presumed 
isopteroid  ancestry,  but  the  imago  and  larva  are  often  specialized. 
The  campodeiform  larvae  of  many  Coleoptera  are  indeed  far 
more  primitive  than  the  neuropteran  larvae,  and  suggest  to  us 
that  the  Coleoptera — modified  as  their  wing-structure  has 
become — arose  very  early  from  the  primitive  metabolous 
stock.  The  antiquity  of  the  Coleoptera  is  further  shown  by 
the  great  diversity  of  larval  form  and  habit  that  has  arisen  in 
the  order,  and  the  proof  afforded  by  the  hypermetamorphic 
beetles  that  the  campodeiform  preceded  the  cruciform  larva 
has  already  been  emphasized. 

In  all  the  remaining  orders  of  the  Endopterygota  the  larva 
is  eruciform  or  vermiform.  The  Mecaptera,  with  their  pre- 
dominantly longitudinal  wing-nervuration,  serve  as  a  link 
between  the  Neuroptera  and  the  Trichoptera,  their  retention 
of  small  cerci  being  an  archaic  character  which  stamps  them  as 


RELATIONSHIPS] 


HEXAPODA 


435 


synthetic  in  type,  but  does  not  necessarily  remove  them  from 
orders  which  agree  with  them  in  most  points  of  structure  but 
which  have  lost  the  cerci.  The  standing  of  the  Trichoptera  in 
a  position  almost  ancestral  to  the  Lepidoptera  is  one  of  the 
assured  results  of  recent  morphological  study,  the  mobile  mandi- 
bulate  pupa  and  the  imperfectly  suctorial  maxillae  of  the 
Trichoptera  reappearing  in  the  lowest  families  of  the  Lepi- 
doptera. This  latter  order,  which  is  not  certainly  known  to 
have  existed  before  Tertiary  times,  has  become  the  most  highly 
specialized  of  all  insects  in  the  structure  of  the  pupa.  Diptera 
of  the  sub-order  Orthorrhapha  occur  in  the  Lias  and  Cyclor- 
rhapha  in  the  Kimmeridgian.  The  order  must  therefore  be 
ancient,  and  as  no  evidence  is  forthcoming  as  to  the  mode  of 
reduction  of  the  hind-wings,  nor  as  to  the  stages  by  which  the 
suctorial  mouth-organs  became  specialized,  it  is  difficult  to  trace 
the  exact  relationship  of  the  group,  but  the  presence  of  cerci 
and  a  degree  of  correspondence  in  the  nervuration  of  the  fore- 
wings  suggest  the  Mecaptera  as  possible  allies.  There  seems 
no  doubt  that  the  suctorial  mouth-organs  of  the  Diptera  have 
arisen  quite  independently  from  those  of  the  Lepidoptera, 
for  in  the  former  order  the  sucker  is  formed  from  the  second 
maxillae,  in  the  latter  from  the  first.  The  cruciform  larva  of 
the  Orthorrhapha  leads  on  to  the  headless  vermiform  maggot 
of  the  Cyclorrhapha,  and  in  the  latter  sub-order  we  find  meta- 
morphosis carried  to  its  extreme  point,  the  muscid  flies  being 
the  most  highly  specialized  of  all  the  Hexapoda  as  regards 
structure,  while  their  maggots  are  the  most  degraded  of  all 
insect  larvae.  The  Siphonaptera  appear  by  the  form  of  the 
larva  and  the  nature  of  the  metamorphosis  to  be  akin  to  the 
Orthorrhapha — in  which  division  they  have  indeed  been  included 
by  many  students.  They  differ  from  the  Diptera,  however, 
in  the  general  presence  of  palps  to  both  pairs  of  maxillae,  and 
in  the  absence  of  a  hypopharynx,  so  it  is  possible  that  their 
relationship  to  the  Diptera  is  less  close  than  has  been  supposed. 
The  affinities  of  the  Hymenoptera  afford  another  problem  of 
much  difficulty.  They  differ  from  other  Endopterygota  in  the 
multiplication  of  their  Malpighian  tubes,  and  from  all  other 
Hexapoda  in  the  union  of  the  first  abdominal  segment  with 
the  thorax.  Specialized  as  they  are  in  form,  development 
and  habit,  they  retain  mandibles  for  biting,  and  in  their  lower 
sub-order — the  Symphyta — the  maxillae  are  hardly  more 
modified  than  those  of  the  Orthoptera.  From  the  evidence  of 
fossils  it  seems  that  the  higher  sub-order — Apocrita — can  be 
traced  back  to  the  Lias,  so  that  we  believe  the  Hymenoptera 
to  be  more  ancient  than  the  Diptera,  and  far  more  ancient 
than  the  Lepidoptera.  They  afford  an  example — paralleled 
in  other  classes  of  the  animal  kingdom — of  an  order  which, 
though  specialized  in  some  respects,  retains  many  primitive 
characters,  and  has  won  its  way  to  dominance  rather  by  per- 
fection of  behaviour,  and  specially  by  the  development  of  family 
life  and  helpful  socialism,  than  by  excessive  elaboration  of 
structure.  We  would  trace  the  Hymenoptera  back  therefore 
to  the  primitive  endopterygote  stock.  The  specialization  of 
form  in  the  constricted  abdomen  and  in  the  suctorial  "  tongue  " 
that  characterizes  the  higher  families  of  the  order  is  correlated 
with  the  habit  of  careful  egg-laying  and  provision  of  food  for 
the  young.  In  some  way  it  is  assured  among  the  highest  of  the 
Hexapoda — the  Lepidoptera,  Diptera  and  Hymenoptera — that 
the  larva  finds  itself  amid  a  rich  food-supply.  And  thus  per- 
fection of  structure  and  instinct  in  the  imago  has  been  accom- 
panied by  degradation  in  the  larva,  and  by  an  increase  in  the 
extent  of  transformation  and  in  the  degree  of  reconstruction 
before  and  during  the  pupal  stage.  The  fascinating  difficulties 
presented  to  the  student  by  the  metamorphosis  of  the  Hexapoda 
are  to  some  extent  explained,  as  he  ponders  over  the  evolution 
of  the  class. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — References  to  the  older  classical  writings  on  the 
Hexapoda  are  given  in  the  article  on  Entomology.  At  present  about 
a  thousand  works  and  papers  are  published  annually,  and  in  this 
place  it  is  possible  to  enumerate  only  a  few  of  the  most  important 
among  (mostly)  recent  memoirs  that  bear  upon  the  Hexapoda 
generally.  Further  references  will  be  found  appended  to  the  special 
articles  on  the  orders  (APTERA,  COLEOPTERA,  &c). 


General  Works. — A.  S.  Packard,  Text-book  of  Entomology  (London, 
1898);  V.  Graber,  Die  Insekten  (Munich,  1877-1879);  D.  Sharp, 
Cambridge  Natural  History,  vols.  v.,  vi.  (London,  1895-1899);  L.  C. 
Miall  and  A.  Denny,  Structure  and  Life-history  of  the  Cockroach 
(London,  1886);  B.  T.  Lowne,  The  Anatomy,  Physiology,  Morpho- 
logy and  Development  of  the  Blow-fly  (2  vols.,  London,  1890-1895); 
G.  H.  Carpenter,  Insects:  their  Structure  and  Life  (London,  1899) ; 
L.  F.  Henneguy,  Les  Insectes  (Paris,  1904) ;  J.  W.  Folsom,  Entomology 
(New  York  and  London,  1906) ;  A.  Berlese,  Gli  Insetti  (Milan,  1906), 
&c.  (Extensive  bibliographies  will  be  found  in  several  of  the 
above.) 

Head  and  Appendages. — I.  C.  Savigny,  Memoires  sur  les  animaux 
sans  vertebres  (Paris,  1816);  C.  Janet,  Essai  sur  la  constitution 
morphologique  de  la  tete  de  I'insecte  (Paris,  1899) ;  J.  H.  Comstock  and 
C.  Kochi  (American  Naturalist,  xxxvi.,  1902);  V.  L.  Kellogg  (ibid,); 
W.  A.  Riley  (American  Naturalist,  xxxviii.,  1904);  F.  Meinert 
(Entom.  Tidsskr.  i.,  1880);  H.  J.  Hansen  (Zool.  Anz.  xvi.,  1893); 
J.  B.  Smith  (Trans.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.  xix.,  ^896) ;  H.  Holmgren 
(Zeitsch.  wiss.  Zoolog.  Ixxvi.,  1904);  K.  W.  Verhoeff  (Abhandl.  K. 
Leop.-Carol.  Akad.  Ixxxiv.,  1905). 

Thorax,  Legs  and  Wings.— K.  W.  Verhoeff  (Abliandl.  K.  Leop.- 
Carol.  Akad.  Ixxxii.,  1903);  F.  Voss  (Zeits.  wiss.  Zool.  Ixxviii., 
1905);  F.  Dahl  (Arch.  f.  Naturgesch.  I,  1884);  J.  Demoor  (Arch, 
de  biol.  x.,  1890);  J.  Redtenbacher  (Ann.  Kais.  naturhist.  Museum, 
Wien,  i.,  1886);  R.  von  Lendenfeld  (S.  B.  Akad.  Wissens.,  Wien, 
Ixxxiii.,  1881);  J.  H.  Comstock  and  j.  G.  Needham  (Amer.  Nat., 
xxxii.,  xxxiii.,  1898-1899);  C.  W.  Wood  worth  (Univ.  California 
Entom.  Bull,  i.,  1906). 

Abdomen  and  Appendages. — E.  Haase  (Morph.  Jahrb.  xv., 
1889);  R.  Heymons  (Morph.  Jahrb.  xxiv.,  1896;  Abhandl.  K. 
Leop.-Carol.  Akad.  Ixxiv.,  1899);  K.  W.  Verhoeff  (Zool.  Anz.  xix., 
xx.,  1896-^897) ;  S.  A.  Peytoureau,  Contribution  d  I'etude  de  la 
morphologie  de  I'armure  genitale  des  insectes  (Bordeaux,  1895);  H. 
Dewitz  (Zeits.  wiss.  Zool.  xxv.,  xxviii.,  1874,  '«77)i  E.  Zander  (ibid. 
Ixvi.,  Ixvii.,  1899-1900). 

Nervous  System. — H.  Viallanes  (Ann.  Sci.  Nat.  Zool.  [6],  xvii., 
xviii.,  xix.,  [7]  ii.,  iv.,  1884-1887);  S.  J.  Hickson  (Quart.  Journ.  Micr. 
Sci.  xxv.,  1885);  W.  Patten  (Journ.  Morph.  i.,  ii.,  1887-1888); 
F.  Plateau  (Mem.  Acad.  Belg.  xliii.,  1888);  V.  Graber  (Arch.  mikr. 
Anat.  xx.,  xxi.,  1882). 

Respiratory  System. — J.  A.  Palmdn,  Zur  Morphologie  des 
Tracheensystems  (Leipzig,  1877);  F.  Plateau  (Mem.  Acad.  Belg. 
xiv.,  1884) ;  L.  C.  Miall,  Natural  History  of  Aquatic  Insects  (London, 
1895). 

Digestive  System,  &c. — L.  Dufour  (Ann.  Sci.  Nat.,  1824-1860) ; 
V.  Faussek  (Zeits.  wiss.  Zool.  xlv.,  1887). 

Malpighian  Tubes. — E.  Schindler  (Zeits.  wiss.  Zool.  xxx.,  1878) ; 
W.  M.  Wheeler  (Psyche  vi.,  1893);  L.  Cu6not  (Arch,  de  biol.  xiv., 
1895). 

Reproductive  Organs. — H.  V.  Wielowiejski  (Zool.  Anz.  ix.,  1886); 
J.  A.  Palmen,  Uber_  paarige  Ausfuhrungsgdnge  der  Geschlechtsorgane 
bei  Insekten  (Hclsingfors,  1884);  H.  Henking  (Zeits.  wiss.  Zool. 
xlix.,  Ii.,  liv.,  1890-1892);  F.  Leydig  (Zool.  Jahrb.  Anat.  iii  ,  1889). 

Embryology. — F.  Blochmann  (Morph.  Jahrb.  xii.,  1887);  A. 
Kovalevsky  (Mem.  Acad.  St-Petersbourg,  xvi.,  1871;  Zeits.  wiss. 
Zool.  xlv.,  1887);  V.  Graber  (Denksch.  Akad.  Wissens.,  Wien,  Ivi., 
1889);  K.  Heider,  Die  Embryonalentwicklung  von  Hydrophilus 
piceus  (Jena,  1889);  W.  M.  Wheeler  (Journ.  Morph.  iii.,  viii.,  1889- 
1893) ;  E.  Korschelt  and  K.  Heider,  Handbook  of  the  Comparative 
Embryology  of  Invertebrates  (trans.  M.  Bernard),  (vol.  iii.,  London, 
1899) ;  R.  Heymons,  Die  Embryonalentwicklung  von  Dermapteren. 
und  Orthopteren  (Jena,  1895)  (also  Zeits.  wiss.  Zool.  liii.,  1891,  Ixii., 
1897;  Anhang  zu  den  Abhandl.  K.  Akad.  d.  Wissens.,  Berlin,  1896); 
A.  L6caillon  (Arch,  d'anat.  micr.  ii.,  1898);  J.  Carridre  and  O. 
Burger  (Abhandl.  K.  Leop.-Carol.  Akad.  Ixix.,  1897);  K.  Escherich 
(ibid.  Ixxvii.,  1901);  F.  Schwangart  (Zeits.  wiss.  Zool.  Ixxvi., 
1904);  R.  Ritter  (ib.  Ii.,  1890);  E.  Metchnikoff  (ib.  xvi.,  1866); 
H.  Uzel  (Zool.  Anz.  xx.,  1897);  J.  W.  Folsom  (Bull.  Mus.  Comp. 
Zool.  Harvard.,  xxxvi.,  1900). 

Parthenogenesis  and  Paedogenesis. — T.  H.  Huxley  (Trans.  Linn. 
Soc.  xxii.,  1858);  R.  Leuckart,  Zur  Kenntnis  des  Generations- 
•wechsels  und  der  Parthogenesis  bei  den  Insekten  (Frankfurt,  1858); 
N.  Wagner  (Zeits.  wiss.  Zool.  xv.,  1865);  L.  F.  Henneguy  (Bull.  Soc. 
Philomath.  [9],  i.  1899);  A.  Petrunkevich  (Zool.  Jahrb.  Anat.  xiv., 
xvii.,  1901-1903);  P.  Marchal  (Arch.  zoo/,  exp.  et  gen.  [4],  ii.,  1904); 
L.  Doncaster  (Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.  xlix.,  Ii.,  1906—1907). 

Growth  and  Metamorphosis. — A.  Weismann  (Zeits.  wiss.  Zool.  xiii., 
xiv.,  1863-1864);  F.  Brauer  (Verh.  zool.-bot.  Gesellsch.,  Wien,  xix., 
1869);  Sir  J.  Lubbock  (Lord  Avebury);  Origin  and  Metamorphosis 
of  Insects  (London,  1874);  L.  C.  Miall  (Nature,  liii.,  1895);  L.  C. 
Miall  and  A.  R.  Hammond,  Structure  and  Life-history  of  the  Harlequin- 
fly  (Oxford,  1900);  J.  Gonin  (Bull.  Soc.  Vaud.  Sci.  Nat.  xxx.,  1894); 
C.  de  Bruyne  (Arch:de  biol.  xv.(  1898);  D.  Sharp  (Proc.  Inter.  Zool. 
Congress,  1898);  E.  B.  Poulton  (Trans.  Linn.  Soc.  v.,  1891);  T.  A. 
Chapman  (Trans.  Ent.  Soc.,  1893). 

Classification.— F.  Brauer  (S.  B.  Akad.  Wiss.,  Wien,  xci.,  1885) ;  A. 
S.  Packard  (Amer.  Nat.  xx. ;  1886);  C.  Borner,  A.  Handlirsch,  F. 
Klapalek  (Zool.  Anz.  xxvii.,  1904);  G.  Enderlein  (Zool.  Anz. 
xxvi.,  1903). 

Palaeontology. — S.  H.  Scudder,  in  Zittel's  Palaeontology  (French 


436 


HEXASTYLE— HEYDEN 


trans.,  vol.  ii.,  Paris,  1887,  and  Eng.  trans.,  vol.  i.,  London,  1900); 
C.  Brongniart,  Insectes  fossiles  des  temps  primaires  (St-Etienne,  1894) ; 
A.  Handlirsch,  Die  fossilen  Insekten  und  die  Phylogenie  der  rezenten 
Formen  (Leipzig,  1906). 

Phylogeny. — Brauer,  Lubbock,  Sharp,  Borner,  &c.  (opp.  cit.) ; 
P.  Mayer  (Jena,  Zeils.  Nalurw.  \.,  1876);  B.  Grassi  (Atti  R.  Accad. 
dei  Lined,  Roma  [4],  iv.,  1888,  and  Archiv  ital.  biol.  xi.,  1889); 
F.  Miiller,  Facts  and  Arguments  for  Darwin  (trans.  W.  S.  Dallas, 
London,  1869);  N.  Zograf  (Congr.  Zool.  Int.,  1892);  E.  R.  Lankester 
(Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.  xlvii.,  1904) ;  G.  H.  Carpenter  (Proc.  R. 
Irish  Acad.  xxiv.,  1903;  Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.  xlix.,  1905). 

(D.S.*;G.H.C.) 

HEXASTYLE  (Gr.  e£,  six,  and  arDXos,  column),  an  archi- 
tectural term  given  to  a  temple  in  the  portico  of  which  there 
are  six  columns  in  front. 

HEXATEUCH,  the  name  given  to  the  first  six  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  (the  Pentateuch  and  Joshua),  to  mark  the  fact 
that  these  form  one  literary  whole,  describing  the  early  traditional 
history  of  the  Israelites  from  the  creation  of  the  world  to  the 
conquest  of  Palestine  and  the  origin  of  their  national  institu- 
tions. These  books  are  the  result  of  an  intricate  literary  process, 
on  which  see  BIBLE  (Old  Testament:  Canon),  and  the  articles 
on  the  separate  books  (GENESIS,  EXODUS,  LEVITICUS,  NUMBERS, 
DEUTERONOMY  and  JOSHUA). 

HEXHAM,  a  market  town  in  the  Hexham  parliamentary 
division  of  Northumberland,  England,  21  m.  W.  from  Newcastle 
by  the  Carlisle  branch  of  the  North-Eastern  railway,  served  also 
from  Scotland  by  a  branch  of  the  North  British  railway.  Pop. 
of  urban  district  (1901)  7107.  It  is  pleasantly  situated  beneath 
the  hills  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Tyne,  and  its  market  square  and 
narrow  streets  bear  many  marks  of  antiquity.  It  is  famous  for 
its  great  abbey  church  of  St  Andrew.  This  building,  as  renovated 
in  the  i2th  century,  was  to  consist  of  nave  and  transepts,  choir 
and  aisles,  and  massive  central  tower.  The  Scots  are  believed  to 
have  destroyed  the  nave  in  1296,  but  it  may  be  doubted  if  it  was 
ever  completed.  In  1536  the  last  prior  was  hanged  for  being 
concerned  in  the  insurrection  called  the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace. 
The  church  as  it  stands  is  a  fine  monument  of  Early  English 
work,  with  Transitional  details.  Within,  although  it  suffered 
much  loss  during  a  restoration  c.  1858,  there  are  several  objects  of 
interest.  Among  these  are  a  Roman  slab,  carved  with  figures  of 
a  horseman  trampling  upon  an  enemy,  several  fine  tombs  and 
stones  of  the  I3th  and  I4th  centuries,  the  frith  or  fridstool  of 
stone,  believed  to  be  the  original  bishop's  throne,  and  the  fine 
Perpendicular  roodscreen  of  oak,  retaining  its  loft.  The  crypt, 
discovered  in  1726,  is  part  of  the  Saxon  church,  and  a  note- 
worthy example  of  architecture  of  the  period.  Its  material  is 
Roman,  some  of  the  stones  having  Roman  inscriptions.  These 
were  brought  from  the  Roman  settlement  at  Corbridge,  4  m.  E.  of 
Hexham  on  the  N.  bank  of  the  Tyne;  for  Hexham  itself  was  not 
a  Roman  station.  In  1832  a  vessel  containing  about  8000  Saxon 
coins  was  discovered  in  the  churchyard.  Fragments  of  the 
monastic  buildings  remain,  and  west  of  the  churchyard  is  the 
monks'  park,  known  as  the  Seal,  and  now  a  promenade,  command- 
ing beautiful  views.  In  the  town  are  two  strong  castellated 
towers  of  the  I4th  century,  known  as  the  Moot  Hall  and  the 
Manor  Office.  Their  names  explain  their  use,  but  they  were 
doubtless  also  intended  as  defensive  works.  In  the  interesting 
and  beautiful  neighbourhood  of  Hexham  there  should  be  noticed 
Aydon  castle  near  Corbridge,  a  fortified  house  of  the  late  i3th 
century;  and  Dilston  or  Dyvilston,  a  typical  border  fortress 
dating  from  Norman  times,  of  which  only  a  tower  and  small 
chapel  remain.  It  is  replete  with  memories  of  the  last  earl  of 
Derwentwater,  who  was  beheaded  in  1716  for  his  part  in  the 
Stuart  rising  of  the  previous  year,  and  was  buried  in  the  chapel. 
There  is  an  Elizabethan  grammar  school.  Hexham  and  Newcastle 
form  a  Roman  Catholic  bishopric,  with  the  cathedral  at  New- 
castle. There  are  manufactures  of  leather  gloves  and  other  goods, 
and  in  the  neighbourhood  barytes  and  coal  mines  and  extensive 
market  gardens. 

The  church  and  monastery  at  Hexham  (Hextoldesham)  were 
founded  about  673  by  Wilfrid,  archbishop  of  York,  who  is  said  to 
have  received  a  grant  of  the  whole  of  Hexhamshire  from  ^thel- 
hryth,  queen  of  Northumbria,  and  a  grant  of  sanctuary  in  his 


church  from  the  king.  The  church  in  678  became  the  head  of  the 
new  see  of  Bernicia,  which  was  united  to  that  of  Lindisfarne 
about  821,  when  the  bishop  of  Lindisfarne  appears  to  have  taken 
possession  of  the  lordship  which  he  and  his  successors  held  until 
it  was  restored  to  the  archbishop  of  York  by  Henry  II.  The 
archbishops  appear  to  have  had  almost  royal  power  throughout 
the  liberty,  including  the  rights  of  trying  all  pleas  of  the  crown 
in  their  court,  of  taking  inquisitions  and  of  taxation.  In  1 545  the 
archbishop  exchanged  Hexhamshire  with  the  king  for  other 
property,  and  in  1572  all  the  separate  privileges  which  had 
belonged  to  him  were  taken  away,  and  the  liberty  was  annexed 
to  the  county  of  Northumberland.  Hexham  was  a  borough  by 
prescription,  and  governed  by  a  bailiff  at  least  as  early  as  1276, 
and  the  same  form  of  government  continued  until  1853.  In  1343 
the  men  of  Hexham  were  accused  of  pretending  to  be  Scots  and 
imprisoning  many  people  of  Northumberland  and  Cumberland, 
killing  some  and  extorting  ransoms  for  others.  The  Lancastrians 
were  defeated  in  1464  near  Hexham,  and  legend  says  that  it  was 
in  the  woods  round  the  town  that  Queen  Margaret  and  her  son 
hid  until  their  escape  to  Flanders.  In  1522  the  bishop  of  Carlisle 
complained  to  Cardinal  Wolsey,  then  archbishop  of  York,  that 
the  English  thieves  committed  more  thefts  than  "  all  the  Scots  of 
Scotland,"  the  men  of  Hexham  being  worst  of  all,  and  appearing 
100  strong  at  the  markets  held  in  Hexham,  so  that  the  men  whom 
they  had  robbed  dared  not  complain  or  "  say  one  word  to  them." 
This  state  of  affairs  appears  to  have  continued  until  the  accession 
of  James  I.,  and  in  1595  the  bailiff  and  constables  of  Hexham 
were  removed  as  being  "  infected  with  combination  and  toleration 
of  thieves."  Hexham  was  at  one  time  the  market  town  of  a  large 
agricultural  district.  In  1227  a  market  on  Monday  and  a  fair  on 
the  vigil  and  day  of  St  Luke  the  Evangelist  were  granted  to  the 
archbishop,  and  in  1320  Archbishop  Melton  obtained  the  right  of 
holding  two  new  fairs  on  the  feasts  of  St  James  the  Apostle 
lasting  five  days  and  of  SS.  Simon  and  Jude  lasting  six  days.  The 
market  day  was  altered  to  Tuesday  in  1662,  and  Sir  William 
Fenwick,  then  lord  of  the  manor,  received  a  grant  of  a  cattle 
market  on  the  Tuesday  after  the  feast  of  St  Cuthbert  in  March 
and  every  Tuesday  fortnight  until  the  feast  of  St  Martin.  The 
market  rights  were  purchased  from  Wentworth  B.  Beaumont, 
lord  of  the  manor,  in  1886.  During  the  i7th  and  i8th  centuries 
Hexham  was  noted  for  the  leather  trade,  especially  for  the 
manufacture  of  gloves,  but  in  the  igth  century  the  trade  began 
to  decline.  Coal  mines  which  had  belonged  to  the  archbishop, 
were  sold  to  Sir  John  Fenwick,  Kt.,  in  1628.  Hexham  has  never 
been  represented  in  parliament,  but  gives  its  name  to  one  of  the 
four  parliamentary  divisions  of  the  county. 

See  Edward  Bateson  and  A.  B.  Hinds,  A  History  of  Northumberland 
vol.  iii.  (1893-1896);  A.  B.  Wright,  An  Essay  towards  the  History  of 
Hexham  (1823);  James  Hewitt,  A  Handbook  to  Hexham  and  its 
Antiquities  (1879). 

HEYDEN,  JAN  VAN  DER  (1637-1712),  Dutch  painter,  was 
born  at  Gorcum  in  1637,  and  died  at  Amsterdam  on  the  i2th  of 
September  1712.  He  was  an  architectural  landscape  painter,  a  con- 
temporary of  Hobbema  and  Jacob  Ruysdael,  with  the  advantage, 
which  they  lacked,  of  a  certain  professional  versatility;  for, 
whilst  they  painted  admirable  pictures  and  starved,  he  varied  the 
practice  of  art  with  the  study  of  mechanics,  improved  the  fire 
engine,  and  died  superintendent  of  the  lighting  and  director  of  the 
firemen's  company  at  Amsterdam.  Till  167  2  he  painted  in  partner- 
ship with  Adrian  van  der  Velde.  After  Adrian's  death,  and 
probably  because  of  the  loss  which  that  event  entailed  upon  him, 
he  accepted  the  offices  to  which  allusion  has  just  been  made.  At 
no  period  of  artistic  activity  had  the  system  of  division  of  labour 
been  more  fully  or  more  constantly  applied  to  art  than  it  was  in 
Holland  towards  the  close  of  the  I7th  century.  Van  der  Heyden, 
who  was  perfect  as  an  architectural  draughtsman  in  so  far  as  he 
painted  the  outside  of  buildings  and  thoroughly  mastered  linear 
perspective,  seldom  turned  his  hand  to  the  delineation  of  any- 
thing but  brick  houses  and  churches  in  streets  and  squares,  or 
rows  along  canals,  or  "  moated  granges,"  common  in  his  native 
country.  He  was  a  travelled  man,  had  seen  The  Hague,  Ghent 
and  Brussels,  and  had  ascended  the  Rhine  past  Xanten  to 


HEYLYN— HEYN 


437 


Cologne,  where  he  copied  over  and  over  again  the  tower  and 
crane  of  the  great  cathedral.  But  he  cared  nothing  for  hill  or 
vale,  or  stream  or  wood.  He  could  reproduce  the  rows  of  bricks 
in  a  square  of  Dutch  houses  sparkling  in  the  sun,  or  stunted  trees 
and  lines  of  dwellings  varied  by  steeples,  all  in  light  or  thrown 
into  passing  shadow  by  moving  cloud.  He  had  the  art  of 
painting  microscopically  without  loss  of  breadth  or  keeping. 
But  he  could  draw  neither  man  nor  beast,  nor  ships  nor  carts; 
and  this  was  his  disadvantage.  His  good  genius  under  these 
circumstances  was  Adrian  van  der  Velde,  who  enlivened  his 
compositions  with  spirited  figures;  and  the  joint  labour  of  both 
is  a  delicate,  minute,  transparent  work,  radiant  with  glow  and 
atmosphere. 

HEYLYN  (or  HEYLIN),  PETER  (1600-1662),  English  historian 
and  controversialist,  was  born  at  Burford  in  Oxfordshire. 
Having  made  great  progress  in  his  studies,  he  entered  Hart 
Hall,  Oxford,  in  1613,  afterwards  joining  Magdalen  College; 
and  in  1618  he  began  to  lecture  on  cosmography,  being  made 
fellow  of  Magdalen  in  the  same  year.  His  lectures,  under  the 
title  of  MtKp6*oo>os,  were  published  in  1621,  and  many  editions 
of  this  useful  book,  each  somewhat  enlarged,  subsequently 
appeared.  Having  been  ordained  in  1624  Heylyn  attracted 
the  notice  of  William  Laud,  then  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells; 
and  in  1628  he  married  Laetitia,  daughter  of  Thomas  Highgate, 
or  Heygate,  of  Hayes,  Middlesex;  but  he  appears  to  have 
kept  his  marriage  secret  and  did  not  resign  his  fellowship. 
After  serving  as  chaplain  to  Danby  in  the  Channel  Islands, 
he  became  chaplain  to  Charles  I.  in  1630,  and  was  appointed  by 
the  king  to  the  rectory  of  Hemingford,  Huntingdonshire. 
John  Williams,  bishop  of  Lincoln,  however,  refused  to  institute 
Heylyn  to  this  living,  owing  to  his  friendship  with  Laud;  and 
in  return  Charles  appointed  him  a  prebendary  of  Westminster, 
where  he  made  himself  very  objectionable  to  Williams,  who 
held  the  deanery  in  commendam.  In  1633  he  became  rector 
of  Alresford,  soon  afterwards  vicar  of  South  Warnborough,  and 
he  became  treasurer  of  Westminster  Abbey -in  163  7;  but  before 
this  date  he  was  widely  known  as  one  of  the  most  prominent 
and  able  controversialists  among  the  high-church  party.  Enter- 
ing with  great  ardour  into  the  religious  controversies  of  the 
time  he  disputed  with  John  Prideaux,  regius  professor  of  divinity 
at  Oxford,  replied  to  the  arguments  of  Williams  in  his  pamphlets, 
"  A  Coal  from  the  Altar  "  and  "  Antidotum  Lincolnense,"  and 
was  hostile  to  the  Puritan  element  both  within  and  without 
the  Church  of  England.  He  assisted  William  Noy  to  prepare 
the  case  against  Prynne  for  the  publication  of  his  Histriomastix, 
and  made  himself  useful  to  the  Royalist  party  in  other  ways. 
However,  when  the  Long  Parliament  met  he  was  allowed  to 
retire  to  Alresford,  where  he  remained  until  he  was  disturbed 
by  Sir  William  Waller's  army  in  1642,  when  he  joined  the 
king  at  Oxford.  At  Oxford  Heylyn  edited  Mercurius  Aulicus, 
a  vivacious  but  virulent  news-sheet,  which  greatly  annoyed 
the  Parliamentarians;  and  consequently  his  house  at  Alresford 
was  plundered  and  his  library  dispersed.  Subsequently  he  led 
for  some  years  a  wandering  life  of  poverty,  afterwards  settling 
at  Winchester  and  then  at  Minster  Lovel  in  Oxfordshire;  and 
he  refers  to  his  hardships  in  his  pamphlet  "  Extraneus  Vapulans," 
the  cleverest  of  his  controversial  writings,  which  was  written 
in  answer  to  Hamon  1'Estrange.  In  1653  he  settled  at  Lacy's 
Court,  Abingdon,  where  he  resided  undisturbed  by  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Commonwealth,  and  where  he  wrote  several  books 
and  pamphlets,  both  against  those  of  his  own  communion, 
like  Thomas  Fuller,  whose  opinions  were  less  unyielding  than 
his  own,  and  against  the  Presbyterians  and  others,  like  Richard 
Baxter. 

His  works,  all  of  which  are  marred  by  political  or  theological 
rancour,  number  over  fifty.  Among  the  most  important 
are:  a  legendary  and  learned  History  of  St.  George  of  Cappadocia, 
written  in  1631;  Cyprianus  Anglicus,  or  the  history  of  the  Life 
and  Death  of  William  Laud,  a  defence  of  Laud  and  a  valuable 
authority  for  his  life;  Ecdesia  restaurata,  or  the  History  of  the 
Reformation  of  the  Church  of  England  (1661;  ed.  J.  C.  Robertson, 
Cambridge,  1849);  Ecdesia  vindicata,  or  the  Church  of  England 


justified;  Aerius  redivivus,  or  History  of  the  Presbyterians; 
and  Help  to  English  History,  an  edition  of  which,  with  additions 
by  P.  Wright,  was  published  in  1773.  In  1636  he  wrote  a 
History  of  the  Sabbath,  by  order  of  Charles  I.  to  answer  the 
Puritans;  and  in  consequence  of  a  journey  through  France  in 
1625  he  wrote  A  Survey  of  France,  a  work,  frequently  reprinted, 
which  was  termed  by  Southey  "  one  of  the  liveliest  books  of 
travel  in  its  lighter  parts,  and  one  of  the  wisest  and  most  replete 
with  information  that  was  ever  written  by  a  young  man."  Some 
verses  of  merit  also  came  from  his  active  pen,  and  his  poetical 
memorial  of  William  of  Waynflete  was  published  by  the  Caxton 
Society  in  1851. 

Heylyn  was  a  diligent  writer  and  investigator,  a  good  ecclesi- 
astical lawyer,  and  had  always  learning  at  his  command.  His 
principles,  to  which  he  was  honestly  attached,  were  defended 
with  ability;  but  his  efforts  to  uphold  the  church  passed  un- 
recognized at  the  Restoration,  probably  owing  to  his  physical 
infirmities.  His  sight  had  been  very  bad  for  several  years; 
yet  he  rejoiced  that  his  "  bad  old  eyes  "  had  seen  the  king's 
return,  and  upon  this  event  he  preached  before  a  large  audience 
in  Westminster  Abbey  on  the  29th  of  May  1661.  He  died  on 
the  8th  of  May  1662  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
where  he  had  been  sub-dean  for  some  years. 

Lives  of  Heylyn  were  written  by  his  son-in-law  Dr  John  Barnard 
or  Bernard,  and  by  George  Vernon  (1682).  Bernard's  work  was 
reprinted  with  Robertson's  edition  of  Heylyn's  History  of  the 
Reformation  in  1849. 

HEYN,  PIETER  PIETERZOON  [commonly  abbreviated 
to  PIET]  (1578-1629),  Dutch  admiral,  was  born  at  Delfshaven 
in  1578,  the  son  of  Pieter  Hein,  who  was  engaged  in  the  herring 
fishery.  The  son  went  early  to  sea.  In  his  youth  he  was  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Spaniards,  and  was  forced  to  row  in  the  galleys 
during  four  years.  Having  recovered  his  freedom  by  an  ex- 
change of  prisoners,  he  worked  for  several  years  as  a  merchant 
skipper  with  success.  The  then  dangerous  state  of  the  seas 
at  all  times,  and  the  continuous  war  with  Spain,  gave  him 
ample  opportunity  to  gain  a  reputation  as  a  resolute  fighting 
man.  Wills  which  he  made  before  1623  show  that  he  had 
been  able  to  acquire  considerable  property.  When  the  Dutch 
West  India  Company  was  formed  he  was  Director  on  the  Rotter- 
dam Board,  and  in  1624  he  served  as  second  in  command  of 
the  fleet  which  took  San  Salvador  in  Bahia  de  Todos  os  Santos 
in  Brazil.  Till  1628  he  continued  to  serve  the  Company,  both 
on  the  coast  of  Brazil,  and  in  the  West  Indies.  In  the  month 
of  September  of  that  year  he  made  himself  famous,  gained 
immense  advantage  for  the  Company,  and  inflicted  ruinous 
loss  on  the  Spaniards,  by  the  capture  of  the  fleet  which  was 
bringing  the  bullion  from  the  American  mines  home  to  Spain. 
The  Spanish  ships  were  outnumbered  chiefly  because  the 
convoy  had  become  scattered  by  bad  management  and  bad 
seamanship.  The  more  valuable  part  of  it,  consisting  of  the 
four  galleons,  and  eleven  trading  ships  in  which  the  king's 
share  of  the  treasure  was  being  carried,  became  separated 
from  the  rest,  and  on  being  chased  by  the  superior  force  of 
Heyn  endeavoured  to  take  refuge  at  Matanzas  in  the  island 
of  Cuba,  hoping  to  be  able  to  land  the  bullion  in  the  bush 
before  the  Dutchman  could  come  up  with  them.  But  Juan  de 
Benavides,  the  Spanish  commander,  failed  to  act  with  decision, 
was  overtaken,  and  his  ships  captured  in  the  harbour  before 
the  silver  could  be  discharged.  The  total  loss  was  estimated 
by  the  Spaniards  at  four  millions  of  ducats.  Piet  Heyn  now 
returned  home,  and  bought  himself  a  house  at  Delft  with  the 
intention  of  retiring  from  the  sea.  In  the  following  year,  however, 
he  was  chosen  at  a  crisis  to  take  command  of  the  naval  force  of 
the  Republic,  with  the  rank  of  Lieutenant-Admiral  of  Holland, 
in  order  to  clear  the  North  Sea  and  Channel  of  the  Dunkirkers, 
who  acted  for  the  king  of  Spain  in  his  possessions  in  the  Nether- 
lands. In  June  of  1629  he  brought  the  Dunkirkers  to  action, 
and  they  were  severely  beaten,  but  Piet  Heyn  did  not  live 
to  enjoy  his  victory.  He  was  struck  early  in  the  battle  by  a 
cannon  shot  on  the  shoulder  and  fell  dead  on  the  spot.  His 
memory  has  been  preserved  by  his  capture  of  the  Treasure 


438 


HEYNE— HEYWOOD,  J. 


Galleons,  which  had  never  been  taken  so  far,  but  he  is  also 
the  traditional  representative  of  the  Dutch  "  sea  dogs  "  of  the 
1 7th  century. 

See  de  Jonge,  Geschiedenis  van  het  Nederlandsche  Zeewezen;  I. 
Duro,  Armada  espanola,  iv. ;  der  Aa,  Biograph.  Woordenboek  der 
Nederlanden,  (D.  H.) 

HEYNE,  CHRISTIAN  GOTTLOB  (1720-1812),  German  classical 
scholar  and  archaeologist,  was  born  on  the  2Sth  of  September 
1729,  at  Chemnitz  in  Saxony.  His  father  was  a  poor  weaver, 
and  the  expenses  of  his  early  education  were  paid  by  one  of  his 
godfathers.  In  1748  he  entered  the  university  of  Leipzig, 
where  he  was  frequently  in  want  of  the  necessaries  of  life.  His 
distress  had  almost  amounted  to  despair,  when  he  procured 
the  situation  of  tutor  in  the  family  of  a  French  merchant  in 
Leipzig,  which  enabled  him  to  continue  his  studies.  After  he 
had  completed  his  university  course,  he  was  for  many  years 
in  very  straitened  circumstances.  An  elegy  written  by  him 
in  Latin  on  the  death  of  a  friend  attracted  the  attention  of 
Count  von  Briihl,  the  prime  minister,  who  expressed  a  desire 
to  see  the  author.  Accordingly,  in  April  1752,  Heyne  journeyed 
to  Dresden,  believing  that  his  fortune  was  made.  He  was  well 
received,  promised  a  secretaryship  and  a  good  salary,  but  nothing 
came  of  it.  Another  period  of  want  followed,  and  it  was  only 
by  persistent  solicitation  that  Heyne  was  able  to  obtain  the 
post  of  under-clerk  in  the  count's  library,  with  a  salary  of  some- 
what less  than  twenty  pounds  sterling.  He  increased  his  scanty 
pittance  by  translation;  in  addition  to  some  French  novels, 
he  rendered  into  German  the  Chaereas  and  Callirrhoe  of  Chariton, 
the  Greek  romance  writer.  He  published  his  first  edition  of 
Tibullus  in  1755,  and  in  1756  his  Epictetus.  In  the  latter  year 
the  Seven  Years'  War  broke  out,  and  Heyne  was  once  more 
in  a  state  of  destitution.  In  1757  he  was  offered  a  tutorship 
in  the  household  of  Frau  von  Schonberg,  where  he  met  his  future 
wife.  In  January  1759  he  accompanied  his  pupil  to  the  univer- 
sity of  Wittenberg,  from  which  he  was  driven  in  1760  by  the 
Prussian  cannon.  The  bombardment  of  Dresden  (to  which 
city  he  had  meanwhile  returned)  on  the  i8th  of  July  1760, 
destroyed  all  his  possessions,  including  an  almost  finished 
edition  of  Lucian,  based  on  a  valuable  codex  of  the  Dresden 
Library.  In  the  summer  of  1761,  although  still  without  any 
fixed  income,  he  married,  and  for  some  time  he  found  it  necessary 
to  devote  himself  to  the  duties  of  land-steward  to  the  Baron 
von  Loben  in  Lusatia.  At  the  end  of  1762,  however,  he  was 
enabled  to  return  to  Dresden,  where  he  was  commissioned 
by  P.  D.  Lippert  to  prepare  the  Latin  text  of  the  third  volume 
of  his  Dactyliotheca  (an  account  of  a  collection  of  gems).  On 
the  death  of  Johann  Matthias  Gesner  at  Gottingen  in  1761, 
the  vacant  chair  was  refused  first  by  Ernesti  and  then  by  Ruhn- 
ken,  who  persuaded  Miinchhausen,  the  Hanoverian  minister 
and  principal  curator  of  the  university,  to  bestow  it  on  Heyne 
(1763).  His  emoluments  were  gradually  augmented,  and  his 
growing  celebrity  brought  him  most  advantageous  offers  from 
other  German  governments,  which  he  persistently  refused. 
After  a  long  and  useful  career,  he  died  on  the  i4th  of  July 
1812.  Unlike  Gottfried  Hermann,  Heyne  regarded  the  study 
of  grammar  and  language  only  as  the  means  to  an  end,  not  as 
the  chief  object  of  philology.  But,  although  not  a  critical 
scholar,  he  was  the  first  to  attempt  a  scientific  treatment  of 
Greek  mythology,  and  he  gave  an  undoubted  impulse  to  philo- 
logical studies. 

Of  Heyne's  numerous  writings,  the  following  may  be  mentioned. 
Editions,  with  copious  commentaries,  of  Tibullus  (ed.  E.  C.  Wunder- 
lich,  1817),  Virgil  (ed.  G.  P.  Wagner,  1830-1841),  Pindar  (3rd  ed. 
by  G.  H.  Schafer,  1817),  Apollodorus,  Bibliotheca  Graeca  (1803), 
Homer,  Iliad  (1802);  Opuscula  academica  (1785-1812),  containing 
more  than  a  hundred  academical  dissertations,  of  which  the  most 
valuable  are  those  relating  to  the  colonies  of  Greece  and  the  anti- 
quities of  Etruscan  art  and  history.  His  Antiquarische  Aufsdtze 
(1778-1779)  is  a  valuable  collection  of  essays  connected  with  the 
history  of  ancient  art.  His  contributions  to  the  Gottingische  gelehrte 
Anzeigen  are  said  to  have  been  between  7000  and  8000  in  number. 
See  biography  by  A.  H.  Heeren  (1813)  which  forms  the  basis  of  the 
interesting  essay  by  Carlyle  (Misc.  Essays,  ii.) ;  H.  Sauppe,  Gottinger 
Professoren  (1872);  C.  Bursian  in  Allgemeine  deutsche  Biographic, 
xii. ;  J.  E.  Sandys,  Hist.  Class.  Schol.  iii.  36-44. 


HEYSE,  PAUL  JOHANN  LUDWIG  (1830-  ),  German 
novelist,  dramatist  and  poet,  was  born  at  Berlin  on  the  I5th 
of  March  1830,  the  son  of  the  distinguished  philologist  Karl 
Wilhelm  Ludwig  Heyse  (1797-1855).  After  attending  the 
Friedrich  Wilhelm  Gymnasium  in  Berlin,  he  went,  in  1849,  to 
Bonn  University  as  a  student  of  the  Romance  languages,  and  in 
1852  took  his  doctor's  degree.  He  had  already  given  proof 
of  great  literary  ability  in  the  production  in  1850  of  Der  Jung- 
brunnen,  Marchen  eines  fahrenden  Schulers  and  of  the  tragedy 
Francesca  von  Rimini,  when  after  a  year's  stay  in  Italy,  he  was 
summoned,  early  in  1854,  by  King  Maximilian  II.  to  Munich, 
where  he  subsequently  lived.  Here  he  turned  his  attention  to 
novel-writing.  He  published  at  Munich  in  1855  four  short  stories 
in  one  volume,  one  of  which,  at  least,  L'Arrabbiata,  was  a  master- 
piece of  its  kind.  These  were  the  precursors  of  a  series  of  similar 
volumes,  necessarily  unequal  at  times,  but  on  the  whole  con- 
stituting such  a  mass  of  highly  complex  miniature  fiction  as 
seldom  before  had  proceeded  from  the  pen  of  a  single  writer. 
Heyse  works  in  the  spirit  of  a  sculptor;  he  seizes  upon  some 
picturesque  incident  or  situation,  and  chisels  and  polishes  until 
all  the  effect  which  it  is  capable  of  producing  has  been  extracted 
from  it.  The  success  of  the  story  usually  depends  upon  the 
theme,  for  the  artist's  skill  is  generally  much  the  same,  and  the 
situation  usually  leaves  a  deeper  impression  than  the  characters. 
Heyse  is  also  the  author  of  several  novels  on  a  larger  scale, 
all  of  which  have  gained  success  and  provoked  abundant  dis- 
cussion. The  more  important  are  Kinder  der  Welt  (1873), 
Im  Paradiese  (1875) — the  one  dealing  with  the  religious  and 
social  problems  of  its  time,  the  other  with  artist-life  in  Munich — 
Der  Roman  der  Stiftsdame  (1888),  and  Merlin  (1892),  a  novel 
directed  against  the  modern  realistic  movement  of  which  Heyse 
had  been  the  leading  opponent  in  Germany.  He  has  also  been 
a  prolific  dramatist,  but  his  plays  are  deficient  in  theatrical 
qualities  and  are  rarely  seen  on  the  stage.  Among  the  best 
of  them  are  Die  Sabinerinnen  (1859);  Hans  Lange  (1866), 
Kolberg  (1868),  Die  Weisheit  Salomos  (1886),  and  Maria  von 
Magdala  (1903).  There  are  masterly  translations  by  him  of 
Leopardi,  Giusti,  and  other  Italian  poets  (Italienische  Dichter 
seit  der  Mitte  des  iSten  J ahrhunde.rt)  (4  vols.,  1889-1890). 

Heyse's  Gesammelte  Werke  appeared  in  29  vols.  (1897-1899); 
there  is  also  a  popular  edition  of  his  Romane  (8  vols.,  1902-1904) 
and  Novellen  (10  vols.,  1904-1906).  See  his  autobiography, 
Jugenderinnerungen  und  Bekenntnisse  (1901);  also  O.  Kraus,  Paul 
Heyses  Novellen  und  Romane  (1888);  E.  Petzet,  Paul  Heyse  als 
Dramatiker  (1904),  and  the  essays  by  T.  Ziegler  (in  Studien  und 
Studienkopfe,  1877),  and  G.  Brandes  (in  Moderne  Geisler,  1887). 

HEYSHAM,  a  seaport  in  the  Lancaster  parliamentary  division 
of  Lancashire,  England,  on  the  south  shore  of  Morecambe  Bay, 
served  by  the  Midland  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  3381.  Under 
powers  obtained  from  parliament  in  1896,  the  Midland  Railway 
Company  constructed,  and  opened  in  1904,  a  harbour,  enclosed 
by  breakwaters,  for  the  development  of  traffic  with  Belfast 
and  other.  Irish  ports,  a  daily  passenger-service  of  the  first 
class  being  established  to  Belfast.  The  harbour  has  a  depth  at 
low  tide  of  17  ft.,  and  extensive  accommodation  for  live-stock 
and  goods  of  all  kinds  is  provided.  Heysham  is  in  some  favour 
as  a  watering-place.  The  church  of  St  Peter  is  mainly  Norman, 
and  has  fragments  of  even  earlier  date.  Ruins  of  a  very  ancient 
oratory  stand  near  it.  This  was  dedicated  to  St  Patrick,  and 
is  traditionally  said  to  have  been  erected  as  a  place  of  prayer 
for  those  at  sea. 

HEYWOOD,  JOHN  (b.  1497),  English  dramatist  and  epigram- 
matist, is  generally  said  to  have  been  a  native  of  North  Mimms, 
near  St  Albans,  Hertfordshire,  though  Bale  says  he  was  born  in 
London.  A  letter  from  a  John  Heywood,  who  may  fairly  be 
identified  with  him,  is  dated  from  Malines  in  1575,  when  he 
called  himself  an  old  man  of  seventy-eight,  which  would  fix  his 
birth  in  1497.  He  was  a  chorister  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  educated  at  Broadgates  Hall  (Pembroke 
College),  Oxford.  From  1521  onwards  his  name  appears  in  the 
king's  accounts  as  the  recipient  of  an  annuity  of  ten  marks  as 
player  of  the  virginals,  and  in  1538  he  received  forty  shillings  for 


HEYWOOD,  T. 


439 


"  playing  an  interlude  with  his  children  "  before  the  Princess 
Mary.  He  is  said  to  have  owed  his  introduction  to  her  to  Sir 
Thomas  More,  at  whose  seat  at  Gobions  near  St  Albans  he  wrote 
his  Epigrams,  according  to  Henry  Peacham.  More  took  a  keen 
interest  in  the  drama,  and  is  represented  by  tradition  as  stepping 
on  to  the  stage  and  taking  an  impromptu  part  in  the  dialogue. 
William  Rastell,  the  printer  of  four  of  Heywood's  plays,  was  the 
son  of  More's  brother-in-law,  John  Rastell,  who  organized 
dramatic  representations,  and  possibly  wrote  plays  himself. 
Mr  A.  W.  Pollard  sees  in  Heywood's  firm  adherence  to  Catholicism 
and  his  free  satire  of  legal  and  social  abuses  a  reflection  of  the 
ideas  of  More  and  his  friends,  which  counts  for  much  in  his 
dramatic  development.  His  skill  in  music  and  his  inexhaustible 
wit  made  him  a  favourite  both  with  Henry  VIII.  and  Mary. 
Under  Edward  VI.  he  was  accused  of  denying  the  king's 
supremacy  over  the  church,  and  had  to  make  a  public  recantation 
in  1554;  but  with  the  accession  of  Mary  his  prospects  brightened. 
He  made  a  Latin  speech  to  her  in  St  Paul's  Churchyard  at  her 
coronation,  and  wrote  a  poem  to  celebrate  her  marriage.  Shortly 
before  her  death  she  granted  him  the  lease  of  a  manor  and  lands 
in  Yorkshire.  When  Elizabeth  succeeded  to  the  throne  he  fled 
to  Malines,  and  is  said  to  have  returned  in  1577.  In  1587  he  is 
spoken  of  as  "  dead  and  gone  "  in  Thomas  Newton's  epilogue 
to  his  works. 

John  Heywood  is  important  in  the  history  of  English  drama 
as  the  first  writer  to  turn  the  abstract  characters  of  the  morality 
plays  into  real  persons.  His  interludes  link  the  morality  plays 
to  the  modern  drama,  and  were  very  popular  in  their  day.  They 
represent  ludicrous  incidents  of  a  homely  kind  in  a  style  of  the 
broadest  farce,  and  approximate  to  the  French  dramatic  render- 
ings of  the  subjects  of  the  fabliaux.  The  fun  in  them  still 
survives  in  spite  of  the  long  arguments  between  the  characters 
and  what  one  of  their  editors  calls  his  "humour  of  filth."  Hey- 
wood's name  was  actually  attached  to  four  interludes.  The 
Playe  called  the  foure  PP;  a  newe  and  a  very  mery  interlude  of  a 
palmer,  a  pardoner,  a  potycary,  a  pedler  (not  dated)  is  a  contest 
in  lying,  easily  won  by  Palmer,  who  said  he  had  never  known 
a  woman  out  of  patience.  The  Play  of  the  Wether,  a  new  and  a 
•very  mery  interlude  of  all  maner  of  Wethers  (printed  1 533)  describes 
the  chaotic  results  of  Jupiter's  attempts  to  suit  the  weather  to 
the  desires  of  a  number  of  different  people.  The  Play  af  Love 
(printed  1533)  is  an  extreme  instance  of  the  author's  love  of 
wire-drawn  argument.  It  is  a  double  dispute  between  "  Loving 
not  Loved  "  and  "  Loved  not  Loving  "  as  to  which  is  the  more 
wretched,  and  between  "  Both  Loved  and  Loving  "  and  "  Neither 
Loving  nor  Loved  "  to  decide  which  is  the  happier.  The  only 
action  in  this  piece  is  indicated  by  the  stage  direction  marking 
the  entrance  of  "  Neither  loved  nor  loving,"  who  is  to  run  about 
the  audience  with  a  huge  copper  tank  on  his  head  full  of  lighted 
squibs,  and  is  to  cry  "  Water,  water!  Fire,  fire!  "  The  Dialogue 
of  Wit  and  Folly  is  more  of  an  academic  dispute  than  a  play. 
But  two  pieces  universally  assigned  to  Heywood,  although  they 
were  printed  by  Rastell  without  any  author's  name,  combine 
action  with  dialogue,  and  are  much  more  dramatic.  In  The 
Mery  Play  between  the  Pardoner  and  the  Frere,  the  Curate  and 
Neybour  Pratte  (printed  1533,  but  probably  written  much 
earlier)  the  Pardoner  and  the  Friar  both  try  to  preach  at  the 
same  time,  and,  coming  at  last  to  blows,  are  separated  by  the 
other  two  personages  of  the  piece.  The  Mery  Play  betwene 
Johan  Johan  the  Husbande,  Tyb  the  Wyfe,  and  Syr  Jhan  the 
Freest  < printed  1533)  is  the  best  constructed -of  all  his  pieces. 
Tyb  and  Syr  Jhan  eat  the  "  Pye  "  which  is  the  central  "  property  " 
of  the  piece,  while  Johan  Johan  is  made  to  chafe  wax  at  the  fire 
to  stop  a  hole  in  a  pail.  This  incident  occurs  in  a  French  Farce 
nouvelle  tres  bonne  et  fort  joyeuse  de  Fernet  qui  iia  au  inn.  Hey- 
wood has  sometimes  been  credited  with  the  authorship  of  the 
dialogue  of  Gentylnes  and  Nobylyte  printed  by  Rastell  without 
date,  and  Mr  Pollard  adduces  some  ground  for  attributing  to 
him  the  anonymous  New  Enterlude  called  Thersytes  (played  1538). 
Heywood's  other  works  are  a  collection  of  proverbs  and  epigrams, 
the  earliest  extant  edition  of  which  is  dated  1562;  some  ballads, 
one  of  them  being  the  "  Willow  Garland,"  known  to  Desdemona; 


and  a  long  verse  allegory  of  over  7000  lines  entitled  The  Spider 
and  the  Flie  (1556).  A  contemporary  writer  in  Holinshed's 
Chronicle  said  that  neither  its  author  nor  any  one  else  could 
"  reach  unto  the  meaning  thereof."  But  the  flies  are  generally 
taken  to  represent  the  Roman  Catholics  and  the  spiders  the 
Protestants,  while  Queen  Mary  is  represented  by  the  housemaid 
who  with  her  broom  (the  sword)  executes  the  commands  of 
her  master  (Christ)  and  her  mistress  (the  church).  Dr  A.  W. 
Ward  speaks  of  its  "  general  lucidity  and  relative  variety 
of  treatment."  Heywood  says  that  he  laid  it  aside  for  twenty 
years  before  he  finished  it,  and,  whatever  may  be  the  final 
interpretation  put  upon  it,  it  contains  a  very  energetic  statement 
of  the  social  evils  of  the  time,  and  especially  of  the  deficiencies 
of  English  law. 

The  proverbs  and  epigrams  were  reprinted  by  the  Spenser  Society 
in  1867,  the  Dialogue  on  Wit  and  Folly  by  the  Percy  Society  from 
an  MS.  in  the  British  Museum  in  1846,  with  an  account  of  Heywood 
by  F.  W.  Fairholt,  and  there  are  modern  reprints  of  Johan  Johan 
(Chiswick  Press,  1819),  The  Foure  PP.  (Dodsley's  Old  Plays,  1825, 
1874),  and  The  Pardoner  and  the  Frere  (Dodsley's  Old  Plays,  1874). 
The  Spider  and  the  Flie  was  edited  by  A.  W.  Ward  for  the  Spenser 
Society  in  1894.  For  notes  and  strictures  on  that  edition  see  J. 
Haber  in  Litterarhistorische  Forschungen,  vol.  xv.  (1900).  See  also 
A.  W.  Pollard's  introduction  to  the  reprint  of  the  Play  of  the  Wether 
and  Johan  Johan  in  Representative  English  Comedies  (1903),  and 
The  Dramatic  Writings  of  John  Heywood,  edited  by  John  S.  Farmer 
for  the  Early  English  Drama  Society  (1905). 

His  son,  JASPER  HEYWOOD  (1535-1598),  who  translated  into 
English  three  plays  of  Seneca,  the  Troas  (1559),  the  Thyestes 
(1560)  and  Hercules  Furens  (1561),  was  a  fellow  of  Merton 
College,  Oxford,  but  was  compelled  to  resign  from  that  society 
in  1558.  In  the  same  year  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  All  Souls 
College,  but,  refusing  to  conform  to  the  changes  in  religion  at 
the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  he  gave  up  his  fellowship 
and  went  to  Rome,  where  he  was  received  into  the  Society  of 
Jesus.  For  seventeen  years  he  was  professor  of  moral  theology 
and  controversy  in  the  Jesuit  College  at  Dillingen,  Bavaria. 
In  1581  he  was  sent  to  England  as  superior  of  the  Jesuit  mission, 
but  his  leniency  in  that  position  led  to  his  recall.  He  was  on 
his  way  back  to  the  Continent  when  a  violent  storm  drove  him 
back  to  the  English  coasf.  He  was  arrested  on  the  charge  of 
being  a  priest,  but,  although  extraordinary  efforts  were  made 
to  induce  him  to  abjure  his  opinions,  he  remained  firm.  He 
was  condemned  to  perpetual  exile  on  pain  of  death,  and  died 
at  Naples  on  the  gth  of  January  1598.  His  translations  of 
Seneca  were  supplemented  by  other  plays  contributed  by 
Alexander  Neville,  Thomas  Nuce,  John  Studley  and  Thomas 
Newton.  Newton  collected  these  translations  in  one  volume, 
Seneca,  his  tenne  tragedies  translated  into  Englysh  (1581).  The 
importance  of  this  work  in  the  development  of  English  drama 
can  hardly  be  over-estimated. 

See  Dr  J.  W.  Cunliffe,  On  the  Influence  of  Seneca  upon  Elizabethan 
Tragedy  (1893). 

HEYWOOD,  THOMAS  (d.  c.  1650),  English  dramatist  and 
miscellaneous  author,  was  a  native  of  Lincolnshire,  born  about 
1575,  and  said  to  have  been  educated  at  Cambridge  and  to  have 
become  a  fellow  of  Peterhouse.  Heywood  is  mentioned  by 
Philip  Henslowe  as  having  written  a  book  or  play  for  the  Lord 
Admiral's  company  of  actors  in  October  1596;  and  in  1598  he 
was  regularly  engaged  as  a  player  in  the  company,  in  which  he 
presumably  had  a  share,  as  no  wages  are  mentioned.  He  was 
also  a  member  of  other  companies,  of  Lord  Southampton's, 
of  the  earl  of  Derby's  and  of  the  earl  of  Worcester's  players, 
afterwards  known  as  the  Queen's  Servants.  In  his  preface  to 
the  English  Traveller  (1633)  he  describes  himself  as  having  had 
"  an  entire  hand  or  at  least  a  mam  finger  in  two  hundred  and 
twenty  plays."  Of  this  number,  probably  considerably  in- 
creased before  the  close  of  his  dramatic  career,  only  twenty-three 
survive.  He  wrote  for  the  stage,  not  for  the  press,  and  protested 
against  the  printing  of  his  works,  which  he  said  he  had  no  time 
to  revise.  He  was,  said  Tieck,  the  "  model  of  a  light  and  rapid 
talent,"  and  his  plays,  as  might  be  expected  from  his  rate  of 
production,  bear  little  trace  of  artistic  elaboration.  Charles 


440 


HEYWOOD— HEZEKIAH 


Lamb  called  him  a  "  prose  Shakespeare  ";  Professor  Ward,  one 
of  Heywood's  most  sympathetic  editors,  points  out  that  this 
epigrammatic  statement  can  only  be  accepted  with  reservations. 
Heywood  had  a  keen  eye  for  dramatic  situations  and  great 
constructive  skill,  but  his  powers  of  characterization  were  not 
on  a  par  with  his  stagecraft.  He  delighted  in  what  he  called 
"  merry  accidents,"  that  is,  in  coarse,  broad  farce;  his  fancy 
and  invention  were  inexhaustible.  It  was  in  the  domestic  drama 
of  sentiment  that  he  won  his  most  distinctive  success.  For  this 
he  was  especially  fitted  by  his  genuine  tenderness  and  his  freedom 
from  affectation,  by  the  sweetness  and  gentleness  for  which 
Lamb  praised  him.  His  masterpiece,  A  Woman  kilde  with 
kindnesse  (acted  1603;  printed  1607),  is  a  type  of  the  comedie 
larmoyante,  and  The  English  Traveller  (1633)  is  a  domestic 
tragedy  scarcely  inferior  to  it  in  pathos  and  in  the  elevation  of 
its  moral  tone.  His  first  play  was  probably  The  Foure  Prentises 
of  London:  With  the  Conquest  of  Jerusalem  (printed  1615,  but 
acted  some  fifteen  years  earlier).  This  may  have  been  intended 
as  a  burlesque  of  the  old  romances,  but  it  is  more  likely  that  it 
was  meant  seriously  to  attract  the  apprentice  public  to  whom 
it  was  dedicated,  and  its  popularity  was  no  doubt  aimed  at  in 
Beaumont  and  Fletcher's  travesty  of  the  City  taste  in  drama 
in  their  Knight  of  the  Burning  Pestle.  The  two  parts  of  King 
Edward  the  Fourth  (printed  1600),  and  of  //  you  know  not  me, 
you  know  no  bodie;  Or,  The  Troubles  of  Queene  Elizabeth  (1605 
and  1606)  are  chronicle  histories.  His  other  comedies  include: 
The  Royall  King,  and  the  Loyall  subject  (acted  c.  1600;  printed 
1637) ;  the  two  parts  of  The  Fair  Maid  of  the  West;  Or,  A  Girle 
•worth  Gold  (two  parts,  printed  1631);  The  Fayre  Maid  of  the 
Exchange  (printed  anonymously  1607);  The  Late  Lancashire 
Witches  (1634),  written  with  Richard  Brome,  and  prompted  by 
an  actual  trial  in  the  preceding  year;  A  Pleasant  Comedy,  called 
A  May  den- Head  well  lost  (1634);  A  Challenge  for  Beautie  (1636) ; 
The  Wise-Woman  of  Hogsdon  (printed  1638),  the  witchcraft 
in  this  case  being  matter  for  comedy,  not  seriously  treated  as 
in  the  Lancashire  play;  and  Fortune  by  Land  and  Sea  (printed 
1655),  with  William  Rowley.  The  five  plays  called  respectively 
The  Golden,  The  Silver,  The  Brazen  and  The  Iron  Age  (the  last 
in  two  parts),  dated  1611,  1613,  i6i3,.i632,  are  series  of  classical 
stories  strung  together  with  no  particular  connexion  except  that 
"  old  Homer  "  introduces  the  performers  of  each  act  in  turn. 
Loves  Maistresse;  Or,  The  Queens  Masque  (printed  1636)  is  on 
the  story  of  Cupid  and  Psyche  as  told  by  Apuleius;  and  the 
tragedy  of  the  Rape  of  Lucrece  (1608)  is  varied  by  a  "  merry 
lord,"  Valerius,  who  lightens  the  gloom  of  the  situation  by 
singing  comic  songs.  A  series  of  pageants,  most  of  them  devised 
for  the  City  of  London,  or  its  guilds,  by  Heywood,  were  printed 
in  1637.  In  vol.  iv.  of  his  Collection  of  Old  English  Plays  (1885), 
Mr  A.  H.  Bullen  printed  for  the  first  time  a  comedy  by  Heywood, 
The  Captives,  or  The  Lost  Recovered  (licensed  1624),  and  in  vol.  ii. 
of  the  same  series,  Dicke  of  Devonshire,  which  he  tentatively 
assigns  to  the  same  hand. 

Besides  his  dramatic  works,  twelve  of  which  were  reprinted 
by  the  "  Shakespeare  Society,"  and  were  published  by  Mr  John 
Pearson  in  a  complete  edition  of  six  vols.  with  notes  and  illustra- 
tions in  1874,  he  was  the  author  of  Troia  Britannica,  or  Great 
Britain's  Troy  (1609),  a  poem  in  seventeen  cantos  "intermixed 
with  many  pleasant  poetical  tales  "  and  "  concluding  with  an 
universal  chronicle  from  the  creation  until  the  present  time"; 
An  Apology  for  Actors,  containing  three  brief  treatises  (1612) 
edited  for  the  Shakespeare  Society  in  1841;  Tvva.uei.ov  or  nine 
books  of  various  history  concerning  women  (1624);  England's 
Elizabeth,  her  Life  and  Troubles  during  her  minority  from  the 
Cradle  to  the  Crown  (1631);  The  Hierarchy  of  the  Blessed  Angels 
(1635),  a  didactic  poem  in  nine  books;  Pleasant  Dialogue, 
and  Dramas  selected  out  of  Lucian,  &c.  (1637;  ed.  W.  Bang, 
Louvain,  1903);  and  The  Life  of  Merlin  surnamed  Ambrosius 

(1641). 

See  A.  W.  Ward,  History  of  English  Dram.  Lit.  ii.  550  seq. 
(1899);  the  same  author's  Introduction  to  A  woman  killed  with 
kindness  ("Temple  Dramatists,"  1897);  J.  A.  Symonds  in  the 
Introduction  to  Thomas  Heywood  in  the  "  Mermaid  "  series  (new 
issue,  1903). 


HEYWOOD,  a  municipal  borough  in  the  Heywood  parlia- 
mentary division  of  Lancashire,  England,  9  m.  N.  of  Manchester 
on  the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  25,458. 
It  is  of  modern  growth  and  possesses  several  handsome  churches, 
chapels  and  public  buildings.  The  Queen's  Park,  purchased  and 
laid  out  at  a  cost  of  £11,000  with  money  which  devolved  to 
Queen  Victoria  in  right  of  her  duchy  and  county  palatine  of 
Lancaster,  was  opened  in  1879.  Heywood  Hall  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  town  was  the  residence  of  Peter  Heywood,  who 
contributed  to  the  discovery  of  the  Gunpowder  Plot.  Heywood 
owes  its  rise  to  the  enterprise  of  the  Peels,  its  first  manufactures 
having  been  introduced  by  the  father  of  the  first  Sir  Robert 
Peel.  It  is  an  important  seat  of  the  cotton  manufacture,  and 
there  are  power-loom  factories,  iron  foundries,  chemical  works, 
boiler-works  and  railway  wagon  works.  Coal  is  worked  exten- 
sively in  the  neighbourhood.  Heywood  was  incorporated  in 
1881,  and  the  corporation  consists  of  a  mayor,  6  aldermen  and 
1 8  councillors.  Area,  3660  acres. 

HEZEKIAH  (Heb.  for  "  [my]  strength  is  [of]  Yah  "),  in  the 
Bible  son  of  Ahaz,  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  kings  of  Judah. 
He  flourished  at  the  end  of  the  8th  and  beginning  of  the  7th 
century  B.C.,  when  Palestine  passed  through  one  of  the  most 
eventful  periods  of  its  history.  There  is  much  that  is  uncertain 
in  his  reign,  and  with  the  exception  of  the  great  crisis  of  701  B.C. 
its  chronology  has  not  been  unanimously  fixed.  Whether  he 
came  to  the  throne  before  or  after  the  fall  of  Samaria  (722- 
721  B.C.)  is  disputed,1  nor  is  it  clear  what  share  Judah  took  in 
the  Assyrian  conflicts  down  to  701. 2  Shortly  before  this  date 
the  whole  of  western  Asia  was  in  a  ferment;  Sargon  had  died 
and  Sennacherib  had  come  to  the  throne  (in  705) ;  vassal  kings 
plotted  to  recover  their  independence  and  Assyrian  puppets 
were  removed  by  their  opponents.  Judah  was  in  touch  with  a 
general  rising  in  S.W.  Palestine,  in  which  Ekron,  Lachish,  Ascalon 
(Ashkelon)  and  other  towns  of  the  Philistines  were  supported 
by  the  kings  of  Musri  and  Meluhha.3  Sennacherib  completely 
routed  them  at  Eltekeh  (a  Danite  city),  and  thence  turned  against 
Hezekiah,  who  had  been  in  league  with  Ekron  and  had  imprisoned 
its  king  Padi,  an  Assyrian  vassal.  In  this  invasion  of  Judah  the 
Assyrian  claims  entire  success;  46  towns  of  Judah  were  captured, 
200,150  men  and  many  herds  of  cattle  were  carried  off  among 
the  spoil,  and  Jerusalem  itself  was  closely  invested.  Hezekiah 
was  imprisoned  "  like  a  bird  in  a  cage  "* — to  quote  Sennacherib, 
and  the  Urbi  (Arabian?)  troops  in  Jerusalem  laid  down  their 
arms.  Thirty  talents  of  gold,  eight  hundred  of  silver,  precious 
stones,  couches  and  seats  of  ivory — "  all  kinds  of  valuable 
treasure  ",— the  ladies  of  the  court,  male  and  female  attendants 
(perhaps  "  singers  ")  were  carried  away  to  Nineveh.  Here  the 
Assyrian  record  ends  somewhat  abruptly,  for,  in  the  meanwhile, 
Babylonia  had  again  revolted  (700  B.C.)  and  Sennacherib's 
presence  was  urgently  needed  nearer  home. 

At  what  precise  period  the  Babylonian  Merodach  (i.e.  Marduk)- 
Baladan  sent  his  embassy  to  Hezekiah  is  disputed.  Although 
ostensibly  to  congratulate  the  king  upon  his  recovery  from  a 
sickness,  it  was  really  sent  in  the  hope  of  enlisting  his  support, 
and  the  excessive  courtesy  and  complaisance  with  which  it  was 
received  suggest  that  it  found  a  ready  ally  in  Judah  (2  Kings  xx. 
12  sqq.;  Isa.  xxxix.).  Merodach-Baladan  was  overthrown 
by  Sargon  in  710  B.C.,  but  succeeded  in  making  a  fresh  revolt 
some  years  later  (704-703  B.C.),  and  opinion  is  much  divided 
whether  his  embassy  was  to  secure  the  friendship  of  the 

'See  W.  R.  Smith,  Prophets  of  Israel*  415  sqq.;  O.  C.  White- 
house,  Isaiah,  pp.  20  sqq.,  372;  J.  Skinner,  Kings,  p.  43  seq.;  T.  K. 
Cheyne,  Ency.  Bib.  col.  2058,  n.  I,  and  references. 

2  The  chief  dates  are:  720,  defeat  of  a  coalition  (Hamath,  Gaza 
and  Mu§ri)  at  Karfcar  in  north  Syria  and  Raphia  (S.  Palestine); 
715,  a  rising  of  Musri  and  Arabian  tribes;  713-711,  revolt  and  capture 
of  Ashdod  (cp.  Is.  xx.).  That  Judah  was  invaded  on  this  latter 
occasion  is  not  improbable. 

8  Meluhha  is  held  by  many  critics  to  be  N.W.  Arabia ;  the  identi- 
fication of  Musri  is  uncertain,  see  below. 

4  The  phrase  was  a  favourite  one  of  Rib-Addi,  king  of  Gebal 
(Byblus),  in  the  I5th  century  B.C.;  Tell-el-Amarna  Letters  (ed. 
Knudtzon),  Nos.  74,  79,  &c.  Jeremiah  (v.  27)  uses  the  simile  in  a 
different  way.  For  a  discussion  of  Sennacherib's  record,  see  Wilke, 
Jesaja  u.  Assur  (Leipzig,  1905),  pp.  97  sqq. 


HIATUS— HIBERNATION 


44 1 


youthful  Hezekiah  at  his  succession  or  is  to  be  associated  with 
the  later  widespread  attempt  to  remove  the  Assyrian  yoke.1 

The  brief  account  of  the  Assyrian  invasion,  Hezekiah's  sub- 
mission, and  the  payment  of  tribute  in  2  Kings  xviii.  14-16, 
supplements  the  Assyrian  record  by  the  statement  that  Sen- 
nacherib besieged  Lachish,  a  fact  which  is  confirmed  by  a  bas- 
relief  (now  in  the  British  Museum)  depicting  the  king  in  the  act 
of  besieging  that  town.2  This  thoroughly  historical  fragment 
is  followed  by  two  narratives  which  tell  how  the  king  sent  an 
official  from  Lachish  to  demand  the  submission  of  Hezekiah 
and  conclude  with  the  unexpected  deliverance  of  Jerusalem. 
Both  these  stories  appear  to  belong  to  a  biography  of  Isaiah, 
and,  like  the  similar  biographies  of  Elijah  and  Elisha,  are  open 
to  the  suspicion  that  historical  facts  have  been  subordinated  to 
idealize  the  work  of  the  prophet.  See  KINGS,  BOOKS  OF. 

The  narratives  are  (a)  2  Kings  xviii.  13,  17— xix.  8;  cf.  Isa.  xxxvi. 
l-xxxvii.  8,  and  (b)  xix.  96-35;  cp.  Isa.  xxxvii.  9-36  (2  Chron.  xxxii. 
9  sqq.  is  based  on  both),  and  Jerusalem's  deliverance  is  attributed 
to  a  certain  rumour  (xix.  7),  to  the  advance  of  Tirhakah,  king  of 
Ethiopia  (v.  9),  and  to  a  remarkable  pestilence  (».  35)  which  finds 
an  echo  in  a  famous  story  related,  not  without  some  confusion  of 
essential  facts,  by  Herodotus  (ii.  141 ;  cf.  Josephus  Antiq.  x.  i.  s).3 
It  is  difficult  to  decide  whether  xix.  90  belongs  to  the  first  or  second  of 
these  narratives;  and  whether  the  "  rumour  "  refers  to  the  approach 
of  Tirhakah,  or  rather  to  the  serious  troubles  which  had  arisen  in 
Babylonia.  It  is  equally  difficult  to  determine  whether  Tirhakah 
actually  appeared  on  the  scene  in  701,  and  the  precise  application 
of  the  term  Musji  (Mizraim)  is  much  debated.  Unless  the  two  narra- 
tives are  duplicates  of  the  same  event,  it  may  be  urged  that 
Sennacherib's  attack  upon  Arabia  (apparently  about  689)  involved 
an  invasion  of  Judah,  by  which  time  Egypt  was  in  a  position  to  be 
of  material  assistance  (cf.  Isa.  xxx.  1-5,  xxxi.  1-3?).  This  theory  of 
a  second  campaign  (first  suggested  by  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson)  has 
been  contested,  although  it  is  pointed  out  that  Sennacherib  at  all 
events  did  not  invade  Egypt,  and  that  2  Kings  xix.  24  (Isa.  xxxvii. 
25)  can  only  refer  to  his  successor.  The  allusion  to  the  murder  of 
Sennacherib  (xix.  36  sq.)4  points  to  the  year  681,  but  it  is  uncertain 
to  which  of  the  above  narratives  it  belongs.  On  the  whole,  the 
question  must  be  left  open,  and  with  it  both  the  problem  of  the 
extension  of  the  name  Musri  and  Mizraim  outside  Egypt  in  the 
Assyrian  and  Hebrew  records  of  this  period  and  the  true  historical 
background  of  a  number  of  the  Isaianic  prophecies.  It  is  quite  possible 
that  later  events  which  belong  to  the  time  of  the  Egyptian  supremacy 
and  the  wars  of  Esarhaddon  have  been  confused  with  the  history 
of  Sennacherib's  invasion. 

It  is  not  certain  whether  Hezekiah's  conflict  with  the  Philis- 
tines as  far  as  Gaza  or  his  preparations  to  secure  for  Jerusalem 
a  good  water  supply  (xviii.  8,  xx.  20;  2  Chron.  xxxii.  30;  Ecclus. 
xlviii.  17  sq.)5  should  precede  or  follow  the  events  which  have 
been  discussed.  On  the  other  hand,  the  reforms  which  the 
compiler  of  the  book  has  attributed  to  the  early  part  of  the 
reign  were  doubtless  much  later  (2  Kings  xviii.  1-8).  Not  the 
fall  of  Samaria,  but  the  crisis  of  701,  is  the  earliest  date  that 
could  safely  be  chosen,  and  the  extent  of  these  reforms  must 
not  be  overestimated.  They  are  related  in  terms  that  imply 
an  acquaintance  with  the  great  "  Deuteronomic  "  movement 
(see  DEUTERONOMY),  and  are  magnified  further  with  character- 
istic detail  by  the  chronicler  (2  Chron.  xxix.-xxxi.).  The  most 
remarkable  was  the  destruction  of  a  brazen  serpent,  the  cult 
of  which  was  traditionally  traced  back  to  the  time  of  Moses 
(Num.  xxi.  9).6  This  persistence  of  serpent-cult,  and  the 

1  For  the  early  date  (between  720  and  710),  Winckler,  Alttest.  Unt. 
139  sqq.,   Burney,  Kings,  350  sq. ;  Driver;  Kuchler,  &c. ;  for  the 
later,  Whitehouse,  Isaiah,  29  sq.,  in  agreement  with  Schrader,  Well- 
hausen,  W.  R.  Smith,  Cheyne,  M'Curdy,  Paton,  &c. 

2  Isa.  x.  28-32  may  perhaps  refer  to  this  invasion.     Allusions  to 
the  Assyrian  oppression  are  found  in  Isa.  x.  5-15,  xiv.  24-27,  xvii. 
12-14;  and  to  internal  Judaean  intrigues  perhaps  in  Isa.  xxii.  15-18, 
xxix.  15.     For  a  picture  of  the  ruins  in  Jerusalem,  see  Isa.  xxii.  9-11. 
But  see  further  ISAIAH  (BOOK). 

3  See,   on   the   story,    Griffith,    in    D.    Hogarth's   Authority   and 
Archaeology,  p.  167,  n.  i. 

4  The  house  of  Nisrock  should  probably  be  that  of  the  god  Nusku ; 
see  also  Driver  in  Hogarth,  op.  cit.  p.  109;  Winckler,  op.  cit.  p.  84. 

5  It  is  commonly  believed  that  Hezekiah  constructed  the  conduit 
of  Siloam,  famous  for  its  Hebrew  inscription   (see  INSCRIPTIONS, 
JERUSALEM).     But  Isa.  viii.  6,  would  seem  to  show  that  the  pool 
was  already  in  existence,  and,  for  palaeographical  details,  see  Pal. 
Explor.  Fund,  Quart.  Slat.  (1909),  pp.  289,  305  sqq. 

*  The  name  Nehushtan  (2  Kings  xviii.  4,  cp.  n&hash,  "  serpent ") 
is  obscure ;  see  the  commentaries. 


idolatry  (necromancy,  tree-worship)  which  the  contemporary 
prophets  denounce,  do  not  support  the  view  that  the 
apparently  radical  reforms  of  Hezekiah  were  extensive  or 
permanent,  and  Jer.  xxvi.  17-19  (which  suggests  that  Micah 
had  a  greater  influence  than  Isaiah)  throws  another  light  upon 
the  conditions  during  his  reign.  Hezekiah  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  MANASSEH  (<?.».). 

See  further  W.  R.  Smith,  Prophets,  359-364,  and  HEBREW  RE- 
LIGION. According  to  Prov.  xxv.  I,  Hezekiah  was  a  patron  of 
literature  (see  PROVERBS).  The  hymn  which  is  ascribed  to  the  king 
(Isa.  xxxviii.  9-20,  wanting  in  2  Kings)  is  of  post-exilic  origin  (see 
Cheyne,  Introd.  to  Isaiah,  222  sq.),  but  is  further  proof  of  the  manner 
in  which  the  Judaean  king  was  idealized  in  subsequent  ages,  partly, 
perhaps,  in  the  belief  that  the  deliverance  of  Jerusalem  was  the 
reward  for  his  piety.  For  special  discussions,  see  Stade,  Zeits.  d. 
altlest.  Wissenschaft,  1886,  pp.  173  sqq.;  Winckler,  Alttest.  Unter- 
such.,  26  sqq. ;  Schrader,  Cuneiform  Inscr.  and  Old  Test,  (on 
2  Kings,  I.e.) ;  Driver,  Isaiah,  his  Life  and  Times,  pp.  43-83 ;  A. 
Jeremias,  Alte  Test.  304-310;  Nagel,  Zug  d.  Sanherib  gegen  Jerus. 
(Leipzig,  1903,  conservative);  and  especially  Prasek,  Sanherib's 
"  Feldziige  gegen  Juda  "  (Mitteil,  d.  vorderasiat.  Gesell.,  1903,  pp. 
113-158),  K.  Fullerton,  Bibliotheca  sacra,  1906,  pp.  577-634,  A. 
Alt,  Israel  u.  Agypten  (Leipzig,  1909) ;  also  the  bibliography  to 
ISAIAH.  (S.  A.  C.) 

HIATUS  (Lat.  for  gaping,  or  gap),  a  break  in  continuity, 
whether  in  speech,  thought  or  events,  a  lacuna.  In  anatomy 
the  term  is  used  for  an  opening  or  foramen,  as  the  hiatus  Fallopii, 
a  foramen  of  the  temporal  bone.  In  logic  a  hiatus  occurs  when 
a  step  or  link  in  reasoning  is  wanting;  and  in  grammar  it  is  the 
pause  made  for  the  sake  of  euphony  in  pronouncing  two  successive 
vowels,  which  are  not  separated  by  a  consonant. 

HIAWATHA  ("  he  makes  rivers  "),  a  legendary  chief  (c.  1450) 
of  the  Onondaga  tribe  of  North  American  Indians.  The  forma- 
tion of  the  League  of  Six  Nations,  known  as  the  Iroquois,  is 
attributed  to  him  by  Indian  tradition.  In  his  miraculous 
character  Hiawatha  is  the  incarnation  of  human  progress  and 
civilization.  He  teaches  agriculture,  navigation,  medicine  and 
the  arts,  conquering  by  his  magic  all  the  powers  of  nature  which 
war  against  man. 

See  J.  N.  B.  Hewitt,  in  Amer.  Anthrop.  for  April  1892. 

HIBBING,  a  village  of  St  Louis  county,  Minnesota,  U.S.A., 
75  m.  N.W.  of  Duluth.  Pop.  (1900)  2481;  (1905  state  census) 
6566,  of  whom  3537  were  foreign-born  (1169  Finns,  516  Swedes, 
498  Canadians,  323  Austrians  and  314  Norwegians);  (1910)  8832. 
Hibbing  is  served  by  the  Great  Northern  and  the  Duluth, 
Missabe  &  Northern  railways.  It  lies  in  the  midst  of  the  great 
Mesabi  iron-ore  deposits  of  the  state;  in  1907  forty  iron  mines 
were  in  operation  within  10  m.  of  the  village.  Lumbering  and 
farming  are  also  important  industries.  The  village  owns  and 
operates  the  water-works  and  electric-lighting  plant.  Hibbing 
was  settled  in  1892  and  was  incorporated  in  1893. 

HIBERNACULUM  (Lat.  for  winter  quarters),  in  botany  a 
term  for  a  winter  bud;  in  botanic  gardens,  the  winter  quarters 
for  plants;  in  zoology,  the  winter  bud  of  a  polyzoan. 

HIBERNATION  (winter  sleep),  the  dormant  condition  in 
which  certain  animals  pass  the  winter  in  cold  latitudes.  Aestiva- 
tion (summer  sleep)  is  the  similar  condition  in  which  other 
species  pass  periods  of  heat  or  drought  in  warm  latitudes.  The 
origins  of  these  kindred  phenomena  are  probably  to  be  sought 
in  the  regularly  recurrent  failure  of  food  supply  or  of  other 
factors  essential  to  existence  due  to  the  seasonal  onset  of  cold 
in  the  one  case  and  of  excessively  dry  hot  weather  in  the  other. 
They  are  means  whereby  certain  non-migratory  species  are 
enabled  to  live  through  unfavourable  climatic  conditions  which 
would  end  fatally  in  starvation  or  desiccation  were  the  animals 
to  maintain  their  normal  state  of  activity. 

I.  The  Physiology  of  Hibernation.  Hibernation  and  Aestiva- 
tion.— The  physiology  of  hibernation,  as  exemplified  in  mam- 
malia, has  been  worked  out  in  detail  by  several  observers  in 
the  case  of  some  European  species,  notably  bats,  hedgehogs, 
dormice  and  marmots.  Of  the  physiology  of  aestivation  nothing 
definite  appears  to  have  been  ascertained.  It  seems  probable, 
however,  from  observations  upon  the  dormant  animals  that  the 
physiological  accompaniments  of  winter  and  summer  sleep  are 
to  all  intents  and  purposes  the  same.  The  state  of  hibernation, 


442 


HIBERNATION 


for  example,  in  the  European  hedgehog  (Erinaceus  europaeus) 
is  not  distinguished  by  external  signs  from  the  state  of  aestiva- 
tion of  the  allied  Mascarene  genus,  the  tenrec  (Centetes  ecaudatus). 
The  lethargy  in  both  cases  appears  to  be  directly  due  to 
fall  in  the  temperature  of  the  organisms;  and  the  fall  in 
temperature  proceeds  pari  passu  with  the  slowing  down  and 
weakening  of  the  respiration  and  with  retardation  in  the  cir- 
culation of  the  blood.  Similarity,  moreover,  between  hiberna- 
tion and  aestivation  is  shown  not  only  in  their  physiological 
accompaniments  but  also  in  the  species  of  animals  which  become 
seasonally  dormant.  Birds  neither  hibernate  nor  aestivate. 
The  tenrec  (Centetes)  of  Madagascar,  which  aestivates,  closely 
resembles  the  hedgehog  (Erinaceus)  in  habits  and  belongs  to 
the  same  order  of  mammalia.  In  the  case  of  reptiles  and 
batrachians,  snakes,  lizards,  tortoises,  frogs  and  toads  sleep 
the  winter  through  in  cold  countries;  and  some  species  of 
these  groups  habitually  bury  themselves  in  the  sand  or  mud 
in  tropical  latitudes  where  drought  is  of  periodical  occurrence. 
Terrestrial  molluscs  lie  dormant  in  the  winter  in  cold  and 
temperate  latitudes  and  their  tropical  allies  aestivate  in  districts 
where  conditions  enforce  the  habit.  Some  fresh-water  molluscs 
bury  themselves  in  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  ponds  when  the 
surface  is  covered  with  ice;  others  take  refuge  in  the  same  way 
when  pools  and  tanks  become  exhausted  during  the  dry  season 
in  the  tropics.  In  temperate  and  north  temperate  countries 
insects  and  arachnida  either  die  or  retire  to  winter  quarters 
during  the  cold  weather,  and  in  the  tropics  they  similarly  dis- 
appear during  times  of  drought. 

Predisposing  Causes  of  Hibernation. — The  likeness  between 
hibernation  and  aestivation  and  the  coincidence  of  the  one 
with  cold  and  of  the  other  with  heat  arrest  the  conclusion  that 
the  temperature  of  the.  surrounding  medium,  whether  atmo- 
spheric or  aquatic,  is  the  prime,  much  less  the  sole,  cause  of  either. 
The  effect  of  extreme  cold  is  to  rouse  the  hibernating  animal 
from  its  slumber;  and  its  continuance  thereafter  brings  about 
a  state  of  torpor  which  proves  fatal.  This  at  least  appears  to 
be  the  case  with  mammals,  where  actual  freezing  of  the  tissues 
is  followed  by  death  because  the  gases  are  expelled  from  the 
fluids  as  bubbles  and  the  salts  separate  in  the  form  of  crystals. 
Some  cold-blooded  animals,  however,  may  be  cooled  to  o°  C. 
Fish  have  been  resuscitated  after  solidification  in  blocks  of  ice, 
and  frogs  have  been  known  to  recover  when  ice  has  been  formed 
in  the  blood  and  in  the  lymph  of  the  peritoneal  cavity  (Landois). 

For  the  reasons  given,  all  hibernating  mammals  take  pie- 
cautions  against  exposure  to  extreme  cold.  They  either  bury 
themselves  in  the  soil  or  under  the  snow  or  seek  the  shelter  of 
hollow  trees  or  of  caves,  not  infrequently  congregating  in  the 
same  spot  so  that  the  temperature  is  kept  up  by  corporeal 
contact.  Again  the  hibernating  instinct  may  be  suspended 
unless  the  conditions  are  favourable  for  safely  entering  upon 
winter  sleep.  It  is  alleged  that  bears  in  Scandinavia  do  not 
hibernate  unless  food  has  been  sufficiently  plentiful  during 
the  summer  and  autumn  to  fatten  them  for  their  winter  fast; 
and  hedgehogs  and  dormice  in  captivity  have  been  known  to 
remain  active  in  the  cold  until  warm  sleeping-quarters  were 
insured  by  placing  hay  and  cotton-wool  in  their  cages.  Finally 
the  wood-chucks  (Arctomys  monax)  in  the  Adirondacks  retire 
to  winter  quarters  at  about  the  time  of  the  autumnal  equinox, 
when  the  weather  is  warm  and  pleasant,  and  emerge  at  the 
vernal  equinox  before  the  snows  of  winter  have  vanished  from 
the  ground.  These  and  other  facts  justify  Marshall  Hall's 
conclusion  that  cold  is  merely  a  predisposing  cause  of  hibernation 
in  the  sense  that  it  is  a  predisposing  cause  of  ordinary  sleep. 
It  has  also  been  shown  that  the  state  of  hibernation  cannot  be 
forced  upon  snails  in  summer  by  submitting  them  to  artificial  cold 
even  almost  to  freezing  point;  but  that  at  the  proper  season 
they  prepare  for  winter  quarters  at  temperatures  varying  from  37° 
to  77°  Fahr.  Again  insects  sometimes  retire  to  winter  quarters  in 
the  autumn  when  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  is  higher  than 
that  of  preceding  days  during  which  they  retain  their  activity. 

Thus  the  oncoming  and  ceasing  both  of  winter  and  summer 
sleep  depend  to  a  considerable  extent  upon  conditions  of  existence 


other  than  those  of  temperature.  Darwin  saw  scarcely  a  sign 
of  a  living  thing  on  his  arrival  at  Bahia  Blanca,  Argentina, 
on  the  7th  of  Sept.,  although  by  digging  several  insects,  large 
spiders  and  lizards  were  found  in  a  half-torpid  state.  During 
the  days  of  his  visit  when  nature  was  dormant  the  mean  tempera- 
ture was  51°,  the  thermometer  seldom  rising  above  55°  at 
mid-day.  But  during  the  succeeding  days  when  the  mean 
temperature  was  58°  and  that  of  the  middle  of  the  day  between 
60°  and  70°  both  insect  and  reptilian  life  was  in  a  state  of  activity. 
Nevertheless  at  Montevideo,  lying  only  four  degrees  further 
north,  between  the  z6th  of  July  and  the  igth  of  August  when  the 
mean  temperature  was  58-4°  and  the  mean  highest  temperature 
of  mid-day  65-5°  almost  every  beetle,  several  genera  of  spiders, 
land  molluscs,  toads  and  lizards  were  all  lying  dormant  beneath 
stones.  Thus  the  animal-life  at  Montevideo  remained  dormant 
at  a  temperature  which  roused  that  at  Bahia  Blanca  from  its 
torpidity.  Darwin  unfortunately  does  not  record  whether  the 
species  observed  were  identical  in  the  two  localities. 

The  temperature  of  animals  in  a  profound  state  of  hibernation 
is  approximately  the  same  as  that  of  the  surrounding  medium 
or  at  most  a  degree  or  two  higher.  If,  however,  the  temperature 
of  the  chosen  hibernaculum  (winter  quarters)  falls  as  low  as 
freezing  point,  life  is  endangered  at  least  in  the  case  of  mammals. 

In  most  cold-blooded  animals,  like  reptiles,  the  temperature 
is  normally  only  a  little  above  that  of  the  atmosphere,  the  two 
rising  and  falling  together.  But,  setting  aside  the  young, 
especially  of  those  species  in  which  the  offspring  are  born  or 
hatched  at  a  comparatively  early  stage  of  development,  the 
majority  of  warm-blooded  animals  are  able  to  maintain  a  high 
and  approximately  level  temperature  irrespective  of  decline 
in  the  temperature  of  the  surrounding  medium.  This  faculty 
of  temperature  adjustment,  however,  appears  to  be  absent  or 
weakened  in  most  if  not  in  all  hibernating  mammals  both  in 
their  normal  nocturnal  or  diurnal  sleep  and  in  their  winter  sleep. 
In  the  case  of  European  bats  it  has  been  shown  that  the  ordinary 
day  sleep  in  summer  differs  only  in  the  matter  of  duration  from 
the  prolonged  slumber  of  the  same  animals  in  winter.  The 
temperature  falls  with  that  of  the  atmosphere,  respiration 
practically  ceases  and  immersion  in  water  for  as  many  as  eleven 
minutes  has  been  known  to  prove  innocuous.  At  moderate 
temperatures  ranging  from  45°  to  50°  F.,  dormice  (Muscardinus 
avellanarius)  and  hedgehogs  (Erinaceus  europaeus)  alternately 
wake  to  feed  and  sink  into  slumber.  Dormice  awake  once  in 
every  twenty-four  hours;  the  sleep  of  the  hedgehogs  may  last 
for  two  or  three  days.  The  temperature  of  the  hedgehog,  when 
awake  and  active,  rises  to  about  87°  F.,  that  of  the  dormouse 
to  92°  or  94°  F.;  but  during  sleep  the  temperature  of  both  species 
falls  to  about  that  of  the  atmosphere.  In  other  words,  all  the 
phenomena  characteristic  of  hibernation  are  exhibited  in  these 
animals  during  the  periods  of  sleep  interrupting  their  periods 
of  iwakeful  activity.  Sleep  of  this  nature,  for  which  the  term 
"  diurnation  "  has  been  proposed,  because  it  has  only  been 
observed  in  nocturnal  animals,  lies  phenomenally  midway 
between  the  normal  sleep  of  non-hibernating  mammals  and  the 
dormant  condition  in  winter  of  hibernating  species.  The 
stimulus  of  hunger  appears  to  be  the  prime  cause  of  its  periodic 
cessation.  Since  then  the  faculty  of  temperature  adjustment 
is  in  abeyance  during  the  ordinary  diurnal  summer  sleep  in 
hibernating  mammals,  which  in  this  physiological  particular 
resemble  reptiles,  it  seems  probable  that  hibernation  can  only 
be  practised  by  those  species  in  which  the  power  to  maintain, 
when  sleeping,  a  permanent  average  high  temperature  has  been 
lost  or  perhaps  never  acquired.  That  there  is  no  broad  line 
of  demarcation  between  the  ordinary  sleep  of  these  hibernating 
mammals  in  which  the  temperature  is  known  to  drop  considerably 
and  that  of  non-hibernating  species  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that 
the  temperature  of  human  beings  and  possibly  of  all  non- 
hibernating  species  falls  to  a  certain,  though  to  a  limited,  extent 
in  ordinary  sleep. 

The  relation  between  the  internal  body-temperature  and  the 
respiratory  movements  has  been  worked  out  in  hibernating 
dormice,  hedgehogs,  marmots  and  bats.  When  the  temperature 


HIBERNATION 


443 


is  below  12°  C.,  the  torpid  animal  exhibits  long  periods  of  apnoea 
of  several  minutes'  duration  and  interrupted  by  a  few  respirations. 
With  the  temperature  rising  above  13°  C.,  the  periods  of  apnoea 
in  the  still  inactive  animal  become  snorter,  the  respiration 
suddenly  commencing  and  ceasing  (Biot's  type),  or  gradually 
waxing  and  waning  (Cheyne-Stokes'  type).  When  the  tempera- 
ture is  at  about  16°  C.,  the  periods  of  apnoea  in  the  gradually 
awaking  animal  are  very  short  and  infrequent.  When  the 
temperature  is  about  20°  and  rising  apace,  respiration  becomes 
continuous  and  rapid  and  the  animal  is  awake.  These  stages 
have  been  especially  recorded  in  the  case  of  dormice.  In  the 
last  stage  the  respiration  of  hedgehogs  and  marmots  is  somewhat 
different,  there  being  a  series  of  rapid  respirations,  often  followed 
by  a  single  deep  sighing  respiration. 

Respiration  appears  to  be  totally  suspended  in  animals  in  a 
complete  state  of  hibernation,  if  left  undisturbed.  It  may 
however,  be  readily  re-excited  by  the  slightest  stimulus;  and 
to  this  fact  may  perhaps  be  attributed  the  belief  that  breathing 
does  not  actually  cease.  If  a  hibernating  hedgehog  be  lightly 
touched  it  draws  a  deep  breath,  and  breathing  is  maintained  for  a 
longer  or  shorter  time  before  again  ceasing;  but  if  at  the  same 
time  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  be  raised,  respiration 
becomes  continuous  and  lethargy  is  succeeded  by  activity 
(Marshall  Hall).  The  opinion  that  respiration  is  totally  suspended 
is  supported  by  a  number  of  facts.  Hibernating  marmots  and 
bats,  for  example,  have  been  known  to  live  four  hours  in  carbon 
dioxide,  a  gas  which  proves  almost  instantly  fatal  to  mammals 
in  a  state  of  normal  activity  (Spallanzani).  A  hedgehog  which 
may  be  drowned  in  about  three  minutes  when  awake  and  active, 
has  been  removed  from  water  uninjured  when  in  deep  winter 
sleep  after  twenty-two  and  a  half  minutes'  submergence.  A 
hibernating  noctule  bat,  when  similarly  treated,  survived 
sixteen  minutes'  immersion.  Further  proof  of  the  suspension 
of  respiration  has  been  furnished  by  experiments  upon  a  bat 
which  while  in  a  deep  and  undisturbed  state  of  lethargy  was 
kept  in  a  pneumatometer  for  ten  hours  without  appreciably 
affecting  the  percentage  of  oxygen  in  the  air.  The  same  animal, 
when  active,  removed  over  5  cub.  in.  of  oxygen  in  the  space  of 
one  hour  from  the  instrument. 

As  in  the  case  of  respiration,  alimentation  and  excretion  are 
suspended  during  hibernation. 

The  circulation  of  the  blood,  on  the  other  hand,  continues  without 
interruption,  though  its  rapidity  is  greatly  retarded.  This  fact 
may  be  observed  by  microscopic  examination  of  the  wings  of  bats 
in  a  state  of  winter  sleep.  Moreover,  in  the  case  of  a  hedgehog 
lethargic  from  hibernation,  it  was  experimentally  shown  that 
when  the  spinal  cord  was  severed  behind  the  occipital  foramen, 
the  brain  removed  and  the  entire  spinal  cord  gently  destroyed, 
the  heart  continued  to  beat  strongly  and  regularly  for  several 
hours,  the  contraction  of  the  auricles  and  ventricles  being  quite 
perceptible,  though  feeble,  even  after  the  lapse  of  ten  hours. 
After  eleven  hours  the  organ  was  motionless;  but  resumed  its 
activity  when  stimulated  by  a  knife-point.  Even  after  twelve 
hours  both  auricles  responded  to  the  same  stimulus,  though  the 
ventricles  remained  motionless.  Shortly  afterwards  the  auricles 
gave  no  response.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  spinal  cord  of  a 
hedgehog  in  a  normal  state  of  activity  was  severed  at  the  occiput, 
the  left  ventricle  ceased  to  beat  almost  at  once,  and  the  left 
auricle  in  less  than  fifteen  minutes;  the  right  auricle  was  the 
next  to  cease,  whereas  the  right  ventricle  continued  its  contraction 
for  about  two  hours.  Experiments  upon  marmots  have  yielded 
very  similar  results.  The  heart  of  a  marmot  decapitated  in  a 
state  of  lethargy  continued  to  beat  for  over  three  hours.  The 
pulsations,  at  first  strong  and  frequent  and  varying  from  16 
to  18  per  minute,  became  gradually  weaker  and  less  frequent, 
until  at  the  end  of  the  third  hour  only  3  were  recorded  in  the 
same  length  of  time.  Excised  pieces  of  voluntary  muscular 
tissue  contracted  vigorously  three  hours  after  death  under 
electric  stimulus.  Only  at  the  end  of  four  hours  did  they  cease 
to  respond.  The  heart  of  an  active  marmot  killed  in  the  same 
way  contracted  about  28  times  a  minute  at  first,  the 
number  of  pulsations  falling  to  about  12  at  the  end  of  fifteen 


minutes,  to  8  at  the  end  of  thirty  minutes,  and  ceasing 
altogether  at  the  end  of  fifty  minutes.  Similarly  the  response  of 
the  muscles  to  galvanic  shock  failed  at  a  correspondingly  rapid 
rate.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  during  hibernation  the 
irritability  of  the  heart  is  augmented  in  a  marked  degree,  and 
that  the  irritability  of  the  left  side  of  the  organ  is  scarcely  less 
pronounced  than  that  of  the  right  side.  Similar  reduction  in  the 
rate  of  the  circulation  has  been  demonstrated  in  certain  hibernat- 
ing mollusca,  Mr  C.  Ashford  having  proved  experimentally  that 
the  number  of  pulsations  of  the  heart  per  minute  gradually  lessens 
with  a  falling  temperature.  At  a  temperature  of  52°  F.  the 
number  was  22  in  the  common  garden  snail  (Helix  hortensis), 
and  21  in  the  cellar  slug  (Hyalinia  cellaria).  At  a  temperature 
of  30°  F.  the  pulsation  fell  to  4  in  the  former  and  to  3  in  the 
latter  animal. 

The  nature  of  hibernation,  and  probably  also  of  aestivation, 
and  the  principal  physiological  phenomena  connected  with  them, 
may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows: — 

1.  During  hibernation  death  from  starvation  and  wasting  of  the 
tissues  is  prevented  by  the  absorption  of  fat,  which,  at  least  in  the 
case  of  mammalia,  is  stored  in  considerable  quantities,  sometimes 
in  definite  parts  of  the  body,  during  the  weeks  of  activity  im- 
mediately preceding  the  period  of  winter  sleep. 

2.  Every  gradation  seems  to  exist  between  ordinary  sleep  and 
hibernation;    the    differences    between    the    ordinary    diurnal    or 
nocturnal  sleep  in  summer  of  hibernating  animals  and   their  pro- 
longed and  lethargic  quiescence  in  winter  are  merely  differences  of 
degree,  differences,  that  is  to  say,  of  intensity  and  duration. 

3.  The   physiological   accompaniments   of   hibernation   are:    (a) 
Cessation  of  all  activities  associated  with  alimentation  and  excre- 
tion; (6)  lowering  of  the  body  temperature  to  that  of  the  surrounding 
medium  or  to  within  a  few  degrees  of  it;  (c)  total  or  almost  total 
cessation  of  respiration,  accompanied  by  power  to  survive  immersion 
for  a   considerable   time   in   water  or  asphyxiating   gases,    which 
prove  rapidly  fatal  to  the  same  animals  when  normally  active; 
(d)  marked  increase  in  the  irritability  of  the  muscles,  especially  of 
those  of  the  left  side  of  the  heart,  whereby  the  pulsations  of  that 
organ,  although  retarded,  are  uninterruptedly  maintained;   (e)  a 
slight  exchange  of  gases  in  the  lungs  is  kept  up  by  the  cardio- 
pneumatic  movement. 

4.  Amongst  cold-blooded  animals,  both  vertebrate  and  inverte- 
brate, devoid  of  the  faculty  of  temperature  adjustment,  the  pheno- 
menon of  hibernation  or  aestivation  is  of  general  occurrence  v/herever 
the  conditions  of  existence  accompanying  the  onset  of  cold  or  drought 
are  inimical  to  active  life.     In  hot-blooded  vertebrates,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  phenomena  are  non-existent  so  far  as  birds  are  concerned ; 
aestivation  is  of  very  rare  occurrence  in  mammalia,  while  hibernation 
is  practised  by  a  comparatively  small  number  of  species;  and  in 
these  the  faculty  of  temperature  adjustment  appears  to  be  temporarily 
at  all  events  in  abeyance. 

II.  The  Zoology  of  Hibernation  and  Aestivation. — Owing  to  the 
extreme  difficulty  of  keeping  wild  animals  under  observation  in 
their  natural  haunts  for  any  lengthened  time,  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  get  accurate  knowledge  of  the  details  of  this  state  of 
existence.  In  a  general  way  it  is  known,  or  assumed  from  their 
disappearance,  that  certain  species  retire  to  winter  quarters  in 
particular  districts,  but  on  such  important  points  as  whether  the 
winter  sleep  is  continuous  or  interrupted,  light  or  profound, 
assured  information  is  for  the  most  part  not  forthcoming.  This 
is  true  even  of  familiar  species  inhabiting  Europe  and  North 
America,  which  have  been  objects  of  study  for  many  years.  It 
is  still  more  true  of  species  occurring  in  countries  uninhabited 
and  rarely  visited,  especially  in  winter,  by  naturalists  interested 
in  such  questions.  The  Chiroptera  (bats)  furnish  an  illustration 
of  this  truth.  It  was  formerly  assumed  that  the  winter  sleep 
of  these  animals  in  north  and  temperate  Europe  was  complete 
and  uninterrupted.  Marshall  Hall,  for  example,  remarked 
that  "  perhaps  the  bat  may  be  the  only  animal  which  sleeps 
profoundly  the  winter  through  without  awaking  to  take  food."  It 
was  known,  it  is  true,  that  in  countries  where  gnats  and  other 
winged  insects  disappear  with  the  first  frosts  of  winter,  bats 
which  feed  upon  them  retire  to  winter  quarters  in  hollow  trees, 
caves,  sheds  or  other  places  likely  to  afford  them  sufficient 
shelter.  Here  they  hang  suspended,  solitary  or  in  companies 
according  to  the  species.  But  a  mild  spell  of  weather  in  mid- 
winter will  sometimes  entice  a  few  to  take  wing  while  it  lasts, 
although  they  never  appear  in  any  numbers  until  crepuscular  and 
nocturnal  insects  are  plentiful.  But  Mr  T.  A.  Coward  has 


444 


HIBERNATION 


recently  shown  in  the  case  of  the  greater  and  lesser  horseshoe  bats 
(Rhinolophus  ferrum-equinum  and  R.  hipposiderus),  that  during 
the  early  period  of  their  occupation  of  the  winter  retreat,  hiberna- 
tion, in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  does  not  take  place,  and  that 
even  later  in  the  season  the  sleep  is  constantly  interrupted, 
especially  when  the  temperature  of  the  air  rises  above  46°  F.. 
and  that  during  their  wakeful  intervals  they  crawl  about  and  feed 
apparently  upon  the  insects  which  live  throughout  the  year  in  the 
caves.  This  is  also  true  of  the  long-eared  bat  (Plecolus  auritus), 
and  probably  of  other  species  of  this  group.  At  Mussocrie  in  the 
Himalayas,  and  in  other  parts  of  northern  India,  insectivorous 
bats,  such  as  Rhinolophus  luctus  and  Rh.  affinis,  pass  the  winter 
in  a  semi-torpid  state,  and  are  rarely  seen  abroad  during  the  cold 
season.  The  fruit-eating  bats,  on  the  contrary  (Pteropidae) , 
which  are  more  southern  in  their  distribution  and  are  restricted 
in  the  Himalayas  to  the  warmer  valleys  and  lower  slopes  of  the 
mountains,  are  as  active  in  the  winter  as  at  other  times  of  the 
year  (Blanford). 

Although  almost  as  exclusively  insectivorous  as  bats,  moles 
and  shrews  do  not,  so  far  as  is  known,  hibernate.  This  distinction 
between  two  groups  so  nearly  alike  in  diet,  no  doubt  depends 
upon  the  difference  in  their  habitats  and  in  those  of  the  creatures 
they  live  upon.  By  tunnelling  deeper  in  winter  than  in  summer, 
moles  are  still  able  to  find  worms  and  various  insects  buried 
in  the  earth  beyond  the  reach  of  frost;  and  shrews  hunt  out 
spiders,  centipedes  and  insects  which  in  their  larval,  pupal  or 
sexual  stages  have  taken  shelter  and  lie  dormant  in  holes  and 
crannies  of  the  soil,  beneath  the  leaves  of  ground  plants  or 
under  stones  and  logs  of  wood.  In  view  of  the  perennially 
active  life  of  the  two  insectivora  just  mentioned,  it  is  a  singular 
fact  that  the  common  hedgehog  (Erinaceus  europaeus) — the 
only  member  of  this  order  besides  genera  referable  to  the  moles 
( Talpidae)  and  shrews  (Soricidae)  that  inhabits  temperate  and 
north-temperate  latitudes  in  Europe  and  Asia — passes  the 
winter  in  a  state  of  torpor  unsurpassed  in  profundity  by  that 
of  any  species  of  mammal  so  far  as  is  known.  Possibly  the 
explanation  of  this  seeming  anomaly  may  be  found  in  the 
bionomial  differences  between  the  three  animals.  The  sub- 
terranean feeding  habits  of  the  mole  render  hibernation  un- 
necessary on  his  part.  Therefore  the  shrew  and  the  hedgehog, 
both  surface  feeders  for  the  most  part,  need  only  be  considered 
in  this  connexion.  As  compared  with  shrews,  amongst  the 
smallest  of  palaearctic  mammals,  the  hedgehog  is  of  considerable 
size.  Moreover,  in  point  of  vivacious  energy  it  would  be  difficult 
to  find  two  mammals  of  the  same  order  more  utterly  unlike. 
Hence  in  winter  when  insects  are  scarce  and  demand  active 
and  diligent  search,  it  is  quite  intelligible  that  the  shrews, 
in  virtue  of  their  smallness  and  rapidity  of  movement,  are  able 
to  procure  sufficient  food  for  their  needs;  whereas  the  hedgehogs, 
requiring  a  far  larger  quantity  and  handicapped  by  lack  of 
activity,  would  probably  starve  under  the  same  conditions. 
Like  the  common  hedgehog  of  Europe,  the  long-eared  hedge- 
hog (Erinaceus  megalotis)  hibernates  in  Afghanistan  from 
November  till  February.  The  tenrec  (Centetes  ecaudatus),  a 
large  insectivore  from  Madagascar,  aestivates  during  the  hottest 
weeks  of  the  year;  and  specimens  exhibited  in  the  Zoo- 
logical Gardens  in  London  preserved  the  habit  although 
kept  at  a  uniform  temperature  and  regularly  supplied  with 
food. 

Amongst  the  Rodentia,  no  members  of  the  Lagomorpha 
(hares,  rabbits  and  picas)  are  known  to  hibernate,  although 
some  of  the  species,  like  the  mountain  hare  (Lepus  timidus), 
extend  far  to  the  north  in  the  palaearctic  region,  and  the  picas 
(Ochotona)  live  at  high  altitudes  in  the  Himalayas  and  Central 
Asia,  where  the  cold  of  winter  is  excessive,  and  where  the  snow 
lies  deep  for  many  months.  It  is  probable  that  the  picas  live 
in  fissures  and  burrows  beneath  the  snow,  and  feed  on  stores 
of  food  accumulated  during  the  summer  and  autumn.  The 
Hystrico-morpha  also  are  non-hibernators.  It  is  true  that  the 
common  porcupine  (Hystrix  cristata)  of  south  Europe  and 
north  Africa  is  alleged  to  hibernate;  the  statement  cannot, 
however,  be  accepted  without  confirmation,  because  the  cold  is 


seldom  excessive  in  the  countries  it  frequents,  and  specimens 
exhibited  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  in  London  remain  active 
throughout  the  year,  although  kept  in  enclosures  without 
artificial  heat  of  any  kind.  Even  the  most  northerly  repre- 
sentative of  this  group,  the  Canadian  porcupine  (Ercthizon 
dorsatus),  which  inhabits  forest-covered  tracts  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  may  be  trapped  and  shot  in  the  winter. 
Some  members  of  this  group,  like  capybaras  (Hydrochaerus 
capybara)  and  coypus  (Myocastors  coypus)  which  live  in  tropical 
America,  are  unaffected  by  the  winter  cold  of  temperate  countries, 
and  live  in  the  open  all  the  year  round  in  parks  and  zoological 
gardens  in  England.  Several  of  the  genera  of  Myomorpha 
contain  species  inhabiting  the  northern  hemisphere,  which 
habitually  hibernate.  The  three  European  genera  of  dormice 
(M yoxidae),  namely  Muscardinus,  Eliomys  and  G/is,sleep  soundly 
practically  throughout  the  winter;  and  examples  of  the  South 
African  genus  Graphiurus  practise  the  same  habit  when  imported 
to  Europe.  If  a  warm  spell  in  the  winter  rouses  dormice  from 
their  slumbers,  they  feed  upon  nuts  or  other  food  accumulated 
during  the  autumn,  but  do  not  as  a  rule  leave  the  nests  constructed 
for  shelter  during  the  winter.  According  to  the  weather,  the 
sleep  lasts  from  about  five  to  seven  months.  In  the  family 
Muridae,  the  true  mice  and  rats  (Murinae)  and  the  voles 
and  lemmings  (Anicolinae)  seem  to  remain  active  through  the 
winter,  although  some  species,  like  the  lemmings,  range  far  to 
the  north  in  Europe  and  Asia;  but  the  white-footed  mice 
(Hespsromys)  of  North  America,  belonging  to  the  Cricetinae, 
spend  the  winter  sleeping  in  underground  burrows,  where  food 
is  laid  up  for  consumption  in  the  early  spring.  The  Canadian 
jumping  mouse  (Zapus  hudsonianus),  one  of  the  Jaculidae, 
also  hibernates,  although  the  sleep  is  frequently  interrupted 
by  milder  days.  Some  of  the  most  northerly  species  of  jerboas 
(Jaculidae),  namely  Alactaga  decumana  of  the  Kirghiz  Steppes 
and  A.  indica  of  Afghanistan,  sleep  from  September  or  October 
till  April;  and  the  Egyptian  species  (Jaculus  jaculus)  and  the 
Cape  jumping  hare  (Pedetes  coffer),  one  of  the  Hystricomorpha, 
remain  in  their  burrows  during  the  wet  season  in  a  state  analogous 
to  winter  sleep.  The  sub-order  Sciuromorpha  also  contains 
many  hibernating  species.  None  of  the  true  squirrels,  however, 
appear  to  sleep  throughout  the  winter.  Even  the  red  squirrel 
(Sciurus  hudsonianus)  of  North  America  retains  its  activity 
in  spite  of  the  sub-arctic  conditions  that  prevail.  The  same  is 
true  of  its  European  ally  Sc.  vulgaris.  The  North  American 
grey  squirrel  (Sc.  cinereus),  although  more  southerly  in  its 
distribution  than  the  red  squirrel  of  that  country,  hiber- 
nates partially.  Specimens  running  wild  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens  in  London  disappear  for  a  day  or  two  when  the  cold 
is  exceptionally  keen,  but  for  the  most  part  they  may  be  seen 
abroad  throughout  the  season.  On  the  other  hand,  ground 
squirrels  like  the  chipmunks  (Tamias) and  the  susliks  or  gophers 
(Spcrmophilus)  of  North  America  and  Central  Asia,  at  all  events 
in  the  more  northern  districts  of  their  range,  sleep  from  the 
late  autumn  till  the  spring  in  their  subterranean  burrows,  where 
they  accumulate  food  for  use  in  early  spring  and  for  spells  of 
warmer  weather  in  the  winter  which  may  rouse  them  from  their 
slumbers.  The  North  American  flying  squirrel  (Sciuropterus 
iiolucella)  and  its  ally  Pleromys  inornalus  are  believed  to  hibernate 
in  hollow  trees.  All  the  true  marmots  (Ardomys) ,  a  genus  of 
which  the  species  live  at  tolerably  high  altitudes  in  Central 
Europe,  Asia  and  North  America,  appear  to  spend  the  winter 
in  uninterrupted  slumber  buried  deep  in  their  burrows.  They 
apparently  lay  up  no  store  of  food,  but  accumulate  a  quantity  of 
fat  as  the  summer  and  autumn  advance,  and  frequently,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  woodchuck  (A.  monax)  of  the  Adirondacks, 
retire  to  winter  quarters  in  the  autumn  long  before  the  onset 
of  the  winter  cold.  The  prairie  marmots  or  prairie  dogs  (Cynomys 
ludovicianus)  of  North  America,  which  live  in  the  plains,  do 
not  hibernate  to  the  same  extent  as  the  true  marmots,  although 
they  appear  to  remain  in  their  burrows  during  the  coldest 
portions  of  the  winter.  Beavers  (Castor),  although  formerly  at 
all  events  extending  in  North  America  from  the  tropic  of  Cancer 
up  to  the  Arctic  circle,  do  not  hibernate.  When  the  ground 


HIBERNATION 


445 


is  deep  in  snow  and  the  river  frozen  over,  they  are  still  able 
to  feed  on  aquatic  plants  beneath  the  ice. 

Amongst  the  terrestrial  carnivora  hibernation  appears  to  be 
practised,  with  one  possible  exception,  only  by  species  belonging 
to  the  group  Arctoidea.  In  north  temperate  latitudes  both  in 
Europe  and  Asia,  as  well  as  in  the  Himalayas,  brown  bears 
(Ursus  arctos)  hibernate,  so  also  does  the  North  American 
grizzly  bear  (U.  horribilis),  at  least  in  the  more  northern  districts 
of  its  range.  The  smaller  black  bear  of  the  Himalayas  (U. 
tibetanus)  appears  to  lapse  into  a  state  of  semi-torpor  during  the 
winter,  only  emerging  from  his  retreat  to  hunt  for  food  when 
occasional  breaks  in  the  weather  occur.  In  the  case  of  the 
American  black  bear  (U.  americanus)  the  female  seeks  winter 
quarters  comparatively  early  in  the  season  in  preparation  for  the 
birth  of  her  progeny  soon  after  the  turn  of  the  year;  but  the 
males  remain  active  so  long  as  plenty  of  food  is  to  be  found.  In 
the  case  of  all  bears,  except  the  Polar  bear  (U.  maritimus),  the 
site  chosen  as  the  hibernaculum  is  either  a  cave  or  hole  or  some 
sheltered  spot  beneath  a  ledge  of  rock,  or  the  roots  of  large  trees, 
more  or  less  overgrown  with  brushwood  which  holds  the  snow 
until  it  freezes  into  a  solid  roof  over  the  hollow  where  the  sleeping 
animal  lies.  In  the  hibernating  brown  and  black  bears  the 
intestine  is  blocked  by  a  plug  commonly  called  "  tappen  "  and 
composed  principally  of  pine  leaves,  which  is  usually  not  evacuated 
until  the  spring.  There  is  much  diversity  of  opinion  on  the 
subject  of  the  hibernation  of  Polar  bears.  Their  absence  during 
the  winter  from  particular  spots  in  the  Arctic  regions  where  ice- 
bound ships  have  spent  the  winter,  and  the  occasional  discovery 
of  specimens  buried  beneath  the  snow,  have  led  to  the  belief  that 
these  animals  habitually  retire  to  winter  quarters  through  the 
cold  sunless  months  of  the  year.  This  may  possibly  be  the  true 
explanation  at  least  for  certain  districts.  But  it  has  been  alleged 
that  bears,  both  adult  and  half-grown,  may  be  seen  throughout 
the  winter;  and  it  is  known  that  pregnant  females  bury  them- 
selves in  the  autumn  under  the  snow,  where  they  remain  without 
feeding  with  their  newly-born  young  until  the  spring  of  the 
following  year.  Hence  the  absence  of  bears  in  the  winter  from 
the  neighbourhood  of  icebound  ships  may  be  explained  on  the 
supposition  that  the  adult  females  alone  hibernate  for  breeding 
purposes,  while  the  full-grown  males  and  half-grown  specimens  of 
both  sexes  migrate  in  the  winter  to  the  edges  of  the  ice-floes  and 
to  coast  lines,  where  the  water  is  open.  Before  retiring  to  winter 
quarters  the  pregnant  females  store  up  sufficient  quantity  of  fat  in 
their  tissues  not  only  to  sustain  themselves  but  also  to  supply  milk 
for  their  cubs.  In  the  Adirondack  region  and  probably  in  other 
districts  of  the  same  or  more  northern  latitudes  in  North  America, 
raccoons  (Procyon  lotor)  retire  in  the  winter  to  some  sheltered 
place,  such  as  a  hollow  tree-trunk,  and  pass  the  severest  part  of 
the  season  in  sleep,  emerging  in  February  or  March  when  the 
snow  has  begun  to  disappear.  In  the  same  country,  the  skunks 
(Mephitis  mephilica),  a  member  of  the  weasel  family,  also  seek 
shelter  during  the  coldest  portion  of  the  winter.  Merriam 
believes  that  the  hibernation  of  this  animal  is  determined  by  cold, 
and  not  by  failure  of  food-supply,  for  he  observes  that  skunks 
may  frequently  be  seen  in  numbers  on  snow  lying  5  ft.  deep  at  a 
time  of  the  year  when  they  feed  almost  entirely  upon  mice  and 
shrews  which  do  not  hibernate  even  when  the  thermometer 
registers  over  twelve  degrees  of  frost.  In  British  North  America 
the  badger  ( Taxidea  americana)  is  said  to  hibernate  from  October 
till  April ;  but  the  duration  of  the  period  probably  depends,  as  in 
the  case  of  its  European  ally  (Meles  meles),  upon  the  length  and 
severity  of  the  inclement  season.  In  the  last-named  species  the 
winter  repose  is  not  as  a  rule  sufficiently  profound  to  prevent  a 
break  in  the  weather  rousing  the  animal  from  sleep  to  sally  forth 
in  search  of  food.  This  interrupted  hibernation  takes  place  at 
least  in  England  and  even  in  Scandinavia;  but  in  countries 
where  frost  is  continuous  throughout  the  winter  it  is  probable 
that  the  badger's  sleep  is  unbroken. 

The  one  exception  to  the  general  rule  that  hibernation  in  the 
carnivora  is  restricted  to  the  Arctoidea,  is  supplied  by  the 
raccoon  dog  (Nyctereutes  procyonoides)  of  Japan  and  north-eastern 
Asia,  which  is  said  by  Radde  to  hibernate  in  burrows  in  Amur- 


land  if  food  has  been  sufficiently  plentiful  in  late  summer  and 
autumn  to  enable  the  animal  to  lay  on  enough  fat  to  resist  the 
cold  and  sustain  a  long  period  of  fast.  If,  however,  food  has  been 
scarce,  this  dog  is  compelled  to  remain  active  all  through  the 
winter.  The  Arctic  fox  (Vulpes  lagopus),  although  considerably 
more  northern  in  range  than  the  raccoon  dog,  does  not  hibernate. 
It  was  long  a  mystery  how  these  animals  obtained  food  in  winter, 
but  it  has  been  ascertained  that  in  some  districts  they  migrate 
southwards  in  large  numbers  in  the  late  autumn,  whereas  in 
other  districts  apparently  they  lay  up  stores  of  dead  lemmings 
or  hares,  for  food  during  the  winter  months.  In  Australia  the 
porcupine  ant-eater  (Echidna  aculeata)  hibernates;  and  the 
habit  is  retained  by  specimens  imported  to  Europe  if  exposed  to 
the  cold  in  outdoor  cages. 

Instances  of  quasi-hibernation  have  been  recorded  in  the  case 
of  man.  For  example,  in  the  government  of  Pskov  in  Russia, 
where  food  is  scarce  throughout  the  year  and  in  danger  of  ex- 
haustion during  the  winter,  the  peasants  are  said  to  resort  to  a 
practice  closely  akin  to  hibernation,  spending  at  least  one-half  of 
the  cold  weather  in  sleep.  From  time  immemorial  it  has  been  the 
custom  when  the  first  snows  fall  for  families  to  shut  themselves 
up  in  their  huts,  huddle  round  the  stove  and  lapse  into  slumber, 
each  member  taking  his  turn  to  keep  the  fire  alight.  Once  a  day 
only  do  the  inmates  rouse  themselves  from  sleep  to  eat  a  little 
dry  bread. 

Reptiles  in  which  the  body-temperature  falls  with  that  of  the 
surrounding  medium  pass  the  winter  in  temperate  countries  in 
a  state  of  lethargy;  and  specimens  exported  from  the  tropics  into 
northern  latitudes  become  dormant  when  exposed  to  cold  in  virtue 
of  their  inability  to  maintain  their  temperature  at  a  higher  level 
than  that  of  the  atmosphere.  The  common  land  tortoise  ( Testudo 
graeca)  of  South  Europe  buries  itself  in  the  soil  during  the  winter 
in  its  natural  habitat,  and  even  when  imported  to  England  is  able, 
in  some  cases  at  least,  to  withstand  the  more  rigorous  winter  by 
practising  the  same  habit,  as  Gilbert  White  originally  recorded. 
In  Pennsylvania  the  box-tortoise  (Cistudo  Carolina)  passes  the 
winter  in  a  burrow;  and  Tesludo  elegans,  which  inhabits  dry  hilly 
districts  in  north  India,  takes  shelter  beneath  tufts  of  grass  or 
bushes  as  the  cold  weather  approaches  and  remains  in  a  semi- 
lethargic  state  until  the  return  of  the  warmth.  The  European 
pond  tortoise  (Emys  orbicularis)  also  hibernates  buried  in  the  soil; 
and  the  North  American  salt-water  terrapin  (Malacoclemmys 
concentrica) ,  abundant  in  the  salt-marshes  round  Charleston, 
S.  Carolina,  retires  into  the  muddy  banks  to  spend  the  cold 
months  of  the  year.  In  certain  parts  of  the  tropics  tortoises 
protect  themselves  from  the  excessive  heat  by  burrowing  into 
the  soil  which  afterwards  becomes  indurated.  When  drought 
sets  in  with  the  dry  season  and  the  tanks  become  exhausted  and 
food  unobtainable,  crocodiles  and  alligators  sometimes  wander 
across  country  in  search  of  water,  but  more  commonly  bury 
themselves  in  the  mud  and  remain  in  a  state  of  quiescence  until 
the  return  of  the  rains;  and  according  to  Humboldt,  large 
snakes,  anacondas  or  boa  constrictors  are  often  found  by  the 
Indians  in  South  America  buried  in  the  sams  lethargic  state. 
Snakes  and  lizards  in  all  countries  where  there  :s  any  considerable 
seasonal  variation  in  temperature  become  dormant  or  semi- 
dormant  during  the  colder  months. 

Batrachians,  like  reptiles,  hibernate  in  Europe  and  other 
countries  situated  in  temperate  latitudes.  Frogs  bury  them- 
selves in  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  tanks  and  ponds,  often 
congregating  in  numbers  in  the  same  spot.  Toads  retire  to 
burrows  or  other  secluded  places  on  the  land,  and  newts  either 
bury  themselves  in  the  mud  of  ponds,  like  frogs,  or  lie  up 
beneath  stones  and  pieces  of  wood  on  the  land.  According  to 
Mr  G.  A.  Boulenger,  however,  European  frogs  and  toads  do  not 
pass  the  winter  in  profound  torpor,  but  merely  in  a  state  of 
sluggish  quiescence.  In  tropical  countries,  where  wet  and  dry 
seasons  alternate,  frogs  which,  like  the  rest  of  the  batrachians, 
are  for  the  most  part  intolerant  of  great  heat,  especially  when 
accompanied  by  dryness  of  atmosphere,  bury  themselves  deep 
in  the  soil  during  the  time  of  drought  and  emerge  from  their 
retreats  in  numbers  with  the  breaking  of  the  rains. 


HIBERNATION 


This  habit  of  passing  the  dry  season  in  the  hardened  mud 
forming  the  bottom  of  exhausted  pools  and  rivers  is  practised 
by  several  species  of  tropical  freshwater  fishes,  belonging  princi- 
pally to  the  family  SUuridae.  The  members  of  this  group  are 
able  to  exist  and  thrive  in  moist  mud,  and  can  even  support 
life  for  a  comparatively  long  time  out  of  water  altogether.  The 
instinct  is  exhibited  by  species  occurring  both  in  the  eastern  and 
western  hemispheres,  as  is  shown  by  its  record  in  the  case  of 
species  of  Callicthys  and  Loricaria  in  Guiana  and  by  Glorias 
lazera  in  Senegambia.  It  is  also  met  with,  according  to  Tennent, 
in  a  species  of  climbing  perch  (Anabas  oligolepis)  found  in  Ceylon 
and  belonging  to  the  family  Anabantidae,  all  the  species  of 
which  are  able  to  live  for  a  certain  length  of  time  out  of  water, 
and  may  sometimes  be  found  crawling  across  land  in  search  of 
fresh  pools.  The  habit  is  also  common  to  some  species  of  mud 
fishes  of  the  order  Dipneusti,  in  which  the  air  bladder  plays 
the  part  of  lungs.  Protopterus,  from  tropical  Africa,  for  instance, 
burrows  into  the  mud  and  remains  for  nearly  half  the  year 
coiled  up  at  the  bottom  in  a  slightly  enlarged  chamber.  The 
walls  of  this  are  lined  with  a  layer  of  slime  secreted  from  the 
fish's  skin,  and  the  orifice  is  closed  with  a  lid  the  centre  of  which 
is  perforated  and  forms  an  inturned  tube  by  means  of  which 
air  is  conducted  to  the  fish's  mouth.  The  aestivating  burrow 
of  the  Brazilian  mudfish  (Lepidosiren)  is  similar,  except  that 
the  lid  is  perforated  with  several  apertures.  The  Australian 
mudfish  (Ceratodus)  is  not  known  to  hibernate  or  aestivate. 

In  countries  where  winter  frosts  arrest  the  growth  of  vegeta- 
tion terrestrial  mollusca  seek  hibernacula  beneath  stones  or 
fallen  tree  trunks,  in  rock  crannies,  holes  in  walls,  in  heaps  of 
dead  leaves,  in  moss  or  under  the  soil,  and  remain  quiescent 
until  the  coming  of  spring.  Amongst  pulmonate  gastropods, 
most  species  of  snails  (Helix,  Clausilia)  close  the  mouth  of  the 
shell  at  this  period  with  a  membranous  or  calcified  plate,  the 
epiphragm.  Slugs  (Limax,  Arion),  on  the  contrary,  lie  buried 
in  the  earth  encysted  in  a  coating  of  slime.  Similarly  in  the 
tropics  members  of  this  group,  such1  as  Achatina  in  tropical 
Africa  and  Orthalicus  in  Brazil,  aestivate  during  the  dry  season, 
the  epiphragm  preserving  them  against  desiccation;  and 
examples  of  two  species  of  Achatina  from  east  and  west  Africa 
exhibited  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  in  London  remained  con- 
cealed in  their  shells  during  the  winter,  although  kept  in  an 
artificially  warmed  house,  and  resumed  their  activity  in  the 
summer. 

Freshwater  Pulmonata  do  not  appear  to  hibernate,  such 
forms  as  Limnaea  and  Planorbis  having  been  frequently  seen 
crawling  about  beneath  the  ice  of  frozen  ponds.  During  periods 
of  drought  in  England,  however,  they  commonly  bury  them- 
selves in  the  mud,  a  habit  which  is  also  practised  during  the 
dry  season  in  the  tropics  by  species  of  Prosobranchiate  Gastropods 
belonging  to  the  genera  Ampullaria,  Melania  and  others,  which 
lie  dormant  until  the  first  rains  rouse  them  from  their  lethargy. 
Freshwater  Pelecypoda  (Anodonta,  Unio)  spend  the  European 
winter  buried  deep  in  the  muddy  bottom  of  ponds  and  streams. 

In  cold  and  temperate  latitudes  a  great  majority  of  insects 
pass  the  winter  in  a  dormant  state,  either  in  the  larval,  pupal 
or  imaginal  (reproductive)  stages.  In  some  the  state  of  hiberna- 
tion is  complete  in  the  sense  that  although  the  insects  may  be 
roused  from  their  lethargy  to  the  extent  of  movement  by  spells 
of  warm  weather,  they  do  not  leave  their  hibernacula  to  feed; 
in  others  it  is  incomplete  in  the  sense  that  the  insects  emerge 
to  feed,  as  in  the  case  of  the  caterpillar  of  Euprepia  fuliginosa, 
or  to  take  the  wing  as  in  the  case  of  the  midge  Trichocera  hiemalis. 
Others  again,  like  Podura  nivalis  and  Boreus  hiemalis,  never 
appear  to  hibernate,  at  least  in  England.  The  insects  which 
hibernate  as  larvae  belong  to  those  species  which  pass  more 
than  one  season  in  that  stage,  such  as  the  goat-moth  (Cossus 
ligniperdd),  cockchafers  (M  elolontha) ,  stagbeetles  (Lucanus) 
and  dragon-flies  (Libellula),  &c.;  and  to  some  species  which, 
although  they  only  live  a  few  months  in  this  immature  state, 
are  hatched  in  the  autumn  or  summer  and  only  reach  the  final 
stage  of  growth  in  the  following  spring,  like  the  butterflies  of 
the  genus  Argynnis  (paphia,  aglaia,  &c.)  in  England.  As  an 


instance  of  species  which  survive  the  winter  in  the  pupal  or 
chrysalis  stage  may  be  cited  the  swallow-tailed  butterfly  of 
Europe  (Papilio  machaon);  while  to  the  category  of  species 
which  hibernate  as  perfect  insects  belong  many  of  the  Coleoptera 
(Rhyncophora,  Coccindlid ae) ,  &c.,  as  well  as  some  Hemiptera, 
Hymenoptera,  Diptera  and  Lepidoptera  (Vanessa  io,  urlicae, 
&c.).  In  the  case  of  the  social  Hymenoptera  it  is  only  the 
fertilized  queen  wasp  out  of  the  nest  that  survives  the  frost 
of  winter,  all  the  workers  dying  with  the  onset  of  cold  in  the 
autumn;  the  common  hive  bees  (Apis  mellifica),  although  they 
retire  to  the  hive,  do  not  hibernate,  the  numbers  and  activity 
of  the  individuals  within  the  hive  being  sufficient  to  keep  up  the 
temperature  above  soporific  point.  Ants  also  remain  actively 
at  work  underground  unless  the  temperature  falls  several 
degrees  below  zero. 

Spiders,  like  nearly  all  insects,  hibernate  in  cold  temperate 
latitudes.  Burrowing  species  like  trap-door  spiders  of  the 
family  Ctenizidae  and  some  species  of  Lycosidae  seal  the  doors 
of  their  burrows  with  silk  or  close  up  the  orifice  with  a  sheet 
of  that  material.  Other  non-burrowing  species,  like  some  species 
of  Clubionidae  and  Drassidae,  lie  up  in  silken  cases  attached 
to  the  underside  of  stones  or  of  pieces  of  loose  bark,  or  buried 
under  dead  leaves  or  concealed  in  the  cracks  of  walls.  Other 
species,  on  the  contrary,  pass  the  winter  in  an  immature  state 
protected  from  the  cold  by  the  silken  cocoon  spun  by  the  mother 
for  her  eggs  before  she  dies  in  the  late  autumn,  as  in  the  "  garden 
spider"  (Aranea  diadema).  Commonly,  however,  when  the 
cocoons  are  later  in  the  making,  or  the  cold  weather  sets  in  early, 
the  eggs  of  this  and  of  allied  species  do  not  hatch  until  the  spring; 
but  in  either  case  the  young  emerge  hi  the  warm  weather,  become 
adult  during  the  summer  and  die  in  the  autumn  after  pairing 
and  oviposition.  Some  members  of  this  family,  nevertheless, 
like  Zilla  x-notala,  which  live  in  the  corners  of  windows,  or  in 
outhouses  where  the  habitat  affords  a  certain  degree  of  pro- 
tection from  the  cold,  may  survive  the  winter  in  the  adult  stage 
and  be  roused  from  lethargy  by  breaks  in  the  weather  and 
tempted  by  the  warmth  to  spin  new  webs.  Typical  members 
of  the  Opiliones  or  harvest  spiders,  belonging  to  the  family 
Phalangiidae,  do  not  hibernate  in  temperate  and  more  northern 
latitudes  in  Europe  and  America,  but  perish  in  the  autumn, 
leaving  their  eggs  buried  in  the  soil  to  hatch  in  the  succeeding 
spring.  During  the  early  summer,  therefore,  only  immature 
individuals  are  found.  Other  species  of  this  order,  belonging 
to  the  family  Trogulidae,  spend  the  winter  in  a  dormant  state 
under  stones  or  buried  in  the  soil.  False  scorpions  (Pseudo- 
scorpiones)  also  hibernate  in  temperate  latitudes,  passing  the 
cold  months,  like  many  spiders,  enclosed  in  silken  cases  attached 
to  the  underside  of  stones  or  loosened  pieces  of  bark.  Centi- 
pedes and  millipedes  bury  themselves  in  the  earth,  or  lie  up  in 
some  secluded  shelter  such  as  stones  or  fallen  tree  trunks  afford 
during  the  winter;  and  in  -the  tropics  millipedes  lie  dormant 
during  seasons  of  drought. 

What  is  true  of  the  dormant  condition  of  arthropod  life  in 
the  winter  of  the  northern  hemisphere  is  also  true  in  a  general 
way  of  that  of  the  southern  hemisphere  at  the  same  season 
of  the  year.  This  is  proved — to  mention  no  other  cases — by  the 
observations  of  Darwin  on  the  hibernation  of  insects  and  spiders 
at  Montevideo  and  Bahia  Blanca  in  South  America,  and  by 
Distant's  account  of  the  paucity  of  insect  life  in  the  winter 
in  South  Africa;  by  his  discovery  under  stones  of  hibernating 
semi-torpid  Coleoptera  and  Hemiptera  at  the  end  of  August  in 
the  Transvaal,  and  of  the  gradual  increase  in  the  ;numbers  of 
individuals  and  species  of  insects  in  that  country  as  the  spring 
advanced  and  the  dry  season  came  to  an  end. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — T.  Bell,  A  History  of  British  Reptiles  (and 
Amphibians)  (1849);  W.  T.  Blanford,  Fauna  of  British  India: 
Mammalia  (1889-1891);  G.  A.  Boulenger,  Monograph  of  the 
Tailless  Batrachians  of  Europe,  edited  by  the  Ray  Society; 
"  Teleostei  "  in  Cambridge  Natural  History,  vii.  541-727  (1904); 
T.  W.  Bridge,  "  Dipneustei  "  in  Cambridge  Natural  History,  vii. 
505-520  (1904);  A.  H.  Cooke,  "  Molluscs"  in  Cambridge  Natural 
History,  iii.  25-27  (1895);  T.  A.  Coward,  P.Z.S.  pp.  849- 
855  (1906),  and  pp.  312-324  (1907);  C.  Darwin,  A  Naturalist's 


HIBERNIA— HICKORY 


447 


Voyage  Round  Hie  World,  pp.  97-98  (1907  ed.);  W.  L.  Distant, 
A  Naturalist  in  the  Transvaal,'  ch.  iii.  (1892);  Marshall  Hall, 
"  Hibernation,  "  in  Todd's  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physi- 
ology, pp.  764-776  (1839)  (Bibliography);  Phil.  Trans.  Roy.  Soc. 
(1832);  John  Hunter,  Observations  on  parts  of  the  Animal  Economy 
(1837) ;  Index  Catalogue  of  the  Library  of  the  Surgeon-General's 
Office  of  the  U.S.  Army,  vii.  (1902),  Bibliography  relating  to  physio- 
logy of  Hibernation;  W.  Kirby  and  W.  Spence,  An  Introduction 
to  Entomology,  ed.  17,  pp.  517-533  (1856);  L.  Landois,  A  Text-book 
of  Human  Physiology,  translated  by  W.  Stirling,  i.  410  (1904); 
V.  Laporte,  "  Suspension  of  Vitality  in  Animals,"  Pop.  Sci.  Monthly, 
x*xvi.  257-259  (New  York,  1889-1890);  Mangili,  "  Essai  sur  la 
lethargic  periodique,"  Annales  du  Museum,  x.  453-456  (1807); 
C.  Hart  Merriam,  North  American  Pocket  Mice  (Washington, 
1889) ;  W.  Miller,  "  Hibernation  and  Allied  States  in  Animals," 
Trans.  Pan-Amer.  Med.  Congr.  (1893),  pt.  ii.  pp.  1274-1285 
(Washington,  1895);  M.  S.  Pembrey  and  A.  C.  Pitts,  The  Relation 
between  the  Internal  Temperature  and  the  Respiratory  Movements 
of  Hibernating  Animals,"  Journ.  Physiol.  (London,  1899),  pp.  305- 
316;  Prunelle,  "  Recherches  sur  les  phe'nomenes  et  sur  les  causes  du 
sommeil  hivernal,"  Annales  du  Museum,  xviii. ;  J.  A.  Saissy, 
Recherches  sur  les  animaux  hivernans  (1808);  L.  Spallanzani, 
Memoires  sur  la  respiration  (1803);  J.  Emerson  Tennent,  Sketches 
of  the  Natural  History  of  Ceylon,  pp.  351-358  (1861);  Volkov,  "  Le 
Sommeil  hivernal  chez  les  paysans  russes,"  Bull.  Mem.  Soc.  Anthropol. 
(Paris,  1900),  i.  67;  abstract  in  Brit.  Med.  Journ.  (1900),  i. 
1554.  (R-  I-  P-> 

HIBERNIA,  in  ancient  geography,  one  of  the  names  by  which 
Ireland  was  known  to  Greek  and  Roman  writers.  Other  names 
were  lerne,  luverna,  Iberio.  All  these  are  adaptations  of  a  stem 
from  which  also  Erin  is  descended.  The  island  was  well  known 
to  the  Romans  through  the  reports  of  traders,  so  far  at  least  as 
its  coasts.  But  it  never  became  part  of  the  Roman  empire. 
Agricola  (about  A.D.  80)  planned  its  conquest,  which  he  judged 
an  easy  task,  but  the  Roman  government  vetoed  the  enterprise. 
During  the  Roman  occupation  of  Britain,  Irish  pirates  seem  to 
have  been  an  intermittent  nuisance,  and  Irish  emigrants  may 
have  settled  occasionally  in  Wales;  the  best  attested  emigration 
is  that  of  the  Scots  into  Caledonia.  It  was  only  in  post-Roman 
days  that  Roman  civilization,  brought  perhaps  by  Christian 
missionaries  like  Patrick,  entered  the  island. 

HICKERINGILL  (or  HICKHORNGILL) ,  EDMUND  (1631-1708), 
English  divine,  lived  an  eventful  life  in  the  days  of  the  Common- 
wealth and  the  Restoration.  After  graduating  at  Caius  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  was  junior  fellow  in  1651-1652,  he  joined 
Lilburne's  regiment  as  chaplain,  and  afterwards  served  in  the 
ranks  in  Scotland  and  in  the  Swedish  service,  ultimately  becoming 
a  captain  in  Fleetwood's  regiment.  He  then  lived  for  a  time  in 
Jamaica,  of  which  he  published  an  account  in  1661.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  ordained  by  Robert  Sanderson,  bishop  of  Lincoln, 
having  already  passed  through  such  shades  of  belief  as  are 
connoted  by  the  terms  Baptist,  Quaker  and  Deist.  From  1662 
until  his  death  in  1708  he  was  vicar  of  All  Saints',  Colchester. 
He  was  a  vigorous  pamphleteer,  and  came  into  collision  with 
Henry  Compton,  bishop  of  London,  to  whom  he  had  to  pay  heavy 
damages  for  slander  in  1682.  He  made  a  public  recantation  in 
1684,  was  excluded  from  his  living  in  1685-1688,  and  ended  his 
career  by  being  convicted  for  forgery  in  1707. 

HICKES,  GEORGE  (1642-1715),  English  divine  and  scholar, 
was  born  at  Newsham  near  Thirsk,  Yorkshire,  on  the  2oth  of 
June  1642.  In  1659  he  entered  St  John's  College,  Oxford, 
whence  after  the  Restoration  he  removed  to  Magdalen  Col- 
lege and  then  to  Magdalen  Hall.  In  1664  he  was  elected 
fellow  of  Lincoln  College,  and  in  the  following  year  proceeded 
M.A.  In  1673  he  graduated  in  divinity,  and  in  1675  he  was 
appointed  rector  of  St  Ebbe's,  Oxford.  In  1676,  as  private 
chaplain,  he  accompanied  the  duke  of  Lauderdale,  the  royal 
commissioner,  to  Scotland,  and  shortly  afterwards  received  the 
degree  of  D.D.  from  St  Andrews.  In  1680  he  became  vicar  of 
All  Hallows,  Barking,  London;  and  after  having  been  made 
chaplain  to  the  king  in  1681,  he  was  in  1683  promoted  to  the 
deanery  of  Worcester.  He  opposed  both  James  II. 's  declaration 
of  indulgence  and  Monmouth's  rising,  and  he  tried  in  vain  to  save 
from  death  his  nonconformist  brother  John  Hickes  (1633-1685), 
one  of  the  Sedgemoor  refugees  harboured  by  Alice  Lisle.  At  the 
revolution  of  1688,  having  declined  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance, 
Hickes  was  first  suspended  and  afterwards  deprived  of  his 


deanery.  When  he  heard  of  the  appointment  of  a  successor 
he  affixed  to  the  cathedral  doors  a  "  protestation  and  claim  of 
right."  After  remaining  some  time  in  concealment  in  London, 
he  was  sent  by  Sancroft  and  the  other  nonjurors  to  James  II.  in 
France  on  matters  connected  with  the  continuance  of  their 
episcopal  succession;  upon  his  return  in  1694  he  was  himself 
consecrated  suffragan  bishop  of  Thetford.  His  later  years  were 
largely  occupied  in  controversies  and  in  writing,  while  in  1713  he 
persuaded  two  Scottish  bishops,  James  Gadderar  and  Archibald 
Campbell,  to  assist  him  in  consecrating  Jeremy  Collier,  Samuel 
Hawes  and  Nathaniel  Spinckes  as  bishops  among  the  nonjurors. 
He  died  on  the  isth  of  December  1715. 

The  chief  writings  of  Hickes  are  the  Institutiones  Grammaticae 
Anglo-Saxonicae  et  Moeso-Gothicae  (1689),  and  Linguarum  veterum 
Septentrionalium  Thesaurus  grammatico-criticus  et  archaeologicus 
(1703-1705),  a  work  of  great  learning  and  industry. 

Apart  from  these  two  works  Hickes  was  a  voluminous  and  laborious 
author.  His  earliest  writings,  which  were  anonymous,  were  sug- 
gested by  contemporary  events  in  Scotland  that  gave  him  great 
satisfaction — the  execution  of  James  Mitchell  on  a  charge  of  having 
attempted  to  murder  Archbishop  Sharp,  and  that  of  John  Kid  and 
John  King,  Presbyterian  ministers,  "  for  high  treason  and  rebellion  " 
(Ravillac  Redivivus,  1678;  The  Spirit  of  Popery  speaking  out  of  the 
Mouths  of  Phanatical  Protestants,  1680).  In  his  Jovian  (an  answer 
to  S.  Johnson's  Julian  the  Apostate,  1683),  he  endeavoured  to  show 
that  the  Roman  empire  was  not  hereditary,  and  that  the  Christians 
under  Julian  had  recognized  the  duty  of  passive  obedience.  His 
two  treatises,  one  Of  the  Christian  Priesthood  and  the  other  Of  the 
Dignity  of  the  Episcopal  Order,  originally  published  in  1707,  have 
been  more  than  once  reprinted,  and  form  three  volumes  of  the 
Library  of  Anglo-Catholic  Theology  (1847).  In  1705  and  1710  were 
published.  Collections  of  Controversial  Letters,  in  1711  a  collection  of 
Sermons,  and  in  1726  a  volume  of  Posthumous  Discourses.  Other 
treatises,  such  as  the  Apologetical  Vindication  of  the  Church  of 
England,  are  to  be  met  with  in  Edmund  Gibson's  Preservative  against 
Popery.  There  is  a  manuscript  in  the  Bodleian  Library  which 
sketches  his  life  to  the  year  1689,  and  many  of  his  letters  are  extant 
in  various  collections.  A  posthumous  publication  of  his  The  Con- 
stitution of  the  Catholick  Church  and  the  Nature  and  Consequences  of 
Schism  (1716)  gave  rise  to  the  celebrated  Bangorian  controversy. 

See  the  article  by  the  Rev.  W.  D.  Macray  in  the  Dictionary  of 
National  Biography,  vol.  xxvi.  (1891);  and  J.  H.  Overton,  The 
Nonjurors  (1902). 

HICKOK,  LAURENS  PERSEUS  (1798-1888),  American  philo- 
sopher and  divine,  was  born  at  Bethel,  Connecticut,  on  the 
29th  of  December  1798.  He  took  his  degree  at  Union  College  in 
1820.  Until  1836  he  was  occupied  in  active  pastoral  work,  and 
was  then  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  the  Western  Reserve 
College,  Ohio,  and  later  (1844-1852)  at  the  Auburn  (N.Y.)  Theo- 
logical Seminary.  From  this  post  he  was  elected  vice-president  of 
Union  College  and  professor  of  mental  and  moral  science.  In 
1866  he  succeeded  Dr  E.  Nott  as  president,  but  in  July  1868 
retired  to  Amherst,  Massachusetts,  where  he  devoted  himself  to 
writing  and  study.  A  collected  edition  of  his  principal  works  was 
published  at  Boston  in  1875.  He  died  at  Amherst  on  the  7th 
of  May  1888.  He  wrote  Rational  Psychology  (1848),  System  of 
Moral  Science  (1853),  Empirical  Psychology  (1854),  Rational 
Cosmology  (1858),  Creator  and  Creation,  or  the  Knowledge  in  the 
Reason  of  God  and  His  Work  (1872),  Humanity  Immortal  (1872), 
Logic  of  Reason  (1874). 

HICKORY,  a  shortened  form  of  the  American  Indian  name 
pohickery.  Hickory  trees  are  natives  of  North  America,  and 
belong  to  the  genus  Carya.  They  are  closely  allied  to  the  walnuts 
(Juglans),  the  chief  or  at  least  one  very  obvious  difference  being 
that,  whilst  in  Carya  the  husk  which  covers  the  shell  of  the  nut 
separates  into  four  valves,  in  Juglans  it  consists  of  but  one  piece, 
which  bursts  irregularly.  The  timber  is  both  strong  and  heavy, 
and  remarkable  for  its  extreme  elasticity,  but  it  decays  rapidly 
when  exposed  to  heat  and  moisture,  and  is  peculiarly  subject  to 
the  attacks  of  worms.  It  is  very  extensively  employed  in 
manufacturing  musket  stocks,  axle-trees,  screws,  rake  teeth,  the 
bows  of  yokes,  the  wooden  rings  used  on  the  rigging  of  vessels, 
chair-backs,  axe-handles,  whip-handles  and  other  purposes 
requiring  great  strength  and  elasticity.  Its  principal  use  in 
America  is  for  hoop-making;  and  it  is  the  only  American  wood, 
found  perfectly  fit  for  that  purpose. 

The  wood  of  the  hickory  is  of  great  value  as  fuel,  on  account  of 
the  brilliancy  with  which  it  burns  and  the  ardent  heat  which  it 


HICKS,  E.— HICKS,  W. 


gives  out,  the  charcoal  being  heavy,  compact  and  long-lived. 
The  species  which  furnish  the  best  wood  are  Carya  alba  (shell- 
bark  hickory),  C.  tomentosa  (mockernut),  C.  olivaeformis  (pecan 
or  pacane  nut),  and  C.  porcina  (pig-nut),  that  of  the  last  named, 
on  account  of  its  extreme  tenacity,  being  preferred  for  axle-trees 


FIG.  i. — Shell-bark  Hickory  (Carya  alba)  in  flower  (J  nat.  size)  . 

and  axle-handles.  The  wood  of  C.  alba  splits  very  easily  and  is 
very  elastic,  so  that  it  is  much  used  for  making  whip-handles  and 
baskets.  The  wood  of  this  species  is  also  used  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  New  York  and  Philadelphia  for  making  the  back  bows 
of  Windsor  chairs.  The  timber  of  C.  amara  and  C.  aquatica  is 
considered  of  inferior  quality. 

Most  of  the  hickories  form  fine-looking  noble  trees  of  from  60  to 
90  ft.  in  height,  with  straight,  symmetrical  trunks,  well-balanced 
ample  heads,  and  bold,  handsome,  pinnated  foliage.  When 
confined  in  the  forest  they  shoot  up  50  to  60  ft.  without  branches, 
but  when  standing  alone  they  expand  into  a  fine  head,  and 
produce  a  lofty  round-headed  pyramid  of  foliage.  They  have  all 
the  qualities  necessary  to  constitute  fine  graceful  park  trees. 
The  most  ornamental  of  the  species  are  C.  olivaeformis,  C.  alba 
and  C.  porcina,  the  last  two  also  producing  delicious  nuts,  and 
being  worthy  of  cultivation  for  their  fruit  alone. 

The  husk  of  the  hickory  nut,  as  already  stated,  breaks  up  into 
four  equal  valves  or  sepaiates  into  four  equal  portions  in  the 
upper  part,  while  the  nut  itself  is  tolerably  even  on  the  surface, 
but  has  four  or  more  blunt  angles  in  its  transverse  outline.  The 


FIG.  2. — I,  Fruit  of  Carya  alba;  2,  Hickory  Nut;  3,  Cross  Section 
of  Nut;   4,  Vertical  Section  of  the  Seed.     (All  natural  size.) 

hickory  nuts  of  the  American  markets  are  the  produce  of  C.  alba, 
called  the  shell-bark  hickory  because  of  the  roughness  of  its  bark, 
which  becomes  loosened  from  the  trunk  in  long  scales  bending 
outwards  at  the  extremities  and  adhering  only  by  the  middle. 
The  nuts  are  much  esteemed  in  all  parts  of  the  States,  and  are 
exported  in  considerable  quantities  to  Europe.  The  pecan-nuts, 


which  come  from  the  Western  States,  are  from  i  in.  to  if  in.  long, 
smooth,  cylindrical,  pointed  at  the  ends  and  thin-shelled,  with 
the  kernels  full,  not  like  those  of  most  of  the  hickories  divided  by 
partitions,  and  of  delicate  and  agreeable  flavour.  The  thick- 
shelled  fruits  of  the  pig-nut  are  generally  left  on  the  ground  for 
swine,  squirrels,  &c.,  to  devour.  In  C.  amara  the  kernel  is  so 
bitter  that  even  squirrels  refuse  to  eat  it. 

HICKS,  ELIAS  (1748-1830),  American  Quaker,  was  born  in 
Hempstead  township,  Long  Island,  on  the  igth  of  March  1748. 
His  parents  were  Friends,  but  he  took  little  interest  in  religion 
until  he  was  about  twenty;  soon  after  that  time  he  gave  up 
the  carpenter's  trade,  to  which  he  had  been  apprenticed  when 
seventeen,  and  became  a  farmer.  By  1775  he  had  "  openings 
leading  to  the  ministry  "  and  was  "  deeply  engaged  for  the 
right  administration  of  discipline  and  order  in  the  church," 
and  in  1779  he  first  set  out  on  his  itinerant  preaching  tours 
between  Vermont  and  Maryland.  He  attacked  slavery,  even 
when  preaching  in  Maryland;  wrote  Observations  on  the  Slavery 
of  the  Africans  and  their  Descendants  (1811);  and  was  influential 
in  procuring  the  passage  (in  1817)  of  the  act  declaring  free  after 
1827  all  negroes  born  in  New  York  and  not  freed  by  the  Act  of 
1799.  He  died  at  Jericho,  Long  Island,  on  the  27th  of  February 
1830.  His  preaching  was  practical  rather  than  doctrinal  and  he 
was  heartily  opposed  to  any  set  creed;  hence  his  successful  opposi- 
tion at  the  Baltimore  yearly  meeting  of  1817  to  the  proposed  creed 
which  would  make  the  Society  in  America  approach  the  position 
of  the  Engb'sh  Friends  by  definite  doctrinal  statements.  His 
Doctrinal  Epistle  (1824)  stated  his  position,  and  a  break  ensued 
in  1827-1828,  Hicks's  followers,  who  call  themselves  the  "  Liberal 
Branch,"  being  called  "  Hicksites  "  by  the  "  Orthodox  "  party, 
which  they  for  a  time  outnumbered.  The  village  of  Hicksville, 
in  Nassau  County,  New  York,  15  m.  E.  of  Jamaica,  lies  in  the 
centre  of  the  Quaker  district  of  Long  Island  and  was  named 
in  honour  of  Elias  Hicks. 

See  A  Series  of  Extemporaneous  Discourses  .  .  .  by  Elias  Hicks 
(Philadelphia,  1825);  The  Journal  of  the.  Life  and  Labors  of  Elias 
Hicks  (Philadelphia,  1828),  and  his  Letters  (Philadelphia,  1834). 

HICKS,  HENRY  (1837-1899),  British  physician  and  geologist, 
was  born  on  the  26th  of  May  1837  at  St  David's,  in  Pembroke- 
shire, where  his  father,  Thomas  Hicks,  was  a  surgeon.  He 
studied  medicine  at  Guy's  Hospital,  London,  qualifying  as 
M.R.C.S.  in  1862.  Returning  to  his  native  place  he  commenced 
a  practice  which  he  continued  until  1871,  when  he  removed  to 
Hendon.  He  then  devoted  special  attention  to  mental  diseases, 
took  the  degree  of  M.D.  at  St  Andrews  in  1878,  and  continued 
his  medical  work  until  the  close  of  his  life.  In  Wales  he  had 
been  attracted  to  geology  by  J.  W.  Salter  (then  palaeontologist 
to  the  Geological  Survey),  and  his  leisure  time  was  given  to  the 
study  of  the  older  rocks  and  fossils  of  South  Wales.  In  conjunc- 
tion with  Salter,  he  established  in  1865  the  Menevian  group 
(Middle  Cambrian)  characterized  by  the  trilobite  Paradoxides. 
Subsequently  Hicks  contributed  a  series  of  important  papers 
on  the  Cambrian  and  Lower  Silurian  rocks,  and  figured  and 
described  many  new  species  of  fossils.  Later  he  worked  at  the 
Pre-Cambrian  rocks  of  St  David's,  describing  the  Dimetian 
(granitoid  rock)  and  the  Pebidian  (volcanic  series),  and  his 
views,  though  contested,  have  been  generally  accepted.  At 
Hendon  Dr  Hicks  gave  much  attention  to  the  local  geology 
and  also  to  the  Pleistocene  deposits  of  the  Denbighshire  caves. 
For  a  few  years  before  his  death  he  had  laboured  at  the 
Devonian  rocks.  With  his  keen  eye  for  fossils  he  detected 
organic  remains  in  the  Morte  slates,  previously  regarded  as 
unfossiliferous,  and  these  he  regarded  as  including  representa- 
tives of  Lower  Devonian  and  Silurian.  His  papers  were  mostly 
published  in  the  Geol.  Mag.  and  Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc.  He 
was  elected  F.R.S.  in  1885,  and  president  of  the  Geological 
Society  of  London  1896-1898.  He  died  at  Hendon  on  the  i8th 
of  November  1899. 

HICKS,  WILLIAM  (1830-1883),  British  soldier,  entered  the 
Bombay  army  in  1849,  and  served  through  the  Indian  mutiny, 
being  mentioned  in  despatches  for  good  conduct  at  the  action 
of  Sitka  Ghaut  in  1859.  In  1861  he  became  captain,  and  in  the 


HIDALGO— HIDDENITE 


449 


Abyssinian  expedition  of  1867-68  was  a  brigade  major,  being 
again  mentioned  in  despatches  and  given  a  brevet  majority. 
He  retired  with  the  honorary  rank  of  colonel  in  1880.  After 
the  close  of  the  Egyptian  war  of  1882,  he  entered  the  khedive's 
service  and  was  made  a  pasha.  Early  in  1883  he  went  to  Khar- 
tum as  chief  of  the  staff  of  the  army  there,  then  commanded 
by  Suliman  Niazi  Pasha.  Camp  was  formed  at  Omdurman 
and  a  new  force  of  some  8000  fighting  men  collected — mostly 
recruited  from  the  fellahin  of  Arabi's  disbanded  troops,  sent 
in  chains  from  Egypt.  After  a  month's  vigorous  drilling  Hicks 
led  5000  of  his  men  against  an  equal  force  of  dervishes  in  Sennar, 
whom  he  defeated,  and  cleared  the  country  between  the  towns 
of  Sennar  and  Khartum  of  rebels.  Relieved  of  the  fear  of  an 
immediate  attack  by  the  mahdists  the  Egyptian  officials  at 
Khartum  intrigued  against  Hicks,  who  in  July  tendered  his 
resignation.  This  resulted  in  the  dismissal  of  Suliman  Niazi 
and  the  appointment  of  Hicks  as  commander-in-chief  of  an 
expeditionary  force  to  Kordofan  with  orders  to  crush  the  mahdi, 
who  in  January  1883  had  captured  El  Obeid,  the  capital  of  that 
province.  Hicks,  aware  of  the  worthlessness  of  his  force  for  the 
purpose  contemplated,  stated  his  opinion  that  it  would  be  best 
to  "  wait  for  Kordofan  to  settle  itself  "  (telegram  of  the  5th  of 
August).  The  Egyptian  ministry,  however,  did  not  then 
believe  in  the  power  of  the  mahdi,  and  the  expedition  started 
from  Khartum  on  the  gth  of  September.  It  was  made  up  of 
7000  infantry,  1000  cavalry  and  2000  camp  followers  and 
included  thirteen  Europeans.  On  the  2oth  the  force  left  the 
Nile  at  Duem  and  struck  inland  across  the  almost  waterless 
wastes  of  Kordofan  for  Obeid.  On  the  5th  of  November  the 
army,  misled  by  treacherous  guides  and  thirst-stricken,  was 
ambuscaded  in  dense  forest  at  Kashgil,  30  m.  south  of  Obeid. 
With  the  exception  of  some  300  men  the  whole  force  was  killed. 
According  to  the  story  of  Hicks's  cook,  one  of  the  survivors, 
the  general  was  the  last  officer  to  fall,  pierced  by  the  spear  of 
the  khalifa  Mahommed  Sherif.  After  emptying  his  revolver 
the  pasha  kept  his  assailants  at  bay  for  some  time  with  his  sword, 
a  body  of  Baggara  who  fled  before  him  being  known  afterwards 
as  "  Baggar  Hicks  "  (the  cows  driven  by  Hicks),  a  play  on  the 
words  baggara  and  baggar,  the  former  being  the  herdsmen  and 
the  latter  the  cows.  Hicks's  head  was  cut  off  and  taken  to 
the  mahdi. 

See  Mahdiism  and  the  Egyptian  Sudan,  book  iv.,  by  Sir 
F.  R.  Wingate  (London,  1891),  and  With  Hicks  Pasha  in  the 
Soudan,  by  J.  Colborne  (London,  1884).  Also  EGYPT:  Military 
Operations. 

HIDALGO,  an  inland  state  of  Mexico,  bounded  N.  by  San 
Luis  Potosi  and  Vera  Cruz, E. by  Vera  Cruz  and  Puebla,S.by  Tlax- 
cala  and  Mexico  (state),  and  W.  by  Queretaro.  Pop.  (1895) 
551,817,  (1900)  605,051.  Area,  8917  sq.  m.  The  northern 
and  eastern  parts  are  elevated  and  mountainous,  culminating 
in  the  Cerro  de  Navajas  (10,528  ft.).  A  considerable  area  of 
this  region  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  state  is  arid  and  semi- 
barren,  being  part  of  the  elevated  tableland  of  Apam  where 
the  maguey  (American  aloe)  has  been  grown  for  centuries.  The 
southern  and  western  parts  of  the  state  consist  of  rolling  plains, 
in  the  midst  of  which  is  the  large  lake  of  Metztitlan.  Hidalgo 
produces  cereals  in  the  more  elevated  districts,  sugar,  maguey, 
coffee,  beans,  cotton  and  tobacco.  Maguey  is  cultivated  for 
the  production  of  pulque,  the  national  drink.  The  chief  industry, 
however,  is  mining,  the  mineral  districts  of  Pachuca,  El  Chico, 
Real  del  Monte,  San  Jose  del  Oro,  and  Zimapan  being  among 
the  richest  in  Mexico.  The  mineral  products  include  silver, 
gold,  mercury,  copper,  iron,  lead,  zinc,  antimony,  manganese 
and  plumbago.  Coal,  marble  and  opals  are  also  found.  Rail- 
way facilities  are  afforded  by  a  branch  of  the  Vera  Cruz  and 
Mexico  line,  which  runs  from  Ometusco  to  Pachuca,  the  capital 
of  the  state,  and  by  the  Mexican  Central.  Among  the  principal 
towns  are  Tulancingo  (pop.  9037),  a  rich  mining  centre  24  m. 
E.  of  Pachuca,  Ixmiquilpan  (about  9000)  with  silver  mines 
So  m.  N.  by  W.  of  the  Federal  Capital,  and  Actopan  (2666), 
the  chief  town  of  the  district  N.N.W.  of  Pachuca,  inhabited 
principally  by  Indians  of  the  Othomies  nation. 
XIH.  15 


HIDALGO  (a  Spanish  word,  contracted  from  hijo  d'algo 
or  hijo  de  algo,  son  of  something,  or  somewhat),  originally 
a  Spanish  title  of  the  lower  nobility;  the  hidalgo  being  the 
lowest  grade  of  nobility  which  was  entitled  to  use  the  prefix 
"  don."  The  term  is  now  used  generally  to  denote  one  of 
gentle  birth.  The  Portuguese  fidalgo  has  a  similar  history_and 
meaning. 

HIDALGO  Y  COSTILLA,  MIGUEL  (1753-1811),  Mexican 
patriot,  was  born  on  the  8th  of  May  1753,  on  a"  farm  at  Corralejos, 
near  Guanajuato.  His  mother's  maiden  name  was  Gallaga, 
but  contrary  to  the  usual  custom  of  the  Spaniards  he  used  only 
the  surname  of  his  father,  Cristobal  Hidalgo  y  Costilla.  He 
was  educated  at  Valladolid  in  Mexico,  and  was  ordained  priest 
in  1779.  Until  1809  he  was  known  only  as  a  man  of  pious  life 
who  exerted  himself  to  introduce  various  forms  of  industry, 
including  the  cultivation  of  silk,  among  his  parishioners  at 
Dolores.  But  Napoleon's  invasion  of  Spain  in  1808  caused  a 
widespread  commotion.  The  colonists  were  indisposed  to 
accept  a  French  ruler  and  showed  great  zeal  in  proclaiming 
Ferdinand  VII.  as  king.  The  societies  they  formed  for 
their  professedly  loyal  purpose  were  regarded,  however, 
by  the  Spanish  authorities  with  suspicion  as  being  designed 
to  prepare  the  independence  of  Mexico.  Hidalgo  and  several 
of  his  friends,  among  whom  was  Miguel  Dominguez,  mayor  of 
Queretaro,  engaged  in  consultation  and  preparations  which  the 
authorities  considered  treasonable.  Dominguez  was  arrested, 
but  Hidalgo  was  warned  in  time.  He  collected  some  hundred 
of  his  parishioners,  and  on  the  1 6th  of  September  1810  they  seized 
the  prison  at  Dolores.  This  action  began  what  was  in  fact  a 
revolt  against  the  Spanish  and  Creole  elements  of  the  population. 
With  what  is  known  as  the  "  grito  "  or  cry  of  Dolores  as  their 
rallying  shout,  a  multitude  gathered  round  Hidalgo,  who  took  for 
his  banner  a  wonder-working  picture  of  the  Virgin  belonging  to  a 
popular  shrine.  At  first  he  met  with  some  success.  A  regiment 
of  dragoons  of  the  militia  joined  him,  and  some  small  posts  were 
stormed.  The  whole  tumultuous  host  moved  on  the  city  of 
Mexico.  But  here  the  Spaniards  and  Creoles  were  concentrated. 
Hidalgo  lost  heart  and  retreated.  Many  of  his  followers  deserted, 
and  on  the  march  to  Queretaro  he  was  attacked  at  Aculco 
by  General  Felix  Calleja  on  the  7  th  of  November  1 8 1  o,  and  routed. 
He  endeavoured  to  continue  the  struggle,  and  did  succeed  in 
collecting  a  mob  estimated  at  100,000  about  Guadalajara. 
With  this  ill-armed  and  undisciplined  crowd  he  took  up  a 
position  on  the  bridge  of  Calderon  on  the  river  Santiago.  On 
the  1 7th  of  January  1811  he  was  completely  beaten  by  Calleja 
and  a  small  force  of  soldiers.  Hidalgo  was  deposed  by  the  other 
leaders,  and  soon  afterwards  all  of  them  were  betrayed  to  the 
Spaniards.  They  were  tried  at  Chihuahua,  and  condemned. 
Hidalgo  was  'first  degraded  from  the  priesthood  and  then 
shot  as  a  rebel,  on  the  3ist  of  July  or  the  ist  of  August 
1811. 

See  H.  H.  Bancroft,  The  Pacific  States,  vol.  vii.,  which  contains  a 
copious  bibliography. 

HIDDENITE,  a  green  transparent  variety  of  spodumene,  (q.v.) 
used  as  a  gem-stone.  It  was  discovered  by  William  E.  Hidden  (b- 
1853)  about  1879  at  Stonypoint,  Alexander  county,  North  Caro- 
lina, and  was  at  first  taken  for  diopside.  In  1881  J.  Lawrence 
Smith  proved  it  to  be  spodumene,  and  named  it.  Hiddenite 
occurs  in  small  slender  monoclinic  crystals  of  prismatic  habit, 
often  pitted  on  the  surface.  A  well-marked  prismatic  cleavage 
renders  the  mineral  rather  difficult  to  cut.  Its  colour  passes 
from  an  emerald  green  to  a  greenish-yellow,  and  is  often  unevenly 
distributed  through  the  stone.  The  mineral  is  dichroic  in  a 
marked  degree,  and  shows  much  "  fire  "  when  properly  cut. 
The  composition  of  the  mineral  is  represented  by  the  formula 
LiAl(SiO3)2,  the  green  colour  being  probably  due  to  the  presence 
of  a  small  proportion  of  chromium.  The  presence  of  lithia 
in  this  green  mineral  suggested  the  inappropriate  name  of 
lithia  emerald,  by  which  it  is  sometimes  known.  Hiddenite 
was  originally  found  as  loose  crystals  in  the  soil,  but  was  after- 
wards worked  in  a  veinstone,  where  it  occurred  in  association 
with  beryl,  quartz,  garnet,  mica,  rutile,  &c. 


450 


HIDE 


HIDE1  (Lat.  hida,  A.-S.  higld,  hid  or  hiwisc,  members  of  a 
household),  a  measure  of  land.  The  word  was  in  general  use 
in  England  in  Anglo-Saxon  and  early  English  times,  although 
its  meaning  seems  to  have  varied  somewhat  from  time  to  time. 
Among  its  Latin  equivalents  are  terra  unius  familiae,  terra 
unius  cassati  and  mansio;  the  first  of  these  forms  is  used  by 
Bede,  who,  like  all  early  writers,  gives  to  it  no  definite  area. 
In  its  earliest  form  the  hide  was  the  typical  holding  of  the  typical 
family.  Gradually,  this  typical  holding  came  to  be  regarded 
as  containing  120  "  acres  "  (not  120  acres  of  4840  sq.  yds.  each, 
but  120  times  the  amount  of  land  which  a  ploughteam  of 
eight  oxen  could  plough  in  a  single  day).  This  definition  appears 
to  have  been  very  general  in  England  before  the  Norman 
Conquest,  and  in  Domesday  Book  30,  40,  50  and  80  acres  are 
repeatedly  mentioned  as  fractions  of  a  hide.  Some  historians, 
however,  have  thought  that  the  hide  only  contained  30  acres 
or  thereabouts. 

"  The  question  about  the  hide,"  says  Professor  Maitland  in  Domes- 
day Book  and  Beyond,  "  is  '  pre-judicial  '  to  all  the  great  questions  of 
early  English  history."  The  main  argument  employed  by  J.  M. 
Kemble  (The  Saxons  in  England)  in  favour  of  the  "  small  "  hide  is 
that  the  number  of  hides  stated  to  have  existed  in  the  various  parts 
of  England  gives  an  acreage  far  in  excess  of  the  total  acreage  of  these 
parts,  making  due  allowance  for  pasture  and  for  woodland,  an 
allowance  necessary  because  the  hide  was  only  that  part  of  the  land 
which  came  under  the  plough,  and  each  hide  must  have  carried 
with  it  a  certain  amount  of  pasture.  Two  illustrations  in  support 
of  Kemble's  theory  must  suffice.  Bede  says  the  Isle  of  Wight 
contained  1200  hides.  Now  1200  hides  of  120  acres  each  gives  a 
total  acreage  of  144,000  acres,  while  the  total  acreage  of  the  island 
to-day  is  only  93,000  acres.  Again  a  document  called  The  Tribal 
Hidage  puts  the  number  of  hides  in  the  whole  of  England  at  nearly 
a  quarter  of  a  million.  This  gives  in  acres  a  figure  about  equal  to 
the  total  acreage  of  England  at  the  present  time,  but  it  leaves  no 
room  for  pasture  and  for  the  great  proportion  of  land  which  was 
still  woodland.  On  these  grounds  Kemble  regarded  the  hide  as 
containing  30  or  33,  certainly  not  more  than  40  acres,  and  thought 
that  each  acre  contained  about  4000  sq.  yds.,  i.e.  that  it  was  roughly 
equal  to  the  modern  acre.  Another  argument  brought  forward  is  that 
30  or  40  acres  was  enough  land  for  the  support  of  the  average  family, 
in  other  words  that  it  was  the  terra  unius  familiae  of  Bede.  Another 
Domesday  student,  R.  W.  Eyton,  puts  down  the  hide  at  48  acres. 

But  formidable  arguments  have  been  advanced  against  the 
"  small  "  hide.  There  is  no  doubt  that  at  the  time  of  Domesday 
the  hide  was  equated  with  120  and  not  with  30  acres.  Then,  taking 
the  word  familia  in  its  proper  sense,  a  household  with  many  de- 
pendent members,  and  making  an  allowance  for  primitive  methods 
of  agriculture,  it  is  questionable  whether  30  or  40  acres  were  sufficient 
for  its  support;  and  again  if  the  equation  I  hide  =  120  acres  is  re- 
jected there  is  no  serious  evidence  in  favour  of  any  other.  A  possible 
explanation  is  that,  although  in  early  Anglo-Saxon  times  the  hide 
consisted  of  30  acres  or  thereabouts,  it  had  come  before  the  time 
of  Domesday  to  contain  120  acres.  But  no  trace  of  such  change 
can  be  found ;  there  is  no  break  in  the  continuity  of  the  land- 
charters  which  refer  to  hides  and  manses.  Reviewing  the  whole 
question  Professor  Maitland  accepts  the  view  that  the  hide  contained 
1 20  acres.  The  difficulties  are  serious  but  they  are  not  insuperable. 
Bede,  writing  in  a  primitive  age  and  speaking  for  the  most  part  of 
lands  far  away  from  Northumbria,  uses  figures  in  a  vague  and 
general  fashion;  then  the  hide  of  120  acres  does  not  mean  120  times 
4840  yds.,  it  means  much  less;  and  lastly  at  the  time  of  Domesday 
the  hide  was  not  a  unit  of  measurement,  it  was  a  unit  for  pur- 
poses of  taxation.  On  the  other  hand,  Mr.  H.  M.  Chadwick 
(Studies  on  Anglo-Saxon  Institutions)  says  there  is  no  evidence  that 
the  hide  contained  120  acres  before  the  roth  century.  He  suggests 
that  possibly  the  size  of  the  hide  in  Mercia  may  have  been  fixed  at 
40  acres,  while  in  Wessex  it  was  regarded  as  containing  120  acres. 
Dr  Stubbs  (Const.  Hist,  i.)  suggests  that  the  confusion  may 
have  arisen  because  the  word  was  used  "  to  express  the  whole  share 
of  one  man  in  all  the  fields  of  the  village."  Thus  it  might  refer  to 
30  acres,  his  share  in  one  field,  or  to  120  acres,  his  share  in  the  four 
fields.  He  adds,  however,  that  this  explanation  is  not  adequate  for 
all  cases.  But  these  differences  about  the  size  of  the  hide  are  not 
peculiar  to  modern  times.  Henry  of  Huntingdon  says,  Hida  Anglice 
vocatur  terra  unius  aralri  culturae  sufficiens  per  annum,  while  the 

1  The  homonym  "  hide,"  meaning  to  conceal,  is  in  O.  Eng. 
hydan ;  the  word  appears  in  various  forms  in  Old  Teutonic  languages. 
The  root  is  probably  seen  in  Gr.  utifitiv  to  hide,  or  may  be  the 
same  as  in  "  hide,"  skin,  O.  Eng.  hyd,  which  is  also  seen  in 
Ger.  Haul,  Dutch  huid;  the  root  appears  in  Lat.  cutis,  Gr.  KVTOS. 
The  Indo-European  root  ku-,  weakened  form  of  sku-,  seen  in  "  sky," 
and  meaning  "  to  cover,"  may  be  the  ultimate  source  of  both 
words.  The  slang  use  of  "  to  hide,"  to  flog  or  whip,  means  "  to 
take  the  skin  off,  to  flay." 


Dialogus  de  scaccario  puts  its  size  at  100  acres,  though  this  may  be 
the  long  hundred,  or  120.  Perhaps,  therefore,  Selden  is  wisest  when 
he  says,  "  hides  were  of  an  incertain  quantity."  Certainly  he  gives 
a  very  good  description  of  the  early  hide  when  he  says  (Titles  of 
Honour):  "Now  a  hide  of  land  regularly  is  and  was  (as  I  think)  as 
much  land  as  might  be  well  manured  with  one  plough,  together 
with  pasture,  meadow  and  wood  competent  for  the  maintenance  of 
that  plough,  and  the  servants  of  the  family."  The  view  that  the 
size  of  the  hide  varied  from  district  to  district  is  borne  out  by 
Professor  Vinogradoff's  more  recent  researches.  In  his  English 
Society  in  the  Eleventh  Century  he  mentions  that  there  was  a  hide 
of  48  acres  in  Wiltshire  and  one  of  40  acres  in  Dorset.  In  addition 
some  authorities  distinguish  between  English  hides  and  Welsh 
hides,  and  in  Sussex  the  hide  often  contained  8  virgates.  Some- 
times again  in  the  nth  century  hides  were  not  merely  fiscal  units; 
they  were  shares  in  the  land  itself. 

The  fact  that  the  hide  was  a  unit  of  assessment,  has  been 
established  by  Mr  J.  H.  Round  in  his  Feudal  England,  and  is 
regarded  as  throwing  a  most  valuable  light  upon  the  many 
problems  which  present  themselves  to  the  student  of  Domesday. 
The  process  which  converted  the  hide  from  a  unit  of  measure- 
ment to  a  unit  for  assessment  purposes  is  probably  as  follows. 
Being  in  general  use  to  denote  a  large  piece  of  land,  and  such 
pieces  of  land  being  roughly  equal  all  over  England,  the  hide 
was  a  useful  unit  on  which  to  levy  taxation,  a  use  which  dates 
doubtless  from  the  time  of  the  Danegeld.  For  some  time  the 
two  meanings  were  used  side  by  side,  but  before  the  Norman 
Conquest  the  hide,  a  unit  for  taxation,  had  quite  supplanted 
the  hide,  a  measure  of  land,  and  this  was  the  state  of  affairs 
when  in  1086  William  I.  ordered  his  great  inquest  to  be  made. 
The  formula  used  in  Domesday  varies  from  county  to  county, 
but  a  single  illustration  may  be  given.  Huntedun  Burg  defendebat 
se  ad  geldum  regis  pro  quarto,  parte  de  Hyrstingestan  hundred 
pro  L.  hidis.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  town  of  Huntingdon 
contained  a  certain  fixed  number  of  square  yards  multiplied 
by  50,  but  that  for  purposes  of  taxation  Huntingdon  was 
regarded  as  worth  50  times  a  certain  fiscal  unit. 

This  view  of  the  nature  of  the  hide  was  hinted  at  by  R.  W.  Eyton 
in  A  Key  to  Domesday  and  was  accepted  by  Maitland.  Its  proof 
rests  primarily  upon  the  prevalence  of  the  five-hide  unit.  By 
collating  various  documents  which  formed  part  of  the  Domesday 
inquest  Mr  Round  has  brought  together  for  certain  parts  of  England, 
especially  for  Cambridgeshire  and  Bedfordshire,  the  holdings  of  the 
various  lords  in  the  different  vills,  and  vill  after  vill  shows  a  total 
of  5  hides  or  10  hides  or  only  a  slight  discrepancy  therefrom.  A 
similar  result  is  shown  for  the  hundreds  where  multiples  of  5  are 
almost  universal,  and  the  total  hidage  for  the  county  of  Worcester 
is  very  near  the  round  figure  of  1200.  This  arrangement  is  obviously 
artificial;  it  must  have  been  imposed  upon  the'  counties  or  the 
hundreds  by  the  central  authority  and  then  divided  among  the 
vills.  Another  proof  is  found  in  what  is  called  "  beneficial  hidation." 
It  is  shown  that  in  certain  cases  the  number  of  hides  in  a  hundred 
has  been  reduced  since  the  time  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  that 
this  reduction  had  been  transferred  pro  rata  to  the  vills  in  the 
hundred.  Thus  Mr  Round  concludes  that  the  hide  was  fixed 
"  independently  of  area  or  value."  Some  slight  criticism  has  been 
directed  against  the  idea  of  "  artificial  hidation,"  but  the  most  that 
can  be  said  against  it  is  that  its  proof  rests  upon  isolated  cases,  a 
reproach  which  further  research  will  doubtless  remove.  However, 
Professor  Vinogradoff  accepts  the  hide  primarily  as  a  fiscal  unit 
"  which  corresponds  only  in  a  very  rough  way  to  the  agrarian 
reality,"  and  Maitland  says  the  fiscal  hide  is  "  at  its  best  a  lame 
compromise  between  a  unit  of  area  and  a  unit  of  value." 

What  is  the  origin  of  the  five-hide  unit?  Various  conjectures 
have  been  hazarded,  and  the  unit  is  undoubtedly  older  than 
the  Danegeld.  Rejecting  the  idea  that  it  is  of  Roman  or  of 
British  origin,  and  pointing  to  the  serious  difference  in  the  rates 
at  which  the  various  counties  were  assessed,  Mr  Round  thinks 
that  it  dates  from  the  time  when  the  various  Anglo-Saxon 
kingdoms  were  independent.  Possibly  it  was  the  unit  of  assess- 
ment for  military  service,  possibly  it  was  the  recognized  endow- 
ment of  a  Saxon  thegn.  In  Anglo-Saxon  times  a  man's  stand- 
ing in  society  was  dependent  to  a  great  extent  upon  the  number 
of  hides  which  he  possessed;  this  statement  is  fully  proved 
from  the  laws.  Moreover,  in  the  laws  of  the  Wessex  king,  Ine, 
the  value  of  a  man's  oath  is  expressed  in  hides,  the  o'ath  for  a 
king's  thegn  being  probably  worth  60  hides  and  that  of  a  ceorl 
5  hides. 

The  usual  division  of  the  hide  was  into  virgates,  a  virgate 
being,  after  the  Conquest  at  least,  the  normal  holding  of  the 


HIEL— HIERAPOLIS 


villein  with  two  oxen.  Mr  Round  holds  that  in  Domesday 
at  all  events  the  hide  always  consisted  of  four  virgates;  Mr  F. 
Seebohm  in  The  English  Village  Community,  although  thinking 
that  the  normal  hide  "  consisted  as  a  rule  of  four  virgates  of 
30  acres  each,"  says  that  the  Hundred  Rolls  for  Huntingdon- 
shire show  that  "  the  hide  did  not  always  contain  the  same 
number  of  virgates."  The  virgate,  it  may  be  noted,  consisted 
of  a  strip  of  land  in  each  acre  of  the  hide,  and  there  is  undoubtedly 
a  strong  case  in  favour  of  the  equation  i  hide  =  4  virgates. 

Mr  Seebohm,  propounding  his  theory  that  English  institutions 
are  rooted  in  those  of  Rome,  argues  for  some  resemblance  between 
the  methods  of  taxation  of  land  in  Rome  and  in  England;  he 
sees  some  connexion  between  the  Roman  centuria  and  the 
hide,  and  between  the  Roman  system  of  taxation  called  jugatio 
and  the  English  hidage.  Professor  Vinogradoff  ( Villainage  in 
England)  summarizes  the  views  of  those  who  hold  a  contrary 
opinion  thus:  "  The  curious  fact  that  the  normal  holding, 
the  hide,  was  equal  all  over  England  can  be  explained  only  by 
its  origin;  it  came  full-formed  from  Germany  and  remained 
unchanged  in  spite  of  all  diversities  of  geographical  and 
economical  conditions." 

In  the  Danish  parts  of  England,  or  rather  in  the  district  of  the 
"  Five  Boroughs,"  the  carucate  takes  the  place  of  the  hide  as  the 
unit  of  value,  and  six  supplants  five,  six  carucates  being  the  unit  of 
assessment.  In  Leicestershire  and  in  part  of  Lancashire  the  hide 
is  quite  different  from  what  it  is  elsewhere  in  England.  According 
to  Mr  Round  the  Leicestershire  hide  consisted  of  18  carucates; 
Mr  W.  H.  Stevenson  (English  Historical  Review,  vol.  v.)  argues  that 
it  contained  only  12  and  that  it  was  a  hundred  and  not  a  hide. , 
Mr  Seebohm  thinks  there  was  a  solanda  or  double  hide  of  240  acres 
in  Essex  and  other  southern  counties,  but  Mr  Round  does  not 
think  that  this  word  refers  to  a  measure  or  unit  of  assessment  at  all. 
For  Kent,  however,  the  word  sullung  or  solin,  is  used  in  Domesday 
Book  and  in  the  charters  instead  of  hide  and  carucate  as  elsewhere, 
and  Vinogradoff  thinks  that  this  contained  from  180  to  200  acres. 

Under  the  Norman  and  early  Plantagenet  kings  a  levy  of  two 
or  more  shillings  on  each  hide  of  land  was  a  usual  and  recognized 
method  of  raising  money,  royal  and  some  other  estates,  however, 
as  is  seen  from  Domesday,  not  being  hidated  and  not  paying 
the  tax.  This  geld,  or  tax,  received  several  names,  one  of  the 
most  general  being  hidage  (Lat.  hidagium).  "  Hidage,"  says 
Vinogradoff,  "  is  historically  connected  with  the  old  English 
Danegeld  system,"  and  as  Danegeld  and  then  hidage  it  was 
levied  long  after  its  original  purpose  was  forgotten,  and  was 
during  the  nth  century  "  the  most  sweeping  and  the  heaviest 
of  all  the  taxes."  Henry  of  Huntingdon  says  its  usual  rate  was 
2s.  on  each  hide  of  land,  and  this  was  evidently  the  rate  at  the 
time  of  the  famous  dispute  between  Henry  II.  and  Becket  at 
Woodstock  in  1163,  but  it  was  not  always  kept  at  this  figure, 
as  in  1084  William  I.  had  levied  a  tax  of  6s.  on  each  hide,  an 
unusual  extortion.  The  feudal  aids  were  levied  on  the  hide. 
Thus  in  1109  Henry  I.  raised  one  at  the  rate  of  33.  per  hide 
for  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  Matilda  with  the  emperor 
Henry  V.,  and  in  1104,  when  money  was  collected  for  the  ransom 
of  Richard  I.,  some  of  the  taxation  for  this  purpose  seems  to 
have  been  assessed  according  to  the  hidage  given  in  Domesday 
Book. 

By  this  time  the  word  hidage  as  the  designation  of  the  tax 
was  disappearing,  its  place  being  taken  by  the  word  carucage. 
The  carucate  (Lat.  caruca,  a  plough)  was  a  measure  of  land 
which  prevailed  in  the  north  of  England,  the  district  inhabited 
by  people  of  Danish  descent.  Some  authorities  regard  it  as 
equivalent  to  the  hide,  others  deny  this  identity.  In  1198, 
however,  when  Richard  I.  imposed  a  tax  of  55.  on  each  carucata 
ierrae  sive  hyda,  the  two  words  were  obviously  interchangeable, 
and  about  the  same  time  the  size  of  the  carucate  was  fixed  at 
100  acres.  The  word  carucage  remained  in  use  for  some  time 
longer,  and  then  other  names  were  given  to  the  various  taxes 
on  land. 

One  or  two  other  questions  with  regard  to  the  hide  still  remain 
unsolved.  What  is  the  connexion,  if  any,  between  the  hundred  and 
a  hundred  hides?  Again,  was  the  size  of  the  hide  fixed  at  120  acres 
to  make  the  work  of  reckoning  the  amount  of  Danegeld,  or  hidage, 
a  simple  process?  120  acres  to  the  hide,  240  pence  to  the  pound, 
makes  calculations  easy.  Lastly,  is  the  English  hide  derived  from 
the  German  hufe  or  hubat  (A.  W.  H.*) 


HIEL,  EMMANUEL  (1834-1899),  Belgian-Dutch  poet  and 
prose  writer,  was  born  at  Dendermonde,  in  Flanders,  in  May 
1834.  He  acted  in  various  functions,  from  teacher  and  govern- 
ment official  to  journalist  and  bookseller,  busily  writing  all 
the  time  both  for  the  theatre  and  the  magazines  of  North  and 
South  Netherlands.  His  last  posts  were  those  of  librarian  at 
the  Industrial  Museum  and  professor  of  declamation  at  the 
Conservatoire  in  Brussels.  Among  his  better-known  poetic 
works  may  be  cited  Looverkens  ("Leaflets,"  1857);  Nieuwe 
Liedekens  ("  New  Poesies,"  1861);  Gedichten  ("  Poems,"  1863); 
Psalmen,  Zangen,  en  Oratorios  ("  Psalms,  Songs,  and  Oratorios," 
1869) ;  De  Wind  (1869),  an  inspiriting  cantata,  which  had  a  large 
measure  of  success  and  was  crowned;  De  Liefde  in  't  Leven 
("Love  in  Life,"  1870);  Elle  and  Isa  (two  musical  dramas, 
1874);  Liederen  voor  Groote  en  Kleine  Kinderen  ("Songs  for 
Big  and  Small  Folk,"  1879);  Jakoba  van  Beieren  ("  Jacquelein 
of  Bavaria,"  a  poetic  drama,  1880);  Mathilda  van  Denemarken 
(a  lyrical  drama,  1890).  His  collected  poetical  works  were  pub- 
lished in  three  volumes  at  Rousselaere  in  1885.  Hiel  took  an 
active  and  prominent  part  in  the  so-called  "  Flemish  movement  " 
in  Belgium,  and  his  name  is  constantly  associated  with  those 
of  Jan  van  Beers,  the  Willems  and  Peter  Benoit.  The  last 
wrote  some  of  his  compositions  to  Kiel's  verses,  notably  to  his 
oratorios  Lucifer  (performed  in  London  at  the  Royal  Albert 
Hall  and  elsewhere)  and  De  Schelde  ("  The  Scheldt  ");  whilst 
the  Dutch  composer,  Richard  Hoi  (of  Utrecht),  composed  the 
music  to  Kiel's  "  Ode  to  Liberty,"  and  van  Gheluwe  to  the 
poet's  "  Songs  for  Big  and  Small  Folk  "  (second  edition,  much 
enlarged,  1879),  which  has  greatly  contributed  to  their  popularity 
in  schools  and  among  Belgian  choral  societies.  Hiel  also  trans- 
lated several  foreign  lyrics.  His  rendering  of  Tennyson's 
Dora  appeared  at  Antwerp  in  1871.  For  the  national  festival 
of  1880  at  Brussels,  to  commemorate  the  fiftieth  anniversary 
of  Belgian  independence,  Hiel  composed  two  cantatas,  Belgen- 
land  ("  The-Land  of  the  Belgians  ")  and  Eer  Belgenland  ("  Honour 
to  Belgium  "),  which,  set  to  music,  were  much  appreciated. 
He  died  at  Schaerbeek,  near  Brussels,  on  the  27th  of  August 
1899.  Kiel's  efforts  to  counteract  Walloon  influences  and  bring 
about  a  rapprochement  between  the  Netherlander  in  the  north 
and  the  Teutonic  racial  sympathizers  across  the  Rhine  made 
him  very  popular  with  both,  and  a  volume  of  his  best  poems 
was  in  1874  the  first  in  a  collection  of  Dutch  authors  published 
at  Leipzig. 

HIEMPSAL,  the  name  of  the  two  kings  of  Numidia.  For 
Hiempsal  I.  see  under  JUGURTHA.  Hiempsal  II.  was  the  son  of 
Gauda,  the  half-brother  of  Jugurtha.  In  88  B.C.,  after  the 
triumph  of  Sulla,  when  the  younger  Marius  fled  from  Rome  to 
Africa,  Hiempsal  received  him  with  apparent  friendliness,  his 
real  intention  being  to  detain  him  as  a  prisoner.  Marius  dis- 
covered this  intention  in  time  and  made  good  his  escape  with 
the  assistance  of  the  king's  daughter.  In  81  Hiempsal  was 
driven  from  his  throne  by  the  Numidians  themselves,  or  by 
Hiarbas,  ruler  of  part  of  the  kingdom,  supported  by  Cn.  Domitius 
Ahenobarbus,  the  leader  of  the  Marian  party  in  Africa.  Soon 
afterwards  Pompey  was  sent  to  Africa  by  Sulla  to  reinstate 
Hiempsal,  whose  territory  was  subsequently  increased  by  the 
addition  of  some  land  on  the  coast  in  accordance  with  a  treaty 
concluded  with  L.  Aurelius  Cotta.  When  the  tribune  P.  Servilius 
Rullus  introduced  his  agrarian  law  (63),  these  lands,  which  had 
been  originally  assigned  to  the  Roman  people  by  Scipio  Af  ricanus, 
were  expressly  exempted  from  sale,  which  roused  the  indignation 
of  Cicero  (De  lege  agraria,  i.  4,  ii.  22).  From  Suetonius  (Caesar, 
71)  it  is  evident  that  Hiempsal  was  alive  in  62.  According  to 
Sallust  (Jugurtha,  17),  he  was  the  author  of  an  historical  work  in 
the  Punic  language. 

Plutarch,  Marius,  40,  Pompey,  12;  Appian,  Bell,  civ.,  i.  62.  80; 
Dio  Cassius  xli.  41. 

HIERAPOLIS.  i.  (Arabic  Manbij  or  Mumbij)  an  ancient 
Syrian  town  occupying  one  of  the  finest  sites  in  Northern  Syria, 
in  a  fertile  district  about  16  m.  S.W.  of  the  confluence  of  the 
Sajur  and  Euphrates.  There  is  abundant  water  supply  from 
large  springs.  In  1879,  after  the  Russo-Turkish  war,  a  colony  of 


452 


HIERARCHY 


Circassians  from  Vidin  (Widdin)  was  planted  in  the  ruins,  and  the 
result  has  been  the  constant  discovery  of  antiquities,  which  find 
their  way  into  the  bazaars  of  Aleppo  and  Aintab.  The  place  first 
appears  in  Greek  as  Bambyce,  but  Pliny  (v.  23)  tells  us  its  Syrian 
name  was  Mabog.  It  was  doubtless  an  ancient  Commagenian 
sanctuary;  but  history  knows  it  first  under  the  Seleucids,  who 
made  it  the  chief  station  on  their  main  road  between  Antioch  and 
Seleucia-on-Tigris;  and  as  a  centre  of  the  worship  of  the  Syrian 
Nature  Goddess,  Atargatis(<?.fl.),  it  became  known  to  the  Greeks  as 
the  city  of  the  sanctuary  'lepon-oXw,  and  finally  as  the  Holy  City 
'  lepaTroXts.  Lucian,  a  native  of  Commagene  (or  some  anonymous 
writer)  has  immortalized  this  worship  in  the  tract  De  Dea  Syria, 
wherein  are  described  the  orgiastic  luxury  of  the  shrine  and  the 
tank  of  sacred  fish,  of  which  Aelian  also  relates  marvels.  Accord- 
ing to  the  De  Dea  Syria,  the  worship  was  of  a  phallic  character, 
votaries  offering  little  male  figures  of  wood  and  bronze.  There 
were  also  huge  phalli  set  up  like  obelisks  before  the  temple, 
which  were  climbed  once  a  year  with  certain  ceremonies,  and 
decorated.  For  the  rest  the  temple  was  of  Ionic  character  with 
golden  plated  doors  and  roof  and  much  gilt  decoration.  Inside 
was  a  holy  chamber  into  which  priests  only  were  allowed  to  enter. 
Here  were  statues  of  a  goddess  and  a  god  in  gold,  but  the  first 
seems  to  have  been  the  more  richly  decorated  with  gems  and 
other  ornaments.  Between  them  stood  a  gilt  xoanon,  which 
seems  to  have  been  carried  outside  in  sacred  processions.  Other 
rich  furniture  is  described,  and  a  mode  of  divination  by  move- 
ments of  a  xoanon  of  Apollo.  A  great  bronze  altar  stood  in  front, 
set  about  with  statues,  and  in  the  forecourt  lived  numerous 
sacred  animals  and  birds  (but  not  swine)  used  for  sacrifice.  Some 
three  hundred  priests  served  the  shrine  and  there  were  numerous 
minor  ministrants.  The  lake  was  the  centre  of  sacred  festivities 
and  it  was  customary  for  votaries  to  swim  out  and  decorate  an 
altar  standing  in  the  middle  of  the  water.  Self-mutilation  and 
other  orgies  went  on  in  the  temple  precinct,  and  there  was  an 
elaborate  ritual  on  entering  the  city  and  first  visiting  the  shrine 
under  the  conduct  of  local  guides,  which  reminds  one  of  the 
Meccan  Pilgrimage. 

The  temple  was  sacked  by  Crassus  on  his  way  to  meet  the 
Parthians  (53  B.  c.);  but  in  the  3rd  century  of  the  empire  the 
city  was  the  capital  of  the  Euphratensian  province  and  one  of 
the  great  cities  of  Syria.  Procopius  called  it  the  greatest  in  that 
part  of  the  world.  It  was,  however,  ruinous  when  Julian  collected 
his  troops  there  ere  marching  to  his  defeat  and  death  in  Meso- 
potamia, and  Chosroes  I.  held  it  to  ransom  after  Justinian  had 
failed  to  put  it  in  a  state  of  defence.  Harun  restored  it  at  the  end 
of  the  8th  century  and  it  became  a  bone  of  contention  between 
Byzantines,  Arabs  and  Turks.  The  crusaders  captured  it  from 
the  Seljuks  in  the  i2th  century,  but  Saladin  retook  it  (1175), 
and  later  it  became  the  headquarters  of  Hulagu  and  his  Mongols, 
who  completed  its  ruin.  The  remains  are  extensive,  but  almost 
wholly  of  late  date,  as  is  to  be  expected  in  the  case  of  a  city 
which  survived  into  Moslem  times.  The  walls  are  Arab,  and  no 
ruins  of  the  great  temple  survive.  The  most  noteworthy  relic  of 
antiquity  is  the  sacred  lake,  on  two  sides  of  which  can  still  be 
seen  stepped  quays  and  water-stairs.  The  first  modern  account 
of  the  site  is  in  a  short  narrative  appended  by  H.  Maundrell  to  his 
Journey  from  Aleppo  to  Jerusalem.  Hewasat  Mumbij  in  1699. 

The  coinage  of  the  city  begins  in  the  4th  century  B.C.  with  an 
Aramaic  series,  showing  the  goddess,  either  as  a  bust  with  mural 
crown  or  as  riding  on  a  lion.  She  continues  to  supply  the  chief 
type  even  during  imperial  times,  being  generally  shown  seated 
with  the  tympanum  in  her  hand.  Other  coins  substitute  the 
legend  0eas  Supias  'lepewroXtTtSi',  within  a  wreath.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  from  Bambyce  (near  which  much  silk  was  produced) 
were  derived  the  bombycina  vestis  of  the  Romans  and,  through  the 
crusaders,  the  bombazine  of  modern  commerce. 

See  F.  R.  Chesney,  Euphrates  Expedition  (1850) ;  W.  F.  Ainsworth, 
Personal  Narrative  of  the  Euphrates  Expedition  (1888);  E.  Sachau, 
Reise  in  Syrien,  &c.  (1883);  D.  G.  Hogarth  in  Journal  of  Hellenic 
Studies  (1909). 

2.  A  Phrygian  city,  altitude  1200  ft.  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Churuk  Su  (Lycus),  about  8  m.  above  its  junction  with  the 


Menderes  (Maeander),  situated  on  a  broad  terrace,  200  ft.  above 
the  valley  and  6  m.  N.  of  Laodicea.  On  the  terrace  rise  calcareous 
springs,  that  have  deposited  vast  incrustations  of  snowy  white- 
ness. To  these  springs,  which  are  warm  and  slightly  sulphureous, 
and  to  the  "  Plutonium  " — a  hole  reaching  deep  into  the  earth, 
from  which  issued  a  mephitic  vapour — the  place  owed  its  celebrity 
and  sanctity.  Here,  at  an  early  date,  a  religious  establishment 
(hieron)  existed  in  connexion  with  the  old  Phrygian  Kydrara,  a 
settlement  of  the  tribe  Hydrelitae;  and  the  town  which  grew 
round  it  became  one  of  the  greatest  centres  of  Phrygian  native 
life  but  of  non-political  importance.  The  chief  religious  festival 
was  the  Letoia,  named  after  the  goddess  Leto,  a  local  variety  of 
the  Mother  Goddess  (Cybele),  who  was  honoured  with  orgiastic 
rites  in  which  elements  of  the  original  Anatolian  matriarchate 
and  Nature-cult  survived:  there  was  also  a  worship  of  Apollo 
Lairbenos.  Hierapolis  was  the  seat  of  an  early  church  (Col.  iv. 
13),  with  which  tradition  closely  connects  the  apostle  Philip. 
Epictetus,  the  philosopher,  and  Papias,  a  disciple  of  St  John  and 
author  of  a  lost  work  on  the  Sayings  of  Jesus,  were  born  there. 
Hierapolis  is  now  easily  reached  from  Gonjeli,  a  station  on  the 
Dineir  railway  about  7  m.  distant.  A  village  of  Yuruks  has 
gradually  grown  below  the  site.  The  native  name  for  the  place  is 
apparently  Pambuk  Kale  (though  doubt  has  been  thrown  on  the 
statement),  and  this  has  always  been  explained  by  the  cotton- 
like  appearance  of  the  white  incrustations.  It  should  be  noted, 
however,  that  this  name,  if  genuine,  is  curiously  like  that  given  by 
the  Syrians  to  the  Commagenian  Hierapolis  (above),  Bambyce, 
the  origin  of  which  it  has  been  suggested  was  a  native  name  of  the 
goddess  Pambe  or  Mambe  (whence  Mabog).  Considering  that 
cotton  is  a  comparatively  modern  phenomenon  in  Anatolia,  it  is 
worth  suggesting  that  Pambuk  in  this  case  may  be  a  survival  of  a 
primitive  name,  derived  from  the  same  goddess,  Pambe.  The 
goddesses  of  the  two  Hierapoleis  were  in  any  case  closely  akin. 
If  an  old  native  name  has  reappeared  here  after  the  decline  of 
Greek  influence,  and  been  given  a  meaning  in  modern  Turkish, 
it  affords  another  instance  of  a  very  common  feature  of  west 
Asian  nomenclature.  Combined  with  the  petrified  terraces,  the 
ruins  of  Hierapolis  present  the  most  attractive  of  the  easily 
accessible  spectacles  in  Asia  Minor.  They  are  remarkable  for  the 
long  avenue  of  tombs,  mostly  inscribed  sarcophagi  on  plinths,  by 
which  the  city  is  approached  from  the  W.,  and  for  a  very  perfect 
theatre  partly  excavated  in  the  hill  at  the  N.  side  of  the  site. 
Stage  buildings  as  well  as  auditorium  are  well  preserved.  On  the 
S.,  just  above  the  white  terraces  and  largely  blocked  with  petrified 
deposit,  stand  large  baths,  into  which  the  natural  warm  spring 
was  once  conducted.  Behind  these  is  a  fine  triumphal  arch, 
whence  runs  a  colonnade.  Ruins  of  several  churches  survive,  and 
also  of  a  large  basilica.  There  is  a  sulphureous  pool  which  may 
represent  the  "  Plutonium,"  but  it  has  no  such  deadly  power  as 
was  ascribed  to  that  pond.  Ramsay  thinks  that  the  "  Plu- 
tonium "  was  obliterated  by  Christians  in  the  4th  century.  Over 
300  inscriptions  have  been  collected,  mostly  sepulchral,  whence 
Ramsay  has  deduced  interesting  facts  about  the  very  early 
Christian  community  which  existed  here.  The  site  has  been  often 
visited  and  described,  and  was  systematically  examined  in  1887 
by  parties  under  W.  M.  Ramsay  and  K.  Humann  respectively. 

See  K.  Humann,  Altertiimer-v.  Hierapolis  (1888);  Sir  W.  M. 
Ramsay,  Cities  and  Bishoprics  of  Phrygia,  vol.  i.  (1895). 

(C.  W.  W.;  D.  G.  H.) 

HIERARCHY  (Gr.  wp6s,  holy,  and  apxav,  to  rule),  the  office 
of  a  steward  or  guardian  of  holy  things,  not  a  "  ruler  of  priests  " 
or  "  priestly  ruler  "  (see  Boeckh,  Corp.  inscr.  Gr.  No.  1570), 
a  term  commonly  used  in  ecclesiastical  language  to  denote 
the  aggregate  of  those  persons  who  exercise  authority  within 
the  Christian  Church,  the  patriarchate,  episcopate  or  entire  three- 
fold order  of  the  clergy.  The  word  Itpapxia,  which  does  not 
occur  in  any  classical  Greek  writer,  owes  its  present  extensive 
currency  to  the  celebrated  writings  of  Dionysius  Areopagiticus. 
Of  these  the  most  important  are  the  two  which  treat  of  the 
celestial  and  of  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy  respectively.  De- 
fining hierarchy  as  the  "  function  which  comprises  all  sacred 
things,"  or,  more  fully,  as  "  a  sacred  order  and  science  and 


HIERATIC— HIEROCLES  OF  ALEXANDRIA 


453 


activity,  assimilated  as  far  as  possible  to  the  godlike,  and 
elevated  to  the  imitation  of  God  proportionately  to  the  Divine 
illuminations  conceded  to  it,"  the  author  proceeds  to  enumerate 
the  nine  orders  of  the  heavenly  host,  which  are  subdivided 
again  into  hierarchies  or  triads,  in  descending  order,  thus: 
Seraphim,  Cherubim,  Thrones;  Dominations,  Virtues,  Powers; 
Principalities,  Archangels,  Angels.  These  all  exist  for  the 
common  object  of  raising  men  through  ascending  stages  of 
purification  and  illumination  to  perfection.  The  ecclesiastical 
or  earthly  hierarchy  is  the  counterpart  of  the  other.  In  it  the 
first  or  highest  triad  is  formed  by  baptism,  communion  and 
chrism.  The  second  triad  consists  of  the  three  orders  of  the 
ministry,  bishop  or  hierarch,  priest  and  minister  or  deacon 
(iepapxns,  ifptvs,  XeiroupYos) ;  this  is  the  earliest  known  in- 
stance in  which  the  title  hierarch  is  applied  to  a  bishop.  The 
third  or  lowest  triad  is  made  up  of  monks,  "  initiated  "  and 
catechumens.  To  Dionysius  may  be  traced,  through  Thomas 
Aquinas  and  other  Catholic  writers  of  the  intervening  period, 
the  definition  of  the  term  usually  given  by  Roman  Catholic 
writers — "  coetus  seu  ordo  praesidum  et  sacrorum  ministrorum 
ad  regendam  ecclesiam  gignendamque  in  hominibus  sanctitatem 
divinitus  institutus"1 — although  it  immediately  rests  upon 
the  authority  of  the  sixth  canon  of  the  twenty-third  session 
of  the  council  of  Trent,  in  which  anathema  is  pronounced  upon 
all  who  deny  the  existence  within  the  Catholic  Church  of  a 
hierarchy  instituted  by  divine  appointment,  and  consisting  of 
bishops,  priests  and  ministers.2  (See  ORDER,  HOLY). 

HIERATIC,  priestly  or  sacred  (Gr.  wpemKos,  iepos,  sacred), 
a  term  particularly  applied  to  a  style  of  ancient  Egyptian  writing, 
which  is  a  simplified  cursive  form  of  hieroglyphic.  The  name 
was  first  given  by  Champollion  (see  EGYPT,  §  Language). 

HIERAX,  or  HIERACAS,  a  learned  ascetic  who  flourished 
about  the  end  of  the  3rd  century  at  Leontopolis  in  Egypt, 
where  he  lived  to  the  age  of  ninety,  supporting  himself  by 
calligraphy  and  devoting  his  leisure  to  scientific  and  literary 
pursuits,  especially  to  the  study  of  the  Bible.  He  was  the  author 
of  Biblical  commentaries  both  in  Greek  and  Coptic,  and  is 
said  to  have  composed  many  hymns.  He  became  leader  of 
the  so-called  sect  of  the  Hieracites,  an  ascetic  society  from 
which  married  persons  were  excluded,  and  of  which  one  of 
the  leading  tenets  was  that  only  the  celibate  could  enter  the 
kingdom  of  heaven.  He  asserted  that  the  suppression  of  the  sexual 
impulse  was  emphatically  the  new  revelation  brought  by  the 
Logos,  and  appealed  to  i  Cor.  vii.,  Heb.  xii.  14,  and  Matt. 
xix.  12,  xxv.  21.  Hierax  may  be  called  the  connecting  link 
between  Origen  and  the  Coptic  monks.  A  man  of  deep  learning 
and  prodigious  memory,  he  seems  to  have  developed  Origen's 
Christology  in  the  direction  of  Athanasius.  He  held  that 
the  Son  was  a  torch  lighted  at  the  torch  of  the  Father,  that 
Father  and  Son  are  a  bipartite  light.  He  repudiated  the  ideas 
of  a  bodily  resurrection  and  a  material  paradise,  and  on  the 
ground  of  2  Tim.  ii.  5  questioned  the  salvation  of  even  baptized 
infants,  "  for  without  knowledge  no  conflict,  without  conflict 
no  reward."  In  his  insistence  on  virginity  as  the  specifically 
Christian  virtue  he  set  up  the  great  theme  of  the  church  of  the 
4th  and  $th  centuries. 

HIERO  (strictly  HIERON),  the  name  of  two  rulers  of 
Syracuse. 

HIERO  I.  was  the  brother  of  Gelo,  and  tyrant  of  Syracuse 
from  478  to  467/6  B.C.  During  his  reign  he  greatly  increased  the 
power  of  Syracuse.  He  removed  the  inhabitants  of  Naxos 
and  Catana  to  Leontini,  peopled  Catana  (which  he  renamed 
Aetna)  with  Dorians,  concluded  an  alliance  with  Acragas 
(Agrigentum),  and  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Locrians  against 
Anaxilaus,  tyrant  of  Rhegium.  His  most  important  achieve- 
ment was  the  defeat  of  the  Etruscans  at  Cumae  (474),  by  which 
he  saved  the  Greeks  of  Campania.  A  bronze  helmet  (now  in 
the  British  Museum),  with  an  inscription  commemorating 

1  Perrone,  De  locis  tKeologicis,  pt.  i.,  sec.  i.  cap.  2. 

1  Si  quis  dixerit  in  ecclesia  catholica  non  esse  hierarchiam  divina 
ordinatione  institutam,  quae  constat  ex  episcopis,  presbyteris,  et 
ministris:  anathema  sit. 


the  event,  was  dedicated  at  Olympia.  Though  despotic  in 
his  rule  Hiero  was  a  liberal  patron  of  literature.  He  died  at 
Catana  in  467. 

See  Diod.  Sic.  xi.  38-67;  Xenophon,  Hiero,  6.  2;  E.  Lubbert, 
Syrakus  zur  Zeit  des  Gelon  und  Hieron  (1875) ;  for  his  coins  see 
NUMISMATICS  (section  Sicily). 

HIERO  II.,  tyrant  of  Syracuse  from  270  to  216  B.C.,  was  the 
illegitimate  son  of  a  Syracusan  noble,  Hierocles,  who  claimed 
descent  from  Gelo.  On  the  departure  of  Pyrrhus  from  Sicily  (275) 
the  Syracusan  army  and  citizens  appointed  him  commander 
of  the  troops.  He  materially  strengthened  his  position  by 
marrying  the  daughter  of  Leptines,  the  leading  citizen.  In  the 
meantime,  the  Mamertines,  a  body  of  Campanian  mercenaries 
who  had  been  employed  by  Agathocles,  had  seized  the  strong- 
hold of  Messana,  whence  they  harassed  the  Syracusans.  They 
were  finally  defeated  in  a  pitched  battle  near  Mylae  by  Hiero, 
who  was  only  prevented  from  capturing  Messana  by  Carthaginian 
interference.  His  grateful  countrymen  then  chose  him  king 
(270).  In  264  he  again  returned  to  the  attack,  and  the  Mamer- 
tines called  in  the  aid  of  Rome.  Hiero  at  once  joined  the 
Punic  leader  Hanno,  who  had  recently  landed  in  Sicily;  but 
being  defeated  by  the  consul  Appius  Claudius,  he  withdrew 
to  Syracuse.  Pressed  by  the  Roman  forces,  in  263  he  was 
compelled  to.  conclude  a  treaty  with  Rome,  by  which  he  was 
to  rule  over  the  south-east  of  Sicily  and  the  eastern  coast  as 
far  as  Tauromenium  (Polybius  i.  8-16;  Zonaras  viii.  9).  From 
this  time  till  his  death  in  216  he  remained  loyal  to  the  Romans, 
and  frequently  assisted  them  with  men  and  provisions  during 
the  Punic  wars  (Livy  xxi.  49-51,  xxii.  37,  xxiii.  21).  He  kept 
up  a  powerful  fleet  for  defensive  purposes,  and  employed  his 
famous  kinsman  Archimedes  in  the  construction  of  those  engines 
that,  at  a  later  date,  played  so  important  a  part  during  the 
siege  of  Syracuse  by  the  Romans. 

A  picture  of  the  prosperity  of  Syracuse  during  his  rule  is  given  in 
the  sixteenth  idyll  of  Theocritus,  his  favourite  poet.  See  Diod.  Sic. 
xxii.  24-xxvi.  24;  Polybius  i.  8-vii.  7;  Justin  xxiii.  4. 

HIEROCLES,  proconsul  of  Bithynia  and  Alexandria,  lived 
during  the  reign  of  Diocletian  (A.D.  284-305).  He  is  said  to 
have  been  the  instigator  of  the  fierce  persecution  of  the  Christians 
under  Galerius  in  303.  He  was  the  author  of  a  work  (not 
extant)  entitled  \6yoi  0tXaXi70«s  Trpos  TOUS  XpiOTiaPovs  in  two 
books,  in  which  he  endeavoured  to  persuade  the  Christians 
that  their  sacred  books  were  full  of  contradictions,  and  that 
in  moral  influence  and  miraculous  power  Christ  was  inferior  to 
Apollonius  of  Tyana.  Our  knowledge  of  this  treatise  is  derived 
from  Lactantius  (Instil,  diii.  v.  2)  and  Eusebius,  who  wrote  a 
refutation  entitled  'AvTipprjriKos  irpos  TO.  'IepoK\tovs. 

HIEROCLES  OF  ALEXANDRIA,  Neoplatonist  writer, 
flourished  c.  A.D.  430.  He  studied  under  the  celebrated  Neo- 
platonist Plutarch  at  Athens,  and  taught  for  some  years  in  his 
native  city.  He  seems  to  have  been  banished  from  Alexandria 
and  to  have  taken  up  his  abode  in  Constantinople,  where  he 
gave  such  offence  by  his  religious  opinions  that  he  was  thrown 
into  prison  and  cruelly  flogged.  The  only  complete  work  of  his 
which  has  been  preserved  is  the  commentary  on  the  Carmina 
Aurea  of  Pythagoras.  It  enjoyed  a  great  reputation  in  middle 
age  and  Renaissance  times,  and  there  are  numerous  translations 
in  various  European  languages.  Several  other  writings,  especi- 
ally one  on  providence  and  fate,  a  consolatory  treatise  dedicated 
to  his  patron  Olympiodorus  of  Thebes,  author  of  IffropiKol 
\6yoi,  are  quoted  or  referred  to  by  Photius  and  Stobaeus. 
The  collection  of  some  260  witticisms  (doreia)  called  $1X676X^05 
(ed.  A.  Eberhard,  Berlin,  1869),  attributed  to  Hierocles  and 
Philagrius,  has  no  connexion  with  Hierocles  of  Alexandria,  but 
is  probably  a  compilation  of  later  date,  founded  on  two  older 
collections.  It  is  now  agreed  that  the  fragments  of  the  Elements 
of  Ethics  ('H(?t/o)  aToixducns)  preserved  in  Stobaeus  are  from 
a  work  by  a  Stoic  named  Hierocles,  contemporary  of  Epictetus, 
who  has  been  identified  with  the  "  Hierocles  Stoicus  vir  sanctus 
et  gravis  "  in  Aulus  Gellius  (ix.  5.  8).  This  theory  is  confirmed 
by  the  discovery  of  a  papyrus  fed.  H.  von  Arnim  in  Berliner 
Klassikertexle,  iv.  1906;  see  also  C.  Prachter,  H ierokles  der 
Stoiker,  1901). 


454 


HIEROGLYPHICS— HIGGINS 


There  is  an  edition  of  the  commentary  by  F.  W.  Mullach  in 
Fragmenta  phUosophorum  Graecorum  (1860),  i.  408,  including  full 
information  concerning  Hierocles,  the  poem  and  the  commentary; 
see  also  E.  Zeller,  Philosophie  der  Griechen  (2nd  ed.),  iii.  2,  pp. 
681-687;  W.  Christ,  Geschichte  der  griechischen  Literatur  (1808) 
pp.  834,  849. 

Another  Hierocles,  who  flourished  during  the  reign  of  Justinian, 
was  the  author  of  a  list  of  provinces  and  towns  in  the  Eastern 
Empire,  called  ZwacSrj/uos  ("fellow-traveller";  ed.  A.  Burckhardt, 
1893);  it  was  one  of  the  chief  authorities  used  by  Constantine 
Porphyrogenitus  in  his  work  on  the  "  themes  "  of  the  Roman 
Empire  (see  C.  Krumbacher,  Geschichte  der  byzantinischen  Literatur, 
1897,  p.  417).  In  Fabricius's  Bibliotheca  Graeca  (ed.  Harles),  i. 
791,  sixteen  persons  named  Hierocles,  chiefly  literary,  are  men- 
tioned. 

HIEROGLYPHICS  (Gr.  iepte,  sacred,  and  y\v<tfi,  carving),  the 
term  used  by  Greek  and  Latin  writers  to  describe  the  sacred 
characters  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  language  in  its  classical 
phase.  It  is  now  also  used  for  various  systems  of  writing  in 
which  figures  of  objects  take  the  place  of  conventional  signs. 
Such  characters  which  symbolize  the  idea  of  a  thing  without 
expressing  the  name  of  it  are  generally  styled  "  ideographs  " 
(Gr.  Idea,  idea,  and  ypafaiv,  to  write),  e.g.  the  Chinese  characters. 

See  EGYPT,  Language;  CUNEIFORM;  INSCRIPTIONS  and  WRITING. 

HIERONYMITES,  a  common  name  for  three  or  four  con- 
gregations of  hermits  living  according  to  the  rule  of  St  Augustine 
with  supplementary  regulations  taken  from  St  Jerome's  writings. 
Their  habit  was  white,  with  a  black  cloak,  (i)  The  Spanish 
Hieronymites,  established  near  Toledo  in  1374.  The  order 
soon  became  popular  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  in  1415  it 
numbered  25  houses.  It  possessed  some  of  the  most  famous 
monasteries  in  the  Peninsula,  including  the  royal  monastery 
of  Belem  near  Lisbon,  and  the  magnificent  monastery  built 
by  Philip  II.  at  the  Escurial.  Though  the  manner  of  life  was 
very  austere  the  Hieronymites  devoted  themselves  to  studies 
and  to  the  active  work  of  the  ministry,  and  they  possessed 
great  influence  both  at  the  Spanish  and  the  Portuguese  courts. 
They  went  to  Spanish  and  Portuguese  America  and  played  a 
considerable  part  in  Christianizing  and  civilizing  the  Indians. 
There  were  Hieronymite  nuns  founded  in  1375,  who  became 
very  numerous.  The  order  decayed  during  the  i8th  century 
and  was  completely  suppressed  in  1835.  (2)  Hieronymites 
of  the  Observance,  or  of  Lombardy:  a  reform  of  (i)  effected 
by  the  third  general  in  1424;  it  embraced  seven  houses  in 
Spain  and  seventeen  in  Italy,  mostly  in  Lombardy.  It  is  now 
extinct.  (3)  Poor  Hermits  of  St  Jerome,  established  near  Pisa 
in  1377:  it  came  to  embrace  nearly  fifty  houses  whereof  only 
one  in  Rome  and  one  in  Viterbo  survive.  (4)  Hermits  of  St 
Jerome  of  the  congregation  of  Fiesole,  established  in  1406: 
they  had  forty  houses  but  in  1668  they  were  united  to  (3). 
See  Helyot,  Histoire  des  ordres  religieux  (1714),  iii.  cc.  57-60, 
iv.  cc.  1-3;  Max  Heimbucher,  Orden  und  Kongregationen  (1896),  i. 
§  70;  and  art.  "  Hieronymiten  "  in  Herzog-Hauck,  Realencyklopadie 
(ed.  3),  and  in  Welte  and  Wetzer,  Kirchenlexicon  (ed.  2).  (E.  C.  B.) 

HIERONYMUS  OF  CARDIA,  Greek  general  and  historian, 
contemporary  of  Alexander  the  Great.  After  the  death  of  the 
king  he  followed  the  fortunes  of  his  friend  and  fellow-countryman 
Eumenes.  He  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner  by  Antigonus, 
who  pardoned  him  and  appointed  him  superintendent  of  the 
asphalt  beds  in  the  Dead  Sea.  He  was  treated  with  equal 
friendliness  by  Antigonus's  son  Demetrius,  who  made  him  pole- 
march  of  Thespiae,  and  by  Antigonus  Gonatas,  at  whose  court 
he  died  at  the  age  of  104.  He  wrote  a  history  of  the  Diadochi 
and  their  descendants,  embracing  the  period  from  the  death  of 
Alexander  to  the  war  with  Pyrrhus  (323-272  B.C.),  which  is  one 
of  the  chief  authorities  used  by  Diodorus  Siculus  (xviii.-xx.) 
and  also  by  Plutarch  in  his  life  of  Pyrrhus.  He  made  use  of 
official  papers  and  was  careful  in  his  investigation  of  facts. 
The  simplicity  of  his  style  rendered  his  work  unpopular,  but  it 
is  probable  that  it  was  on  a  high  level  as  compared  with  that 
of  his  contemporaries.  In  the  last  part  of  his  work  he  made  a 
praiseworthy  attempt  to  acquaint  the  Greeks  with  the  character 
and  early  history  of  the  Romans.  He  is  reproached  by  Pausanias 
(i.  9.  8)  with  unfairness  towards  all  rulers  with  the  exception 
of  Antigonus  Gonatas. 


See  Lucian,  Macrobii,  22;  Plutarch,  Demetrius,  39;  Diod  Sic 
xvui.  42.  44.  50,  xix.  100 ;  Dion.  Halic.  Antiq.  Rom.  i.  6;  F' 
Bruckner,  De  vita  et  scriptis  Hieronymi  Cardii  f'  in  Zeitschrift  fur 
die  Alterthumswtssenschaft  (1842);  F.  Reuss,  Hieronymos  von  Kardia 
(Berlin,  1876);  C.  Wachsmuth,  Einleitung  in  das  Stadium  der  alien 
Geschichte  (1895);  fragments  in  C.  W.  Muller,  Frag,  hist  Graec 
11.  450-461. 

HIERRO,  or  FERRO,  an  island  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  forming 
part  of  the  Spanish  archipelago  of  the  Canary  Islands  (q.ii.). 
Pop.  (1900)  6508;  area  107  sq.  m.  Hierro,  the  most  westerly 
and  the  smallest  island  of  the  group,  is  somewhat  crescent- 
shaped.  Its  length  is  about  18  m.,  its  greatest  breadth  about 
15  m.,  and  its  circumference  50  m.  It  lies  92  m.  W.S.W.  of 
Teneriffe.  Its  coast  is  bound  by  high,  steep  rocks,  which  only 
admit  of  one  harbour,  but  the  interior  is  tolerably  level.  Its 
hill-tops  in  winter  are  sometimes  wrapped  in  snow.  Better 
and  more  abundant  grass  grows  here  than  on  any  of  the  other 
islands.  Hierro  is  exposed  to  westerly  gales  which  frequently 
inflict  great  damage.  Fresh  water  is  scarce,  but  there  is  a 
sulphurous  spring,  with  a  temperature  of  102°  Fahr.  The  once 
celebrated  and  almost  sacred  Til  tree,  whioh  was  reputed  to  be 
always  distilling  water  in  great  abundance  from  its  leaves,  no 
longer  exists.  Only  a  small  part  of  the  cultivable  land  is  under 
tillage,  the  inhabitants  being  principally  employed  in  pasturage. 
Valverde  (pop.  about  3000)  is  the  principal  town.  Geographers 
were  formerly  in  the  habit  of  measuring  all  longitudes  from 
Ferro,  the  most  westerly  land  known  to  them.  The  longitude 
assigned  at  first  has,  however,  turned  out  to  be  erroneous; 
and  the  so-called  "  Longitude  of  Ferro  "  does  not  coincide 
with  the  actual  longitude  of  the  island. 

HIGDON  (or  HIGDEN),  RANULF  (c.  i29o-c.  1363),  English 
chronicler,  was  a  Benedictine  monk  of  the  monastery  of  St 
Werburg  in  Chester,  in  which  he  lived,  it  is  said,  for  sixty-four 
years,  and  died  "  in  a  good  old  age,"  probably  in  1363.  Higdon 
was  the  author  of  a  long  chronicle,  one  of  several  such  works 
based  on  a  plan  taken  from  Scripture,  and  written  for  the 
amusement  and  instruction  of  his  society.  It  closes  the  long 
series  of  general  chronicles,  which  were  soon  superseded  by  the 
invention  of  printing.  It  is  commonly  styled  the  Polychronicon, 
from  the  longer  title  Ranulphi  Castrensis,  cognomine  Higdon, 
Polychronicon  (sive  Historia  Polycratica)  ab  initio  mundi  usque 
ad  mortem  regis  Edwardi  III.  in  septem  libros  dispositum.  The 
work  is  divided  into  seven  books,  in  humble  imitation  of  the 
seven  days  of  Genesis,  and,  with  exception  of  the  last  book,  is 
a  summary  of  general  history,  a  compilation  made  with  con- 
siderable style  and  taste.  It  seems  to  have  enjoyed  no  little 
popularity  in  the  i  sth  century.  It  was  the  standard  work  on 
general  history,  and  more  than  a  hundred  MSS.  of  it  are  known 
to  exist.  The  Christ  Church  MS.  says  that  Higdon  wrote  it 
down  to  the  year  1342;  the  fine  MS.  at  Christ's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, states  that  he  wrote  to  the  year  1344,  after  which  date, 
with  the  omission  of  two  years,  John  of  Malvern,  a  monk  of 
Worcester,  carried  the  history  on  to  1357,  at  which  date  it 
ends.  According,  however,  to  its  latest  editor,  Higdon's  part 
of  the  work  goes  no  further  than  1326  or  1327  at  latest,  after 
which  time  it  was  carried  on  by  two  continuators  to  the  end. 
Thomas  Gale,  in  his  Hist.  Brit.  &c.,  scriptores,  xv.  (Oxon.,  1691), 
published  that  portion  of  it,  in  the  original  Latin,  which  comes 
down  to  1066.  Three  early  translations  of  the  Polychronicon 
exist.  The  first  was  made  by  John  of  Trevisa,  chaplain  to  Lord 
Berkeley,  in  1387,  and  was  printed  by  Caxton  in  1482;  the  second 
ay  an  anonymous  writer,  was  written  between  1432  and  1450; 
the  third,  based  on  Trevisa's  version,  with  the  addition  of  an 
eighth  book,  was  prepared  by  Caxton.  These  versions  are 
specially  valuable  as  illustrating  the  change  of  the  English 
"anguage  during  the  period  they  cover. 

The    Polychronicon,    with    the    continuations   and    the    English 
versions,   was  edited  for  the   Rolls  Series   (No.  41)   by  Churchill 
Babington  (vols.  i.  and  ii.)  and  Joseph  Rawson  Lumby  (1865-1886). 
This  edition  was  adversely  criticized  by  Mandell  Creighton  in  the ' 
Eng.  Hist.  Rev.  for  October  1888. 

HIGGINS,  MATTHEW  JAMES  (1810-1868),  British  writer 
over  the  nom-de-plume  "  Jacob  Omnium,"  which  was  the  title 
of  his  first  magazine  article,  was  born  in  County  Meath,  Ireland, 


HIGGINSON— HIGHLANDS 


455 


on'  the  4th  of  December  1810.  His  letters  in  The  Times  were 
instrumental  in  exposing  many  abuses.  He  was  a  frequent  con- 
tributor to  the  Cornhill,  and  was  a  friend  of  Thackeray,  who 
dedicated  to  him  The  Adventures  of  Philip,  and  one  of  his  ballads, 
"  Jacob  Omnium's  Hoss,"  deals  with  an  incident  in  Higgins's 
career.  He  died  on  the  I4th  of  August  1868.  Some  of  his 
articles  were  published  in  1875  as  Essays  an  Social  Subjects. 

HIGGINSON,  THOMAS  WENTWORTH  (1823-  ),  American 
author  and  soldier,  was  born  in  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  on 
the  22nd  of  December  1823.  He  was  a  descendant  of  Francis 
Higginson  (1588-1630),  who  emigrated  from  Leicestershire  to 
the  colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay  and  was  a  minister  of  the  church 
of  Salem,  Mass.,  in  1629-1630;  and  a  grandson  of  Stephen 
Higginson  (1743-1828),  a  Boston  merchant,  who  was  a  member 
of  the  Continental  Congress  in  1783,  took  an  active  part  in  sup- 
pressing Shay's  Rebellion,  was  the  author  of  the  "  Laco  "  letters 
(1789),  and  rendered  valuable  services  to  the  United  States 
government  as  navy  agent  from  the  nth  of  May  to  the  22nd  of 
June  1798.  Graduating  from  Harvard  in  1841,  he  was  a  school- 
master for  two  years,  studied  theology  at  the  Harvard  Divinity 
School,  and  was  pastor  in  1847-1850  of  the  First  Religious  Society 
(Unitarian)  of  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  and  of  the  Free 
Church  at  Worcester  in  1852-1858.  He  was  a  Free  Soil  candi- 
date for  Congress  (1850),  but  was  defeated;  was  indicted  with 
Wendell  Phillips  and  Theodore  Parker  for  participation  in  the 
attempt  to  release  the  fugitive  slave,  Anthony  Burns,  in  Boston 
(1853);  was  engaged  in  the  effort  to  make  Kansas  a  free  state 
after  the  passage  of  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  of  1854;  and  during 
the  Civil  War  was  captain  in  the  sist  Massachusetts  Volunteers, 
and  from  November  1862  to  October  1864,  when  he  was  retired 
because  of  a  wound  received  in  the  preceding  August,  was 
colonel  of  the  First  South  Carolina  Volunteers,  the  first  regiment 
recruited  from  former  slaves  for  the  Federal  service.  He  de- 
scribed his  experiences  mArmy  Life  in  a  Black  Regiment  (1870). 
In  politics  Higginson  was  successively  a  Republican,  an  Inde- 
pendent and  a  Democrat.  His  writings  show  a  deep  love  of 
nature,  art  and  humanity,  and  are  marked  by  vigour  of  thought, 
sincerity  of  feeling,  and  grace  and  finish  of  style.  In  his  Common 
Sense  About  Women  (1881)  and  his  Women  and  Men  (1888)  he 
advocated  equality  of  opportunity  and  equality  of  rights  for  the 
two  sexes. 

Among  his  numerous  books  are  Outdoor  Papers  (1863);  Malbone: 
an  Oldport  Romance  (1869);  Life  of  Margaret  Fuller  Ossoli  (in 
"  American  Men  of  Letters  "  series,  1884) ;  A  Larger  History  of  the 
United  States  of  America  to  the  Close  of  President  Jackson's  Ad- 
ministration (1885);  The  Monarch  of  Dreams  (1886);  Travellers  and 
Outlaws  (1889);  The  Afternoon  Landscape  (1889),  poems  and 
translations;  Life  of  Francis  Higginson  (in  "  Makers  of  America," 
1891);  Concerning  All  of  Us  (1892);  The  Procession  of  the  Flowers 
and  Kindred  Papers  (1897);  Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow  (in 
"  American  Men  of  Letters  "  series,  1902) ;  John  Greenleaf  Whittier 
(in  "  English  Men  of  Letters  "  series,  1902) ;  A  Reader's  History  of 
American  Literature  (1903),  the  Lowell  Institute  lectures  for  1903, 
edited  by  Henry  W.  Boynton;  and  Life  and  Times  of  Stephen 
Higginson  (1907).  His  volumes  of  reminiscence,  Cheerful  Yesterdays 
(1898),  Old  Cambridge  (1899),  Contemporaries  (1899),  and  Part  of  a 
Man's  Life  (1905),  are  characteristic  and  charming  works.  His 
collected  works  were  published  in  seven  vols.  (1900). 

HICHAM  FERRERS,  a  market  town  and  municipal  borough 
in  the  Eastern  parliamentary  division  of  Northamptonshire, 
England,  63  m.  N.N.W.  from  London,  on  branches  of  the  London 
&  North- Western  and  Midland  railways.  Pop.  (1901),  2540.  It  is 
pleasantly  situated  on  high  ground  above  the  south  bank  of  the 
river  Nene.  The  church  of  St  Mary  is  among  the  most  beautiful 
of  the  many  fine  churches  in  Northamptonshire.  To  the  Early 
English  chancel  a  very  wide  north  aisle,  resembling  a  second 
nave,  was  added  in  the  Decorated  period,  and  the  general  appear- 
ance of  the  chancel,  with  its  north  aisle  and  Lady-chapel,  is 
Decorated.  The  tower  with  its  fine  spire  and  west  front  was 
partially  but  carefully  rebuilt  in  the  I7th  century.  Close  to  the 
church,  but  detached  from  it,  stands  a  beautiful  Perpendicular 
building,  the  school-house,  founded  by  Archbishop  Chichele  in 
1422.  The  Bede  House,  a  somewhat  similar  structure  by  the 
same  founder,  completes  a  striking  group  of  buildings.  In  the 
town  are  remains  of  Chichele's  college.  Higham  Ferrers  shares 


in  the  widespread  local  industry  of  shoemaking.  The  town  is 
governed  by  a  mayor,  4  aldermen  and  12  councillors,  Area, 
1945  acres. 

Higham  (Hecham,  Heccam,  Hegham  Ferers)  was  evidently  a 
large  village  before  the  Domesday  Survey.  It  was  then  held  by 
William  Peverel  of  the  king,  but  on  the  forfeiture  of  the  lordship 
by  his  son  it  was  granted  in  1199  to  William  Ferrers,  earl  of 
Derby.  On  the  outlawry  of  Robert  his  grandson  it  passed  to 
Edmund,  earl  of  Lancaster,  and,  reverting  to  the  crown  in  1322, 
was  granted  to  Aymer  de  Valence,  earl  of  Pembroke,  but  escheated 
to  the  crown  in  1327,  and  was  granted  to  Henry,  earl  of  Lancaster. 
The  castle,  which  may  have  been  built  before  Henry  III.  visited 
Higham  in  1229,  is  mentioned  in  1322,  but  had  been  destroyed  by 
1540.  It  appears  by  the  confirmation  of  Henry  III.  in  1251  that 
the  borough  originated  in  the  previous  year  when  William  de 
Ferrers,  earl  of  Derby,  manumitted  by  charter  ninety-two 
persons,  granting  they  should  have  a  free  borough.  A  mayor  was 
elected  from  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Richard  II.,  while  a 
town  hall  is  mentioned  in  1395.  The  revenues  of  Chichele's 
college  were  given  to  the  corporation  by  the  charter  of  1566, 
whereby  the  borough  returned  one  representative  to  parliament, 
a  privilege  enjoyed  until  1832.  James  I.  in  1604  gave  the  mayor 
the  commission  of  the  peace  with  other  privileges  which  were 
confirmed  by  Charles  II.  in  1664.  The  old  charters  were  sur- 
rendered in  1684  and  a  new  grant  obtained;  a  further  charter 
was  granted  in  1887. 

HIGHGATE,  a  northern  district  of  London,  England,  partly 
in  the  metropolitan  borough  of  St  Pancras,  but  extending 
into  Middlesex.  It  is  a  high-lying  district,  the  greatest 
elevation  being  426  ft.  The  Great  North  Road  passes  through 
Highgate,  which  is  supposed  to  have  received  its  name  from  the 
toll-gate  erected  by  the  bishop  of  London  when  the  road  was 
formed  through  his  demesne  in  the  i4th  century.  It  is  possible, 
however,  that  "  gate  "  is  used  here  in  its  old  signification,  and 
that  the  name  means  simply  high  road.  The  road  rose  so  steeply 
here  that  in  1812  an  effort  was  made  to  lessen  the  slope  for 
coaches  by  means  of  an  archway,  and  a  new  way  was  completed 
in  1900.  In  the  time  of  stage-coaches  a  custom  was  introduced  of 
making  ignorant  persons  believe  that  they  required  to  be  sworn 
and  admitted  to  the  freedom  of  the  Highgate  before  being 
allowed  to  pass  the  gate,  the  fine  of  admission  being  a  bottle  of 
wine.  Not  a  few  famous  names  occur  among  the  former  residents 
of  Highgate.  Bacon  died  here  in  1626;  Coleridge  and  Andrew 
Marvell,  the  poets,  were  residents.  Cromwell  House,  now  a 
convalescent  home,  was  presented  by  Oliver  Cromwell  to  his 
eldest  daughter  Bridget  on  her  marriage  with  Henry  Ireton 
(January  15,  1646/7).  Lauderdale  House,  now  attached  to 
the  public  grounds  of  Waterlow  Park,  belonged  to  the  Duke  of 
Lauderdale,  one  of  the  "  Cabal  "  of  Charles  II.  Among  various 
institutions  may  be  mentioned  Whittington's  almshouses,  near 
Whittington  Stone,  at  the  foot  of  Highgate  Hill,  on  which  the 
future  mayor  of  London  is  reputed  to  have  been  resting  when  he 
heard  the  peal  of  Bow  bells  and  "  turned  again."  Highgate 
grammar  school  was  founded  ( 1 562-1 565)  by  Sir  Roger  Cholmley, 
chief-justice.  St  Joseph's  Retreat  is  the  mother-house  of  the 
Passionist  Fathers  in  England.  There  is  an  extensive  and 
beautiful  cemetery  on  the  slope  below  the  church  of  St  Michael. 

HIGHLANDS,  THE,  that  part  of  Scotland  north-west  of  a  line 
drawn  from  Dumbarton  to  Stonehaven,  including  the  Inner  and 
Outer  Hebrides  and  the  county  of  Bute,  but  excluding  the 
Orkneys  and  Shetlands,  Caithness,  the  flat  coastal  land  of  the 
shires  of  Nairn,  Elgin  and  Banff,  and  all  East  Aberdeenshire  (see 
SCOTLAND).  This  area  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  Lowlands 
by  language  and  race,  the  preservation  of  the  Gaelic  speech  being 
characteristic.  Even  in  a  historical  sense  the  Highlanders  were 
a  separate  people  from  the  Lowlanders,  with  whom,  during 
many  centuries,  they  shared  nothing  in  common.  The  town  of 
Inverness  is  usually  regarded  as  the  capital  of  the  Highlands. 
The  Highlands  consist  of  an  old  dissected  plateau,  or  block, 
of  ancient  crystalline  rocks  with  incised  valleys  and  lochs 
carved  by  the  action  of  mountain  streams  and  by  ice,  the 
resulting  topography  being  a  wide  area  of  irregularly  distributed 


456 


HIGHNESS— HIGH  PLACE 


mountains  whose  summits  have  nearly  the  same  height  above 
sea-level,  but  whose  bases  depend  upon  the  amount  of  denuda- 
tion to  which  the  plateau  has  been  subjected  in  various  places. 
The  term  "  highland  "  is  used  in  physical  geography  for  any 
elevated  mountainous  plateau. 

HIGHNESS,  literally  the  quality  of  being  lofty  or  high,  a 
term  used,  as  are  so  many  abstractions,  as  a  title  of  dignity  and 
honour,  to  signify  exalted  rank  or  station.  These  abstractions 
arose  in  great  profusion  in  the  Roman  empire,  both  of  the 
East  and  West,  and  "  highness  "  is  to  be  directly  traced  to  the 
altitudo  and  celsitudo  of  the  Latin  and  the  v^ijXorTjj  of  the 
Greek  emperors.  Like  other  "  exorbitant  and  swelling  attri- 
butes "  of  the  time,  they  were  conferred  on  ruling  princes 
generally.  In  the  early  middle  ages  such  titles,  couched  in 
the  second  or  third  person,  were  "  uncertain  and  much  more 
arbitrary  (according  to  the  fancies  of  secretaries)  than  in  the 
later  times  "  (Selden,  Titles  of  Honour,  pt.  i.  ch.  vii.  100).  In 
English  usage,  "  Highness  "  alternates  with  "  Grace  "  and 
"  Majesty,"  as  the  honorific  title  of  the  king  and  queen  until 
the  time  of  James  I.  Thus  in  documents  relating  to  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.  all  three  titles  are  used  indiscriminately;  an 
example  is  the  king's  judgment  against  Dr  Edward  Crome 
(d.  1562),  quoted,  from  the  lord  chamberlain's  books,  ser.  i, 
p.  791,  in  Trans.  Roy.  Hist.  Soc.  N.S.  xix.  299,  where  article 

15  begins  with  "  Also  the  Kinges  Highness  "  hath  ordered, 

16  with  "  Kinges  Majestic,"  and  17  with  "  Kinges  Grace."     In 
the  Dedication  of  the  Authorized  Version  of  the  Bible  of  1611 
James  I.  is  still  styled  "Majesty"  and  "Highness";  thus, 
in  the  first  paragraph,  "  the  appearance  of  Your  Majesty,  as 
of  the  Sun  in  his  strength,  instantly  dispelled  those  supposed 
and  surmised  mists  .  .  .  especially  when  we  beheld  the  govern- 
ment established  in  Your  Highness  and  Your  hopeful  Seed, 
by    an    undoubted    title."    It    was,    however,    in    James    I.'s 
reign    that    "  Majesty "    became    the    official    title.     It    may 
be    noted    that    Cromwell,    as   lord    protector,    and    his    wife 
were    styled    "  Highness."     In    present    usage    the    following 
members  of  the  British  Royal  Family  are  addressed  as  "  Royal 
Highness"   (H.R.H.):   all  sons  and   daughters,   brothers  and 
sisters,  uncles  and  aunts  of  the  reigning  sovereign,  grandsons 
and  granddaughters  if  children  of  sons,  and  also  great  grand- 
children (decree  of  3ist  of  May  1898)  if  children  of  an  eldest 
son  of  any  prince  of  Wales.     Nephews,  nieces  and  cousins  and 
grandchildren,  offspring  of  daughters,  are  styled  "  Highness  " 
only.     A  change  of  sovereign  does  not  entail  the  forfeiture 
of   the   title   "  Royal   Highness,"   once  acquired,   though   the 
father  of  the  bearer  has  become  a  nephew  and  not  a  grandson 
of  the  sovereign.     The  principal  feudatory  princes  of  the  Indian 
empire  are  also  styled  "  Highness." 

As  a  general  rule  the  members  of  the  blood  royal  of  an  Imperial 
or  Royal  house  are  addressed  as  "  Imperial  "  or  "  Royal  High- 
ness "  (Altesse  Impiriale,  Royale,  Kaiserliche,  KoniglicheHoheit) 
respectively.  In  Germany  the  reigning  heads  of  the  Grand 
Duchies  bear  the  title  of  Royal  or  Grand  Ducal  Highness 
(Konigliche  or  Gross-Herzogliche  Hohe.it),  while  the  members 
of  the  family  are  addressed  as  Hoheit,  Highness,  simply.  Hoheit 
is  borne  by  the  reigning  dukes  and  the  princes  and  princesses 
of  their  families.  The  title  "  Serene  Highness  "  has  also  an 
antiquity  equal  to  that  of  "  highness,"  for  ya.\T)vbn]$  and 
T7juepor7js  were  titles  borne  by  the  Byzantine  rulers,  and  serenitas 
and  serenissimus  by  the  emperors  Honorius  and  Arcadius. 
The  doge  of  Venice  was  also  styled  Serenissimus.  Selden 
(op.  cit.  pt.  ii.  ch.  x.  739)  calls  this  title  "  one  of  the  greatest 
that  can  be  given  to  any  Prince  that  hath  not  the  superior 
title  of  King."  In  modern  times  "  Serene  Highness  "  (Altesse 
Serenissime)  is  used  as  the  equivalent  of  the  German  Durchlaucht, 
a  stronger  form  of  Erlaucht,  illustrious,  represented  in  the 
Latin  honorific  superillustris.  Thackeray's  burlesque  title 
"  Transparency  "  in  the  court  at  Pumpernickel  very  accurately 
gives  the  meaning.  The  title  of  Durchlaucht  was  granted  in 
1375  by  the  emperor  Charles  IV.  to  the  electoral  princes  (Kur- 
fiirsten).  In  the  1 7th  century  it  became  the  general  title  borne 
by  the  heads  of  the  reigning  princely  states  of  the  empire 


(reichstiindische  Fursten),  as  Erlaucht  by  those  of  the  country 
houses  (reichstiindische  Grafen).  In  1825  the  German  Diet 
agreed  to  grant  the  title  Durchlaucht  to  the  heads  of  the  media- 
tized princely  houses  whether  domiciled  in  Germany  or  Austria, 
and  it  is  now  customary  to  use  it  of  the  members  of  those 
houses.  Further,  all  those  who  are  elevated  to  the  rank  of 
prince  (Furst)  in  the  secondary  meaning  of  that  title  (see  PRINCE) 
are  also  styled  Durchlaucht.  In  1829  the  title  of  Erlaucht, 
which  had  formerly  been  borne  by  the  reigning  counts  of  the 
empire,  was  similarly  granted  to  the  mediatized  countly  families 
(see  Almanack  de  Golha,  1909,  107). 

HIGH  PLACE,  in  the  English  version  of  the  Old  Testament, 
the  literal  translation  of  the  Heb.  bamah.  This  rendering  is 
etymologically  correct,  as  appears  from  the  poetical  use  of 
the  plural  in  such  expressions  as  to  ride,  or  stalk,  or  stand  on 
the  high  places  of  the  earth,  the  sea,  the  clouds,  and  from  the 
corresponding  usage  in  Assyrian;  but  in  prose  bamah  is  always 
a  place  of  worship.  It  has  been  surmised  that  it  was  so  called 
because  the  places  of  worship  were  originally  upon  hill-tops, 
or  that  the  bamah  was  an  artificial  platform  or  mound,  perhaps 
imitating  the  natural  eminence  which  was  the  oldest  holy 
place,  but  neither  view  is  historically  demonstrable.  The 
development  of  the  religious  significance  of  the  word  took 
place  probably  not  in  Israel  but  among  the  Canaanites,  from 
whom  the  Israelites,  in  taking  possession  of  the  holy  places 
of  the  land,  adopted  the  name  also. 

In  old  Israel  every  town  and  village  had  its  own  place  of 
sacrifice,  and  the  common  name  for  these  places  was  bamah, 
which  is  synonymous  with  mifydash,  holy  place  (Amos  vii. 
9;  Isa.  xvi.  12,  &c.).  From  the  Old  Testament  and  from 
existing  remains  a  good  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  appearance 
of  such  a  place  of  worship.  It  was  often  on  the  hill  above  the 
town,  as  at  Ramah  (i  Sam.  ix.  12-14);  there  was  a  stele 
(massebah),  the  seat  of  the  deity,  and  a  wooden  post  or  pole 
(asherah),  which  marked  the  place  as  sacred  and  was  itself 
an  object  of  worship;  there  was  a  stone  altar,  often  of  con- 
siderable size  and  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock1  or  built  of  unhewn 
stones  (Ex.  xx.  25;  see  ALTAR),  on  which  offerings  were  burnt 
(mizbeh,  lit.  "slaughter  place");  a  cistern  for  water,  and 
perhaps  low  stone  tables  for  dressing  the  victims;  sometimes 
also  a  hall  (lishkah)  for  the  sacrificial  feasts. 

Around  these  places  the  religion  of  the  ancient  Israelite 
centred;  at  festival  seasons,  or  to  make  or  fulfil  a  vow,  he 
might  journey  to  more  famous  sanctuaries  at  a  distance  from 
his  home,  but  ordinarily  the  offerings  which  linked  every  side 
of  his  life  to  religion  were  paid  at  the  bamah  of  his  own  town. 
The  building  of  royal  temples  in  Jerusalem  or  in  Samaria  made 
no  change  in  this  respect;  they  simply  took  their  place  beside 
the  older  sanctuaries,  such  as  Bethel,  Dan,  Gilgal,  Beersheba, 
to  which  they  were,  indeed,  inferior  in  repute. 

The  religious  reformers  of  the  8th  century  assail  the  popular 
religion  as  corrupt  and  licentious,  and  as  fostering  the  mon- 
strous delusion  that  immoral  men  can  buy  the  favour  of  God  by 
worship;  but  they  make  no  difference  in  this  respect  between 
the  high  places  of  Israel  and  the  temple  in  Jerusalem  (cf.  Amos 
v.  21  sqq.;  Hos.  iv.;  Isa.  i.  10  sqq.);  Hosea  stigmatizes  the  whole 
cultus  as  pure  heathenism — Canaanite  baal-worship  adopted  by 
apostate  Israel.  The  fundamental  law  in  Deut.  xii.  prohibits 
sacrifice  at  every  place  except  the  temple  in  Jerusalem ;  in  accord- 
ance with  this  law  Josiah,  in  621  B.C.,  destroyed  and  desecrated 
the  altars  (bdmoth)  throughout  his  kingdom,  where  Yahweh  had 
been  worshipped  from  time  immemorial,  and  forcibly  removed 
their  priests  to  Jerusalem,  where  they  occupied  an  inferior  rank 
in  the  temple  ministry.  In  the  prophets  of  the  7th  and  6th 
centuries  the  word  bdmoth  connotes  "  seat  of  heathenish  or 
idolatrous  worship  ";  and  the  historians  of  the  period  apply  the 
term  in  this  opprobrious  sense  not  only  to  places  sacred  to  other 
gods  but  to  the  old  holy  places  of  Yahweh  in  the  cities  and 
villages  of  Judah,  which,  in  their  view,  had  been  illegitimate 
from  the  building  of  Solomon's  temple,  and  therefore  not  really 
seats  of  the  worship  of  Yahweh;  even  the  most  pious  kings  of 
1  Several  altars  of  this  type  have  been  preserved. 


HIGH  SEAS— HIGHWAY 


457 


Judah  are  censured  for  tolerating  their  existence.  The  reaction 
which  followed  the  death  of  Josiah  (608  B.C.)  restored  the  old 
altars  of  Yahweh;  they  survived  the  destruction  of  the  temple 
in  586,  and  it  is  probable  that  after  its  restoration  (520-516  B.C.) 
they  only  slowly  disappeared,  in  consequence  partly  of  the  natural 
predominance  of  Jerusalem  in  the  little  territory  of  Judaea, 
partly  of  the  gradual  establishment  of  the  supremacy  of  the 
written  law  over  custom  and  tradition  in  the  Persian  period. 

It  may  not  be  superfluous  to  note  that  the  deuteronomic  dogma 
that  sacrifice  can  be  offered  to  Yahweh  only  at  the  temple  in 
Jerusalem  was  never  fully  established  either  in  fact  or  in  legal 
theory.  The  Jewish  military  colonists  in  Elephantine  in  the 
5th  century  B.C.  had  their  altar  of  Yahweh  beside  the  high  way; 
the  Jews  in  Egypt  in  the  Ptolemaic  period  had,  besides  many 
local  sanctuaries,  one  greater  temple  at  Leontopolis,  with  a 
priesthood  whose  claim  to  "  valid  orders  "  was  much  better 
than  that  of  the  High  Priests  in  Jerusalem,  and  the  legitimacy 
of  whose  worship  is  admitted  even  by  the  Palestinian  rabbis. 

See  Bauclissin,  "  Hohendienst,"  Protestantische  Realencyklopadie3 
(viii.  177-195);  Hoonacker,  Le  Lieu  du  culte  dans  la  legislation 
rituelledes  Hebrew  (1894);  v.  Gall,  Altisraelilische  Kultstadte  (1898). 

HIGH  SEAS,  an  expression  in  international  law  meaning  all 
those  parts  of  the  sea  not  under  the  sovereignty  of  adjacent 
states.  Claims  have  at  times  been  made  to  exclusive  dominion 
over  large  areas  of  the  sea  as  well  as  over  wide  margins,  such  as  a 
100  m.,  60  m.,  range  of  vision,  &c.,  from  land.  The  action  and 
reaction  of  the  interests  of  navigation,  however,  have  brought 
states  to  adopt  a  limitation  first  enunciated  by  Bynkershoek 
in  the  formula  "  terrae  dominium  finitur  ubi  finitur  armorum 
vis."  Thenceforward  cannon-shot  range  became  the  determining 
factor  in  the  fixation  of  the  margin  of  sea  afterwards  known  as 
"  territorial  waters  "  (q.v.).  With  the  exception  of  these  terri- 
torial waters,  bays  of  certain  dimensions  and  inland  waters 
surrounded  by  territory  of  the  same  state,  and  serving  only  as 
a  means  of  access  to  ports  of  the  state  by  whose  territory  they 
are  surrounded,  and  some  waters  allowed  by  immemorial  usage 
to  rank  as  territorial,  all  seas  and  oceans  form  part  of  the  high 
sea.  The  usage  of  the  high  sea  is  free  to  all  the  nations  of  the 
world,  subject  only  to  such  restrictions  as  result  from  respect 
for  the  equal  rights  of  others,  and  to  those  which  nations  may 
contract  with  each  other  to  observe.  An  interesting  case 
affecting  land-locked  seas  was  that  of  the  Emperor  of  Japan 
v.  The  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Steam  Navigation  Company,  in 
which  a  collision  had  taken  place  in  the  inland  sea  of  Japan. 
The  British  Supreme  Court  at  Shanghai  declared  this  sea  to 
form  part  of  the  high  sea.  On  appeal  to  the  privy  council,  the 
appellants  were  successful.  Though  the  decision  of  the  Shanghai 
court  on  the  point  in  question  was  not  dealt  with  by  the  privy 
council,  Japan  continues  to  treat  her  inland  sea  as  under  her 
exclusive  jurisdiction.  (T.  BA.) 

HIGHWAY,  a  public  road  over  which  all  persons  have  full 
right  of  way — walking,  riding  or  driving.  Such  roads  in  England 
for  the  most  part  either  are  of  immemorial  antiquity  or  have  been 
created  under  the  authority  of  an  act  of  parliament.  But  a 
private  owner  may  create  a  highway  at  common  law  by  dedicat- 
ing the  soil  to  the  use  of  the  public  for  that  purpose;  and  the 
using  of  a  road  for  a  number  of  years,  without  interruption,  will 
support  the  presumption  that  the  soil  has  been  so  dedicated. 
At  common  law  the  parish  is  required  to  maintain  all  highways 
within  its  bounds;  but  by  special  custom  the  obligation  may 
attach  to  a  particular  township  or  district,  and  in  certain  cases 
the  owner  of  land  is  bound  by  the  conditions  of  his  holding  to 
keep  a  highway  in  repair.  Breach  of  the  obligation  is  treated 
as  a  criminal  offence,  and  is  prosecuted  by  indictment.  Bridges, 
on  the  other  hand,  and  so  much  of  the  highway  as  is  immediately 
connected  with  them,  are  as  a  general  rule  a  charge  on  the 
county;  and  by  22  Henry  VIII.  c.  5  the  obligation  of  the  county  is 
extended  to  300  yds.  of  the  highway  on  either  side  of  the  bridge. 
A  bridge,  like  a  highway,  may  be  a  burden  on  neighbouring  land 
ratione  tenurae.  Private  owners  so  burdened  may  sometimes 
claim  a  special  toll  from  passengers,  called  a  "  toll  traverse." 

Extensive  changes  in  the  English  law  of  highways  have  been 


made  by  various  highway  acts,  viz.  the  Highway  Act  1835,  and 
amending  acts  of  1862,  1864,  1878  and  1891.  The  leading 
principle  of  the  Highway  Act  1835  is  to  place  the  highways 
under  the  direction  of  parish  surveyors,  and  to  provide  for 
the  necessary  expenses  by  a  rate  levied  on  the  occupiers  of  land. 
It  is  the  duty  of  the  surveyor  to  keep  the  highways  in  repair;  and 
if  a  highway  is  out  of  repair,  the  surveyor  may  be  summoned 
before  justices  and  convicted  in  a  penalty  not  exceeding  £5, 
and  ordered  to  complete  the  repairs  within  a  limited  time. 
The  surveyor  is  likewise  specially  charged  with  the  removal 
of  nuisances  on  the  highway.  A  highway  nuisance  may  be  abated 
by  any  person,  and  may  be  made  the  subject  of  indictment  at 
common  law.  The  amending  acts,  while  not  interfering  with 
the  operation  of  the  principal  act,  authorize  the  creation  of 
highway  districts  on  a  larger  scale.  The  justices  of  a  county 
may  convert  it  or  any  portion  of  it  into  a  highway  district  to 
be  governed  by  a  highway  board,  the  powers  and  responsibilities 
of  which  will  be  the  same  as  those  of  the  parish  surveyor  under 
the  former  act.  The  board  consists  of  representatives  of  the 
various  parishes,  called  "  way  wardens "  together  with  the 
justices  for  the  county  residing  within  the  district.  Salaries 
and  similar  expenses  incurred  by  the  board  are  charged  on  a 
district  fund  to  which  the  several  parishes  contribute;  but  each 
parish  remains  separately  responsible  for  the  expenses  of  main- 
taining its  own  highways.  By  the  Local  Government  Act  1888 
the  entire  maintenance  of  main  roads  was  thrown  upon  county 
councils.  The  Public  Health  Act  1875  vested  the  powers  and 
duties  of  surveyors  of  highways  and  vestries  in  urban  authorities, 
while  the  Local  Government  Act  1894  transferred  to  the 
district  councils  of  every  rural  district  all  the  powers  of  rural 
sanitary  authorities  and  highway  authorities  (see  ENGLAND: 
Local  Government). 

The  Highway  Act  of  1835  specified  as  offences  for  which  the 
driver  of  a  carriage  on  the  public  highway  might  be  punished  by  a 
fine,  in  addition  to  any  civil  action  that  might  be  brought  against 
him — riding  upon  the  cart,  or  upon  any  horse  drawing  it,  and  not 
having  some  other  person  to  guide  it,  unless  there  be  some  person 
driving  it;  negligence  causing  damage  to  person  or  goods  being 
conveyed  on  the  highway;  quitting  his  cart,  or  leaving  control 
of  the  horses,  or  leaving  the  cart  so  as  to  be  an  obstruction  on  the 
highway;  not  having  the  owner's  name  painted  up;  refusing  to 
give  the  same;  and  not  keeping  on  the  left  or  near  side  of  the 
road,  when  meeting  any  other  carriage  or  horse.  This  rule  does 
not  apply  in  the  case  of  a  carriage  meeting  a  foot-passenger,  but 
a  driver  is  bound  to  use  due  care  to  avoid  driving  against  any 
person  crossing  the  highway  on  foot.  At  the  same  time  a 
passenger  crossing  the  highway  is  also  bound  to  use  due  care  in 
avoiding  vehicles,  and  the  mere  fact  of  a  driver  being  on  the 
wrong  side  of  the  road  would  not  be  evidence  of  negligence  in 
such  a  case. 

The  "  rule  of  the  road  "  given  above  is  peculiar  to  the  United 
Kingdom.  Cooley's  treatise  on  the  American  Law  of  Torts 
states  that  "  the  custom  of  the  country,  in  some  states  enacted 
into  statute  law,  requires  that  when  teams  approach  and  are 
about  to  pass  on  the  highway,  each  shall  keep  to  the  right  of  the 
centre  of  the  travelled  portion  of  the  road."  This  also  appears 
to  be  the  general  rule  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 

By  the  Lights  on  Vehicles  Act  1907,  all  vehicles  on  highways 
in  England  and  Wales  must  display  to  the  front  a  white  light 
during  the  period  between  one  hour  after  sunset  and  one  hour 
before  sunrise.  Locomotives  and  motor  cars,  being  dealt  with  by 
special  acts,  are  excluded  from  the  operation  of  the  act,  as  are 
bicycles  and  tricycles  (dealt  with  by  the  Local  Government  Act 
,  and  vehicles  drawn  or  propelled  by  hand,  but  every 


machine  or  implement  drawn  by  animals  comes  within  the  act. 
There  are  two  exceptions:  (i)  vehicles  carrying  inflammable 
goods  in  the  neighbourhood  of  places  where  inflammable  goods  are 
stored,  and  (2)  vehicles  engaged  in  harvesting.  The  public  have 
a  right  to  pass  along  a  highway  freely,  safely  and  conveniently, 
and  any  wrongful  act  or  omission  which  prevents  them  doing  so 
is  a  nuisance,  for  the  prevention  and  abatement  of  which  the 
highways  and  other  acts  contain  provisions.  Generally,  nuisance 


458 


HIGINBOTHAM— HILARIUS,  ST  (POITIERS) 


to  highway  may  be  caused  by  encroachment,  by  interfering  with 
the  soil  of  the  highway,  by  attracting  crowds,  by  creating 
danger  or  inconvenience  on  or  near  the  highway,  by  placing 
obstacles  on  the  highway,  by  unreasonable  user,  by  offences 
against  decency  and  good  order,  &c. 

The  use  of  locomotives,  motor  cars  and  other  vehicles  on  high- 
ways is  regulated  by  acts  of  1861-1903. 

Formerly  under  the  Turnpike  Acts  many  of  the  more  important 
highways  were  placed  under  the  management  of  boards  of 
commissioners  or  trustees.  The  trustees  were  required  and 
empowered  to  maintain,  repair  and  improve  the  roads  committed 
to  their  charge,  and  the  expenses  of  the  trust  were  met  by  tolls 
levied  on  persons  using  the  road.  The  various  grounds  of  exemp- 
tion from  toll  on  turnpike  roads  were  all  of  a  public  character, 
e.g.  horses  and  carriages  attending  the  sovereign  or  royal  family, 
or  used  by  soldiers  or  volunteers  in  uniform,  were  free  from  toll. 
In  general  horses  and  carriages  used  in  agricultural  work  were 
free  from  toll.  By  the  Highways  and  Locomotives  Act  of  1878 
disturnpiked  roads  became  "  main  roads."  Ordinary  highways 
might  be  declared  to  be  "  main  roads,"  and  "  main  roads  "  be 
reduced  to  the  status  of  ordinary  highways. 

In  Scotland  the  highway  system  is  regulated  by  the  Roads  and 
Bridges  Act  1878  and  amending  acts.  The  management  and 
maintenance  of  the  highways  and  bridges  is  vested  in  county 
road  trustees,  viz.  the  commissioners  of  supply,  certain  elected 
trustees  representing  ratepayers  in  parishes  and  others.  One  of 
the  consequences  of  the  act  was  the  abolition  of  tolls,  statute- 
labour,  causeway  mail  and  other  exactions  for  the  maintenance 
of  bridges  and  highways,  and  all  turnpike  roads  became  high- 
ways, and  all  highways  became  open  to  the  public  free  of  tolls 
and  other  exactions.  The  county  is  divided  into  districts  under 
district  committees,  and  county  and  district  officers  are  appointed. 
The  expenses  of  highway  management  in  each  district  (or  parish), 
together  with  a  proportion  of  the  general  expenses  of  the  act,  are 
levied  by  the  trustees  by  an  assessment  on  the  lands  and  heritages 
within  the  district  (or  parish). 

Highway,  in  the  law  of  the  states  of  the  American  Union, 
generally  means  a  lawful  public  road,  over  which  all  citizens  are 
allowed  to  pass  and  repass  on  foot,  on  horseback,  in  carriages  and 
waggons.  Sometimes  it  is  held  to  be  restricted  to  county  roads 
as  opposed  to  town-ways.  In  statutes  dealing  with  offences  con- 
nected with  the  highway,  such  as  gaming,  negligence  of  carriers, 
&c.,  "  highway  "  includes  navigable  rivers.  But  in  a  statute 
punishing  with  death  robbery  on  the  highway,  railways  were  held 
not  to  be  included  in  the  term.  In  one  case  it  has  been  held 
that  any  way  is  a  highway  which  has  been  used  as  such  for 
fifty  years. 

See  Glen,  Law  Relating  to  Highways;  Pratt,  Law  of  Highways, 
Main  Roads  and  Bridges. 

HIGINBOTHAM,  GEORGE  (1827-1893),  chief-justice  of 
Victoria,  Australia,  sixth  son  of  T.  Higinbotham  of  Dublin,  was 
born  on  the  igth  of  April  1827,  and  educated  at  the  Royal  School, 
Dungannon,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  After  entering  as  a 
law  student  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  being  engaged  as  reporter  on 
the  Morning  Chronicle  in  1849,  he  emigrated  to  Victoria,  where 
he  contributed  to  the  Melbourne  Herald  and  practised  at  the  bar 
(having  been  "  called  "  in  1853)  with  much  success.  In  1850  he 
became  editor  of  the  Melbourne  Argus,  but  resigned  in  1859  and 
returned  to  the  bar.  He  was  elected  to  the  legislative  assembly 
in  1861  for  Brighton  as  an  independent  Liberal,  was  rejected  at 
the  general  election  of  the  same  year,  but  was  returned  nine 
months  later.  In  1863  he  became  attorney-general.  Under  his 
influence  measures  were  passed  through  the  legislative  assembly 
of  a  somewhat  extreme  character,  completely  ignoring  the 
rights  of  the  legislative  council,  and  the  government  was 
carried  on 'without  any  Appropriation  Act  for  more  than  a  year. 
Mr  Higinbotham,  by  his  eloquence  and  earnestness,  obtained 
great  influence  amongst  the  members  of  the  legislative  assembly, 
but  his  colleagues  were  not  prepared  to  follow  him  as  far  as  he 
desired  to  go.  He  contended  that  in  a  constitutional  colony  like 
Victoria  the  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies  had  no  right  to 
fetter  the  discretion  of  the  queen's  representative.  Mr  Higin- 


botham did  not  return  to  power  with  his  chief,  Sir  James 
M'Culloch,  after  the  defeat  of  the  short-lived  Sladen  administra- 
tion; and  being  defeated  for  Brighton  at  the  next  general  election 
by  a  comparatively  unknown  man,  he  devoted  himself  to  his 
practice  at  the  bar.  Amongst  his  other  labours  as  attorney- 
general  he  had  codified  all  the  statutes  which  were  in  force 
throughout  the  colony.  In  1874  he  was  returned  to  the  legis- 
lative assembly  for  Brunswick,  but  after  a  few  months  he 
resigned  his  seat.  In  1880  he  was  appointed  a  puisne  judge  of  the 
supreme  court,  and  in  1886,  on  the  retirement  of  Sir  William 
Stawell,  he  was  promoted  to  the  office  of  chief  justice.  Mr 
Higinbotham  was  appointed  president  of  the  International 
Exhibition  held  at  Melbourne  in  1888-1889,  but  did  not  take  any 
active  part  in  its  management.  One  of  his  latest  public  acts  was 
to  subscribe  a  sum  of  £10,  los.  a  week  towards  the  funds  of  the 
strikers  in  the  great  Australian  labour  dispute  of  1890,  an  act 
which  did  not  meet  with  general  approval.  He  died  in  1893. 

HILARION,  ST  (c.  290-371),  abbot,  the  first  to  introduce  the 
monastic  system  into  Palestine.  The  chief  source  of  information 
is  a  life  written  by  St  Jerome;  it  was  based  upon  a  letter,  no 
longer  extant,  written  by  St  Epiphanius,  who  had  known 
Hilarion.  The  accounts  in  Sozomen  are  mainly  based  on 
Jerome's  Vila;  but  Otto  Zocker  has  shown  that  Sozomen  also 
had  at  his  disposal  authentic  local  traditions  (see  "  Hilarion  von 
Gaza  "  in  the  Neue  Jakrbucher  fur  deutsche  Theologie,  1894),  the 
most  important  study  on  Hilarion,  which  is  written  against  the 
hypercritical  school  of  Weingarten  and  shows  that  Hilarion  must 
be  accepted  as  an  historical  personage  and  the  Vita  as  a  sub- 
stantially correct  account  of  his  career.  He  was  born  of  heathen 
parents  at  Tabatha  near  Gaza  about  290;  he  was  sent  to 
Alexandria  for  his  education  and  there  became  a  convert  to 
Christianity;  about  306  he  visited  St  Anthony  and  became  his 
disciple,  embracing  the  eremitical  life.  He  returned  to  his 
native  place  and  for  many  years  lived  as  a  hermit  in  the  desert  by 
the  marshes  on  the  Egyptian  border.  Many  disciples  put  them- 
selves under  his  guidance;  but  his  influence  must  have  been 
limited  to  south  Palestine,  for  there  is  no  mention  of  him  in 
Palladius  or  Cassian.  In  356  he  left  Palestine  and  went  again  to 
Egypt;  but  the  accounts  given  in  the  Vita  of  his  travels  during 
the  last  fifteen  years  of  his  life  must  be  taken  with  extreme 
caution.  It  is  there  said  that  he  went  from  Egypt  to  Sicily, 
and  thence  to  Epidaurus,  and  finally  to  Cyprus  where  he  met 
Epiphanius  and  died  in  371. 

An  abridged  story  of  his  life  will  be  found  in  Alban  Butler's  Lives 
of  the  Saints,  on  the  2 1st  of  October,  and  a  critical  sketch  with  full 
references  in  Herzog-Hauck,  Realencyklopadie  (ed.  3).  (E.  C.  B.) 

HILARIUS  (HILARY1),  ST  (c.  300-367),  bishop  of  Pictavium 
(Poitiers),  an  eminent  "  doctor  "  of  the  Western  Church,  some- 
times referred  to  as  the  "  malleus  Arianorum  "  and  the  "  Athan- 
asius  of  the  West,"  was  born  at  Poitiers  about  the  end  of  the 
3rd  century  A.D.  His  parents  were  pagans  of  distinction.  He 
received  a  good  education,  including  what  had  even  then  become 
somewhat  rare  in  the  West,  some  knowledge  of  Greek.  He 
studied,  later  on,  the  Old  and  New  Testament  writings,  with 
the  result  that  he  abandoned  his  neo-platonism  for  Christianity, 
and  with  his  wife  and  his  daughter  received  the  sacrament  of 
baptism.  So  great  was  the  respect  in  which  he  was  held  by  the 
citizens  of  Poitiers  that  about  353,  although  still  a  married  man, 
he  was  unanimously  elected  bishop.  At  that  time  Arianism 
was  threatening  to  overrun  the  Western  Church;  to  repel  the 
irruption  was  the  great  task  which  Hilary  undertook.  One 
of  his  first  steps  was  to  secure  the  excommunication,  by  those 
of  the  Gallican  hierarchy  who  still  remained  orthodox,  of  Satur- 
ninus,  the  Arian  bishop  of  Aries  and  of  Ursacius  and  Valens,  two 
of  his  prominent  supporters.  About  the  same  time  he  wrote  to 
the  emperor  Constantius  a  remonstrance  against  the  persecutions 
by  which  the  Arians  had  sought  to  crush  their  opponents 
(Ad  Constantium  Augustum  liber  primus,  of  which  the  most 
probable  date  is  355).  His  efforts  were  not  at  first  success- 
ful, for  at  the  synod  of  Biterrae  (Beziers),  summoned  in  356  by 

>The  name  is  derived  from  Gr.  ZXap6s,  gay,  cheerful,  whence 
hilarious,  hilarity. 


HILARIUS— HILARIUS,  ST  (ARLES) 


Constantius  with  the  professed  purpose  of  settling  the  long- 
standing disputes,  Hilary  was  by  an  imperial  rescript  banished 
with  Rhodanus  of  Toulouse  to  Phrygia,  in  which  exile  he  spent 
nearly  four  years.  Thence,  however,  he  continued  to  govern 
his  diocese;  while  he  found  leisure  for  the  preparation  of  two 
of  the  most  important  of  his  contributions  to  dogmatic  and 
polemical  theology,  the  De  synodis  or  De  fide  Orientalium, 
an  epistle  addressed  in  358  to  the  Semi-Arian  bishops  in  Gaul, 
Germany  and  Britain,  expounding  the  true  views  (sometimes 
veiled  in  ambiguous  words  (of  the  Oriental  bishops  on  the 
Nicene  controversy,  and  the  De  trinitate  libri  xii.,1  com- 
posed in  359  and  360,  in  which,  for  the  first  time,  a  successful 
attempt  was  made  to  express  in  Latin  the  theological  subtleties 
elaborated  in  the  original  Greek.  The  former  of  these  works 
was  not  entirely  approved  by  some  members  of  his  own  party, 
who  thought  he  had  shown  too  great  forbearance  towards  the 
Arians;  to  their  criticisms  he  replied  in  the  Apologetica  ad 
reprehensores  libri  de  synodis  responsa.  In  359  Hilary  attended 
the  convocation  of  bishops  at  Seleucia  in  Isauria,  where,  with 
the  Egyptian  Athanasians,  he  joined  the  Homoiousian  majority 
against  the  Arianizing  party  headed  by  Acacius  of  Caesarea; 
thence  he  went  to  Constantinople,  and,  in  a  petition  (Ad  Con- 
stantium  Augustum  liber  secundus)  personally  presented  to  the 
emperor  in  360,  repudiated  the  calumnies  of  his  enemies  and  sought 
to  vindicate  his  trinitarian  principles.  His  urgent  and  repeated 
request  for  a  public  discussion  with  his  opponents,  especially 
with  Ursacius  and  Valens,  proved  at  last  so  inconvenient  that 
he  was  sent  back  to  his  diocese,  which  he  appears  to  have  reached 
about  361,  within  a  very  short  time  of  the  accession  of  Julian. 
He  was  occupied  for  two  or  three  years  in  combating  Arianism 
within  his  diocese;  but  in  364,  extending  his  efforts  once  more 
beyond  Gaul,  he  impeached  Auxentius,  bishop  of  Milan,  and  a 
man  high  in  the  imperial  favour,  as  heterodox.  Summoned  to 
appear  before  the  emperor  (Valentinian)  at  Milan  and  there 
maintain  his  charges,  Hilary  had  the  mortification  of  hearing 
the  supposed  heretic  give  satisfactory  answers  to  all  the  questions 
proposed;  nor  did  his  (doubtless  sincere)  denunciation  of  the 
metropolitan  as  a  hypocrite  save  himself  from  an  ignominious 
expulsion  from  Milan.  In  365  he  published  the  Contra  Arianos 
vel  Auxentium  Mediolanensem  liber,  in  connexion  with  the 
controversy;  and  also  (but  perhaps  at  a  somewhat  earlier  date) 
the  Contra  Conslantium  Augustum  liber,  in  which  he  pronounced 
that  lately  deceased  emperor  to  have  been  Antichrist,  a  rebel 
against  God,  "  a  tyrant  whose  sole  object  had  been  to  make 
a  gift  to  the  devil  of  that  world  for  which  Christ  had  suffered." 
Hilary  is  sometimes  regarded  as  the  first  Latin  Christian  hymn- 
writer,  but  none  of  the  compositions  assigned  to  him  is  indis- 
putable. The  later  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  comparative 
quiet,  devoted  in  part  to  the  preparation  of  his  expositions  of 
the  Psalms  (Tractatus  super  Psalmos),  for  which  he  was  largely 
indebted  to  Origen;  of  his  Commentarius  in  Evangelium  Mat- 
thaei,  a  work  on  allegorical  lines  of  no  exegetical  value;  and  of 
his  no  longer  extant  translation  of  Origen's  commentary  on  Job. 
While  he  thus  closely  followed  the  two  great  Alexandrians, 
Origen  and  Athanasius,  in  exegesis  and  Christology  respectively, 
his  work  shows  many  traces  of  vigorous  independent  thought. 
He  died  in  367;  no  more  exact  date  is  trustworthy.  He  holds 
the  highest  rank  among  the  Latin  writers  of  his  century.  Desig- 
nated already  by  Augustine  as  "  the  illustrious  doctor  of  the 
churches,"  he  by  his  works  exerted  an  increasing  influence  in 
later  centuries;  and  by  Pius  IX.  he  was  formally  recognized 
as  "  universae  ecclesiae  doctor  "  at  the  synod  of  Bordeaux 
in  1851.  Hilary's  day  in  the  Roman  calendar  is  the  i3th  of 
January.2 

1  Hilary's  own  title  was  De  fide  contra  Arianos.  It  really  deals 
less  with  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  than  with  that  of  the  Incarnation. 
That  it  is  not  an  easy  work  to  read  is  due  partly  to  the  nature  of 
the  subject,  partly  to  the  fact  that  it  was  issued  in  detached  portions. 
"  Hilary  "  was  the  name  of  one  of  the  four  terms  of  the  English 
legal  year.  These  terms  were  abolished  by  the  Judicature  Act, 
1873,  s.  26,  and  "  sittings  "  substituted.  It  is  now  the  name  of  the 
sitting  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature  which  commences  on 
the  nth  of  January  and  terminates  on  the  Wednesday  before 


459 

EDITIONS. — Erasmus  (Basel,  1523,  1526,  1528);  P.  Constant 
(Benedictine,  Paris,  1693);  Migne  (Patrol.  Lai.  ix.,x.).  The  Tractatus 
de  mysteriis,  ed.  J.  F.  Gamurrini  (Rome,  1887),  and  the  Tractatus 
sufer  Psalmos,  ed.  A.  Zingerle  in  the  Vienna  Corpus  scrip,  eccl.  Lat. 
xxii.  Translation  by  E.  W.  Watson  in  Nicene  and  Post-Nicene 
Fathers,  ix. 

LITERATURE. — The  life  by  (Venantius)  Fortunatus  c.  550  is  almost 
worthless.  More  trustworthy  are  the  notices  in  Jerome  (De  vir. 
illus.  too),  Sulpicius  Severus  (Chron.  ii.  39-45)  and  in  Hilary's  own 
writings.  H.  Reinkens,  Hilarius  von  Poicliers  (1864);  O.  Barden- 
hewer,  Patrologie ;  A.  Harnack,  Hist,  of  Dogma,  esp.  vol.  iv. ;  F. 
Loofs,  in  Herzog-Hauck's  Realencyk.  viii. 

HILARIUS,  or  HILARUS  (HILARY),  bishop  of  Rome  from 
461  to  468,  is  known  to  have  been  a  deacon  and  to  have  acted 
as  legate  of  Leo  the  Great  at  the  "  robber  "  synod  of  Ephesus 
in  449.  There  he  so  vigorously  defended  the  conduct  of  Flavian 
in  deposing  Eutyches  that  he  was  thrown  into  prison,  whence 
he  had  great  difficulty  in  making  his  escape  to  Rome.  He  was 
chosen  to  succeed  Leo  on  the  igth  of  November  461.  In  465 
he  held  at  Rome  a  council  which  put  a  stop  to  some  abuses, 
particularly  to  that  of  bishops  appointing  their  own  successors. 
His  pontificate  was  also  marked  by  a  successful  encroachment 
of  the  papal  authority  on  the  metropolitan  rights  of  the  French 
and  Spanish  hierarchy,  and  by  a  resistance  to  the  toleration 
edict  of  Anthemius,  which  ultimately  caused  it  to  be  recalled. 
Hilarius  died  on  the  i;th  of  November  467,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Simplicius. 

HILARIUS  (fl.  1125),  a  Latin  poet  who  is  supposed  to  have 
been  an  Englishman.  He  was  one  of  the  pupils  of  Abelard  at  his 
oratory  of  Paraclete,  and  addressed  to  him  a  copy  of  verses 
with  its  refrain  in  the  vulgar  tongue,  "  Tort  avers  vos  li  mestre," 
Abelard  having  threatened  to  discontinue  his  teaching  because 
of  certain  reports  made  by  his  servant  about  the  conduct  of  the 
scholars.  Later  Hilarius  made  his  way  to  Angers.  His  poems 
are  contained  in  MS.supp.  lat.  1008  of  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale, 
Paris,  purchased  in  1837  at  the  sale  of  M.  de  Rosny.  Quotations 
from  this  MS.  had  appeared  before,  but  in  1838  it  was  edited  by 
Champollion  Figeac  as  Hilarii  versus  et  ludi.  His  works  consist 
chiefly  of  light  verses  of  the  goliardic  type.  There  are  verses 
addressed  to  an  English  nun  named  Eva,  lines  to  Rosa,  "  Aiie 
splendor  puellarum,  generosa  domina,"  and  another  poem 
describes  the  beauties  of  the  priory  of  Chaloutre  la  Petite,  in  the 
diocese  of  Sens,  of  which  the  writer  was  then  an  inmate.  One 
copy  of  satirical  verses  seems  to  aim  at  the  pope  himself.  He 
also  wrote  three  miracle  plays  in  rhymed  Latin  with  an  ad- 
mixture of  French.  Two  of  them,  Suscitatio  Lazari  and  Historia 
de  Daniel  repraesentanda,  are  of  purely  liturgical  type.  At  the 
end  of  Lazarus  is  a  stage  direction  to  the  effect  that  if  the  per- 
formance has  been  given  at  matins,  Lazarus  should  proceed  with 
the  Te  Deum,  if  at  vespers,  with  the  Magnificat.  The  third, 
Ludus  super  iconia  Sancti  Nicholai,  is  founded  on  a  sufficiently 
foolish  legend.  Petit  de  Julleville  sees  in  the  play  a  satiric 
intention  and  a  veiled  incredulity  that  put  the  piece  outside 
the  category  of  liturgical  drama. 

A  rhymed  Latin  account  of  a  dispute  in  which  the  nuns  of  Ronceray 
at  Angers  were  concerned,  contained  in  a  cartulary  of  Ronceray, 
is  also  ascribed  to  the  poet,  who  there  calls  himself  Hilarius 
Canonicus.  The  poem  is  printed  in  the  Bibliotheque  de  I'&ole  des 
Charles  (vol.  xxxvh.  1876),  and  is  dated  by  P.  Marchegay  from  II2I. 
See  also  a  notice  in  Hist.  lilt,  de  la  France  (xii.  251-254),  sup- 
plemented (in  xx.  627-630),  s.v.  Jean  Bpdel,  by  Paulin  Paris; 
also  Wright,  Biographm  Britannica  literaria,  Anglo-Norman  Period 
(1846);  and  Petit  de  Julleville,  Les  Mysteres  (vol.  i.  1880). 

HILARIUS  (HILARY),  ST  (c.  403-449),  bishop  of  Aries,  was 
born  about  403.  In  early  youth  he  entered  the  abbey  of  Lerins, 
then  presided  over  by  his  kinsman  Honoratus  (St  Honore),  and 
succeeded  Honoratus  in  the  bishopric  of  Aries  in  429.  Following 
the  example  of  St  Augustine,  he  is  said  to  have  organized  his 
cathedral  clergy  into  a  "  congregation,"  devoting  a  great  part  of 
their  time  to  social  exercises  of  ascetic  religion.  He  held  the 
rank  of  metropolitan  of  Vienne  and  Narbonne,  and  attempted 
to  realize  the  sort  of  primacy  over  the  church  of  south  Gaul 

Easter.  In  the  Inns  of  Court,  Hilary  is  one  of  the  four  dining 
terms;  it  begins  on  the  nth  of  January  and  ends  on  the  1st  of 
February.  It  is  also  the  name  of  one  of  the  terms  at  the  universities 
of  Oxford  (more  usually  "  Lent  term  ")  and  Dublin. 


460 


HILDA,  ST— HILDEBRAND,  LAY  OF 


which  seemed  implied  in  the  vicariate  granted  to  his  predecessor 
Patroclus  (417).  Hilarius  deposed  the  bishop  of  Besan^on 
(Chelidonus),  for  ignoring  this  primacy,  and  for  claiming  a 
metropolitan  dignity  for  Besanfon.  An  appeal  was  made  to 
Rome,  and  Leo  I.  used  it  to  extinguish  the  Gallican  vicariate 
(A.D.  444).  Hilarius  was  deprived  of  his  rights  as  metropolitan 
to  consecrate  bishops,  call  synods,  or  exercise  ecclesiastical  over- 
sight in  the  province,  and  the  pope  secured  the  edict  of  Valen- 
tinian  III.,  so  important  in  the  history  of  the  Gallican  church, 
"  ut  episcopis  Gallicanis  omnibusque  pro  lege  esset  quidquid 
apostolicae  sedis  auctoritas  sanxisset."  The  papal  claims  were 
made  imperial  law,  and  violation  of  them  subject  to  legal 
penalties  (Novellae  Valent.  iii.  tit.  16).  Hilarius  died  in  449,  and 
his  name  was  afterwards  introduced  into  the  Roman  martyro- 
logy  for  commemoration  on  the  5th  of  May.  He  enjoyed  during 
his  lifetime  a  high  reputation  for  learning  and  eloquence  as  well 
as  for  piety;  his  extant  works  (Vita  S.  Honorati  Arelatensis 
episcopi  and  Melrum  in  Genesin)  compare  favourably  with  any 
similar  literary  productions  of  that  period. 

A  poem,  De  providentia,  usually  included  among  the  writings  of 
Prosper,  is  sometimes  attributed  to  Hilary  of  Aries. 

HILDA,  ST,  strictly  HILD  (614-680),  was  the  daughter  of 
Hererrc,  a  nephew  of  Edwin,  king  of  Northumbria.  She  was 
converted  to  Christianity  before  633  by  the  preaching  of  Paulinus. 
According  to  Bede  she  took  the  veil  in  614,  when  Oswio  was  king 
of  Northumbria  and  Aidan  bishop  of  Lindisfarne,  and  spent  a 
year  in  East  Anglia,  where  her  sister  Hereswith  had  married 
^Ethelhere,  who  was  to  succeed  his  brother  Anna,  the  reigning 
king.  In  648  or  649  Hilda  was  recalled  to  Northumbria  by 
Aidan,  and  lived  for  a  year  in  a  small  monastic  community  north 
of  the  Wear.  She  then  succeeded  Heiu,  the  foundress,  as  abbess 
of  Hartlepool,  where  she  remained  several  years.  From  Hartle- 
pool  Hilda  moved  to  Whitby,  where  in  657  she  founded  the 
famous  double  monastery  which  in  the  time  of  the  first  abbess 
included  among  its  members  five  future  bishops,  Bosa,  JElta., 
Oftfor,  John  and  Wilfrid  II.  as  well  as  the  poet  Caedmon.  Hilda 
exercised  great  influence  in  Northumbria,  and  ecclesiastics  from 
all  over  Christian  England  and  from  Strathclyde  and  Dalriada 
visited  her  monastery.  In  655  after  the  battle  of  Winwa^d 
Oswio  entrusted  his  daughter  ^Elfled  to  Hilda,  with  whom  she 
went  to  Whitby.  At  the  synod  of  Whitby  in  664  Hilda  sided 
with  Colman  and  Cedd  against  Wilfrid.  In  spite  of  the  defeat  of 
the  Celtic  party  she  remained  hostile  to  Wilfrid  until  679  at  any 
rate.  Hilda  died  in  680  after  a  painful  illness  lasting  for  seven 
years. 

See  Bede,  Hist.  eccl.  (ed.  C.  Plummer,  Oxford,  1869),  iii.  24,  25, 
iv.  23;  Eddius,  Vita  Wilfridi  (Raine,  Historians  of  Church  of  York, 
Rolls  Series,  vol.  i.,  1879),  c.  liv. 

HILDBUR6HAUSEN,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  duchy  of 
Saxe-Meiningen,  situated  in  a  wide  and  fruitful  valley  on  the 
river  Werra,  19  m.  S.E.  of  Meiningen,  on  the  railway  Eisenach- 
Lichtenfels.  Pop.  (1905)  7456.  The  principal  buildings  are  a 
ducal  palace,  erected  1685-1695,  now  used  as  barracks,  with  a 
park  in  which  there  is  a  monument  to  Queen  Louisa  of  Prussia, 
the  old  town  hall,  two  Evangelical  and  a  Roman  Catholic  church 
and  a  theatre.  A  technical  college  occupies  the  premises  in 
which  Meyer's  Bibliographisches  Institut  carried  on  business 
from  1828,  when  it  removed  hither  from  Gotha,  until  1874,  when 
it  was  transferred  to  Leipzig.  A  monument  has  been  erected  to 
those  citizens  who  died  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War  of  1870-71. 
The  manufactures  include  linen  fabrics,  cloth,  toys,  buttons, 
optical  instruments,  agricultural  machines,  knives,  mineral 
waters,  condensed  soups  and  condensed  milk.  Hildburghausen 
(in  records  Hilpershusia  and  Villa  Hilperti)  belonged  in  the  I3th 
century  to  the  counts  of  Henneberg,  from  whom  it  passed  to  the 
landgraves  of  Thuringia  and  then  to  the  dukes  of  Saxony.  In 
1683  it  became  the  capital  of  a  principality  which  in  1826  was 
united  to  Saxe-Meiningen.  ' 

See  R.  A.  Human,  Chronik  der  Stadt  Hildburghausen  (Hildburg- 
hausen, 1888). 

HILDE6ERT,  HYDALBERT,  GILDEBERT  or  ALDEBERT  (c. 
1055-1133),  French  writer  and  ecclesiastic,  was  born  of  poor 
parents  at  Lavardin,  near  Vend&me,  and  was  intended  for  the 


church.  He  was  probably  a  pupil  of  Berengarius  of  Tours,  and 
became  master  (scholasticus)  of  the  school  at  Le  Mans;  in  1091 
he  was  made  archdeacon  and  in  1096  bishop  of  Le  Mans.  He 
had  to  face  the  hostility  of  a  section  of  his  clergy  and  also  of  the 
English  king,  William  II.,  who  captured  Le  Mans  and  carried  the 
bishop  with  him  to  England  for  about  a  year.  Hildebert  then 
travelled  to  Rome  and  sought  permission  to  resign  his  bishopric, 
which  Pope  Paschal  II.  refused.  In  1116  his  diocese  was  thrown 
into  great  confusion  owing  to  the  preaching  of  Henry  of 
Lausanne,  who  was  denouncing  the  higher  clergy,  especially  the 
bishop.  Hildebert  compelled  him  to  leave  the  neighbourhood  of 
Le  Mans,  but  the  effects  of  his  preaching  remained.  In  1125 
Hildebert  was  translated  very  unwillingly  to  the  archbishopric  of 
Tours,  and  there  he  came  into  conflict  with  the  French  king 
Louis  VI.  about  the  rights  of  ecclesiastical  patronage  and  with 
the  bishop  of  Dol  about  the  authority  of  his  see  in  Brittany.  He 
presided  over  the  synod  of  Nantes,  and  died  at  Tours  probably  on 
the  i8th  of  December  1133.  Hildebert,  who  built  part  of  the 
cathedral  at  Le  Mans,  has  received  from  some 'writers  the  title  of 
saint,  but  there  appears  to  be  no  authority  for  this.  He  was  not 
a  man  of  very  strict  life;  his  contemporaries,  however,  had  a 
very  high  opinion  of  him  and  he  was  called  egregius  vcrsificator. 

The  extant  writings  of  Hildebert  consist  of  letters,  poems, 
a  few  sermons,  two  lives  and  one  or  two  treatises.  An  edition 
of  his  works  prepared  by  the  Maurist,  Antoine  Beaugendre, 
and  entitled  Venerabilis  Hildeberti,  primo  Cenomannensis 
episcopi,  deinde  Turonensis  archiepiscopi,  opera  tarn  edila  qttam 
inedita,  was  published  in  Paris  in  1708  and  was  reprinted  with 
additions  by  J.  J.  Bourasse  in  1854.  These  editions,  however, 
are  very  faulty.  They  credit  Hildebert  with  numerous  writings 
which  are  the  work  of  others,  while  some  genuine  writings  ate 
omitted.  The  revelation  of  this  fact  has  affected  Hildebert's 
position  in  the  history  of  medieval  thought.  His  standing  as 
a  philosopher  rested  upon  his  supposed  authorship  of  the  im- 
portant Tractatus  Iheologicus;  but  this  is  now  regarded  as  the 
work  of  Hugh  of  St  Victor,  and  consequently  Hildebert  can 
hardly  be  counted  among  the  philosophers.  His  genuine 
writings  include  many  letters.  These  Epistolae  enjoyed  great 
popularity  in  the  i2th  and  i3th  centuries,  and  were  frequently 
used  as  classics  in  the  schools  of  France  and  Italy.  Those  which 
concern  the  struggle  between  the  emperor  Henry  V.  and  Pope 
Paschal  II.  have  been  edited  by  E.  Sackur  and  printed  in  the 
Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.  Libelli  de  lite  ii.  (1893).  His 
poems,  which  deal  with  various  subjects,  are  disfigured  by  many 
defects  of  style  and  metre,  but  they  too  were  very  popular. 
Hildebert  attained  celebrity  also  as  a  preacher  both  in  French 
and  Latin,  but  only  a  few  of  his  sermons  are  in  existence,  most 
of  the  144  attributed  to  him  by  his  editors  being  the  work  of 
Peter  Lombard  and  others.  The  Vitae  written  by  Hildebert 
are  the  lives  of  Hugo,  abbot  of  Cluny,  and  of  St  Radegunda. 
Undoubtedly  genuine  is  also  his  Liber  de  querimonia  et  conflictn 
carnis  et  spiritus  seu  animae.  Hildebert  was  an  excellent  Latin 
scholar,  being  acquainted  with  Cicero,  Ovid  and  other  authors, 
and  his  spirit  is  rather  that  of  a  pagan  than  of  a  Christian  writer. 

See  B.  Haur6au,  Les  Melanges  poetiques  d'Hildebert  de  Lavardin 
(Paris,  1882),  and  Notices  et  exlraits  de  quelques  manuscrits  latins  de 
la  Bibliotheque  nationale  (Paris,  1890-1893);  Comte  P.  de  D6ser- 
villers,  Un  EveqM  au  XII'  siecle,  Hildebert  et  son  temps  (Paris,  1876) ; 
E.  A.  Freeman,  The  Reign  of  Rufus,  vol.  ii.  (Oxford,  1882);  tome  xi. 
of  the  Histoire  litteraire  de  la  France,  and  H.  Bohmer  in  Band  viii. 
of  Herzog-Hauck's  Realencyklopddie  (1900).  The  most  important 
work,  however,  to  be  consulted  is  L.  Dieudonne^s  Hildebert  de 
Lavardin,  eveque  du  Mans,  archeveque  de  Tours.  Sa  vie,  ses  lettres 
(Paris,  1898). 

HILDEBRAND,  LAY  OF  (Das  HUdebrandslied) ,  a  unique 
example  of  'Old  German  alliterative  poetry,  written  about  the 
year  800  on  the  first  and  last  pages  of  a  theological  manuscript, 
by  two  monks  of  the  monastery  of  Fulda.  The  fragment,  or 
rather  fragments,  only  extend  to  sixty-eight  lines,  and  the 
conclusion  of  the  poem  is  wanting.  The  theory  propounded  by 
Karl  Lachmann,  that  the  poem  had  been  written  in  its  present 
form  from  memory,  has  been  discredited  by  later  philological 
investigation;  it  is  clearly  a  transcript  of  an  older  original, 


HILDEBRANDT,  E.— HILDEGARD,  ST 


461 


which  the  copyists — or  more  probably  the  writer  to  whom  we 
owe  the  older  version — imperfectly  understood.  The  language 
of  the  poem  shows  a  curious  mixture  of  Low  and  High  German 
forms;  as  the  High  German  elements  point  to  the  dialect  of 
Fulda,  the  inference  is  that  the  copyists  were  reproducing  an 
originally  Low  German  lay  in  the  form  in  which  it  was  sung  in 
Franconia. 

The  fragment  is  mainly  taken  up  with  a  dialogue  between 
Hildebrand  and  his  son  Hadubrand.  When  Hildebrand  followed 
his  master,  Theodoric  the  Great,  who  was  fleeing  eastwards 
before  Odoacer,  he  left  his  young  wife  and  an  infant  child  behind 
him.  At  his  return  to  his  old  home,  after  thirty  years'  absence 
among  the  Huns,  he  is  met  by  a  young  warrior  and  challenged 
to  single  combat.  Before  the  fight  begins,  Hildebrand  asks 
for  tie  name  of  his  opponent,  and  discovering  his  own  son  in  him, 
tries  to  avert  the  fight,  but  in  vain;  Hadubrand  only  regards 
the  old  man's  words  as  the  excuse  of  cowardice.  "  In  sharp 
showers  the  ashen  spears  fall  on  the  shields,  and  then  the  warriors 
seize  their  swords  and  hew  vigorously  at  the  white  shields  until 
these  are  beaten  to  pieces.  ..."  With  these  words  the  frag- 
ment breaks  off  abruptly,  giving  no  clue  as  to  the  issue  of  the 
combat.  There  is  little  doubt,  however,  that,  as  in  the  Old 
Norse  Asmundar  saga,  where  the  tale  is  alluded  to,  the  fight 
must  have  been  fatal  to  Hadubrand.  But  in  the  later  traditions, 
both  of  the  Old  Norse  Thidreks  saga  (i3th  century),  and  the 
so-called  Jungere  Hildebrandslied — a  German  popular  lay, 
preserved  in  several  versions  from  the  15th  to  the  iyth  century — 
Hadubrand  is  simply  represented  as  defeated,  and  obliged  to 
recognize  his  father.  The  Old  High  German  Hildebrandslied 
is  dramatically  conceived,  and  written  in  a  terse,  vigorous 
style;  it  is  the  only  remnant  that  has  come  down  from  early 
Germanic  times  of  an  undoubtedly  extensive  ballad  literature, 
dealing  with  the  national  sagas. 

The  MS.  of  the  Hildebrandslied,  originally  in  Fulda,  is  now  pre- 
served in  the  Landesbibliothek  at  Cassel.  The  literature  on  the 
poem  will  be  found  most  conveniently  in  K.  Miillenhoff  and  W. 
Scherer,  Denkmdler  deutscher  Poesie  und  Prosa  cms  dem  VIII.  bis 
XI.  Jahrh.,  3rd  ed.  (1892),  and  in  W.  Braune,  Althochdeutsches 
Lesebuch,  5th  ed.  (1902),  to  which  authorities  the  reader  is  referred 
for  a  critical  text.  The  poem  was  discovered  and  first  printed  (as 
prost)  by  J.  G.  von  Eckhart,  Commentarii  de  rebus  Franciae  orientalis 
(1729),  i.  864  ff.;  the  first  scholarly  edition  was  that  of  the 
brothers  Grimm  (1812).  Facsimile  reproductions  of  the  MS.  have 
been  published  by  W.  Grimm  (1830),  E.  Sievers  (1872),  G.  Konnecke 
in  his  Bilderatlas  (1887;  2nd  ed.,  1895)  and  M.  Enneccerus  (1897). 
See  also  K.  Lachmann,  Uber  das  Hildebrandslied  (1833)  in  Kleine 
Schriften,  i.  407  ff. ;  C.  W.  M  .  Grein,  Das  Hildebrandslied 
(1858;  2-nd  ed.,  1880);  O.  Schroder,  Bemerkungen  zum  Hilde- 
brandslied (1880);  H.  Mbller,  Zur  althochdeutschen  Alliterationspoesie 
(1888);  R.  Heinzel,  Uber  die  ostgotische  Heldensage  (1889);  B.  Busse, 
"  Sagengeschichtliches  zum  Hildebrandslied,"  in  Paul  und  Braune's 
Beitrdge,  xxvi.  (1901),  pp.  I  ff. ;  R.  Koegel,  Geschichte  der  deutschen 
Literatur  bis  zum  Ausgang  des  Mittelalters,  i.  (1894),  pp.  210  ff. ; 
and  R.  Koegel  and  W.  Bruckner,  in  Paul's  Crundriss  der  germanischen 
Philologie,  2nd  ed.,  ii.  (1901),  pp.  71  ff.  (J.  G.  R.) 

HILDEBRANDT,  EDUARD  (1818-1868),  German  painter, 
was  born  in  1818,  and  served  as  apprentice  to  his  father,  a 
house-painter  at  Danzig.  He  was  not  twenty  when  he  came 
to  Berlin,  where  he  was  taken  in  hand  by  Wilhelm  Krause,  a 
painter  of  sea  pieces.  Several  early  pieces  exhibited  after  his 
death — a  breakwater,  dated  1838,  ships  in  a  breeze  off  Swine- 
miinde  (1840),  and  other  canvases  of  this  and  the  following 
year — show  Hildebrandt  to  have  been  a  careful  student  of  nature, 
with  inborn  talents  kept  down  by  the  conventionalisms  of  the 
formal  school  to  which  Krause  belonged.  Accident  made  him 
acquainted  with  masterpieces  of  French  art  displayed  at  the 
Berlin  Academy,  and  these  awakened  his  curiosity  and  envy. 
He  went  to  Paris,  where,  about  1842,  he  entered  the  atelier  of 
Isabey  and  became  the  companion  of  Lepoittevin.  In  a  short 
time  he  sent  home  pictures  which  might  have  been  taken  for 
copies  from  these  artists.  Gradually  he  mastered  the  mysteries 
of  touch  and  the  secrets  of  effect  in  which  the  French  at  this 
period  excelled.  He  also  acquired  the  necessary  skill  in  painting 
figures,  and  returned  to  Germany,  skilled  in  the  rendering  of 
many  kinds  of  landscape  forms.  His  pictures  of  French  street 
life,  done  about  1843,  while  impressed  with  the  stamp  of  the 


Paris  school,  reveal  a  spirit  eager  for  novelty,  quick  at  grasping, 
equally  quick  at  rendering,  momentary  changes  of  tone  and 
atmosphere.  After  1843  Hildebrandt,  under  the  influence  of 
Humboldt,  extended  his  travels,  and  in  1864-1865  he  went  round 
the  world.  Whilst  his  experience  became  enlarged  his  powers 
of  concentration  broke  down.  He  lost  the  taste  for  detail  in 
seeking  for  scenic  breadth,  and  a  fatal  facility  of  hand  diminished 
the  value  of  his  works  for  all  those  who  look  for  composition 
and  harmony  of  hue  as  necessary  concomitants  of  tone  and 
touch.  In  oil  he  gradually  produced  less,  in  water  colours 
more,  than  at  first,  and  his  fame  must  rest  on  the  sketches 
which  he  made  in  the  latter  form,  many  of  them  represented  by 
chromo-lithography.  Fantasies  in  red,  yellow  and  opal,  sunset, 
sunrise  and  moonshine,  distances  of  hundreds  of  miles  like  those 
of  the  Andes  and  the  Himalaya,  narrow  streets  in  the  bazaars 
of  Cairo  or  Suez,  panoramas  as  seen  from  mastheads,  wide 
cities  like  Bombay  or  Pekin,  narrow  strips  of  desert  with  measure- 
less expanses  of  sky — all  alike  display  his  quality  of  bravura. 
.Hildebrandt  died  at  Berlin  on  the  25th  of  October  1868. 

HILDEBRANDT,  THEODOR  (1804-1874),  German  painter, 
was  born  at  Stettin.  He  was  a  disciple  of  the  painter  Schadow, 
and,  on  Schadow's  appointment  to  the  presidency  of  a  new 
academy  in  the  Rhenish  provinces  in  1828,  followed  that  master 
to  Dusseldorf.  Hildebrandt  began  by  painting  pictures  illustra- 
tive of  Goethe  and  Shakespeare;  but  in  this  form  he  followed 
the  traditions  of  the  stage  rather  than  the  laws  of  nature.  He 
produced  rapidly  "  Faust  and  Mephistopheles  "  (1824),  "  Faust 
and  Margaret  "  (1825),  and  "  Lear  and  Cordelia  "  (1828).  He 
visited  the  Netherlands  with  Schadow  in  1829,  and  wandered 
alone  in  1830  to  Italy;  but  travel  did  not  alter  his  style,  though 
it  led  him  to  cultivate  alternately  eclecticism  and  realism. 
At  Dusseldorf,  about  1830,  he  produced  "  Romeo  and  Juliet," 
"  Tancred  and  Clorinda,"  and  other  works  which  deserved 
to  be  classed  with  earlier  paintings;  but  during  the  same  period 
he  exhibited  (1829)  the  "  Robber  "  and  (1832)  the  "  Captain 
and  his  Infant  Son,"  examples  of  an  affected  but  kindly  realism 
which  captivated  the  public,  and  marked  to  a  certain  extent 
an  epoch  in  Prussian  art.  The  picture  which  made  Hildebrandt's 
fame  is  the  "  Murder  of  the  Children  of  King  Edward  "  (1836), 
of  which  the  original,  afterwards  frequently  copied,  still  belongs 
to  the  Spiegel  collection  at  Halberstadt.  Comparatively  late 
in  life  Hildebrandt  tried  his  powers  as  an  historical  painter  in 
pictures  representing  Wolsey  and  Henry  VIII.,  but  he  lapsed 
again  into  the  romantic  in  "  Othello  and  Desdemona."  After 
1847  Hildebrandt  gave  himself  up  to  portrait-painting,  and  in 
that  branch  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  large  practice.  He  died 
at  Dusseldorf  in  1874. 

HILDEGARD,  ST  (1098-1179),  German  abbess  and  mystic, 
was  born  of  noble  parents  at  Bockelheim,  in  the  countship  of 
Sponheim,  in  1098,  and  from  her  eighth  year  was  educated  at 
the  Benedictine  cloister  of  Disibodenberg  by  Jutta,  sister  of 
the  count  of  Sponheim,  whom  she  succeeded  as  abbess  in  1136. 
From  earliest  childhood  she  was  accustomed  to  see  visions, 
which  increased  in  frequency  and  vividness  as  she  approached 
the  age  of  womanhood;  these,  however,  she  for  many  years 
kept  almost  secret,  nor  was  it  until  she  had  reached  her  forty- 
third  year  (1141)  that  she  felt  constrained  to  divulge  them. 
Committed  to  writing  by  her  intimate  friend  the  monk  Godef  ridus, 
they  now  form  the  first  and  most  important  of  her  printed 
works,  entitled  Scivias  (probably  an  abbreviation  for  "  sciens 
vias  "  or  "  nosce  vias  Domini  ")  5.  visionum  et  revelatiomim 
libri  Hi.,  and  completed  in  1151.  In  1147  St  Bernard  of 
Clairvaux,  while  at  Bingen  preaching  the  new  crusade,  heard 
of  Hildegard's  revelations,  and  became  so  convinced  of  their 
reality  that  he  not  only  wrote  to  her  a  letter  cordially  acknow- 
ledging her  as  a  prophetess  of  God,  but  also  successfully  advocated 
her  recognition  as  such  by  his  friend  and  former  pupil  Pope 
Eugenius  III.  in  the  synod  of  Treves  (1148).  In  the  same 
year  Hildegard  migrated  along  with  eighteen  of  her  nuns  to 
a  new  convent  on  the  Rupertsberg  near  Bingen,  over  which 
she  presided  during  the  remainder  of  her  life.  By  means  of 
voluminous  correspondence,  as  well  as  by  extensive  journeys. 


462 


HILDEN— HILDESHEIM 


in  the  course  of  which  she  was  unwearied  in  the  exercise  of 
her  gift  of  prophecy,  she  wielded  for  many  years  an  increasing 
influence  upon  her  contemporaries — an  influence  doubtless 
due  to  the  fact  that  she  was  imbued  with  the  most  widely 
diffused  feelings  and  beliefs,  fears  and  hopes,  of  her  time. 
Amongst  her  correspondents  were  Popes  Anastasius  IV.  and 
Adrian  IV.,  the  emperors  Conrad  III.  and  Frederick  I.,  and 
also  the  theologian  Guibert  of  Gembloux,  who  submitted 
numerous  questions  in  dogmatic  theology  for  her  determination. 
She  died  in  1179,  but  has  never  been  canonized;  her  name, 
however,  was  received  into  the  Roman  martyrology  in  the 
1 5th  century,  September  I7th  being  the  day  fixed  for  her 
commemoration. 

Her  biography,  which  was  written  by  two  contemporaries,  Gode- 
fridus  and  Theddoricus,  was  first  printed  at  Cologne  in  1566. 
Hildegard's  writings,  besides  the  Scivias  already  mentioned  and 
first  printed  in  Paris  in  1513,  include  the  Liber  divinorum  operum, 
Explanatio  regulae  S.  Benedicti,  Physica  and  the  Letters,  &c.,  are 
contained  in  Migne,  Pair.  Lat.  t.  cxcvii.,  and  in  Cardinal  Pitra's 
Analecta  sacra  spicilegio  Solesmensi  parata;  Nova  S.  Hildegardis 
opera  (Paris,  1882). 

For  a  modern  study  of  the  saint's  writings,  see  Sainte  Hildegarde 
by  Pal  Franche,  "  Les  Saints  "  series  (Paris,  1903) ;  and  U.  Chevalier, 
Repertoire  des  sources  historiques,  bio.-bibl.  2153. 

HILDEN,  a  town  in  the  Prussian  Rhine  province  on  the 
Itter,  9  m.  S.E.  of  Diisseldorf  by  rail.  Pop.  (1905)  13,946. 
It  possesses  an  Evangelical  and  a  Roman  Catholic  church  and  a 
monument  to  the  emperor  William  I.  Its  manufactures  include 
silks,  velvets,  carpets,  calico-printing,  machinery  and  brick- 
making. 

HILDESHEIM,  a  town  and  episcopal  see  of  Germany,  in 
the  Prussian  province  of  Hanover,  beautifully  situated  at 
the  north  foot  of  the  Harz  Mountains,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Innerste,  18  m.  S.E.  of  Hanover  by  railway,  and  on  the 
main  line  from  Berlin,  via  Magdeburg  to  Cologne.  Pop.  (1885) 
20,386,  (1905)  47,060.  The  town  consists  of  an  old  and  a  new 
part,  and  is  surrounded  by  ramparts  which  have  been  converted 
into  promenades.  Its  streets  are  for  the  most  part  narrow 
and  irregular,  and  contain  many  old  houses  with  overhanging 
upper  storeys  and  richly  and  curiously  adorned  wooden  facades. 
Its  religious  edifices  are  five  Roman  Catholic  and  four  Evangelical 
churches  and  a  synagogue.  The  most  interesting  is  the  Roman 
Catholic  cathedral,  which  dates  from  the  middle  of  the  nth 
century  and  occupies  the  site  of  a  building  founded  by  the 
emperor  Louis  the  Pious  early  in  the  gth  century.  It  is  famous 
for  its  antiquities  and  works  of  art.  These  include  the  bronze 
doors  executed  by  Bishop  Bernward,  with  reliefs  from  the 
history  of  Adam  and  of  Jesus  Christ;  a  brazen  font  of  the 
1 3th  century;  two  large  candelabra  of  the  nth  century;  the 
sarcophagus  of  St  Godehard;  and  the  tomb  of  St  Epiphanius. 
In  the  cathedral  also  there  is  a  bronze  column  15  ft.  high, 
adorned  with  reliefs  from  the  life  of  Christ  and  dating  from  1022, 
and  another  column,  at  one  time  thought  to  be  an  Irminsaule 
erected  in  honour  of  the  Saxon  idol  Irmin,  but  now  regarded 
as  belonging  to  a  Roman  aqueduct.  On  the  wall  of  the  Roman- 
esque crypt,  which  was  restored  in  1896,  is  a  rose-bush, 
alleged  to  be  a  thousand  years  old;  this  sends  its  branches  to 
a  height  of  24  ft.  and  a  breadth  of  30  ft.,  and  they  are  trained 
to  interlace  one  of  the  windows.  Before  the  cathedral  is  the 
pretty  cloister  garth,  with  the  chapel  of  St  Anne,  erected  in 
1321  and  restored  in  1888.  The  Romanesque  church  of  St 
Godehard  was  built  in  the  I2th  century  and  restored  in  the 
igth.  The  church  of  St  Michael,  founded  by  Bishop  Bernward 
early  in  the  nth  century  and  restored  after  injury  by  fire  in 
1186,  contains  a  unique  painted  ceiling  of  the  I2th  century, 
the  sarcophagus  and  monument  of  Bishop  Bernward,  and  a 
bronze  font;  it  is  now  a  Protestant  parish  church,  but  the 
crypt  is  used  by  the  Roman  Catholics.  The  church  of  the 
Magdalene  possesses  two  candelabra,  a  gold  cross,  and  various 
other  works  in  metal  by  Bishop  Bernward;  and  the  Lutheran 
church  of  St  Andrew  has  a  choir  dating  from  1389  and  a  tower 
385  ft.  high.  In  the  suburb  of  Moritzberg  there  is  an  abbey 
church  founded  in  1040,  the  only  pure  columnar  basilica  in 
north  Germany. 


The  chief  secular  buildings  are  the  town-hall  (Rathaus), 
which  dates  from  the  i5th  century  and  was  restored  in  1883- 
1892,  adorned  with  frescoes  illustrating  the  history  of  the  city; 
the  Tempelherrenhaus,  in  Late  Gothic  erroneously  said  to  have 
been  built  by  the  Knights  Templars;  the  Knochenhaueramthaus, 
formerly  the  gild-house  of  the  butchers,  which  was  restored 
after  being  damaged  by  fire  in  1884,  and  is  probably  the  finest 
specimen  of  a  wooden  building  in  Germany;  the  Michaelis 
monastery,  used  as  a  lunatic  asylum;  and  the  old  Carthusian 
monastery.  The  Romer  museum  of  antiquities  and  natural 
history  is  housed  in  the  former  church  of  St  Martin;  the  buildings 
of  Trinity  hospital,  partly  dating  from  the  I4th  century,  are 
now  a  factory;  and  the  Wedekindhaus  (1598)  is  now  a  savings- 
bank.  The  educational  establishments  include  a  Roman 
Catholic  and  a  Lutheran  gymnasium,  a  Roman  Catholic  school 
and  college  and  two  technical  institutions,  the  Georgstift  for 
daughters  of  state  servants  and  a  conservatoire  of  music.  Hildes- 
heim  is  the  seat  of  considerable  industry.  Its  chief  productions 
are  sugar,  tobacco  and  cigars,  stoves,  machines,  vehicles, 
agricultural  implements  and  bricks.  Other  trades  are  brewing 
and  tanning.  It  is  connected  with  Hanover  by  an  electric  tram 
line,  19  m.  in  length. 

Hildesheim  owes  its  rise  and  prosperity  to  the  fact  that  in 
822  it  was  made  the  seat  of  the  bishopric  which  Charlemagne 
had  founded  at  Elze  a  few  years  before.  Its  importance  was 
greatly  increased  by  St  Bernward,  who  was  bishop  from  993 
to  1022  and  walled  the  town.  By  his  example  and  patronage 
the  art  of  working  in  metals  was  greatly  stimulated.  In  the 
I3th  century  Hildesheim  became  a  free  city  of  the  Empire; 
in  1249  it  received  municipal  rights  and  about  the  same  time 
it  joined  the  Hanseatic  league.  Several  of  its  bishops  belonged 
to  one  or  other  of  the  great  families  of  Germany ;  and  gradually 
they  became  practically  independent.  The  citizens  were  fre- 
quently quarrelling  with  the  bishops,  who  also  carried  on  wars 
with  neighbouring  princes,  especially  with  the  house  of  Bruns- 
wick-Liineburg,  under  whose  protection  Hildesheim  placed 
itself  several  times.  The  most  celebrated  of  these  struggles 
is  the  one  known  as  the  Hildesheimer  Stiflsfehde,  which  broke  out 
early  in  the  i6th  century  when  John,  duke  of  Saxe-Lauenburg, 
was  bishop.  At  first  the  bishop  and  his  allies  were  successful, 
but  in  1521  the  king  of  Denmark  and  the  duke  of  Brunswick 
overran  his  lands  and  in  1523  he  made  peace,  surrendering 
nearly  all  his  possessions.  Much,  however,  was  restored  when 
Ferdinand,  prince  of  Bavaria,  was  bishop  (1612-1650),  as  this 
warlike  prelate  took  advantage  of  the  disturbances  caused  by 
the  Thirty  Years'  War  to  seize  the  lost  lands,  and  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  1 9th  century  the  extent  of  the  prince  bishopric  was 
682  sq.  m.  In  1801  the  bishopric  was  secularized  and  in  1803 
was  granted  to  Prussia;  in  1807  it  was  incorporated  with  the 
kingdom  of  Westphalia  and  in  1813  was  transferred  to  Hanover. 
In  1866,  along  with  Hanover,  it  was  annexed  by  Prussia.  In 
1803  a  new  bishopric  of  Hildesheim,  a  spiritual  organization  only, 
was  established,  and  this  has  jurisdiction  over  all  the  Roman 
Catholic  churches  in  the  centre  of  north  Germany. 

In  October  1868  a  unique  collection  of  ancient  Augustan 
silver  plate  was  discovered  on  the  Galgenberg  near  Hildesheim 
by  some  soldiers  who  were  throwing  up  earthworks.  This 
Hildesheimer  Silberfund  excited  great  interest  among  classical 
archaeologists.  Some  authorities  think  that  it  is  the  actual 
plate  which  belonged  to  Drusus  himself.  The  most  noteworthy 
pieces  are  a  crater  richly  ornamented  with  arabesques  and 
figures  of  children,  a  platter  with  a  representation  of  Minerva, 
another  with  one  of  the  boy  Hercules  and  another  with  one  of 
Cybele.  The  collection  is  in  the  Kunstgewerbemuseum  in  Berlin. 

See  the  Urkundenbuch  der  Stoat  Hildesheim,  edited  by 
R.  Dobner  (Hildesheim,  1881-1901);  the  Urkundenbuch  des 
Hochstifts  Hildesheim,  edited  by  K.  Janicke  and  H.  Hoogeweg 
(Leipzig  and  Hanover,  1896-1903);  C.  Bauer,  Geschichte  von 
Hildesheim  (Hildesheim,  1892) ;  A.  Bertram,  Geschichte  des  Bistums 
Hildesheim  (Hildesheim,  1899  fol.);  C.  Euling,  Hildesheimer  Land 
undLeitte  des  idten  Jahrhunderts  (Hildesheim,  1892);  O.  Fischer,  Die 
Stadt  Hildesheim  wdhrend  des  dreissigjdhrigen  Krieges  (Hildesheim, 
1897);  A.  Grebe,  Auf  Hildesheimschem  Boden  (Hildesheim,  1884); 
H.  Cuno,  Hildesheims  Kunstler  im  Mittelalter  (Hildesheim,  1886); 


HILDRETH— HILL,  A.  P. 


463 


W.  Wachsmuth,  Geschichte  von  Hochstift  und  Stadt  Hildesheim 
(Hildesheim,  1863);  R.  Dobner,  Studien  zur  Hildesheimischen 
Geschichte  (Hildesheim,  1901);  Lachner,  Die  Holzarchilektur  Hildes- 
heims  (Hildesheim,  1882);  Seifart,  Sagen,  Marchen,  Schwdnke  und 
Gebrduche  aus  Stadt  und  Stift  Hildesheims  (Hildesheim,  1889).  For 
the  Hildesheimer  Stiftsfehde,  see  H.  Delius,  Die  Hildesheimische 
Stiftsfehde  1519  (Leipzig,  1803).  For  the  Hildesheimer  Silberfund, 
see  Wieseler,  Der  Hildesheimer  Silberfund  (Gottingen,  1869) ;  Holzer, 
Der  Hildesheimer  antike  Silberfund  (Hildesheim,  1871);  and  E. 
Pernice  and  F.  Winter,  Der  Hildesheimer  Silberfund  der  koniglichen 
Museen  zu  Berlin  (Berlin,  1901) 

HILDRETH,  RICHARD  (1807-1865),  American  journalist 
and  author,  was  born  at  Deerfield,  Massachusetts,  on  the  28th 
of  June  1807,  the  son  of  Hosea  Hildreth  (1782-1835),  a  teacher 
of  mathematics  and  later  a  Congregational  minister.  Richard 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1826,  and,  after  studying  law  at 
Newburyport,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Boston  in  1830. 
He  had  already  taken  to  journalism,  and  in  1832  he  became 
joint  founder  and  editor  of  a  daily  newspaper,  the  Boston 
Atlas.  Having  in  1834  gone  to  the  South  for  the  benefit  of  his 
health,  he  was  led  by  what  he  witnessed  of  the  evils  of  slavery 
(chiefly  in  Florida)  to  write  the  anti-slavery  novel  The  Slave: 
or  Memoir  of  Archy  Moore  (1836;  enlarged  edition,  1852,  The 
White  Slave).  In  1837  he  wrote  for  the  Atlas  a  series  of  articles 
vigorously  opposing  the  annexation  of  Texas.  In  the  same  year 
he  published  Banks,  Banking,  and  Paper  Currencies,  a  work  which 
helped  to  promote  the  growth  of  the  free  banking  system  in 
America.  In  1838  he  resumed  his  editorial  duties  on  the  Atlas, 
but  in  1840  removed,  on  account  of  his  health,  to  British  Guiana, 
where  he  lived  for  three  years  and  was  editor  of  two  weekly  news- 
papers in  succession  at  Georgetown.  He  published  in  this  year 
(1840)  a  volume  in  opposition  to  slavery,  Despotism  in  America 
(and  ed.,  1854).  In  1849  he  published  the  first  three  volumes  of 
his  History  of  the  United  States,  two  more  volumes  of  which  were 
published  in  1851  and  the  sixth  and  last  in  1852.  The  first 
three  volumes  of  this  history,  his  most  important  work,  deal 
with  the  period  1492-1789,  and  the  second  three  with  the  period 
1780-1821.  The  history  is  notable  for  its  painstaking  accuracy 
and  candour,  but  the  later  volumes  have  a  strong  Federalist 
bias.  Hildreth's  Japan  as  It  Was  and  Is  (1855)  was  at  the  time 
a  valuable  digest  of  the  information  contained  in  other  works 
on  that  country  (new  ed.,  1906).  He  also  wrote  a  campaign 
biography  of  William  Henry  Harrison  (1839);  Theory  of  Morals 
(1844) ;  and  Theory  of  Politics  (1853),  as  well  as  Lives  of  Atrocious 
Judges  (1856),  compiled  from  Lord  Campbell's  two  works.  In 
1 86 1  he  was  appointed  United  States  consul  at  Trieste,  but 
ill-health  compelled  him  to  resign  and  remove  to  Florence, 
where  he  died  on  the  nth  of  July  1865. 

HILGENFELD,  ADOLF  BERNHARD  CHRISTOPH  (1823- 
1907),  German  Protestant  divine,  was  born  at  Stappenbeck 
near  Salzwedel  in  Prussian  Saxony  on  the  2nd  of  June  1823. 
He  studied  at  Berlin  and  Halle,  and  in  1890  became  professor 
ordinarius  of  theology  at  Jena.  He  belonged  to  the  Tubingen 
school.  "  Fond  of  emphasizing  his  independence  of  Baur,  he 
still,  in  all  important  points,  followed  in  the  footsteps  of  his 
master;  his  method,  which  he  is  wont  to  contrast  as  Literarkritik 
with  Baur's  Tendenzkritik,  is  nevertheless  essentially  the  same 
as  Baur's "  (Otto  Pfleiderer).  On  the  whole,  however,  he 
modified  the  positions  of  the  founder  of  the  Tubingen  school, 
going  beyond  him  only  in  his  investigations  into  the  Fourth 
Gospel.  In  1858  he  became  editor  of  the  Zeitschrift  fiir  wissen- 
schaflliche  Theologie.  He  died  on  the  I2th  of  January  1907. 

His  works  include:  Die  elementarischen  Recognitionen  und 
Homilien  (1848);  Die  Evangelien  und  die  Briefe  des  Johannes  nach 
ihrem  Lehrbegriff  (1849);  Das  Markusevangelium  (1850);  Die 
Evangelien  nach  ihrer  Entstehung  und  geschichtlichen  Bedeutung 
(1854);  Das  Unchristentum  (1855);  Jwl-  Apokalyptik  (1857); 
Novum  Testamentum  extra  canonem  receptum  (4  parts,  1866;  2nd 
ed.,  1876-1884);  Histor.-kritische  Einleitung  in  das  Neue  Testament 
(1875);  Acta  Apostolorum  graece  et  latine  secundum  antiquissimos 
testes  (1899);  the  first  complete  edition  of  the  Shepherd  of  Hermas 
(1887) ;  Ignatii  et  Polycarpi  epistolae  (1902). 

HILL,  AARON  (1685-1750),  English  author,  was  born  in 
London  on  the  loth  of  February  1685.  He  was  the  son  of 
George  Hill  of  Malmesbury  Abbey,  Wiltshire,  who  contrived 
to  sell  an  estate  entailed  on  his  son.  In  his  fourteenth  year  he 


left  Westminster  School  to  go  to  Constantinople,  where  William, 
Lord  Paget  de  Beaudesert  (1637-1713),  a  relative  of  his  mother, 
was  ambassador.  Paget  sent  him,  under  care  of  a  tutor,  to  travel 
in  Palestine  and  Egypt,  and  he  returned  to  England  in  1703. 
He  was  estranged  from  his  patron  by  the  "  envious  fears  and 
malice  of  a  certain  female,"  and  again  went  abroad  as  companion 
to  Sir  William  Wentworth.  On  his  return  home  in  1 709  he  pub- 
lished A  Full  and  Just  Account  of  the  Present  State  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire,  a  production  of  which  he  was  afterwards  much  ashamed, 
and  he  addressed  his  poem  of  Camillus  to  Charles  Mordaunt, 
earl  of  Peterborough.  In  the  same  year  he  is  said  to  have  been 
manager  of  Drury  Lane  theatre  and  in  1710  of  the  Haymarket. 
His  first  play,  Elfrid:  or  The  Fair  Inconstant  (afterwards 
revised  as  Athelwold),  was  produced  at  Drury  Lane  in  1709. 
His  connexion  with  the  theatre  was  of  short  duration,  and  the 
rest  of  his  life  was  spent  in  ingenious  commercial  enterprises, 
none  of  which  were  successful,  and  in  literary  pursuits.  He 
formed  a  company  to  extract  oil  from  beechmast,  another  for 
the  colonization  of  the  district  to  be  known  later  as  Georgia, 
a  third  to  supply  wood  for  naval  construction  from  Scotland, 
and  a  fourth  for  the  manufacture  of  potash.  In  1730  he  wrote 
The  Progress  of  Wit,  being  a  caveat  for  the  use  of  an  Eminent 
Writer.  The  "  eminent  writer  "  was  Pope,  who  had  introduced 
him  into  The  Dunciad  as  one  of  the  competitors  for  the  prize 
offered  by  the  goddess  of  Dullness,  though  the  satire  was  qualified 
by  an  oblique  compliment.  A  note  in  the  edition  of  1729  on 
the  •  obnoxious  passage,  in  which,  however,  the  original  initial 
was  replaced  by  asterisks,  gave  Hill  great  offence.  He  wrote 
to  Pope  complaining  of  his  treatment,  and  received  a  reply 
in  which  Pope  denied  responsibility  for  the  notes.  Hill  appears 
to  have  been  a  persistent  correspondent,  and  inflicted  on  Pope 
a  series  of  letters,  which  are  printed  in  Elwin  &  Courthope's 
edition  (x.  1-78).  Hill  died  on  the  8th  of  February  1750, 
and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  The  best  of  his  plays 
were  Zara  (acted  1735)  and  Merope  (1749),  both  adaptations 
from  Voltaire.  He  also  published  two  series  of  periodical 
essays,  The  Prompter  (1735)  and,  with  William  Bond,  The 
Plaindealer  (1724).  He  was  generous  to  fellow-men  of  letters, 
and  his  letters  to  Richard  Savage,  whom  he  helped  considerably, 
show  his  character  in  a  very  amiable  light. 

The  Works  of  the  late  Aaron  Hill,  consisting  of  letters  .  .  .,  original 
poems.  .  .  .  With  an  essay  on  the  Art  of  Acting  appeared  in  1753, 
and  his  Dramatic  Works  in  1760.  His  Poetical  Works  are  included 
in  Anderson's  and  other  editions  of  the  British  poets.  A  full  account 
of  his  life  is  provided  by  an  anonymous  writer  in  Theophilus  Gibber's 
Lives  of  the  Poets,  vol.  v. 

HILL,  AMBROSE  POWELL  (1825-1865),  American  Con- 
federate soldier,  was  born  in  Culpeper  county,  Virginia,  on  the 
9th  of  November  1825,  and  graduated  from  West  Point  in  1847, 
being  appointed  to  the  ist  U.S.  artillery.  He  served  in  the 
Mexican  and  Seminole  Wars,  was  promoted  first  lieutenant  in 
September  1851,  and  in  1855-1860  was  employed  on  the  United 
States'  coast  survey.  In  March  1861,  just  before  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War,  he  resigned  his  commission,  and  when  his  state 
seceded  he  was  made  colonel  of  a  Virginian  infantry  regiment, 
winning  promotion  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  on  the  field 
of  Bull  Run.  In  the  Peninsular  campaign  of  1862  he  gained 
further  promotion,  and  as  a  major-general  Hill  was  one  of  the 
most  prominent  and  successful  divisional  commanders  of  Lee's 
army  in  the  Seven  Days',  Second  Bull  Run,  Antietam  and 
Fredericksburg  campaigns.  His  division  formed  part  of  "  Stone- 
wall "Jackson's  corps,  and  he  was  severely  wounded  in  the  flank 
attack  of  Chancellorsville  in  May  1863.  After  Jackson's  death 
Hill  was  made  a  lieutenant-general  and  placed  in  command  of  the 
3rd  corps  of  Lee's  army,  which  he  led  in  the  Gettysburg  campaign 
of  1863,  the  autumn  campaign  of  the  same  year,  and  the  Wilder- 
ness and  Petersburg  operations  of  1864-65.  He  was  killed  in 
front  of  the  Petersburg  lines  on  the  2nd  of  April  1865.  His 
reputation  as  a  troop  leader  in  battle  was  one  of  the  highest 
amongst  the  generals  of  both  sides,  and  both  Lee  and  Jackson, 
when  on  their  death-beds  their  thoughts  wandered  in  delirium 
to  the  battlefield,  called  for  "  A.  P.  Hill  "  to  deliver  the  decisive 
blow. 


464 


HILL,  D.  H.— HILL,  J. 


HILL,  DANIEL  HARVEY  (1821-1880),  American  Confederate 
soldier,  was  born  in  York  district,  South  Carolina,  on  the  I2th  of 
July  1821,  and  graduated  at  the  United  States  Military  Academy 
in  1842,  being  appointed  to  the  ist  United  States  artillery.  He 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Mexican  War,  being  breveted 
captain  and  major  for  bravery  at  Contreras  and  Churubusco  and 
at  Chapultepec  respectively.  In  February  1849  he  resigned  his 
commission  and  became  a  professor  of  mathematics  at  Washing- 
ton College  (now  Washington  and  Lee  University),  Lexington, 
Virginia.  In  1854  he  joined  the  faculty  of  Davidson  College, 
North  Carolina,  and  was  in  1859  made  superintendent  of  the 
North  Carolina  Military  Institute  of  Charlotte.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War,  D.  H.  Hill  was  made  colonel  of  a  Confederate 
infantry  regiment,  at  the  head  of  which  he  won  the  action  of  Big 
Bethel,  near  Fortress  Monroe,  Va.,  on  the  loth  of  June  1861. 
Shortly  after  this  he  was  made  a  brigadier-general.  He  took  part 
in  the  Yorktown  and  Williamsburg  operations  in  the  spring  of 
1862,  and  as  a  major-general  led  a  division  with  great  distinction 
in  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks  and  the  Seven  Days.  He  took  part  in 
the  Second  Bull  Run  campaign  in  August-September  1862,  and  in 
the  Antietam  campaign  the  stubborn  resistance  of  D.  H.  Hill's 
division  in  the  passes  of  South  Mountain  enabled  Lee  to  con- 
centrate for  battle.  The  division  bore  a  conspicuous  part  in 
the  battles  of  the  Antietam  and  Fredericksburg.  On  the  reorgan- 
ization of  the  army  of  Northern  Virginia  after  Jackson's  death, 
D.  H.  Hill  was  not  appointed  to  a  corps  command,  but  some- 
what later  in  1863  he  was  sent  to  the  west  as  a  lieutenant-general 
and  commanded  one  of  Bragg's  corps  in  the  brilliant  victory  of 
Chickamauga.  D.  H.  Hill  surrendered  with  Gen.  J.  E.  Johnston 
on  the  26th  of  April  1865.  In  1866-1869  he  edited  a  magazine, 
The  Land  we  Love,  at  Charlotte,  N.C.,  which  dealt  with 
social  and  historical  subjects  and  had  a  great  influence  in  the 
South.  In  1877  he  became  president  of  the  university  of 
Arkansas,  a  post  which  he  held  until  1884,  and  in  1885  presi- 
dent of  the  Military  and  Agricultural  College  of  Milledgeville, 
Georgia.  General  Hill  died  at  Charlotte,  N.C.,  on  the  24th  of 
September  1889. 

HILL,  DAVID  BENNETT  (1843-1910),  American  politician, 
was  born  at  Havana,  New  York,  on  the  2gth  of  August  1843.  In 
1862  he  removed  to  Elmira,  New  York,  where  in  1864  he  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  He  at  once  became  active  in  the  affairs  of 
the  Democratic  party,  attracting  the  attention  of  Samuel  J. 
Tilden,  one  of  whose  shrewdest  and  ablest  lieutenants  he  became. 
In  1871  and  1872  he  was  a  member  of  the  New  York  State 
Assembly,  and  in  1877  and  again  in  1881  presided  over  the 
Democratic  State  Convention.  In  1882  he  was  elected  mayor  of 
Elmira,  and  in  the  same  year  was  chosen  lieutenant-governor  of 
the  state,  having  been  defeated  for  nomination  as  governor  by 
Grover  Cleveland.  In  January  1885,  however,  Cleveland  having 
resigned  to  become  president,  Hill  became  governor,  and  in 
November  was  elected  for  a  three-year  term,  and  subsequently 
re-elected.  In  1891-1897  he  was  a  member  of  the  United  States 
Senate.  During  these  years,  and  in  1892,  when  he  tried  to  get  the 
presidential  nomination,  he  was  prominent  in  working  against 
Cleveland.  In  1896  he  opposed  the  free  silver  plank  in  the 
platform  adopted  by  the  Democratic  National  Convention 
which  nominated  W.  J.  Bryan;  in  the  National  Convention  of 
1900,  however,  the  free-silver  issue  having  been  subordinated  to 
anti-imperialism,  he  seconded  Bryan's  nomination.  After  1897 
he  devoted  himself  to  his  law  practice,  and  in  1905  retired  from 
politics.  He  died  in  Albany  on  the  3oth  of  October  1910. 

HILL,  GEORGE  BIRKBECK  NORMAN  (1835-1903),  English 
author,  son  of  Arthur  Hill,  head  master  of  Bruce  Castle  school, 
was  born  at  Tottenham,  Middlesex,  on  the  7th  of  June  1835. 
Arthur  Hill,  with  his  brothers  Rowland  Hill,  the  postal  reformer, 
and  Matthew  Davenport  Hill,  afterwards  recorder  of  Birmingham, 
had  worked  out  a  system  of  education  which  was  to  exclude  com- 
pulsion of  any  kind.  The  school  at  Bruce  Castle,  of  which  Arthur 
Hill  was  head  master,  was  founded  to  carry  into  execution  their 
theories,  known  as  the  Hazelwood  system.  George  Birkbeck 
Hill  was  educated  in  his  father's  school  and  at  Pembroke  College, 
Oxford.  In  i858_he  began  to  teach  at  Bruce  Castle  school,  and 


from  1868  to  1877  was  head  master.  In  1869  he  became  a 
regular  contributor  to  the  Saturday  Review,  with  which  he  re- 
mained in  connexion  until  1884.  On  his  retirement  from  teaching 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  English  18th-century  literature, 
and  established  his  reputation  as  the  most  learned  commentator 
on  the  works  of  Samuel  Johnson.  He  settled  at  Oxford  in  1887, 
but  from  1891  onwards  his  winters  were  usually  spent  abroad. 
He  died  at  Hampstead,  London,  on  the  27th  of  February  1903. 
His  works  include:  Dr  Johnson,  his  Friends  and  his  Critics 
(1878);  an  edition  of  Boswell's  Correspondence  (1879);  a 
laborious  edition  of  Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson,  including  Boswell's 
Journal  of  a  Tour  to  the  Hebrides,  and  Johnson's  Diary  of  a 
Journey  into  North  Wales  (Clarendon  Press,  6  vols.,  1887) ;  Wit  and 
Wisdom  of  Samuel  Johnson  (1888);  Select  Essays  of  Dr  Johnson 
(1889);  Footsteps  of  Dr  Johnson  in  Scotland  (1890);  Letters  of 
Johnson  (1892);  Johnsonian  Miscellanies  (2  vols.,  1897);  an 
edition  (1900)  of  Edward  Gibbon's  Autobiography;  Johnson's 
Lives  of  the  Poets  (3  vols.,  1905),  and  other  works  on  the  i8th- 
century  topics.  Dr  Birkbeck  Hill's  elaborate  edition  of  Boswell's 
Life  is  a  monumental  work,  invaluable  to  the  student. 

See  a  memoir  by  his  nephew,  Harold  Spencer  Scott,  in  the  edition 
of  the  Lives  of  the  English  Poets  (1905),  and  the  Letters  edited  by  his 
daughter,  Lucy  Crump,  in  1903. 

HILL,  JAMES  J.  (1838-  ),  American  railway  capitalist, 
was  born  near  Guelph,  Ontario,  Canada,  on  the  1 6th  of  September 
1838,  and  was  educated  at  Rockwood  (Ont.)  Academy,  a  Quaker 
institution.  In  1856  he  settled  in  St  Paul,  Minnesota.  Abandon- 
ing, because  of  his  father's  death,  his  plans  to  study  medicine, 
he  became  a  clerk  in  the  office  of  a  firm  of  river  steamboat 
agents  and  shippers,  and  later  the  agent  for  a  line  of  river 
packets;  he  established  about  1870  transportation  lines  on 
the  Mississippi  and  on  the  Red  River  (of  the  North).  He  effected 
a  traffic  arrangement  between  the  St  Paul  Pacific  Railroad 
and  his  steamboat  lines;  and  when  the  railway  failed  in  1873 
for  $27,000,000,  Hill  interested  Sir  Donald  A.  Smith  (Lord 
Strathcona),  George  Stephen  (Lord  Mount  Stephen),  and 
other  Canadian  capitalists,  in  the  road  and  in  the  wheat  country 
of  the  Red  River  Valley;  he  got  control  of  the  bonds  (1878), 
foreclosed  the  mortgage,  reorganized  the  road  as  the  St  Paul, 
Minneapolis  &  Manitoba,  and  began  to  extend  the  line, 
then  only  380  m.  long,  toward  the  Pacific;  and  in  1883  he 
became  its  president.  He  was  president  of  the  Great  Northern 
Railway  (comprehending  all  his  secondary  lines)  from  1893 
to  April  1907,  when  he  became  chairman  of  its  board  of  directors. 
In  the  extension  (1883-1893)  of  this  railway  westward  to  Puget 
Sound  (whence  it  has  direct  steamship  connexions  with  China 
and  Japan),  the  line  was  built  by  the  company  itself,  none  of 
the  work  being  handled  by  contractors.  Subsequently  his 
financial  interests  in  American  railways  caused  constant  sensa- 
tions in  the  stock-markets.  The  Hill  interests  obtained  control 
not  only  of  the  Great-Northern  system,  but  of  the  Northern 
Pacific  and  the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy,  and  proposed 
the  construction  of  another  northern  line  to  the  Pacific  coast. 
Hill  was  the  president  of  the  Northern  Securities  Company. 
Out  of  his  wealth  he  gave  liberally,  especially  to  Roman  Catholic 
institutions,  giving  $500,000  to  the  St  Paul  Theological  Seminary 
(Roman  Catholic)  and  $1,500,000  to  the  new  Roman  Catholic 
cathedral  in  St  Paul. 

HILL,  JOHN  (c.  1716-1775),  called  from  his  Swedish  honours, 
"  Sir "  John  Hill,  English  author,  son  of  the  Rev.  Theo- 
philus  Hill,  is  said  to  have  been  born  in  Peterborough  in  1716. 
He  was  apprenticed  to  an  apothecary  and  on  the  completion 
of  his  apprenticeship  he  set  up  in  a  small  shop  in  St  Martin's 
Lane,  Westminster.  He  also  travelled  over  the  country  in 
search  of  rare  herbs,  with  a  view  to  publishing  a  horlus  siccus, 
but  the  plan  failed.  His  first  publication  was  a  translation 
of  Theophrastus's  History  of  Stones  (1746).  From  this  time 
forward  he  was  an  indefatigable  writer.  He  edited  the  British 
Magazine  (1746-1750),  and  for  two  years  (1751-1753)  he  wrote 
a  daily  letter,  "  The  Inspector,"  for  the  London  Advertiser  and 
Literary  Gazette.  He  also  produced  novels,  plays  and  scientific 
works,  and  was  a  large  contributor  to  the  supplement  of  Ephraim 


HILL,  M.  D,— HILL,  SIR  R. 


465 


Chambers's  Cyclopaedia.  His  personal  and  scurrilous  writings 
involved  him  in  many  quarrels.  Henry  Fielding  attacked 
him  in  the  Covenl  Garden  Journal,  Christopher  Smart  wrote 
a  mock-epic,  TheHilliad,  against  him,  and  David  Garrick  replied 
to  his  strictures  against  him  by  two  epigrams,  one  of  which 

runs: — 

"  For  physics  and  farces,  his  equal  there  scarce  is; 
His  farces  are  physic,  his  physic  a  farce  is." 

He  had  other  literary  passages-at-arms  with  John  Rich,  who 
accused  him  of  plagiarizing  his  Orpheus,  also  with  Samuel 
Foote  and  Henry  Woodward.  From  1759  to  1775  he  was 
engaged  on  a  huge  botanical  work — The  Vegetable  System 
(26  vols.  fol.) — adorned  by  1600  copperplate  engravings.  Hill's 
botanical  labours  were  underaken  at  the  request  of  his  patron, 
Lord  Bute,  and  he  was  rewarded  by  the  order  of  Vasa  from 
the  king  of  Sweden  in  1774.  He  had  a  medical  degree  from 
Edinburgh,  and  he  now  practised  as  a  quack  doctor,  making 
considerable  sums  by  the  preparation  of  vegetable  medicines.  He 
died  in  London  on  the  zist  of  November  1775. 

Of  the  seventy-six  separate  works  with  which  he  is  credited  in  the 
Dictionary  of  National  Biography,  the  most  valuable  are  those  that 
deal  with  botany.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  author  of  the  second 
part  of  The  Oeconomy  of  Human  Life  (1751),  the  first  part  of  which  is 
by  Lord  Chesterfield,  and  Hannah  Glasse's  famous  manual  of  cookery 
was  generally  ascribed  to  him  (see  Boswell,  ed.  Hill,  iii.  285).  Dr 
Johnson  said  of  him  that  he  was  "  an  ingenious  man,  but  had  no 
veracity." 

See  a  Short  Account  of  the  Life,  Writings  and  Character  of  the  late 
Sir  John  Hill  (1779),  which  is  chiefly  occupied  with  a  descriptive 
catalogue  of  his  works;  also  Temple  Bar  (1872,  xxxv.  261-266). 

HILL,  MATTHEW  DAVENPORT  (1792-1872),  English  lawyer 
and  penologist,  was  born  on  the  6th  of  August  1792,  at  Birming- 
ham, where  his  father,  T.  W.  Hill,  for  long  conducted  a  private 
school.  He  was  a  brother  of  Sir  Rowland  Hill.  He  early  acted 
as  assistant  in  his  father's  school,  but  in  1819  was  called  to 
the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn.  He  went  the  midland  circuit.  In 
1832  he  was  elected  one  of  the  Liberal  members  for  Kingston- 
upon-Hull,  but  he  lost  his  seat  at  the  next  election  in  1834. 
On  the  incorporation  of  Birmingham  in  1839  he  was  chosen 
recorder;  and  in  1851  he  was  appointed  commissioner  in 
bankruptcy  for  the  Bristol  district.  Having  had  his  interest 
excited  in  questions  relating  to  the  treatment  of  criminal  offenders, 
he  ventilated  in  his  charges  to  the  grand  juries,  as  well  as  in 
special  pamphlets,  opinions  which  were  the  means  of  introducing 
many  important  reforms  in  the  methods  of  dealing  with  crime. 
One  of  his  principal  coadjutors  in  these  reforms  was  his  brother 
Frederick  Hill  (1803-1896),  whose  Amount,  Causes  and  Remedies 
of  Crime,  the  result  of  his  experience  as  inspector  of  prisons 
for  Scotland,  marked  an  era  in  the  methods  of  prison  discipline. 
Hill  was  one  of  the  chief  promoters  of  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion 
of  Useful  Knowledge,  and  the  originator  of  the  Penny  Magazine. 
He  died  at  Stapleton,  near  Bristol,  on  the  7th  of  June  1872. 

His  principal  works  are  Practical  Suggestions  to  the  Founders  of 
Reformatory  Schools  (1855);  Suggestions  for  the  Repression  of  Crime 
(1857),  consisting  of  charges  addressed  to  the  grand  juries  of 
Birmingham;  Meltray  (1855);  Papers  on  the  Penal  Servitude  Acts 
(1864);  Journal  of  a  Third  Visit  to  the  Convict  Gaols,  Refuges  and 
Reformatories  of  Dublin  (1865) ;  Addresses  delivered  at  the  Birmingham 
and  Midland  Institute  (1867).  See  Memoir  of  Matthew  Davenport 
Hill,  by  his  daughters  Rosamond  and  Florence  Davenport  Hill  (1878). 

HILL,  OCTAVIA  (1838-  )  and  MIRANDA  (1836-1910), 
English  philanthropic  workers,  were  born  in  London,  being 
daughters  of  Mr  James  Hill  and  granddaughters  of  Dr  South- 
wood  Smith,  the  pioneer  of  sanitary  reform.  Miss  Octavia  Hill's 
attention  was  early  drawn  to  the  evils  of  London  housing, 
and  the  habits  of  indolence  and  lethargy  induced  in  many 
of  the  lower  classes  by  their  degrading  surroundings.  She 
conceived  the  idea  of  trying  to  free  a  few  poor  people  from 
such  influences,  and  Mr  Ruskin,  who  sympathized  with  her 
plans,  supplied  the  money  for  starting  the  work.  For  £750 
Miss  Hill  purchased  the  56  years'  lease  of  three  houses  in  one 
of  the  poorest  courts  of  Marylebone.  Another  £78  was  spent  in 
building  a  large  room  at  the  back  of  her  own  house  where  she 
could  meet  the  tenants.  The  houses  were  put  in  repair,  and 
let  out  in  sets  of  two  rooms.  At  the  end  of  eighteen  months 


it  was  possible  to  pay  5%  interest,  to  repay  £48  of  the 
capital,  as  well  as  meet  all  expenses  for  taxes,  ground  rent 
and  insurance.  What  specially  distinguished  this  scheme  was 
that  Miss  Hill  herself  collected  the  rents,  thus  coming  into 
contact  with  the  tenants  and  helping  to  enforce  regular  and 
self-respecting  habits.  The  success  of  her  first  attempt  encour- 
aged her  to  continue.  Six  more  houses  were  bought  and  treated 
in  a  similar  manner.  A  yearly  sum  was  set  aside  for  the  repairs 
of  each  house,  and  whatever  remained  over  was  spent  on  such 
additional  appliances  as  the  tenants  themselves  desired.  This 
encouraged  them  to  keep  their  tenements  in  good  repair.  By 
the  help  of  friends  Miss  Hill  was  now  enabled  to  enlarge  the 
scope  of  her  work.  In  1869  eleven  more  houses  were  bought. 
The  plan  was  to  set  a  visitor  over  a  small  court  or  block  of 
buildings  to  do  whatever  work  in  the  way  of  rent-collecting, 
visiting  for  the  School  Board,  &c.,  was  required.  As  years 
went  on  Miss  Octavia  Hill's  work  was  largely  increased.  Numbers 
of  her  friends  bought  and  placed  under  her  care  small  groups 
of  houses,  over  which  she  fulfilled  the  duties  of  a  conscientious 
landlord.  Several  large  owners  of  tenement  houses,  notably 
the  Ecclesiastical  Commissioners,  entrusted  to  her  the  manage- 
ment of  such  property,  and  consulted  her  about  plans  of  re- 
building; and  a  number  of  fellow-workers  were  trained  by 
her  in  the  management  of  houses  for  the  poor.  The  results 
in  Southwark  (where  Red  Cross  Hall  was  established)  and 
elsewhere  were  very  beneficial.  Both  Miss  Miranda  and  Miss 
Octavia  Hill  took  an  interest  in  the  movement  for  bringing 
beauty  into  the  homes  of  the  poor,  and  the  former  was  practically 
the  founder  of  the  Kyrle  Society,  the  first  suggestion  of  which 
was  contained  in  a  paper  read  to  a  small  circle  of  friends.  Both 
sisters  worked  for  the  preservation  of  open  spaces,  and  helped 
to  promote  the  work  of  the  Charity  Organization  Society,  and 
for  several  years  Miss  Miranda  Hill  (who  died  on  the  3ist  of  May 
1910)  did  admirable  work  in  Marylebone  as  a  member  of  the 
Board  of  Guardians. 

HILL,  ROWLAND  (1744-1833),  English  preacher,  sixth  son 
of  Sir  Rowland  Hill,  Bart.  (d.  1783),  was  born  at  Hawkstone, 
Shropshire,  on  the  23rd  of  August  1744.  He  was  educated  at 
Shrewsbury,  Eton  and  St  John's  College,  Cambridge.  Stimu- 
lated by  George  Whitefield's  example,  he  scandalized  the  uni- 
versity authorities  and  his  own  friends  by  preaching  and  visiting 
the  sick  before  he  had  taken  orders.  In  1773  he  was  appointed 
to  the  parish  of  Kingston,  Somersetshire,  where  he  soon  attracted 
great  crowds  to  his  open-air  services.  Having  inherited  consider- 
able property,  he  built  for  his  own  use  Surrey  Chapel,  in  the 
Blackfriars  Road,  London  (1783).  Hill  conducted  his  services 
in  accordance  with  the  forms  of  the  Church  of  England,  in 
whose  communion  he  always  remained.  Both  at  Surrey  Chapel 
and  in  his  provincial  "  gospel  tours  "  he  had  great  success. 
His  oratory  was  specially  adapted  for  rude  and  uncultivated 
audiences.  He  possessed  a  voice  of  great  power,  and  according 
to  Southey  "  his  manner  "  was  "  that  of  a  performer  as  great 
in  his  own  line  as  Kean  or  Kemble."  His  earnest  and  pure 
purposes  more  than  made  up  for  his  occasional  lapses  from  good 
taste  and  the  eccentricity  of  his  wit.  He  helped  to  found  the 
Religious  Tract  Society,  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society, 
and  the  London  Missionary  Society,  and  was  a  stout  advocate 
of  vaccination.  His  best-known  work  is  the  Village  Dialogues, 
which  first  appeared  in  1810,  and  reached  a  34th  edition  in 
1839.  He  died  on  the  nth  of  April  1833. 

See  Life  by  E.  Sidney  (1833);  Memoirs,  by  William  Jones  (1834); 
and  Memorials,  by  Jas.  Sherman  (1857). 

HILL,  SIR  ROWLAND  (1795-1879),  English  administrator, 
author  of  the  penny  postal  system,  a  younger  brother  of  Matthew 
Davenport  Hill,  and  third  son  of  T.  W.  Hill,  who  named  him  after 
Rowland  Hill  the  preacher,  was  born  on  the  3rd  of  December 
1795  at  Kidderminster.  As  a  young  child  he  had,  on  account 
of  an  affection  of  the  spine,  to  maintain  a  recumbent  position, 
and  his  principal  method  of  relieving  the  irksomeness  of  his 
situation  was  to  repeat  figures  aloud  consecutively  until  he  had 
reached  very  high  totals.  A  similar  bent  of  mind  was  manifested 
when  he  entered  school  in  1802,  his  aptitude  for  mathematics 


466 


HILL,  VISCOUNT 


being  quite  exceptional.  But  he  was  indebted  for  the  direction  of 
his  abilities  in  no  small  degree  to  the  guidance  of  his  father, 
a  man  of  advanced  political  and  social  views,  which  were  qualified 
and  balanced  by  the  strong  practical  tendency  of  his  mind.  At 
the  age  of  twelve  Rowland  began  to  assist  in  teaching  mathe- 
matics in  his  father's  school  at  Hilltop,  Birmingham,  and  latterly 
he  had  the  chief  management  of  the  school.  On  his  suggestion 
the  establishment  was  removed  in  1819  to  Hazelwood,  a  more 
commodious  building  in  the  Hagley  Road,  in  order  to  have  the 
advantages  of  a  large  body  of  boys,  for  the  purpose  of  properly 
carrying  out  an  improved  system  of  education.  That  system, 
which  was  devised  principally  by  Rowland,  was  expounded  in 
a  pamphlet  entitled  Plans  for  the  Government  and  Education 
of  Boys  in  Large  Numbers,  the  first  edition  of  which  appeared 
in  1822,  and  a  second  with  additions  in  1827.  The  principal 
feature  of  the  system  was  "  to  leave  as  much  as  possible  all 
power  in  the  hands  of  the  boys  themselves  ";  and  it  was  so 
successful  that,  in  a  circular  issued  six  years  after  the  experiment 
had  been  in  operation,  it  was  announced  that  "  the  head  master 
had  never  once  exercised  his  right  of  veto  on  their  proceedings." 
It  may  be  said  that  Rowland  Hill,  as  an  educationist,  is  entitled 
to  a  place  side  by  side  with  Arnold  of  Rugby,  and  was  equally 
successful  with  him  in  making  moral  influence  of  the  highest 
kind  the  predominant  power  in  school  discipline.  After  his 
marriage  in  1827  Hill  removed  to  a  new  school  at  Bruce  Castle, 
Tottenham,  which  he  conducted  until  failing  health  compelled 
him  to  retire  in  1833.  About  this  time  he  became  secretary 
of  Gibbon  Wakefield's  scheme  for  colonizing  South  Australia, 
the  objects  of  which  he  explained  in  1832  in  a  pamphlet  on 
Home  Colonies,  afterwards  partly  reprinted  during  the  Irish 
famine  under  the  title  Home  Colonies  for  Ireland.  It  was  in  1835 
that  his  zeal  as  an  administrative  reformer  was  first  directed 
to  the  postal  system.  The  discovery  which  resulted  from  these 
investigations  is  when  stated  so  easy  of  comprehension  that 
there  is  great  danger  of  losing  sight  of  its  originality  and  thorough- 
ness. A  fact  which  enhances  its  merit  was  that  he  was  not  a 
post-office  official,  and  possessed  no  practical  experience  of  the 
details  of  the  old  system.  After  a  laborious  collection  of  statistics 
he  succeeded  in  demonstrating  that  the  principal  expense  of 
letter  carriage  was  in  receiving  and  distributing,  and  that  the 
cost  of  conveyance  differed  so  little  with  the  distance  that  a 
uniform  rate  of  postage  was  in  reality  the  fairest  to  all  parties 
that  could  be  adopted.  Trusting  also  that  the  deficiency  in 
the  postal  rate  would  be  made  up  by  the  immense  increase  of 
correspondence,  and  by  the  saving  which  would  be  obtained 
from  prepayment,  from  improved  methods  of  keeping  accounts, 
and  from  lessening  the  expense  of  distribution,  he  in  his  famous 
pamphlet  published  in  1837  recommended  that  within  the 
United  Kingdom  the  rate  for  letters  not  exceeding  half  an  ounce 
in  weight  should  be  only  one  penny.  The  employment  of  postage 
stamps  is  mentioned  only  as  a  suggestion,  and  in  the  following 
words:  "  Perhaps  the  difficulties  might  be  obviated  by  using  a 
bit  of  paper  just  large  enough  to  bear  the  stamp,  and  covered 
at  the  back  with  a  glutinous  wash  which  by  applying  a  little 
moisture  might  be  attached  to  the  back  of  the  letter."  Proposals 
so  striking  and  novel  in  regard  to  a  subject  in  which  every  one 
had  a  personal  interest  commanded  immediate  and  general 
attention.  So  great  became  the  pressure  of  public  opinion 
against  the  opposition  offered  to  the  measure  by  official  pre- 
possessions and  prejudices  that  in  1838  the  House  of  Commons 
appointed  a  committee  to  examine  the  subject.  The  committee 
having  reported  favourably,  a  bill  to  carry  out  Hill's  recom- 
mendations was  brought  in  by  the  government.  The  act  received 
the  royal  assent  in  1839,  and  after  an  intermediate  rate  of  four- 
pence  had  been  in  operation  from  the  5th  of  December  of  that 
year,  the  penny  rate  commenced  on  the  loth  of  January  1840. 
Hill  received  an  appointment  in  the  Treasury  in  order  to  super- 
intend the  introduction  of  his  reforms,  but  he  was  compelled 
to  retire  when  the  Liberal  government  resigned  office  in  1841. 
In  consideration  of  the  loss  he  thus  sustained,  and  to  mark  the 
public  appreciation  of  his  services,  he  was  in  1846  presented 
with  the  sum  of  £13,360.  On  the  Liberals  returning  to  office 


in  the  same  year  he  was  appointed  secretary  to  .the  postmaster- 
general  and  in  1854  he  was  made  chief  secretary.  His  ability 
as  a  practical  administrator  enabled  him  to  supplement  his 
original  discovery  by  measures  realizing  its  benefits  in  a  degree 
commensurate  with  continually  improving  facilities  of  com- 
munication, and  in  a  manner  best  combining  cheapness  with 
efficiency.  In  1860  his  services  were  rewarded  with  the  honour 
of  knighthood;  and  when  failing  health  compelled  him  to  resign 
his  office  in  1864,  he  received  from  parliament  a  grant  of  £20,000 
and  was  also  allowed  to  retain  his  full  salary  of  £2000  a  year 
as  retiring  pension.  In  1864  the  university  of  Oxford  conferred 
on  him  the  degree  of  D.C.L.,  and  on  the  6th  of  June  1879  he  was 
presented  with  the  freedom  of  the  city  of  London.  The  pre- 
sentation, on  account  of  his  infirm  health,  took  place  at  his 
residence  at  Hampstead,  and  he  died  on  the  27th  of  August 
following.  He  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

He  wrote,  in  conjunction  with  his  brother,  Arthur  Hill,  a  History 
of  Penny  Postage,  published  in  1880,  with  an  introductory  memoir  by 
his  nephew,  G.  Birkbeck  Hill.  See  also  Sir  Rowland  Hill,  the  Story 
of  a  Great  Reform,  told  by  his  daughter  (1907).  To  commemorate 
his  memory  the  Rowland  Hill  Memorial  and  Benevolent  Fund  was 
founded  shortly  after  his  death  for  the  purpose  of  relieving  distressed 
persons  connected  with  the  post  office  who  were  outside  the  scope 
of  the  Superannuation  Act.  See  also  POST  AND  POSTAL  SERVICE. 

HILL,  ROWLAND  HILL,  IST  VISCOUNT  (1772-1842),  British 
general,  was  the  second  son  of  (Sir)  John  Hill,  of  Hawkstone, 
Shropshire,  and  nephew  of  the  Rev.  Rowland  Hill  (1744-1833), 
was  born  at  Frees  Hall  near  Hawkstone  on  the  nth  of  August 
1772.  He  was  gazetted  to  the  38th  regiment  in  1790,  obtaining 
permission  at  the  same  time  to  study  in  a  military  academy  at 
Strassburg,  where  he  continued  after  removing  into  the  53rd 
regiment  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant  in  1791.  In  the  beginning 
of  1793  he  raised  a  company,  and  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
captain.  The  same  year  he  acted  as  assistant  secretary  to  the 
British  minister  at  Genoa,  and  served  with  distinction  as  a  staff 
officer  in  the  siege  of  Toulon.  Hill  took  part  in  many  minor 
expeditions  in  the  following  years.  In  1800,  when  only  twenty- 
eight,  he  was  made  a  brevet  colonel,  and  in  1801  he  served  with 
distinction  in  Sir  Ralph  Abercromby's  expedition  to  Egypt,  and 
was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Alexandria.  He  continued  to 
command  his  regiment,  the  goth,  until  1803,  when  he  became  a 
brigadier-general.  During  his  regimental  command  he  introduced 
a  regimental  school  and  a  sergeants'  mess.  He  held  various 
commands  as  brigadier,  and  after  1805  as  major-general,  in 
Ireland.  In  1805  he  commanded  a  brigade  in  the  abortive 
Hanover  expedition.  In  1808  he  was  appointed  to  a  brigade  in 
the  force  sent  to  Portugal,  and  from  Vimeira  to  Vittoria,  in 
advance  or  retreat,  he  proved  himself  Wellington's  ablest  and 
most  indefatigable  coadjutor.  He  led  a  brigade  at  Vimeira, 
at  Corunna  and  at  Oporto,  and  a  division  at  Talavera  (see 
PENINSULAR  WAR).  His  capacity  for  independent  command 
was  fully  demonstrated  in  the  campaigns  of  1810,  1811  and 
1812.  In  1811  he  annihilated  a  French  detachment  under 
Girard  at  Arroyo-dos-Molinos,  and  early  in  1812,  having  now 
attained  a  rank  of  lieutenant-general  (January  1812)  and  become 
a  K.B.  (March),  he  carried  by  assault  the  important  works  of 
Almaraz  on  the  Tagus.  Hill  led  the  right  wing  of  Wellington's 
army  in  the  Salamanca  campaign  in  1812  and  at  the  battle  of 
Vittoria  in  1813.  Later  in  this  year  he  conducted  the  investment 
of  Pampeluna  and  fought  with  the  greatest  distinction  at  the 
N.ivelle  and  the  Nive.  In  the  invasion  of  France  in  1 8 1 4  his  corps 
was  victoriously  engaged  both  at  Orthez  and  at  Toulouse.  Hill 
was  one  of  the  general  officers  rewarded  for  their  services  by 
peerages,  his  title  being  at  first  Baron  Hill  of  Almaraz  and 
Hawkstone,  and  he  received  a  pension,  the  thanks  of  parliament 
and  the  freedom  of  the  city  of  London.  For  about  two  years 
previous  to  his  elevation  to  the  peerage,  he  had  been  M.P.  for 
Shrewsbury.  In  1815  the  news  of  Napoleon's  return  from  Elba 
was  followed  by  the  assembly  of  an  Anglo-Allied  army  (see 
WATERLOO  CAMPAIGN)  in  the  Netherlands,  and  Hill  was  appointed 
to  one  of  the  two  corps  commands  in  this  army.  At  Waterloo  he 
led  the  famous  charge  of  Sir  Frederick  Adams's  brigade  against 
the  Imperial  Guard,  and  for  some  time  it  was  thought  that  he 


HILL— HILLEL 


467 


had  fallen  in  the  melee.  He  escaped,  however,  without  a  wound, 
and  continued  with  the  army  in  France  until  its  withdrawal  in 
1818.  Hill  lived  in  retirement  for  some  years  at  his  estate  of 
Hardwicke  Grange.  He  carried  the  royal  standard  at  the  corona- 
tion of  George  IV.  and  became  general  in  1825.  When  Wellington 
became  premier  in  1828,  he  received  the  appointment  of  general 
commanding-in-chief,  and  on  resigning  this  office  in  1842  he  was 
created  a  viscount.  He  died  on  the  loth  of  December  of  the 
same  year.  Lord  Hill  was,  next  to  Wellington,  the  most  popular 
and  able  soldier  of  his  time  in  the  British  service,  and  was  so 
much  beloved  by  the  troops,  especially  those  under  his  immediate 
command,  that  he  gained  from  them  the  title  of  "  the  soldier's 
friend."  He  was  a  G.C.B.  and  G.C.H.,  and  held  the  grand 
crosses  of  various  foreign  orders,  amongst  them  the  Russian  St 
George  and  the  Austrian  Maria  Theresa. 

The  Life  of  Lord  Hill,  G.C.B. ,  by  Rev.  Edwin  Sidney,  appeared  in 
1845. 

HILL  (O.  Eng.  hyll;  cf.  Low  Ger.  hull,  Mid.  Dutch  hul,  allied 
to  Lat.  celsus,  high,  collis,  hill,  &c.),  a  natural  elevation  of  the 
earth's  surface.  The  term  is  now  usually  confined  to  elevations 
lower  than  a  mountain,  but  formerly  was  used  for  all  such 
elevations,  high  or  low. 

HILLAH,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  the  pashalik  of  Bagdad, 
60  m.  S.  of  the  city  of  Bagdad,  in  32°  28'  35"  N.,  44°  48'  40!"  E., 
formerly  the  capital  of  a  sanjak  and  the  residence  of  a  mutasserif, 
who  in  1893  was  transferred  to  Diwanieh.  It  is  situated  on  both 
banks  of  the  Euphrates,  the  two  parts  of  the  town  being  con- 
nected by  a  floating  bridge,  450  ft.  in  length,  in  the  midst  of  a 
very  fertile  district.  The  estimated  population,  which  includes  a 
large  number  of  Jews,  varies  from  6000  to  1 2,000.  The  town  has 
suffered  much  from  the  periodical  breaking  of  the  Hindieh  dam 
and  the  consequent  deflection  of  the  waters  of  the  Euphrates  to 
the  westward,  as  a  result  of  which  at  times  the  Euphrates  at  this 
point  has  been  entirely  dry.  This  deflection  of  water  has  also 
seriously  interfered  with  the  palm  groves,  the  cultivation  of 
which  constitutes  a  large  part  of  the  industry  of  the  surrounding 
country  along  the  river.  The  bazaars  of  Hillah  are  relatively 
large  and  well  supplied.  Many  of  the  houses  in  the  town  are 
built  of  brick,  not  a  few  bearing  an  inscription  of  Nebuchadrezzar, 
obtained  from  the  ruins  of  Babylon,  which  lie  less  than  an  hour 
away  to  the  north. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — C.  J.  Rich,  Babylon  and  Persepolis  (1839);  J.  R. 
Peters,  Nippur  (1857);  H.  Rassam,  Asshur  and  the  Land  of  Nimrod 
(1897);  H.  V.  Geere,  By  Nile  and  Euphrates  (1904).  (J.  P.  PE.) 

HILLARD,  GEORGE  STILLMAN  (1808-1879),  American 
lawyer  and  author,  was  born  at  Machias,  Maine,  on  the  22nd  of 
September  1808.  After  graduating  at  Harvard  College  in  1828, 
he  taught  in  the  Round  Hill  School  at  Northampton,  Massa- 
chusetts. He  graduated  at  the  Harvard  Law  School  in  1832,  and 
in  1833  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Boston,  where  he  entered 
into  partnership  with  Charles  Sumner.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
state  House  of  Representatives  in  1836,  of  the  state  Senate  in 
1850,  and  of  the  state  constitutional  convention  of  1853,  and 
in  1866-70  was  United  States  district  attorney  for  Massa- 
chusetts. He  devoted  a  large  portion  of  his  time  to  literature. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  editorial  staff  of  the  Christian 
Register,  a  Unitarian  weekly,  in  1833;  in  1834  he  became  editor 
of  The  American  Jurist  (1829-1843),  a  legal  journal  to  which 
Sumner,  Simon  Greenleaf  and  Theron  Metcalf  contributed;  and 
from  1856  to  1861  he  was  an  associate  editor  of  the  Boston 
Courier.  His  publications  include  an  edition  of  Edmund 
Spenser's  works  (in  5  vols.,  1839);  Selections  from  the  Writings  of 
Walter  Savage  Landor  (1856) ;  Six  Months  in  Italy  (2  vols.,  1853) ; 
Life  and  Campaigns  of  George  B.  McClellan  (1864);  a  part  of  the 
Life,  Letters,  and  Journals  of  George  Ticknor  (1876);  besides  a 
series  of  school  readers  and  many  articles  in  periodicals  and 
encyclopaedias.  He  died  in  Boston  on  the  2ist  of  January 
1879- 

HILLEBRAND,  KARL  (1829-1884),  German  author,  was 
born  at  Giessen  on  the  i7th  of  September  1829,  his  father 
Joseph  Hillebrand  (1788-1871)  being  a  literary  historian  and 
writer  on  philosophic  subjects.  Karl  Hillebrand  became  involved, 
as  a  student  in  Heidelberg,  in  the  Baden  revolutionary  move- 


ment, and  was  imprisoned  in  Rastatt.  He  succeeded  in  escaping 
and  lived  for  a  time  in  Strassburg,  Paris — where  for  several 
months  he  was  Heine's  secretary — and  Bordeaux.  He  continued 
his  studies,  and  after  obtaining  the  doctor's  degree  at  the 
Sorbonne,  he  was  appointed  teacher  of  German  in  the  £cole 
militaire  at  St  Cyr,  and  shortly  afterwards,  professor  of  foreign 
literatures  at  Douai.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Franco-German 
War  he  resigned  his  professorship  and  acted  for  a  time  as 
correspondent  to  The  Times  in  Italy.  He  then  settled  in 
Florence,  where  he  died  on  the  igth  of  October  1884.  Hille- 
brand wrote  with  facility  and  elegance  in  French,  English  and 
Italian,  besides  his  own  language.  His  essays,  collected  under 
the  title  Zeiten,  Volker  und  Menschen  (Berlin,  1874-1885),  show 
clear  discernment,  a  finely  balanced  cosmopolitan  judgment 
and  grace  of  style.  He  undertook  to  write  the  Geschichte  Frank- 
reichs  von  der  Thronbesteigung  Ludwig  Philipps  bis  zum  Fall 
Napoleons  III.,  but  only  two  volumes  were  completed  (to  1848) 
(2nd-ed.,  1881-1882).  In  French  he  published  Des  conditions 
de  la  bonne  comedie  (1863),  La  Prusse  contemporaine  (1867), 
Etudes  italiennes  (1868),  and  a  translation  of  O.  Midler's  Griechi- 
sche  Literaturgeschichte  (3rd  ed.,  1883).  In  English  he  published 
his  Royal  Institution  Lectures  on  German  Thought  during  the 
Last  Two  Hundred  Years  (1880).  He  also  edited  a  collection 
of  essays  dealing  with  Italy,  under  the  title  Italia  (4  vols., 
Leipzig,  1874-1877). 

See  H.  Homberger,  Karl  Hillebrand  (Berlin,  1884). 

HILLEL,  Jewish  rabbi,  of  Babylonian  origin,  lived  at  Jeru- 
salem in  the  time  of  King  Herod.  Though  hard  pressed  by 
poverty,  he  applied  himself  to  study  in  the  schools  of  Shemaiah 
and  Abtalion  (Sameas  and  Pollion  in  Josephus).  On  account 
of  his  comprehensive  learning  and  his  rare  qualities  he  was 
numbered  among  the  recognized  leaders  of  the  Pharisaic  scribes. 
Tradition  assigns  him  the  highest  dignity  of  the  Sanhedrin, 
under  the  title  of  nasi  ("  prince  "),  about  a  hundred  years  before 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  i.e.  about  30  B.C.  The  date  at 
least  can  be  recognized  as  historic;  the  fact  that  Hillel  took 
a  leading  position  in  the  council  can  also  be  established.  The 
epithet  ha-zafyen  ("  the  elder "),  which  usually  accompanies 
his  name,  proves  him  to  have  been  a  member  of  the  Sanhedrin, 
and  according  to  a  trustworthy  authority  Hillel  filled  his  leading 
position  for  forty  years,  dying,  therefore,  about  A.D.  10.  His 
descendants  remained,  with  few  exceptions,  at  the  head  of 
Judaism  in  Palestine  until  the  beginning  of  the  sth  century, 
two  of  them,  his  grandson  Gamaliel  I.  and  the  latter's  son 
Simon,  during  the  time  when  the  Temple  was  still  standing. 
The  fact  that  Josephus  ( Vita  38)  ascribes  to  Simon  descent  from 
a  very  distinguished  stock  (ytvovs  aijmdpa.  Xo/inrpoC),  shows  in 
what  degree  of  estimation  Hillel's  descendants  stood.  When 
the  dignity  of  nasi  became  afterwards  hereditary  among  them, 
Hillel's  ancestry,  perhaps  on  the  ground  of  old  family  traditions, 
was  traced  back  to  David.  Hillel  is  especially  noted  for  the 
fact  that  he  gave  a  definite  form  to  the  Jewish  traditional 
learning,  as  it  had  been  developed  and  made  into  the  ruling  and 
conserving  factor  of  Judaism  in  the  latter  days  of  the  second 
Temple,  and  particularly  in  the  centuries  following  the  destruction 
of  the  Temple.  He  laid  down  seven  rules  for  the  interpretation 
of  the  Scriptures,  and  these  became  the  foundation  of  rabbinical 
hermeneutics;  and  the  ordering  of  the  traditional  doctrines, 
into  a  whole,  effected  in  the  Mishna  by  his  successor  Judah  I., 
two  hundred  years  after  Hillel's  death,  was  probably  likewise 
due  to  his  instigation.  The  tendency  of  his  theory  and  practice 
in  matters  pertaining  to  the  Law  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that 
in  general  he  advanced  milder  and  more  lenient  views  in  op- 
position to  his  colleague  Shammai,  a  contrast  which  after  the 
death  of  the  two  masters,  but  not  until  after  the  destruction  of 
the  Temple,  was  maintained  in  the  strife  kept  up  between  the 
two  schools  named  the  House  of  Hillel  and  the  House  of  Shammai. 
The  well-known  institution  of  the  Prosbol  (ir/xxr/JoXij),  introduced 
by  Hillel,  was  intended  to  avert  the  evil  consequences  of  the 
scriptural  law  of  release  in  the  seventh  year  (Deut.  xv.  i).  He 
was  led  to  this,  as  is  expressly  set  forth  (M.  Giltin,  iv.  3),  by  a 
regard  for  the  welfare  of  the  community.  Hillel  lived  in  the 


HILLER,  F.— HILLER,  J.  A. 


memory  of  posterity  chiefly  as  the  great  teacher  who  enjoined 
and  practised  the  virtues  of  charity,  humility  and  true  piety. 
His  proverbial  sayings,  in  particular,  a  great  number  of  which 
were  written  down  partly  in  Aramaic,  partly  in  Hebrew,  strongly 
affected  the  spirit  both  of  his  contemporaries  and  of  the  succeed- 
ing generations.  In  his  Maxims  (Abolh,  i.  12)  he  recommends 
the  love  of  peace  and  the  love  of  mankind  beyond  all  else,  and 
his  own  love  of  peace  sprang  from  the  tenderness  and  deep 
humility  which  were  essential  features  in  his  character,  as  has 
been  illustrated  by  many  anecdotes.  Hillel's  patience  has 
become  proverbial.  One  of  his  sayings  commends  humility 
in  the  following  paradox:  "  My  abasement  is  my  exaltation." 
His  charity  towards  men  is  given  its  finest  expression  in  the 
answer  which  he  made  to  a  proselyte  who  asked  to  be  taught 
the  commandments  of  the  Torah  in  the  shortest  possible  form: 
"  What  is  unpleasant  to  thyself  that  do  not  to  thy  neighbour; 
this  is  the  whole  Law,  all  else  is  but  its  exposition."  This  allusion 
to  the  scriptural  injunction  to  love  one's  neighbour  (Lev.  xix. 
1 8)  as  the  fundamental  law  of  religious  morals,  became  in  a 
certain  sense  a  commonplace  of  Pharisaic  scholasticism.  For  the 
Pharisee  who  accepts  the  answer  of  Jesus  regarding  that  funda- 
mental doctrine  which  ranks  the  love  of  one's  neighbour  as 
the  highest  duty  after  the  love  of  God  (Mark  xii.  33),  does  so 
because  as  a  disciple  of  Hillel  the  idea  is  familiar  to  him.  St 
Paul  also  (Gal.  v.  14)  doubtless  learned  this  in  the  school  of 
Gamaliel.  Hillel  emphasized  the  connexion  between  duty 
towards  one's  neighbour  and  duty  towards  oneself  in  the  epi- 
grammatic saying:  "If  I  am  not  for  myself,  who  is  for  me? 
And  if  I  am  for  myself  alone,  what  then  am  I  ?  And  if  not  now, 
then  when?"  (Abolh,  i.  14).  The  duty  of  working  both  with 
and  for  men  he  teaches  in  the  sentence:  "  Separate  not  thyself 
from  the  congregation  "  (ib.  ii.  4).  The  duty  of  considering 
oneself  part  of  comman  humanity,  of  not  differing  from  others 
by  any  peculiarity  of  behaviour,  he  sums  up  in  the  words: 
"  Appear  neither  naked  nor  clothed,  neither  sitting  nor  standing, 
neither  laughing  nor  weeping  "  (Tosef.  Ber.  c.  ii.).  The  command 
to  love  one's  neighbour  inspired  also  Hillel's  injunction  (Abolh, 
ii.  4):  "  Judge  not  thy  neighbour  until  thou  art  in  his  place  " 
(cf.  Matt.  vii.  i).  The  disinterested  pursuit  of  learning,  study 
for  study's  sake,  is  commended  in  many  of  Hillel's  sayings 
as  being  what  is  best  in  life:  "  He  who  wishes  to  make  a  name 
for  himself  loses  his  name;  he  who  does  not  increase  [his  know- 
ledge] decreases  it;  he  who  does  not  learn  is  worthy  of  death; 
he  who  works  for  the  sake  of  a  crown  is  lost  "  (Abolh,  i.  13). 
"  He  who  occupies  himself  much  with  learning  makes  his  life  " 
(ib.  ii.  7).  "  He  who  has  acquired  the  words  of  doctrine  has 
acquired  the  life  of  the  world  to  come  ''  (ib.).  "  Say  not:  When 
I  am  free  from  other  occupations  I  shall  study;  for  may  be  thou 
shall  never  at  all  be  free  "  (ib.  4).  One  of  his  strings  of  proverbs 
runs  as  follows:  "  The  uncultivated  man  is  not  innocent;  the 
ignorant  man  is  not  devout;  the  bashful  man  learns  not;  the 
wrathful  man  teaches  not;  he  who  is  much  absorbed  in  trade 
cannot  become  wise;  where  no  men  are,  there  strive  thyself 
to  be  a  man  "  (ib.  5).  The  almost  mystical  profundity  of  Hillel's 
conciousness  of  God  is  shown  in  the  words  spoken  by  him  on 
the  occasion  of  a  feast  in  the  Temple — words  alluding  to  the 
throng  of  people  gathered  there  which  he  puts  into  the  mouth 
of  God  Himself:  "  If  I  am  here  every  one  is  here;  if  I 
am  not  here  no  one  is  here  "  (Sukkah  530).  In  like  manner 
Hillel  makes  God  say  to  Israel,  referring  to  Exodus  xx.  24: 
"  Whither  I  please,  thither  will  I  go;  if  thou  come  into  my 
house  I  come  into  thy  house;  if  thou  come  not  into  my  house,  1 
come  not  into  thine  "  (ib.). 

It  is  noteworthy  that  no  miraculous  legends  are  connected 
with  Hillel's  life.  A  scholastic  tradition,  however,  tells  of 
a  voice  from  heaven  which  made  itself  heard  when  the  wise  men 
had  assembled  in  Jericho,  saying:  "Among  those  here  present 
is  one  who  would  have  deserved  the  Holy  Spirit  to  rest  upon 
him,  if  his  time  had  been  worthy  of  it."  And  all  eyes  turned 
towards  Hillel  (Tos.  Sotah,  xiii.  3).  When  he  died  lamentation 
was  made  for  him  as  follows:  "  Woe  for  the  humble,  woe  for 
the  pious,  woe  for  the  disciple  of  Ezra!  "  (ib.) 


HILLEL  II.,  one  of  the  patriarchs  belonging  to  the  family  of  Hillel  I., 
lived  in  Tiberias  about  the  middle  of  the  4th  century,  and  introduced 
the  arrangement  of  the  calendar  through  which  the  Jews  of  the 
Diaspora  became  independent  of  Palestine  in  the  uniform  fixation 
of  the  new  moons  and  feasts. 

The  Rabbi  HILLEL,  who  in  the  4th  century  made  the  remarkable 
declaration  that  Israel  need  not  expect  a  Messiah,  because  the  promise 
of  a  Messiah  had  already  been  fulfilled  in  the  days  of  King  Hezekiah 
(Babli,  Sanhedrin,  99a),  is  probably  Hillel,  the  son  of  Samuel  ben 
Nahman,  a  well-known  expounder  of  the  scriptures.  (W.  BA.) 

HILLER,  FERDINAND  (1811-1885),  German  composer,  was 
born  at  Frankfort-on-Main,  on  the  24th  of  October  1811.  His 
first  master  was  Aloys  Schmitt,  and  when  he  was  ten  years  of 
age  his  compositions  and  talent  led  his  father,  a  well-to-do  man, 
to  send  him  to  Hummel  in  Weimar.  There  he  devoted  himself 
to  composition,  among  his  work  being  the  entr'actes  to  Maria 
Stuart,  through  which  he  made  Goethe's  acquaintance.  Under 
Hummel,  Hiller  made  great  strides  as  a  pianist,  so  much  so  that 
early  in  1827  he  went  on  a  tour  to  Vienna,  where  he  met  Beethoven 
and  produced  his  first  quartet.  After  a  brief  visit  home  Hiller 
went  to  Paris  in  1829,  where  he  lived  till  1836.  His  father's 
death  necessitated  his  return  to  Frankfort  for  a  time,  but  on  the 
8th  of  January  1839  he  produced  at  Milan  his  opera  La  Romilda, 
and  began  to  write  his  oratorio  Die  Zerstorung  Jerusalems,  one  of 
his  best  works.  Then  he  went  to  Leipzig,  to  his  friend  Mendels- 
sohn, where  in  1843-1844  he  conducted  a  number  of  the  Gewand- 
haus  concerts  and  produced  his  oratorio.  After  a  further  visit 
to  Italy  to  study  sacred  music,  Hiller  produced  two  operas,  Ein 
Traum  and  Conradin,  at  Dresden  in  1845  and  1847  respectively; 
he  went  as  conductor  to  Diisseldorf  in  1847  and  Cologne  in  1850, 
and  conducted  at  the  Opera  Italien  in  Paris  in  1851  and  1852. 
At  Cologne  he  became  a  power  as  conductor  of  the  Giirzenich 
concerts  and  head  of  the  Conservatorium.  In  1884  he  retired, 
and  died  on  the  I2th  of  May  in  the  following  year.  Hiller 
frequently  visited  England.  He  composed  a  work  for  the 
opening  of  the  Royal  Albert  Hall,  his  Nala  and  Damayanti  was 
performed  at  Birmingham,  and  he  gave  a  series  of  pianoforte 
recitals  of  his  own  compositions  at  the  Hanover  Square  Rooms 
in  1871.  He  had  a  perfect  mastery  over  technique  and  form  in 
musical  composition,  but  his  works  are  generally  dry.  He  was  a 
sound  pianist  and  teacher,  and  occasionally  a  brilliant  writer  on 
musical  matters.  His  compositions,  numbering  about  two 
hundred,  include  six  operas,  two  oratorios,  six  or  seven  cantatas, 
much  chamber  music  and  a  once-popular  pianoforte  concerto. 

HILLER,  JOHANN  ADAM  (1728-1804),  German  musical 
composer,  was  born  at  Wendisch-Ossig  near  Gorlitz  in  Silesia  on 
the  2£th  of  December  1728.  By  the  death  of  his  father  in  1734 
he  was  left  dependent  to  a  large  extent  on  the  charity  of  friends. 
Entering  in  1747  the  Kreuzschule  in  Dresden,  the  school  attended 
many  years  afterwards  by  Richard  Wagner,  he  subsequently 
went  to  the  university  of  Leipzig,  where  he  studied  jurisprudence, 
supporting  himself  by  giving  music  lessons,  and  also  by  per- 
forming afconcerts  both  on  the  flute  and  as  a  vocalist.  Gradually 
he  adopted  music  as  his  sole  profession,  and  devoted  himself  more 
especially  to  the  permanent  establishment  of  a  concert  institute 
at  Leipzig.  It  was  he  who  in  1781  originated  the  celebrated 
Gewandhaus  concerts  which  still  flourish  at  Leipzig.  In  1789 
he  became  "  cantor  "  of  the  Thomas  school  there,  a  position 
previously  held  by  John  Sebastian  Bach.  He  died  in  Leipzig  on 
the  i6th  of  June  1804.  Two  of  his  pupils  placed  a  monument  to 
his  memory  in  front  of  the  Thomas  school.  Killer's  compositions 
comprise  almost  every  kind  of  church  music,  from  the  cantata  to 
the  simple  chorale.  But  much  more  important  are  his  operettas, 
14  in  number,  which  for  a  long  time  retained  their  place  on  the 
boards,  and  had  considerable  influence  on  the  development  of 
light  dramatic  music  in  Germany.  The  Jolly  Cobbler,  Love  in  the 
Country  and  the  Village  Barber  were  amongst  the  most  popular 
of  his  works.  Hiller  also  excelled  in  sentimental  songs  and  ballads. 
With  great  simplicity  of  structure  his  music  combines  a  consider- 
able amount  of  genuine  melodic  invention.  Although  an  admirer 
and  imitator  of  the  Italian  school,  Hiller  fully  appreciated  the 
greatness  of  Handel,  and  did  much  for  the  appreciation  of  his 
music  in  Germany.  It  was  under  his  direction  that  the  Messiah 


HILLIARD,  L.— HILTON 


469 


was  for  the  first  time  given  at  Berlin,  more  than  forty  years  after 
the  composition  of  that  great  work.  Hiller  was  also  a  writer  on 
music,  and  for  some  years  (1766-1770)  edited  a  musical  weekly 
periodical  named  Wiichentliche  Nachrichten  und  Anmerkungcn  die 
Musik  betrefend. 

HILLIARD,  LAWRENCE  (d.  1640),  English  miniature  painter. 
The  date  of  his  birth  is  not  known,  but  he  died  in  1640.  He  was 
the  son  of  Nicholas  Milliard,  and  evidently  derived  his  Christian 
name  from  that  of  his  grandmother.  He  adopted  his  father's 
profession  and  worked  out  the  unexpired  time  of  his  licence  after 
Nicholas  Hilliard  died.  It  was  from  Lawrence  Hilliard  that 
Charles  I.  received  the  portrait  of  Queen  Elizabeth  now  at 
Montagu  House,  since  van  der  Dort's  catalogue  describes  it  as 
"  done  by  old  Hilliard,  and  bought  by  the  king  of  young  Hilliard." 
In  1624  he  was  paid  £42  from  the  treasury  for  five  pictures,  but 
the  warrant  does  not  specify  whom  they  represented.  His 
portraits  are  of  great  rarity,  two  of  the  most  beautiful  being  those 
in  the  collections  of  Earl  Beauchamp  and  Mr  J.  Pierpont  Morgan. 
They  are  as  a  rule  signed  L.H.,  but  are  also  to  be  distinguished  by 
the  beauty  of  the  calligraphy  in  which  the  inscriptions  round  the 
portraits  are  written.  The  writing  is  as  a  rule  very  florid,  full  of 
exquisite  curves  and  flourishes,' and  more  elaborate  than  the  more 
formal  handwriting  of  Nicholas  Hilliard.  The  colour  scheme 
adopted  by  the  son  is  richer  and  more  varied  than  that  used  by 
the  father,  and  Lawrence  Hilliard's  miniatures  are  not  so  hard  as 
are  those  of  Nicholas,  and  are  marked  by  more  shade  and  a 
greater  effect  of  atmosphere.  (G.  C.  W.) 

HILLIARD,  NICHOLAS  (c.  1537-1619),  the  first  true  English 
miniature  painter,  is  said  to  have  been  the  son  of  Richard  Hilliard 
of  Exeter,  high  sheriff  of  the  city  and  county  in  1 560,  by  Lawrence, 
daughter  of  John  Wall,  goldsmith,  of  London,  and  was  born 
probably  about  1537.  He  was  appointed  goldsmith,  carver  and 
portrait  painter  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  engraved  the  Great  Seal 
of  England  in  1 586.  He  was  in  high  favour  with  James  I.  as  well 
as  with  Elizabeth,  and  from  the  king  received  a  special  patent  of 
appointment,  dated  the  5th  of  May  1617,  and  granting  him  a  sole 
licence  for  the  royal  work  for  twelve  years.  He  is  believed  to 
have  been  the  author  of  an  important  treatise  on  miniature 
painting,  now  preserved  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  but  it  seems 
more  probable  that  the  author  of  that  treatise  was  John  de 
Critz,  Serjeant  Painter  to  James  I.  It  is  probable,  however, 
that  the  treatise  was  taken  down  from  the  instructions  of  Hilliard, 
for  the  benefit  of  one  of  his  pupils,  perhaps  Isaac  Oliver. 

The  esteem  of  his  countrymen  for  Hilliard  is  testified  to  by 
Dr  Donne,  who  in  a  poem  called  "  The  Storm  "  (i  597)  praises  the 
work  of  this  artist.  He  painted  a  portrait  of  himself  at  the  age  of 
thirteen,  and  is  said  to  have  executed  one  of  Mary  queen  of 
Scots  when  he  was  eighteen  years  old.  He  died  on  the  7th  of 
January  1619,  and  was  buried  in  St  Martin's-in-the-Fields, 
Westminster,  leaving  by  his  will  twenty  shillings  to  the  poor  of 
the  parish,  £30  between  his  two  sisters,  some  goods  to  his  maid- 
servant, and  all  the  rest  of  his  effects  to  his  son,  Lawrence 
Hilliard,  his  sole  executor. 

It  seems  to  be  pretty  certain  that  he  visited  France,  and  that  he 
is  the  artist  alluded  to  in  the  papers  of  the  due  d'Alencon  under 
the  name  of  "  Nicholas  Belliart,  peintre  anglois "  who  was 
painter  to  this  prince  in  1577,  receiving  a  stipend  of  200  livres. 
The  miniature  of  Mademoiselle  de  Sourdis,  in  the  collection  of 
Mr  J.  Pierpont  Morgan,  is  certainly  the  work  of  Hilliard,  and  is 
dated  1577,  in  which  year  she  was  a  maid  of  honour  at  the 
French  Court;  and  other  portraits  which  are  his  work  are 
believed  to  represent  Gabrielle  d'Estrees,  niece  of  Madame  de 
Sourdis,  la  Princesse  de  Conde  and  Madame  de  Montgomery. 

For  further  infprmation  respecting  Hilliard's  sojourn  in  France, 
see  the  privately  printed  catalogue  of  the  collection  of  miniatures 
belonging  to  Mr  J.  Pierpont  Morgan,  compiled  by  Dr  G.  C. 
Williamson.  (G.  C.  W.) 

HILLSDALE,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Hillsdale  county, 
Michigan,  U.S.A.,  about  87  m.  W.  by  S.  of  Detroit.  Pop. 
(1900)  4151,  of  whom  300  were  foreign-born;  (1904)  4809; 
(1910)  5001.  Hillsdale  is  served  by  the  Lake  Shore  &  Michigan 
Southern  railway.  It  has  a  public  library,  and  is  the  seat  of 


Hillsdale  College  (co-educational,  Free  Baptist),  which  was 
opened  as  Michigan  Central  College,  at  Spring  Arbor,  Michigan, 
in  1844,  was  removed  to  Hillsdale  and  received  its  present 
name  in  1853  and  was  re-opened  here  in  1855.  The  college 
in  1907-1908  had  22  instructors  and  345  students.  The  city 
is  a  centre  for  a  rich  farming  region;  among  its  manufactures 
are  gasoline  and  gas  engines,  screen  doors,  wagons,  barrels, 
shoes,  fur-coats  and  flour.  Hillsdale  was  first  settled  in  1837, 
was  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1847,  and  was  chartered  as 
a  city  in  1869. 

HILL  TIPPERA,  or  TRIPURA,  a  native  state  of  India,  adjoining 
the  British  district  of  Tippera,  in  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam. 
Area,  4086  sq.  m.;  pop.  (1901)  173,325;  estimated  revenue, 
£55,000.  Six  parallel  ranges  of  hill  cross  it  from  north  to  south, 
at  an  average  distance  of  12  m.  apart.  The  hills  are  covered 
for  the  most  part  with  bamboo  jungle,  while  the  low  ground 
abounds  with  trees  of  various  kinds,  canebrakes  and  swamps. 
The  principal  crop  and  food  staple  is  rice.  The  other  articles 
of  produce  are  cotton,  chillies  and  vegetables.  The  chief  exports 
are  cotton,  timber,  oilseeds,  bamboo  canes,  thatching-grass 
and  firewood,  on  all  of  which  tolls  are  levied.  The  chief  rivers 
are  the  Gumti,  Haora,  Khoyai,  Dulai,  Manu  and  Fenny  (Pheni). 
During  the  heavy  rains  the  people  in  the  plains  use  boats  as 
almost  the  sole  means  of  conveyance. 

The  history  of  the  state  includes  two  distinct  periods — the 
traditional  period  described  in  the  Rajmala,  or  "  Chronicles 
of  the  Kings  of  Tippera,"  and  the  period  since  A.D.  1407. 
The  Rajmala  is  a  history  in  Bengali  verse,  compiled  by  the 
Brahmans  of  the  court  of  Tripura.  In  the  early  history  of  the 
state,  the  rajas  were  in  a  state  of  chronic  feud  with  all  the 
neighbouring  countries.  The  worship  of  Siva  was  here,  as 
elsewhere  in  India,  associated  with  the  practice  of  human 
sacrifice,  and  in  no  part  of  India  were  more  victims  offered. 
It  was  not  until  the  beginning  of  the  I7th  century  that  the 
Moguls  obtained  any  footing  in  this  country.  When  the  East 
India  Company  obtained  the  diwani  or  financial  administration 
of  Bengal  in  1765,  so  much  of  Tippera  as  had  been  placed  on 
the  Mahommedan  rent-roll  came  under  British  rule.  Sin,:e 
1808,  each  successive  ruler  has  received  investiture  from  the 
British  government.  In  October  1905  the  state  was  attached 
to  the  new  province  of  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam.  It  has  a 
chronological  era  of  its  own,  adopted  by  Raja  Birraj,  from 
whom  the  present  raja  is  93rd  in  descent.  The  year  1875 
corresponded  with  1285  of  the  Tippera  era. 

Besides  being  the  ruler  of  Hill  Tippera,  the  raja  holds  an 
estate  in  the  British  district  of  Tippera,  called  chakla  Roshnabad, 
which  is  far  the  most  valuable  of  his  possessions.  The  capital 
is  Agartala  (pop.  9513),  where  there  is  an  Arts  College.  The 
raja's  palace  and  other  public  buildings  were  seriously  damaged 
by  the  earthquake  of  the  i2th  of  June  1897.  The  late  raja, 
who  died  from  the  result  of  a  motor-car  accident  in  1909, 
succeeded  his  father  in  1896,  but  he  had  taken  a  large  share 
in  the  administration  of  the  state  for  some  years  previously. 
The  principle  of  succession,  which  had  often  caused  serious 
disputes,  was  defined  in  1904,  to  the  effect  that  the  chief  may 
nominate  any  male  descendant  through  males  from  himself 
or  from  any  male  ancestor,  but  failing  such  nomination,  then 
the  rule  of  primogeniture  applies. 

HILTON,  JOHN  (1804-1878),  British  surgeon,  was  born  at 
Castle  Hedingham,  in  Essex,  in  1804.  He  entered  Guy's  Hos- 
pital in  1824.  He  was  appointed  demonstrator  of  anatomy 
in  1828,  assistant-surgeon  in  1845,  surgeon  1849.  In  1867 
he  was  president  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  of  which 
he  became  member  in  1827  and  fellow  in  1843,  and  he 
also  delivered  the  Hunterian  oration  in  1867.  As  Arris  and 
Gale  professor  (1859-1862)  he  delivered  a  course  of  lectures 
on  "  Rest  and  Pain,"  which  have  become  classics.  He  was 
also  surgeon-extraordinary  to  Queen  Victoria.  Hilton  was 
the  greatest  anatomist  of  his  time,  and  was  nick  named  "  Ana- 
tomical John."  It  was  he  who,  with  Joseph  Towne  the  artist, 
enriched  Guy's  Hospital  with  its  unique  collection  of  models. 
In  his  grasp  of  the  structure  and  functions  of  the  brain  and 


470 


HILTON— HIMALAYA 


spinal  cord  he  was  far  in  advance  of  his  contemporaries.  As 
an  operator  he  was  more  cautious  than  brilliant.  This  was 
doubtless  due  partly  to  his  living  in  the  pre-anaesthetics  period, 
and  partly  to  his  own  consummate  anatomical  knowledge, 
as  is  indicated  by  the  method  for  opening  deep  abscesses  which 
is  known  by  his  name.  But  he  could  be  bold  when  necessary; 
he  was  the  first  to  reduce  a  case  of  obturator  hernia  by  abdominal 
section,  and  one  of  the  first  to  practise  lumbar  colostomy.  He 
died  at  Clapham  on  the  i4th  of  September  1878. 

HILTON,  WILLIAM  (1786-1839),  English  painter,  was  born 
in  Lincoln  on  the  3rd  of  June  1786,  son  of  a  portrait-painter. 
In  1800  he  was  placed  with  the  engraver  J.  R.  Smith,  and 
about  the  same  time  began  studying  in  the  Royal  Academy 
school.  He  first  exhibited  in  this  institution  in  1803,  sending 
a  "  Group  of  Banditti  ";  and  he  soon  established  a  reputation 
for  choice  of  subject,  and  qualities  of  design  and  colour  superior 
to  the  great  mass  of  his  contemporaries.  He  made  a  tour  in 
Italy  with  Thomas  Phillips,  the  portrait-painter.  In  1813, 
having  exhibited  "  Miranda  and  Ferdinand  with  the  Logs  of 
Wood,"  he  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Academy,  and  in 
1820  a  full  academician,  his  diploma-picture  representing 
"  Ganymede."  In  1823  he  produced  "  Christ  crowned  with 
Thorns,"  a  large  and  important  work,  subsequently  bought 
out  of  the  Chantrey  Fund;  this  may  be  regarded  as  his  master- 
piece. In  1827  he  succeeded  Henry  Thomson  as  keeper  of  the 
Academy.  He  died  in  London  on  the  3oth  of  December  1839. 
Some  of  his  best  pictures  remained  on  his  hands  at  his  decease — 
such  as  the  "Angel  releasing  Peter  from  Prison"  (life-size), 
painted  in  1831,  "  Una  with  the  Lion  entering  Corceca's  Cave  " 
(1832),  the  "  Murder  of  the  Innocents,"  his  last  exhibited 
work  (1838),  "  Comus,"  and  "  Amphitrite."  The  National 
Gallery  now  owns  "  Edith  finding  the  Body  of  Harold  "  (1834), 
"  Cupid  Disarmed,"  "  Rebecca  and  Abraham's  Servant " 
(1829),  "  Nature  blowing  Bubbles  for  her  Children  "  (1821), 
and  "  Sir  Calepine  rescuing  Serena  "  (from  the  Faerie  Queen) 
(1831).  In  the  National  Portrait  Gallery  is  his  likeness  of  John 
Keats,  with  whom  he  was  acquainted.  In  a  great  school  or 
period  Hilton  could  not  count  as  more  than  a  respectable 
subordinate;  but  in  the  British  school  of  the  earlier  part  of 
the  igth  century  he  had  sufficient  elevation  of  aim  and  width 
of  attainment  to  stand  conspicuous. 

HILVERSUM,  a  town  in  the  province  of  North  Holland, 
18  m.  by  rail  S.E.  of  Amsterdam.  It  is  connected  with  Amster- 
dam by  a  steam  tramway,  passing  by  way  of  the  small  fortified 
towns  of  Naarden  and  Muiden  on  the  Zuider  Zee.  Pop.  (1900) 
20,238.  It  is  situated  in  the  middle  of  the  Gooi,  a  stretch  of 
hilly  country  extending  from  the  Zuider  Zee  to  about  5  m. 
south  of  Hilversum,  and  composed  of  pine  woods  and  sandy 
heaths.  A  convalescent  home,  the  Trompenberg,  was  established 
here  in  1874,  and  there  are  a  town  hall,  middle-class  and  technical 
schools,  and  various  places  of  worship,  including  a  synagogue. 
Hilversum  manufactures  large  quantities  of  floor-cloths  and 
horse-blankets. 

HIMALAYA,  the  name  given  to  the  mountains  which  form 
the  northern  boundary  of  India.  The  word  is  Sanskrit  and 
literally  signifies  "  snow-abode,"  from  him,  snow,  and  dlaya, 
abode,  and  might  be  translated  "  snowy-range,"  although  that 
expression  is  perhaps  more  nearly  the  equivalent  of  Himachal, 
another  Sanskrit  word  derived  from  him,  snow,  and  dchal, 
mountain,  which  is  practically  synonymous  with  Himalaya 
and  is  often  used  by  natives  of  northern  India.  The  name 
was  converted  by  the  Greeks  into  Emodos  and  Imaos. 

Modern  geographers  restrict  the  term  Himalaya  to  that  portion 
of  the  mountain  region  between  India  and  Tibet  enclosed  within 
the  arms  of  the  Indus  and  the  Brahmaputra.  From  the  bend 
of  the  Indus  southwards  towards  the  plains  of  the  Punjab 
to  the  bend  of  the  Brahmaputra  southwards  towards  the  plains 
of  Assam,  through  a  length  of  1500  m.,  is  Himachal  or  Himalaya. 
Beyond  the  Indus,  to  the  north-west,  the  region  of  mountain 
ranges  which  stretches  to  a  junction  with  the  Hindu  Kush  south 
of  the  Pamirs,  is  usually  known  as  Trans-Himalaya.  Thus  the 
Himalaya  represents  the  southern  face  of  the  great  central 


upheaval — the  plateau  of  Tibet — the  northern  face  of  which  is 
buttressed  by  the  Kuen  Lun. 

Throughout  this  vast  space  of  elevated  plateau  and  mountain 
face  geologists  now  trace  a  system  of  main  chains, 
or  axes,  extending  from  the  Hindu  Kush  to  Assam,  structure 
arranged     in     approximately     parallel     lines,    and 
traversed   at   intervals    by   main   lines  of   drainage 
obliquely.     Godwin-Austen  indicates  six  of  these  geological  axes 
as  follows: 

1 .  The  main  Central  Asian  axis,  the  Kuen  Lun  forming  the  northern 
edge  or  ridge  of  the  Tibetan  plateau. 

2.  The   Trans-Himalayan   chain   of   Muztagh    (or   Karakoram), 
which  is  lost  in  the  Tibetan  uplands,  passing  to  the  north  of  the 
sources  of  the  Indus. 

3.  The  Ladakh  chain,  partly  north  and  partly  south  of  the  Indus — 
for  that  river  breaks  across  it  about  100  m.  above  Leh.     This  chain 
continues  south  of  the  Tsanpo  (or  Upper  Brahmaputra),  and  becomes 
part  of  the  Himalayan  system. 

4.  The  Zaskar,  or  main  chain  of  the  Himalaya,  i.e.  the  "  snowy 
range  "  par  excellence  which  is  indicated  by  Nanga  Parbat  (over- 
looking the   Indus),  and   passes  in  a   south-east  direction  to  the 
southern  side  of  the  Deosai  plains.    Thence,  bending  slightly  south, 
it  extends  in  the  line  of  snowy  peaks  which  are  seen  from  Simla  to  the 
famous  peaks  of  Gangotri  and  Nanda  Devi.    This  is  the  best  known 
range  of  the  Himalaya. 

5.  The  outer  Himalaya  or  Pir  Panjal-Dhaoladhar  ridge. 

6.  The  Sub-Himalaya,  which  is  "  easily  denned  by  the  fringing 
line  of  hills,  more  or  less  broad,  and  in  places  very  distinctly  marked 
off  from  the  main  chain  by  open  valleys  (dhuns)  or  narrow  valleys, 
parallel  to  the  main  axis  of  the  chain."     These  include  the  Siwaliks. 

Interspersed  between  these  main  geological  axes  are  many 
other  minor  ridges,  on  some  of  which  are  peaksof  great  elevation. 
In  fact,  the  geological  axis  seldom  coincides  with  the  line  of 
highest  elevation,  nor  must  it  be  confused  with  the  main  lines 
of  water-divide  of  the  Himalaya. 

On  the  north  and  north-west  of  Kashmir  the  great  water- 
divide  which  separates  the  Indus  drainage  area  from  that  of 
the  Yarkand  and  other  rivers  of  Chinese  Turkestan  The  great 
has  been  explored  by  Sir  F.  Younghusband,  and  sub-  northern 
sequently  by  H.  H.  P.  Deasy.  The  general  result  watershed 
of  their  investigations  has  been  to  prove  that  the  ol  Iadla- 
Muztagh  range,  as  it  trends  south-eastwards  and  finally  forms  a 
continuous  mountain  barrier  together  with  the  Karakoram, 
is  the  true  water-divide  west  of  the  Tibetan  plateau.  Shutting 
off  the  sources  of  the  Indus  affluents  from  those  of  the  Central 
Asian  system  of  hydrography,  this  great  water-parting  is  dis- 
tinguished by  a  group  of  peaks  of  which  the  altitude  is  hardly 
less  than  that  of  the  Eastern  Himalaya.  Mount  Godwin-Austen 
(28,250  ft.  high),  only  750  ft.  lower  than  Everest,  affords  an 
excellent  example  in  Asiatic  geography  of  a  dominating,  peak- 
crowned  water-parting  or  divide.  From  Kailas  on  the  far  west 
to  the  extreme  north-eastern  sources  of  the  Brahmaputra,  the 
great  northern  water-parting  of  the  Indo-Tibetan  highlands  has 
only  been  occasionally  touched.  Littledale,  du  Rhins  and 
Bonvalot  may  have  stood  on  it  as  they  looked  southwards  towards 
Lhasa,  but  for  some  500  or  600  m.  east  of  Kailas  it  appears  to  be 
lost  in  the  mazes  of  the  minor  ranges  and  ridges  of  the  Tibetan 
plateau.  Nor  can  it  be  said  to  be  as  yet  well  defined  to  the  east 
of  Lhasa. 

The  Tibetan  plateau,  or  Chang,  breaks  up  about  the  meridian 
of  92°  E.,  and  to  the  east  of  this  meridian  the  affluents  of  the 
Tsanpo  (the  same  river  as  the  Dihong  and  subsequently 
as  the  Brahmaputra)  drain  no  longer  from  the  elevated 
plateau,  but  from  the  rugged  slopes  of  a  wild  region 
of  mountains  which  assumes  a  systematic  conformation  where 
its  successive  ridges  are  arranged  in  concentric  curves  around 
the  great  bend  of  the  Brahmaputra,  wherein  are  hidden  the 
sources  of  all  the  great  rivers  of  Burma  and  China.  Neither 
immediately  beyond  this  great  bend,  nor  within  it  in  the  Hima- 
layan regions  lying  north  of  Assam  and  east  of  Bhutan,  have 
scientific  investigations  yet  been  systematically  carried  out; 
but  it  is  known  that  the  largest  of  the  Himalayan  affluents  of 
the  Brahmaputra  west  of  the  bend  derive  their  sources  from  the 
Tibetan  plateau,  and  break  down  through  the  containing  bands 
of  hills,  carrying  deposits  of  gold  from  their  sources  to  the  plains, 
as  do  all  the  rivers  of  Tibet. 


HIMALAYA 


47 


Although  the  northern  limits  of  the  Tsanpo  basin  are  not 
sufficiently  well  known  to  locate  the  Indo-Tibetan  watershed 
even  approximately,  there  exists  some  scattered 
1'£nh*Z*  evidence  of  the  nature  of  that  strip  of  Northern  Hima- 
tne  central  laya  on  the  Tibeto-Nepalese  border  which  lies  between 
chain  ot  the  line  of  greatest  elevation  and  the  trough  of  the 
S"°aks  Tsanpo.  Recent  investigations  show  that  all  the 
chief  rivers  of  Nepal  flowing  southwards  to  the  Tarai 
take  their  rise  north  of  the  line  of  highest  crests,  the  "  main 
range  "  of  the  Himalaya;  and  that  some  of  them  drain  long 
lateral  high-level  valleys  enclosed  between  minor  ridges  whose 
strike  is  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  Himalaya  and,  occasionally, 
almost  at  right  angles  to  the  course  of  the  main  drainage  channels 
breaking  down  to  the  plains.  This  formation  brings  the 
southern  edge  of  the  Tsanpo  basin  to  the  immediate  neighbour- 
hood of  the  banks  of  that  river,  which  runs  at  its  foot  like  a 
drain  flanking  a  wall.  It  also  affords  material  evidence  of  that 
wrinkling  or  folding  action  which  accompanied  the  process  of 
upheaval,  when  the  Central  Asian  highlands  were  raised,  which 
is  more  or  less  marked  throughout  the  whole  of  the  north-west 
Indian  borderland.  North  of  Bhutan,  between  the  Himalayan 
crest  and  Lhasa,  this  formation  is  approximately  maintained; 
farther  east,  although  the  same  natural  forces  first  resulted  in 
the  same  effect  of  successive  folds  of  the  earth's  crust,  forming 
extensive  curves  of  ridge  and  furrow,  the  abundant  rainfall 
and  the  totally  distinct  climatic  conditions  which  govern  the 
processes  of  denudation  subsequently  led  to  the  erosion  of 
deeper  valleys  enclosed  between  forest-covered  ranges  which 
rise  steeply  from  the  river  banks. 

Although  suggestions  have  been  made  of  the  existence  of 
higher  peaks  north  of  the  Himalaya  than  that  which  dominates 
the  Everest  group,  no  evidence  has  been  adduced  to 
Height  ot  SUpport  such  a  contention.  On  the  other  hand  the 
^teaks***"  observations  of  Major  Ryder  and  other  surveyors  who 
explored  from  Lhasa  to  the  sources  of  the  Brahmaputra 
and  Indus,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  Tibetan  mission  in  1904, 
conclusively  prove  that  Mount  Everest,  which  appears  from  the 
Tibetan  plateau  as  a  single  dominating  peak,  has  no  rival  amongst 
Himalayan  altitudes,  whilst  the  very  remarkable  investigations 
made  by  permission  of  the  Nepal  durbar  from  peaks  near  Kath- 
mandu  in  1903,  by  Captain  Wood,  R.E.,  not  only  place  the 
Everest  group  apart  from  other  peaks  with  which  they  have  been 
confused  by  scientists,  isolating  them  in  the  topographical  system 
of  Nepal,  but  clearly  show  that  there  is  no  one  dominating  and 
continuous  range  indicating  a  main  Himalayan  chain  which 
includes  both  Everest  and  Kinchinjunga.  The  main  features  of 
Nepalese  topography  are  now  fairly  well  defined.  So  much 
controversy  has  been  aroused  on  the  subject  of  Himalayan 
altitudes  that  the  present  position  of  scientific  analysis  in  relation 
to  them  may  be  shortly  stated.  The  heights  of  peaks  determined 
by  exact  processes  of  trigonometrical  observation  are  bound  to 
be  more  or  less  in  error  for  three  reasons:  (i)  the  extraordinary 
geoidal  deformation  of  the  level  surface  at  the  observing  stations 
in  submontane  regions;  (2)  ignorance  of  the  laws  of  refraction 
when  rays  traverse  rarefied  air  in  snow-covered  regions;  (3) 
ignorance  of  the  variations  in  the  actual  height  of  peaks  due  to 
the  increase,  or  decrease,  of  snow.  The  value  of  the  heights 
attached  to  the  three  highest  mountains  in  the  world  are,  for 
these  reasons,  adjudged  by  Colonel  S.  G.  Burrard,  the  Supt. 
Trigonometrical  Surveys  in  India,  to  be  in  probable  error  to  the 
following  extent : 


Present  Survey 
Value  of  Height 

Most  probable 
Value. 

Mount  Everest 
Kj  (Godwin  Austen)  . 
Kinchinjunga 

29,002 
28,250 
28,146 

29,141 
28,191 

28,225 

These  determinations  have  the  effect  of  placing  Kinchinjunga 
second  and  K2third  on  the  list.  (T.  H.  H.*) 

Geology. — The  Himalaya  have  been  formed  by  violent  crumplin 
of  the  earth's  crust  along  the  southern  margin  of  the  great  tablelam 
of  Central  Asia.  Outside  the  arc  of  the  mountain  chain  no  sign  ol 


:his  crumpling  is  to  be  detected  except  in  the  Salt  Range,  and  the 
Peninsula  of  India  has  been  entirely  free  from  folding  of  any  im- 
portance since  early  Palaeozoic  times,  if  not  since  the  Archean 
jeripd  itself.  But  the  contrast  between  the  Himalaya  and  the 
Peninsula  is  not  confined  to  their  structure:  the  difference  in  the 
rocks  themselves  is  equally  striking.  In  the  Himalaya  the  geological 
sequence,  from  the  Ordovician  to  the  Eocene,  is  almost  entirely 
marine;  there  are  indeed  occasional  breaks  in  the  series,  but  during 
nearly  the  whole  of  this  long  period  the  Himalayan  region,  or  at 
.east  its  northern  part,  must  have  been  beneath  the  sea — the  Central 
Mediterranean  Sea  of  Neumayr  or  Tethys  of  Suess.  In  the  peninsula, 
However,  no  marine  fossils  have  yet  been  found  of  earlier  date  than 
Jurassic  and  Cretaceous,  and  these  are  confined  to  the  neighbourhood 
:>f  the  coasts;  the  principal  fossiliferous  deposits  are  the  plant- 
searing  beds  of  the  Gondwana  series,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that, 
at  least  since  the  Carboniferous  period,  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
Peninsula  has  been  land.  Between  the  folded  marine  beds  of  the 
Himalaya  and  the  nearly  horizontal  strata  of  the  peninsula  lies  the 
Indo-Gangetic  plain,  covered  by  an  enormous  thickness  of  alluvial 
and  wind-blown  deposits  of  recent  date.  The  deep  boring  at  Luck- 
now  passed  through  1336  ft.  of  sands — reaching  nearly  to  1000  ft. 
below  sea-level — without  any  sign  of  approaching  the  base  of  the 
alluvial  series.  It  is  clear,  then,  that  in  front  of  the  Himalaya  there 
is  a  great  depression,  but  as  yet  there  is  no  indication  that  this 
depression  was  ever  beneath  the  sea. 

In  the  light  thrown  by  recent  researches  on  the  structure  and 
origin  of  mountain  chains  the  explanation  of  these  facts  is  no  longer 
difficult.  From  early  Palaeozoic  times  the  peninsula  of  India  has 
been  dry  land,  a  part,  indeed,  of  a  great  continent  which  in  Mesozoic 
times  extended  across  the  Indian  Ocean  towards  South  Africa.  Its 
northern  shores  were  washed  by  the  Sea  of  Tethys,  which,  at  least  in 
Jurassic  and  Cretaceous  times,  stretched  across  the  Old  World  from 
west  to  east,  and  in  this  sea  were  laid  down  the  marine  deposits  of 
the  Himalaya.  The  tangential  pressures  which  are  known  to  be  set 
up  in  the  earth's  crust — either  by  the  contraction  of  the  interior  or 
in  some  other  way — caused  the  deposits  of  this  sea  to  be  crushed  up 
against  the  rigid  granites  and  other  old  rocks  of  the  peninsula  and 
finally  led  to  the  whole  mass  being  pushed  forward  over  the  edge  of 
the  part  which  did  not  crumple.  The  Indo-Gangetic  depression  was 
formed  by  the  weight  of  the  oyer-riding  mass  bending  down  the  edge 
over  which  it  rode,  or  else  it  is  the  lower  limb  of  the  S-shaped  fold 
which  would  necessarily  result  if  there  were  no  fracture — the 
Himalaya  representing  the  upper  limb  of  the  S- 

Geologically,  the  Himalaya  may  be  divided  into  three  zones  which 
correspond  more  or  less  with  orographical  divisions.  The  northern 
zone  is  the  Tibetan,  in  which  fossiliferous  beds  of  Palaeozoic  and 
Mesozoic  age  are  largely  developed — excepting  in  the  north-west  no 
such  rocks  are  known  on  the  southern  flanks.  The  second  is  the  zone 
of  the  snowy  peaks  and  of  the  lower  Himalaya,  and  is  composed 
chiefly  of  crystalline  and  metamorphic  rocks  together  with  un- 
fossiliferous  sedimentary  beds  supposed  to  be  of  Palaeozoic  age. 
The  southern  zone  comprises  the  Sub-Himalaya  and  consists  entirely 
of  Tertiary  beds,  and  especially  of  the  upper  Tertiaries.  The  ojdest 
beds  which  have  hitherto  yielded  fossils,  belong  to  the  Ordovician 
system,  but  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  underlying  "  Haimantas  " 
of  the  central  Himalaya  are  of  Cambrian  age.  From  these  beds  up 
to  the  top  of  the  Carboniferous  there  appears  to  be  no  break;  but 
the  Carboniferous  beds  were  in  some  places  eroded  before  the  de- 
position of  the  Product-its  shales,  which  belong  to  the  Permian  period. 
It  is,  however,  possible  that  this  erosion  was  merely  local,  for  in 
other  places  there  seems  to  be  a  complete  passage  from  the  Carbon- 
iferous to  the  Permian.  From  the  Permian  to  the  Lias  the  sequence 
in  the  central  Himalaya  shows  no  sign  of  a  break,  nor  has  any  un- 
conformity been  proved  between  the  Liassic  beds  and  the  overlying 
Spiti  shales,  which  contain  fossils  of  Middle  and  Upper  Jurassic  age. 
The  Spiti  shales  are  succeeded  conformably  by  Cretaceous  beds 
(Gieumal  sandstone  below  and  Chikkim  limestone  above),  and  these 
are  followed  without  a  break  by  Nummulitic  beds  of  Eocene  age, 
much  disturbed  and  altered  by  intrusions  of  gabbro  and  syenite. 
Thus,  in  the  Spiti  area  at  least,  there  appears  to  have  been  continuous 
deposition  of  marine  beds  from  the  Permian  Productus  shales  to  the 
Eocene  Nummulitic  formation.  The  next  succeeding  deposit  is  a 
sandstone,  often  highly  inclined,  which  rests  unconformably  upon  the 
Nummulitic  beds  and  resembles  the  Lower  Siwaliks  of  the  Sub- 
Himalaya  (Pliocene)  but  which  as  yet  has  yielded  no  fossils  of  any 
kind.  The  whole  is  overlaid  unconformably  by  the  younger  Terti- 
aries of  Hundes,  which  are  perfectly  horizontal  and  have  been  quite 
unaffected  by  any  of  the  folds. 

From  the  absence  of  any  well-marked  unconformity  it  is  evident 
that  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Himalayan  belt,  at  least  in  the  Spiti 
area,  there  can  have  been  no  post-Archaean  folding  of  any  magnitude 
until  after  the  deposition  of  the  Nummulitic  beds,  and  that  the 
folding  was  completed  before  the  later  Tertiaries  of  Hundes  were 
laid  down.  It  was,  therefore,  during  the  Miocene  period  that  the 
elevation  of  this  part  of  the  chain  began,  while  the  disturbance  of  the 
Siwalik-like  sandstone  indicates  that  the  folding  continued  into  the 
Pliocene  period.  Along  the  southern  flanks  of  the  Himalaya  the 
history  of  the  chain  is  still  more  clearly  shown.  The  sub-Himalaya 
are  formed  of  Tertiary  beds,  chiefly  Siwalik  or  upper  Tertiary,  while 
the  lower  Himalaya  proper  consist  mainly  of  pre-Tertiary  rocks 


472 


HIMALAYA 


without  fossils.  Throughout  the  whole  length  of  the  chain,  wherever 
the  junction  of  the  Siwaliks  with  the  pre-Tertiary  rocks  has  been  seen, 
it  is  a  great  reversed  fault.  West  of  the  Bias  river  a  similar  reversed 
fault  forms  the  boundary  between  the  lower  Tertiaries  and  the 
pre-Tertiary  rocks  of  the  Himalaya,  while  between  the  Sutlej  and 
the  Jumna  rivers,  where  the  lower  Tertiaries  help  to  form  the  lower 
Himalaya,  the  fault  lies  between  them  and  the  Siwaliks.  The  hade 
of  the  fault  is  constantly  inwards,  towards  the  centre  of  the  chain, 
and  the  older  rocks  which  form  the  Himalaya  proper,  have  been 
pushed  forward  over  the  later  beds  of  the  sub-Himalaya.  But  the 
fault  is  more  than  an  ordinary  reversed  fault :  it  was,  nearly  every- 
where, the  northern  boundary  of  deposition  of  the  Siwalik  beds,  and 
only  in  a  few  instances  do  any  of  the  Siwalik  deposits  extend  even  to 
a  short  distance  beyond  it.  The  fault:  in  fact  was  being  formed 
during  the  deposition  of  the  Siwalik  beds,  and  as  the  beds  were  laid 
down,  the  Himalaya  were  pushed  forward  over  them,  the  Siwaliks 
themselves  being  folded  and  upturned  during  the  process.  Accord- 
ingly, in  some  places  the  Siwaliks  now  form  a  continuous  and  con- 
formable series  from  base  to  summit,  in  other  places  the  middle  beds 
are  absent  and  the  upper  beds  of  the  series  rest  upon  the  upturned  and 
denuded  edges  of  the  lower  beds.  The  Siwaliks  are  fluviatile  and 
torrential  deposits  similar  to  those  which  are  now  being  formed 
at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  in  the  I ndo-Gangetic  plain;  and 
their  relations  to  the  older  rocks  of  the  Himalaya  proper  were 
very  similar  to  those  which  now  exist  between  the  deposits  of 
the  plain  and  the  Siwaliks  themselves.  But  the  great  fault  just 
described  is  not  the  only  one  of  this  character.  There  is  a  series  of 
such  faults,  approximately  parallel  to  one  another,  and  although 
they  have  not  been  traced  throughout  the  whole  chain,  yet  wherever 
they  occur  they  seem  to  have  formed  the  northern  boundary  of 
deposition  of  the  deposits  immediately  to  the  south  of  them.  It 
appears,  therefore,  that  the  Himalaya  grew  southwards  in  a  series 
of  stages.  A  reversed  fault  was  formed  at  the  foot  of  the  chain,  and 


arranged  between  the  same  parallel  system  of  folds  as  we  see  on  the 
western  frontier,  connected  by  short  transverse  gaps  where  the  rivers 
cross  the  folds,  frequently  to  resume  a  course  parallel  to  that  origin- 
ally held.  An  instance  of  this  occurs  where  the  Indus  suddenly 
breaks  through  the  well-defined  Ladakh  range  in  the  North-west 
Himalaya  to  resume  its  north-westerly  course  after  passing  from  the 
northern  to  the  southern  side  of  the  range.  The  reason  assigned  for 
these  extraordinary  diversions  of  the  drainage  right  across  the 
general  strike  of  the  ridges  is  that  it  is  antecedent — i.e.  that  the  lines 
of  drainage  were  formed  ere  the  folds  or  anticlinals  were  raised ;  and 
that  the  drainage  has  merely  maintained  the  course  originally  held, 
by  the  power  of  erosion  during  the  gradual  process  of  upheaval. 

In  the  outer  valleys  of  the  Himalaya  the  sides  are  generally  steep, 
so  steep  as  to  be  liable  to  landslip,  whilst  the  streams  are  still  cutting 
down  the  river  beds  and  have  not  yet  reached  the  stage  of  equilibrium. 
Here  and  there  a  valley  has  become  filled  with  alluvial  detritus  owing 
to  some  local  impediment  in  the  drainage,  and  when  this  occurs  there 
is  usually  to  be  found  a  fertile  and  productive  field  for  agriculture. 
The  straits  of  the  Jhelum,  below  Baramulla,  probably  account  for 
the  lovely  vale  of  Kashmir,  which  is  in  form  (if  not  in  principles  of 
construction)  a  repetition  on  grand  scale  of  the  Maidan  of  the  Afridi 
Tirah,  where  the  drainage  from  the  slopes  of  a  great  amphitheatre  of 
hills  is  collected  and  then  arrested  by  the  gorge  which  marks  the 
outlet  to  the  Bara. 

Other  rivers  besides  the  Indus  and  the  Brahmaputra  begin  by 
draining  a  considerable  area  north  of  the  snowy  range — the  Sutlej, 
the  Kosi,  the  Gandak  and  the  Subansiri,  for  example.  Q          . 
All  these  rivers  break  through  the  main  snowy  range  ere  .f,  e  . 

they  twist  their  way  through  the  southern  hills  to  the  ?„ 

i    r         e  T     ,.         ¥T        ^t      it  j         MI  *ii  formation 

plains  of  India.     Here  the     antecedent      theory  will  not  ls  ty-fa,! 
suffice,  for  there  is  no  sufficient  catchment  area  north  of 
the  snows  to  support  it.    Their  formation  is  explained  by  a  process 
of  "  cutting  back,"  by  which  the  heads  of  these  streams  are  gradually 


b  b 

f.=  Recenti  d  =  Upper  siuialili  conglomerate;    c=MMIe  ilu/alili  sandstones;    b  =  Lower  (NahanlsiwoJiks: 
C  S  Middteauss  Scale,  i  inch.«=  a%mile» 

Section  across  the  sub-Himalayan  zone. 


b  b 

ffummulitic;   n  =  0tder  rocks  of  rtimaiat/as 


upon  this  fault  the  mountains  were  pushed  forward  over  the  beds 
deposited  at  their  base,  crumpling  and  folding  them  in  the  process, 
and  forming  a  sub-Himalayan  ridge  in  front  of  the  main  chain. 
After  a  time  a  new  fault  originated  at  the  foot  of  the  sub-Himalayan 
zone  thus  raised,  which  now  became  part  of  the  Himalaya  themselves, 
and  a  new  sub-Himalayan  chain  was  formed  in  front  of  the  previous 
one.  The  earthquakes  of  the  present  day  show  that  the  process  is 
still  in  operation,  and  in  time  the  deposits  of  the  present  Indo- 
Gangetic  plain  will  be  involved  in  the  folds. 

The  regular  form  of  the  Himalaya,  constituting  an  arc  of  a  true 
circle,  appears  to  indicate  that  the  whole  chain  has  been  pushed 
forward  as  one  mass  upon  a  gigantic  thrust-plane;  but,  if  so,  the 
dip  of  the  plane  must  be  low,  for  a  line  drawn  along  the  southern 
foot  of  the  Himalaya  would  coincide  with  the  outcrop  of  a  plane 
inclined  to  the  surface  at  an  angle  of  about  14°.  The  thrust-plane, 
then,  does  not  coincide  with  any  of  the  boundary  faults  already 
mentioned,  which  are  usually  inclined  at  angles  of  50°  or  60°.  The 
latter  are  due  to  the  fact  that,  although,  perhaps,  the  whole  mass 
above  the  thrust-plane  may  move,  yet  the  pressure  which  pushes  it 
forwards  necessarily  proceeds  from  behind.  The  back,  accordingly, 
moves  faster  than  the  front,  and  the  whole  is  packed  together;  as 
when  an  ice-floe  drives  against  the  shore,  the  ice  breaks  and  the 
outer  fragments  ride  over  those  within.  The  great  thrust-plane 
which  is  thus  imagined  to  exist  at  the  base  of  the  Himalaya,  corre- 
sponds with  the  "  major  thrusts  "  of  the  N.W.  Highlands  of  Scotland, 
and  the  reversed  faults  which  appear  at  the  surface  with  the  "  minor 
thrusts."  (P.  LA.) 

Such  is  the  general  outline  of  Himalayan  evolution  as  now  under- 
stood, and  the  process  of  it  has  led  to  certain  marked  features  of 
scenery  and  topography.  Within  the  area  of  the  trans- 
Indus  mountains  we  have  beds  of  hard  limestone  or  sand- 
stone alternating  with  soft  shales,  which  leads  to  the 
scooping  out  by  erosion  of  long  narrow  valleys  where  the 
shales  occur,  and  the  passage  of  the  streams  through  deep 
rifts  or  gorges  across  the  hard  limestone  anticlinals,  which 
stand  in  irregular  series  of  parallel  ridges  with  the  eroded  valleys 
between.  The  great  mass  of  the  Himalaya  exhibits  the  same  structure, 
due  to  the  same  conditions  acting  for  longer  periods  and  on  a  much 
larger  scale;  but  the  structure  is  varied  in  the  eastern  portions  of  the 
mountains  by  the  effect  of  different  climatic  conditions,  and  especially 
by  the  greater  rainfall.  Instead  of  wide,  barren,  wind-swept  valleys, 
here  are  found  fertile  alluvial  plains — such  as  Manipur — but  for  the 
most  part  the  erosive  action  of  the  river  has  been  able  to  keep  pace 
with  the  rise  of  the  river  bed,  and  we  have  deep,  steep-sided  valleys 


Topo- 
graphical 
results  of 
evolu- 
tion. 


eating  their  way  northwards  owing  to  the  greater  rainfall  on  the 
southern  than  on  the  northern  slopes.  The  result  of  this  process  is 
well  exhibited  in  the  relative  steepness  of  slope  on  the  Indian  and 
Tibetan  sides  of  the  passes  to  the  Indus  plateau.  On  the  southern  or 
Indian  side  the  routes  to  Tibet  and  Ladakh  follow  the  levels  of 
Himalayan  valleys  with  no  remarkably  steep  gradients  till  they  near 
the  approach  to  the  water-divide.  The  slope  then  steepens  with  the 
ascending  curve  to  the  summit  of  the  pass,  from  which  point  it  falls 
with  a  comparatively  gentle  gradient  to  the  general  level  of  the 
plateau.  The  Zoji  La,  the  Kashmir  water-divide  between  the 
Jhelum  and  the  Indus,  is  a  prominent  case  in  point,  and  all  the  passes 
from  the  Kumaon  and  Garhwal  hills  into  Tibet  exhibit  this  formation 
in  a  marked  degree.  Taking  the  average  elevation  of  the  central 
axial  line  of  snowy  peaks  as  19,000  ft.,  the  average  height  of  the 
passes  is  not  more  than  10,000  owing  to  this  process  of  cutting  down 
by  erosion  and  gradual  encroachment  into  the  northern  basin. 

Meteorology. — Independently  of  the  enormous  variety  of  topo- 
graphical conformation  contained  in  the  Himalayan  system,  the  vast 
altitude  of  the  mountains  alone  is  sufficient  to  cause  modifications  of 
climate  in  ascending  over  their  slopes  such  as  are  not  surpassed  by 
those  observed  in  moving  from  the  equator  to  the  poles.  One  half  of 
the  total  mass  of  the  atmosphere  and  three-fourths  of  the  water 
suspended  in  it  in  the  form  of  vapour  lie  below  the  average  altitude 
of  the  Himalaya;  and  of  the  residue,  one-half  of  the  air  and  virtually 
almost  all  the  vapour  come  within  the  influence  of  the  highest  peaks. 
The  regular  variations  in  pressure  of  the  air  indicated  by  the  baro- 
meter and  the  annual  and  diurnal  oscillations  arc  as  well  marked  in 
the  Himalaya  as  elsewhere,  but  the  amount  of  vapour  held  in  sus- 
pension diminishes  so  rapidly  with  the  altitude  that  not  more  than 
one-sixth  (sometimes  only  one-tenth)  of  that  observed  at  the  foot  of 
the  mountains  is  found  at  the  greatest  heights.  This  is  dependent 
on  the  temperature  of  the  air  which  rapidly  decreases  with  altitude. 
On  the  mountains  every  altitude  has  its  corresponding  temperature, 
an  elevation  of  1000  ft.  producing  a  fall  of  3!°,  or  about  I  to  each 
300  ft.  The  mean  winter  temperature  at  ^ooo  ft.  (which  is  about  the 
average  height  of  Himalayan  "  hill  stations  ")  is  44°  F.  and  the 
summer  mean  about  65°  F.  At  9000  ft.  the  mean  temperature  of 
the  coldest  month  is  32  F.  At  12,000  ft.  the  thermometer  never  falls 
below  freezing-point  from  the  end  of  May  to  the  middle  of  October, 
and  at  15,000  ft.  it  is  seldom  above  that  point  even  in  the  height  of 
summer.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  thermpmetrical  conditions  of 
Tibet  vary  considerably  from  those  of  the  Himalaya.  At  12,000  ft. 
in  Tibet  the  mean  of  the  hottest  month  is  about  60°  F.  and  of  the 
coldest  about  10°  F.  whilst,  at  15,000  ft.  the  frost  is  only  permanent 


HIMALAYA 


473 


from  the  end  of  October  to  the  end  of  April.  The  distribution  of 
vegetation  and  topographical  conformation  largely  influence  the 
question  of  local  temperature.  For  instance  it  may  be  found  that 
the  difference  of  temperature  between  forest-clad  ranges  and  the 
Indian  plains  is.  twice  as  much  in  April  and  May  as  in  December  or 
January;  and  the  difference  between  the  temperature  of  a  well- 
wooded  hill  top  and  the  open  valley  below  may  vary  from  9°  to  24° 
within  twenty-four  hours.  The  general  relations  of  temperature  to 
altitude  as  determined  by  Himalayan  observations  are  as  follows: 
(l)  The  decrease  of  temperature  with  altitude  is  most  rapid  in 
summer.  (2)  The  annual  range  diminishes  with  the  elevation. 
(3)  The  diurnal  range  diminishes  with  the  elevation.  Comparisons 
are,  however,  apt  to  become  anomalous  when  applied  to  elevated 
zones  with  a  dense  covering  of  forest  and  a  great  quantity  of  clopd 
and  open  and  uncloudy  regions  both  above  and  below  the  forest-clad 
tracts. 

The  chief  rainfall  occurs  in  the  summer  months  between  May  and 
October  (i.e.  the  period  of  the  monsoon  rains  of  India)  the  remainder 
of  the  year  being  comparatively  dry.  The  fall  of  rain 
over  the  great  plain  of  northern  India  gradually  dimin- 
ishes in  quantity,  and  begins  later,  as  we  pass  from  east  to  west. 
At  the  same  time  the  rain  is  heavier  as  we  approach  the 
Himalaya  and  the  greatest  falls  are  measured  in  its  outer  ranges; 
but  the  quantity  again  diminishes  as  we  pass  onward  across  the 
chain,  and  on  arriving  at  the  border  of  Tibet,  behind  the  great 
line  of  snowy  peaks,  the  rain  falls  in  such  small  quantities  as  to 
be  hardly  susceptible  of  measurement.  Diurnal  currents  of  wind, 
which  are  established  from  the  plains  to  the  mountains  during 
the  day,  and  from  the  hills  to  the  plains  during  the  night,  are  im- 
portant agents  in  distributing  the  rainfall.  The  condensation  of 
vapour  from  the  ascending  currents  and  their  gradual  exhaustion 
as  they  are  precipitated  on  successive  ranges  is  very  obvious  in 
the  cloud  effects  produced  during  the  monsoon,  the  southern  or 
windward  face  of  each  range  being  clothed  day  after  day  with  a 
white  crest  of  cloud  whilst  the  northern  slopes  are  often  left 
entirely  free.  This  shows  how  large  a  proportion  of  the  vapour  is 
arrested  and  how  it  is  that  only  by  drifting  through  the  deeper 
gorges  can  any  moisture  find  its  way  to  the  Tibetan  table-land. 

The  yearly  rainfall,  which  amounts  to  between  60  and  70  in.  in 
the  delta  of  the  Ganges,  is  reduced  to  about  40  in.  when  that  river 
issues  from  the  mountains,  and  diminishes  to  30  in.  at  the  debouch- 
ment of  the  Indus  into  the  plains.  At  Darjeeling  (7000  ft.  altitude) 
on  the  outer  ranges  of  the  eastern  Himalaya  it  amounts  to  about 
1 20  in.  At  Naini  Tal  north  of  the  United  Provinces  it  is  about  90  in. ; 
at  Simla  about  80  in.,  diminishing  still  further  as  one  approaches  the 
north-western  hills.  All  these  stations  are  about  the  same  altitude. 

In  the  eastern  Himalaya  the  ordinary  winter  limit  of  snow  is 
6000  ft.  and  it  never  lies  for  many  days  even  at  7000  ft.  In  Kumaon, 
„  ...  on  the  west,  it  usually  reaches  down  to  the  5000  ft.  level 
and  occasionally  to  2500  ft.  Snow  has  been  known  to 
fall  at  Peshawar.  At  Leh,  in  western  Tibet,  hardly  2  ft.  of  snow 
are  usually  registered  and  the  fall  on  the  passes  between  17,000  and 
19,000  ft.  is  not  generally  more  than  3  ft.,  but  on  the  Himalayan 
passes  farther  east  the  falls  are  much  heavier.  Even  in  September 
these  passes  may  be  quite  blocked  and  they  are  not  usually  open  till 
the  middle  of  June.  The  snow-line,  or  the  level  to  which  snow 
recedes  in  the  course  of  the  year,  ranges  from  15,000  to  16,000  ft.  on 
the  southern  exposures  of  the  Himalaya  that  carry  perpetual  snow, 
along  all  that  part  of  the  system  that  lies  between  Sikkim  and  the 
Indus.  It  is  not  till  December  that  the  snow  begins  to  descend  for 
the  winter,  although  after  September  light  falls  occur  which  cover 
the  mountain  sides  down  to  12,000  ft.,  but  these  soon  disappear. 
On  the  snowy  range  the  snow-line  is  not  lower  than  18,500  ft.  and  on 
the  summit  of  the  table-land  it  reaches  to  20,000  ft.  On  all  the 
passes  into  Tibet  vegetation  reaches  to  about  17,500  ft.,  and  in 
August  they  may  be  crossed  in  ordinary  years  up  to  18,400  ft. 
without  finding  any  snow  upon  them ;  and  it  is  as  impossible  to  find 
snow  in  the  summer  in  Tibet  at  15,500  ft.  above  the  sea  as  on  the 
plains  of  India. 

Glaciers. — The  level  to  which  the  Himalayan  glaciers  extend  is 
greatly  dependent  on  local  conditions,  principally  the  extent  and 
elevation  of  the  snow  basins  which  feed  them,  and  the  slope  and 
position  of  the  mountain  on  which  they  are  formed.  Glaciers  on  the 
outer  slopes  of  the  Himalaya  descend  much  lower  than  is  commonly 
the  case  in  Tibet,  or  in  the  most  elevated  valleys  near  the  snowy 
range.  The  glaciers  of  Sikkim  and  the  eastern  mountains  are 
believed  not  to  reach  a  lower  level  than  13,500  or  14,000  ft.  In 
Kumaon  many  of  them  descend  to  between  11,500  and  12,500  ft. 
In  the  higher  valleys  and  Tibet  15,000  and  16,000  ft.  is  the  ordinary 
level  at  which  they  end,  but  there  are  exceptions  which  descend  far 
lower.  In  Europe  the  glaciers  descend  between  3000  and  5000  ft. 
below  the  snow-line,  and  in  the  Himalaya  and  Tibet  about  the  same 
holds  good.  The  summer  temperatures  of  the  points  where  the 
glaciers  end  on  the  Himalaya  also  correspond  fairly  with  those  of  the 
corresponding  positions  in  European  glaciers,  viz.  for  July  a  little 
below  60°  F.,  August  58°  and  September  55°. 

Measurements  of  the  movement  of  Himalayan  glaciers  give  results 
according  closely  with  those  obtained  under  analogous  conditions  in 
the  Alps,  viz.  rates  from  95  to  14}  in.  in  twenty-four  hours.  The 
motion  of  one  glacier  from  the  middle  of  May  to  the  middle  of  October 


averaged  8  in.  in  the  twenty-four  hours.  The  dimensions  of  the 
glaciers  on  the  outer  Himalaya,  where,  as  before  remarked,  the  valleys 
descend  rapidly  to  lower  levels,  are  fairly  comparable  with  those  of 
Alpine  glaciers,  though  frequently  much  exceeding  them  in  length — 
8  or  10  m.  not  being  unusual.  In  the  elevated  valleys  of  northern 
Tibet,  where  the  destructive  action  of  the  summer  heat  is  far  less, 
the  development  of  the  glaciers  is  enormous.  At  one  locality  in 
north-western  Ladakh  there  is  a  continuous  mass  of  snow  and  ice 
extending  across  a  snowy  ridge,  measuring  64  m.  between  the 
extremities  of  the  two  glaciers  at  its  opposite  ends.  Another  single 
glacier  has  been  surveyed  36  m.  long. 

The  northern  tributaries  of  the  Gilgit  river,  which  joins  the  Indus 
near  its  south-westerly  bend  towards  the  Punjab,  take  their  rise  from 
a  glacier  system  which  is  probably  unequalled  in  the  world  for  its 
extent  and  magnificent  proportions.  Chief  amongst  them  are  the 
glaciers  which  have  formed  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Muztagh 
mountains  below  the  group  of  gigantic  peaks  dominated  by  Mount 
Godwin-Austen  (28,250  ft.  high).  The  Biafo  glacier  system,  which 
lies  in  a  long  narrow  trough  extending  south-west  from  Nagar  on  the 
Hunza  to  near  the  base  of  the  Muztagh  peaks,  may  be  traced  for 
90  m.  between  mountain  walls  which  tower  to  a  height  of  from  20,000 
to  25,000  ft.  above  sea-level  on  either  side. 

In  connexion  with  almost  all  the  Himalayan  glaciers  of  which 
precise  accounts  are  forthcoming  are  ancient  moraines  indicating 
some  previous  condition  in  which  their  extent  was  much  larger  than 
now.  In  the  east  these  moraines  are  very  remarkable,  extending 
8  or  10  m.  In  the  west  they  seem  not  to  go  beyond  2  or  3  m.  reach. 
They  have  been  observed  on  the  summit  of  the  table-land  as  well  as 
on  the  Himalayan  slope.  The  explanation  suggested  to  account  for 
the  former  great  extension  of  glaciers  in  Norway  would  seem  applic- 
able here.  Any  modification  of  the  coast-line  which  should  sub- 
merge the  area  now  occupied  by  the  North  Indian  plain,  or  any 
considerable  part  of  it,  would  be  accompanied  by  a  much  wetter  and 
more  equable  climate  on  the  Himalaya;  more  snow  would  fall  on 
the  highest  ranges,  and  less  summer  heat  would  be  brought  to  bear 
on  the  destruction  of  the  glaciers,  which  would  receive  larger  supplies 
and  descend  lower. 

Botany. — Speaking  broadly,  the  general  type  of  the  flora  of  the 
lower,  hotter  and  wetter  regions,  which  extend  along  the  great  plain 
at  the  foot  of  the  Himalaya,  and  include  the  valleys  of  the  larger 
rivers  which  penetrate  far  into  the  mountains,  does  not  differ  from 
that  of  the  contiguous  peninsula  and  islands,  though  the  tropical  and 
insular  character  gradually  becomes  less  marked  going  from  east  to 
west,  where,  with  a  greater  elevation  and  distance  from  the  sea  and 
higher  latitude,  the  rainfall  and  humidity  diminish  and  the  winter 
cold  increases.  The  vegetation  of  the  western  part  of  the  plain  and 
of  the  hottest  zone  of  the  western  mountains  thus  becomes  closely 
allied  to,  or  almost  identical  with,  that  of  the  drier  parts  of  the 
Indian  peninsula,  more  especially  of  its  hilly  portions;  and,  while 
a  general  tropical  character  is  preserved,  forms  are  observed  which 
indicate  the  addition  of  an  Afghan  as  well  as  of  an  African  element, 
of  which  last  the  gay  lily  Glpriosa  superba  is  an  example,  pointing  to 
some  previous  connexion  with  Africa. 

The  European  flora,  which  is  diffused  from  the  Mediterranean  along 
the  high  lands  of  Asia,  extends  to  the  Himalaya;  many  European 
species  reach  the  central  parts  of  the  chain,  though  few  reach  its 
eastern  end,  while  genera  common  to  Europe  and  the  Himalaya  are 
abundant  throughout  and  at  all  elevations.  From  the  opposite 
quarter  an  influx  of  Japanese  and  Chinese  forms,  such  as  the  rhodo- 
dendrons, the  tea  plant,  Aucuba,  Helwingia,  Skimmia,  Adamia, 
Goughia  and  others,  has  taken  place,  these  being  more  numerous  in 
the  east  and  gradually  disappearing  in  the  west.  On  the  higher  and 
therefore  cooler  and  less  rainy  ranges  of  the  Himalaya  the  conditions 
of  temperature  requisite  for  the  preservation  of  the  various  species 
are  readily  found  by  ascending  or  descending  the  mountain  slopes, 
and  therefore  a  greater  uniformity  of  character  in  the  vegetation  is 
maintained  along  the  whole  chain.  At  the  greater  elevations  the 
species  identical  with  those  of  Europe  become  more  frequent,  and 
in  the  alpine  regions  many  plants  are  found  identical  with  species  of 
the  Arctic  zone.  On  the  Tibetan  plateau,  with  the  increased  dryness, 
a  Siberian  type  is  established,  with  many  true  Siberian  species  and 
more  genera ;  and  some  of  the  Siberian  forms  are  further  dissemin- 
ated, even  to  the  plains  of  Upper  India.  The  total  absence  of  a  few 
of  the  more  common  forms  of  northern  Europe  and  Asia  should  also 
be  noticed,  among  which  may  be  named  Tilia,  Fagus,  Arbutus,  Erica, 
Azalea  and  Cistacae. 

In  the  more  humid  regions  of  the  east  the  mountains  are  almost 
everywhere  covered  with  a  dense  forest  which  reaches  up  to  12,000 
or  13,000  ft.  Many  tropical  types  here  ascend  to  7000  ft.  or  more. 
To  the  west  the  upper  limit  of  forest  is  somewhat  lower,  from  11,500 
to  12,000  ft.  and  the  tropical  forms  usually  cease  at  5000  ft. 

In  Sikkim  the  mountains  are  covered  with  dense  forest  of  tall 
umbrageous  trees,  commonly  accompanied  by  a  luxuriant  growth 
of  under  shrubs,  and  adorned  with  climbing  and  epiphytal  plants  in 
wonderful  profusion.  In  the  tropical  zone  large  figs  abound,  Termin- 
alia,  Shorea  (sal),  laurels,  many  Leguminosae,  Bombax,  Artocarpus, 
bamboos  and  several  palms,  among  which  species  of  Calamus  are 
remarkable,  climbing  over  the  largest  trees;  and  this  is  the  western 
limit  of  Cycas  and  Myristica  (nutmeg).  Plantains  ascend  to  7000  ft. 
Pandanus  and  tree-ferns  abound.  Other  ferns,  Scitamineae,  orchids 


474 


HIMALAYA 


and  climbing  Aroideae  are  very  numerous,  the  last  named  profusely 
adorning  the  forests  with  their  splendid  dark-green  foliage.  Various 
oaks  descend  within  a  few  hundred  feet  of  the  sea-level,  increasing  in 
numbers  at  greater  altitudes,  and  becoming  very  frequent  at  4000  ft., 
at  which  elevation  also  appear  Aucuba,  Magnolia,  cherries,  Pyrus, 
maple,  alder  and  birch,  with  many  Araliaceae,  Hollbollea,  Skimmia, 
Daphne,  Myrsine,  Symplocos  and  Rubus.  Rhododendrons  begin  at 
about  6000  ft.  and  become  abundant  at  8000  ft.,  from  10,000  to  14,000 
ft.  forming  in  many  places  the  mass  of  the  shrubby  vegetation  which 
extends  some  2000  ft.  above  the  forest.  Epiphytal  orchids  are 
extremely  numerous  between  6000  and  8000  ft.  Of  the  Coniferae, 
Podocarpus  and  Pinus  longifolia  alone  descend  to  the  tropical  zone; 
Abies  Brunoniana  and  Smithiana  and  the  larch  (a  genus  not  seen  in 
the  western  mountains)  are  found  at  8000,  and  the  yew  and  Picea 
Webbia.no,  at  10,000  ft.  Pinus  excelsa,  which  occurs  in  Bhutan,  is 
absent  in  the  wetter  climate  of  Sikkim. 

On  the  drier  and  higher  mountains  of  the  interior  of  the  chain,  the 
forests  become  more  open,  and  are  spread  less  uniformly  over  the 
hill-sides,  a  luxuriant  herbaceous  vegetation  appears,  and  the  number 
of  shrubby  Leguminosae,  such  as  Desmodium  and  Indigofera,  in- 
creases, as  well  as  Ranunculaceae,  Rosaceae,  Umbelliferae,  Labiatae, 
Gramineae,  Cyperaceae  and  other  European  genera. 

Passing  to  the  westward,  and  viewing  the  flora  of  Kumaon,  which 
province  holds  a  central  position  on  the  chain,  on  the  8oth  meridian, 
we  find  that  the  gradual  decrease  of  moisture  and  increase  of  high 
summer  heat  are  accompanied  by  a  marked  change  of  the  vegetation. 
The  tropical  forest  is  characterized  by  the  trees  of  the  hotter  and 
drier  parts  of  southern  India,  combined  with  a  few  of  European  type. 
Ferns  are  more  rare,  and  the  tree-ferns  have  disappeared.  The 
species  of  palm  are  also  reduced  to  two  or  three,  and  bamboos,  though 
abundant,  are  confined  to  a  few  species. 

The  outer  ranges  of  mountains  are  mainly  covered  with  forests  of 
Pinus  longifolia,  rhododendron,  oak  and  Pieris.  At  Naini  Tal  cypress 
is  abundant.  The  shrubby  vegetation  comprises  Rosa,  Rubus, 
Indigofera,  Desmodium,  Berberis,  Boehmeria,  Viburnum,  Clematis, 
with  an  A  rundinaria.  Of  herbaceous  plants  species  of  Ranunculus, 
Potentilla,  Geranium,  Thalictrum,  Primula,  Gentiana  and  many  other 
European  forms  are  common.  In  the  less  exposed  localities,  on 
northern  slopes  and  sheltered  valleys,  the  European  forms  become 
more  numerous,  and  we  find  species  of  alder,  birch,  ash,  elm,  maple, 
holly,  hornbeam,  Pyrus,  &c.  At  greater  elevations  in  the  interior, 
besides  the  above  are  met  Corylus,  the  common  walnut,  found  wild 
throughout  the  range,  horse  chestnut,  yew,  also  Picea  Webbiana, 
Pinus  excelsa,  A  bies  Smithiana,  Cedrus  Deodara  (which  tree  does  not 
grow  spontaneously  east  of  Kumaon),  and  several  junipers.  The 
denser  forests  are  commonly  found  on  the  northern  faces  of  the  higher 
ranges,  or  in  the  deeper  valleys,  between  8000  and  10,500  ft.  The 
woods  on  the  outer  ranges  from  3000  up  to  7000  ft.  are  more  open, 
and  consist  mainly  of  evergreen  trees.  « 

The  herbaceous  vegetation  does  not  differ  greatly,  generically, 
from  that  of  the  east,  and  many  species  of  Primulaceae,  Ranuncul- 
aceae, Cruciferae,  Labiatae  and  Scrophulariaceae  occur;  balsams 
abound,  also  beautiful  forms  of  Campanulaceae,  Gentiana,  Meconopsis, 
Saxifraga  and  many  others. 

Cultivation  hardly  extends  above  7000  ft.,  except  in  the  valleys 
behind  the  great  snowy  peaks,  where  a  few  fields  of  buckwheat  and 
Tibetan  barley  are  sown  up  to  11,000  or  12,000  ft.  At  the  lower 
elevations  rice,  maize  and  millets  are  common,  wheat  and  barley  at  a 
somewhat  higher  level,  and  buckwheat  and  amaranth  usually  on  the 
poorer  lands,  or  those  recently  reclaimed  from  forest.  Besides  these, 
most  of  the  ordinary  vegetables  of  the  plains  are  reared,  and  potatoes 
have  been  introduced  in  the  neighbourhood  of  all  the  British  stations. 

As  we  pass  to  the  west  the  species  of  rhododendron,  oak  and 
Magnolia  are  much  reduced  in  number  as  compared  to  the  eastern 
region,  and  both  the  Malayan  and  Japanese  forms  are  much  less 
common.  The  herbaceous  tropical  and  semi-tropical  vegetation 
likewise  by  degrees  disappears,  the  Scitamineae,  epiphytal  and 
terrestrial  Orchtdeae,  Araceae,  Cyrtandraceae  and  Begoniae  only  occur 
in  small  numbers  in  Kumaon,  and  scarcely  extend  west  of  the  Sutlej. 
In  like  manner  several  of  the  western  forms  suited  to  drier  climates 
find  their  eastern  limit  in  Kumaon.  In  Kashmir  the  plane  and 
Lombardy  poplar  flourish,  though  hardly  seen  farther  east,  the  cherry 
is  cultivated  in  orchards,  and  the  vegetation  presents  an  eminently 
European  cast.  The  alpine  flora  is  slower  in  changing  its  character 
as  we  pass  from  east  to  west,  but  in  Kashmir  the  vegetation  of  the 
higher  mountains  hardly  differs  from  that  of  the  mountains  of 
Afghanistan,  Persia  and  Siberia,  even  in  species. 

The  total  number  of  flowering  plants  inhabiting  the  range  amounts 
probably  to  5000  or  6000  species,  among  which  may  be  reckoned 
several  hundred  common  English  plants  chiefly  from  the  temperate 
and  alpine  regions;  and  the  characteristic  of  the  flora  as  a  whole  is 
that  it  contains  a  general  and  tolerably  complete  illustration  of 
almost  all  the  chief  natural  families  of  all  parts  of  the  world,  and 
has  comparatively  few  distinctive  features  of  its  own. 

The  timber  trees  of  the  Himalaya  are  very  numerous,  but  few  of 
them  are  known  to  be  of  much  value.  The  "  Sal  "  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  of  the  trees;  with,  the  "  Toon  "  and  "  Sissoo,"  it  grows  in 
the  outer  ranges  most  accessible  from  the  plains.  The  "  Deodar" 
is  also  much  used,  but  the  other  pines  produce  timber  that  is  not 
durable.  Bamboos  grow  everywhere  along  the  outer  ranges,  and 


rattans  to  the  eastward,  and  are  largely  exported  for  use  in  the  plains 
of  India. 

Though  one  species  of  coffee  is  indigenous  in  the  hotter  Himalayan 
forests,  the  climate  does  not  appear  suitable  for  the  growth  of  the 
plant  which  supplies  the  coffee  of  commerce.  The  cultivation  of  tea, 
however,  is  carried  on  successfully  on  a  large  scale,  both  in  the  east 
and  west  of  the  mountains.  In  the  western  Himalaya  the  cultivated 
variety  of  the  tea  plant  of  China  succeeds  well;  on  the  east  the 
indigenous  tea  of  Assam,  which  is  not  specificajly  different,  and  is 
perhaps  the  original  parent  of  the  Chinese  variety,  is  now  almost 
everywhere  preferred.  The  produce  of  the  Chinese  variety  in  the  hot 
and  wet  climate  of  the  eastern  Himalaya,  Assam  and  eastern  Bengal 
is  neither  so  abundant  nor  so  highly  flavoured  as  that  of  the  in- 
digenous plant. 

The  cultivation  of  the  cinchona,  several  species  of  which  have  been 
introduced  from  South  America  and  naturalized  in  the  Sikkim 
Himalaya,  promises  to  yield  at  a  comparatively  small  cost  an  ample 
supply  of  the  febrifuge  extracted  from  its  bark.  At  present  the 
manufacture  is  almost  wholly  in  the  hands  of  the  Government,  and 
the  drug  prepared  is  all  disposed  of  in  India. 

Zoology. — The  general  distribution  of  animal  life  is  determined  by 
much  the  same  conditions  that  have  controlled  the  vegetation. 
The  connexion  with  Europe  on  the  north-west,  with  China  on  the 
north-east,  with  Africa  on  the  south-west,  and  with  the  Malayan 
region  on  the  south-east  is  manifest ;  and  the  greater  or  less  preval- 
ence of  the  European  and  Eastern  forms  varies  according  to  more 
western  or  eastern  position  on  the  chain.  So  far  as  is  known  these 
remarks  will  apply  to  the  extinct  as  well  as  to  the  existing  fauna. 
The  Palaeozoic  forms  found  in  the -Himalaya  are  very  close  tc  those 
of  Europe,  and  in  some  cases  identical.  The  Triassic  fossils  are  still 
more  closely  allied,  more  than  a  third  of  the  species  being  identical. 
Among  the  Jurassic  Mollusca,  also,  are  many  species  that  are  common 
in  Europe.  The  Siwalik  fossils  contain  84  species  of  mammals  of 
45  genera,  the  whole  bearing  a  marked  resemblance  to  the  Miocene 
fauna  of  Europe,  but  containing  a  larger  number  of  genera  still 
existing,  especially  of  ruminants,  and  now  held  to  be  of  Pliocene  age. 

The  fauna  of  the  Tibetan  Himalaya  is  essentially  European  or 
rather  that  of  the  northern  half  of  the  old  continent,  which  region  has 
by  zoologists  been  termed  Palaearctic.  Among  the  characteristic 
animals  may  be  named  the  yak,  from  which  is  reared  a  cross  breed 
with  the  ordinary  horned  cattle  of  India,  many  wild  sheep,  and  two 
antelopes,  as  well  as  the  musk-deer;  several  hares  and  some  burrow- 
ing animals,  including  pikas  (Lagomys)  and  two  or  three  species  of 
marmot;  certain  arctic  forms  of  carnivora — fox,  wolf,  lynx,  ounce, 
marten  and  ermine;  also  wild  asses.  Among  birds  are  found 
bustard  and  species  of  sand-grouse  and  partridge;  water-fowl  in 
great  variety,  which  breed  on  the  lakes  in  summer  and  migrate  to 
the  plains  of  India  in  winter;  the  raven,  hawks,  eagles  and  owls, 
a  magpie,  and  two  kinds  of  chough ;  and  many  smaller  birds  of  the 
passerine  order,  amongst  which  are  several  finches.  Reptiles,  as 
might  be  anticipated,  are  far  from  numerous,  but  a  few  lizards  are 
found,  belonging  for  the  most  part  to  types,  such  as  Phrynocephalus, 
characteristic  of  the  Central-Asiatic  area.  The  fishes  from  the  head- 
waters of  the  Indus  also  belong,  for  the  most  part,  to  Central-Asiatic 
types,  with  a  small  admixture  of  purely  Himalayan  forms.  Amongst 
the  former  are  several  peculiar  small-scaled  carps,  belonging  to  the 
genus  Schizothorax  and  its  allies. 

The  ranges  of  the  Himalaya,  from  the  border  of  Tibet  to  the 
plains,  form  a  zoological  region  which  is  one  of  the  richest  of  the 
world,  particularly  in  respect  to  birds,  to  which  the  forest-clad 
mountains  offer  almost  every  range  of  temperature. 

Only  two  or  three  forms  of  monkey  enter  the  mountains,  the 
langur,  a  species  of  Semnopithecus,  ranging  up  to  12,000  ft.  No 
lemurs  occur,  although  a  species  is  found  in  Assam,  and  another  in 
southern  India.  Bats  are  numerous,  but  the  species  are  for  the  most 
part  not  peculiar  to  the  area;  several  European  forms  are  found 
at  the  higher  elevations.  Moles,  which  are  unknown  in  the  Indian 
peninsula,  abound  in  the  forest  regions  of  the  eastern  Himalayas  at 
a  moderate  altitude,  and  shrews  of  several  species  are  found  almost 
everywhere ;  amongst  them  are  two  very  remarkable  forms  of  water- 
shrew,  one  of  which,  however,  Nectogale,  is  probably  Tibetan  rather 
than  Himalayan.  Bears  are  common,  and  so  are  a  marten,  several 
weasels  and  otters,  and  cats  of  various  kinds  and  sizes,  from  the  little 
spotted  Felis  bengalensis,  smaller  than  a  domestic  cat,  to  animals  like 
the  clouded  leopard  rivalling  a  leopard  in  size.  Leopards  are  common, 
and  the  tiger  wanders  to  a  considerable  elevation,  but  can  hardly  be 
considered  a  permanent  inhabitant,  except  in  the  lower,  valleys. 
Civets,  the  mungoose  (Herpestes),  and  toddy  cats  (Paradoxurus)  are 
only  found  at  the  lower  elevations.  Wild  dogs  (Cyan)  are  common, 
but  neither  foxes  nor  wolves  occur  in  the  forest  area.  Besides  these 
carnivora  some  very  peculiar  forms  are  found,  the  most  remarkable 
of  which  is  Aelurus,  sometimes  called  the  cat-bear,  a  type  akin  to  the 
American  racoon.  Two  other  genera,  Helictis,  an  aberrant  badger, 
and  linsang,  an  aberrant  civet,  are  representatives  of  Malayan  types. 
Amongst  the  rodents  squirrels  abound,  and  the  so-called  flying 
squirrels  are  represented  by  several  species.  Rats  and  mice  swarm, 
both  kinds  and  individuals  being  numerous,  but  few  present  much 
peculiarity,  a  bamboo  rat  (Rhizomys)  from  the  base  of  the  eastern 
Himalaya  being  perhaps  most  worthy  of  notice.  Two  or  three 
species  of  vole  (Arvicola)  have  been  detected,  and  porcupines  are 


HIMERA 


475 


common.  The  elephant  is  found  in  the  outer  forests  as  far  as  the 
Jumna,  and  the  rhinoceros  as  far  as  the  Sarda;  the  spread  of  both 
of  these  animals  as  far  as  the  Indus  and  into  the  plains  of  India,  far 
beyond  their  present  limits,  is  authenticated  by  historical  records; 
they  have  probably  retreated  before  the  advance  of  cultivation  and 
fire-arms.  Wild  pigs  are  common  in  the  lower  ranges,  and  one 
peculiar  species  of  pigmy-hog  (Sus  salvanius)  of  very  small  size 
inhabits  the  forests  at  the  base  of  the  mountains  in  Nepal  and 
Sikim.  Deer  of  several  kinds  are  met  with,  but  do  not  ascend  very 
high  on  the  hillsides,  and  belong  exclusively  to  Indian  forms.  The 
musk  deer  keeps  to  the  greater  elevations.  The  chevrotains  of  India 
and  the  Malay  countries  are  unrepresented.  The  gaur  or  wild  ox  is 
found  at  the  base  of  the  hills.  Three  very  characteristic  ruminants, 
having  some  affinities  with  goats,  inhabit  the  Himalaya ;  these  are 
the  "  serow  "  (Nemorhaedus),  "  goral  "  (Cemas)  and  "  tahr  "  (Hemi- 
tragus),  the  last-named  ranging  to  rather  high  elevations.  Lastly, 
the  pangolin  (Manis)  is  represented  by  two  species  in  the  eastern 
Himalaya.  A  dolphin  (Platanista)  living  in  the  Ganges  ascends  that 
river  and  its  affluents  to  their  issue  from  the  mountains. 

Almost  all  the  orders  of  birds  are  well  represented,  and  the 
marvellous  variety  of  forms  found  in  the  eastern  Himalaya  is  only 
rivalled  in  Central  and  South  America.  Eagles,  vultures  and  other 
birds  of  prey  are  seen  soaring  high  over  the  highest  of  the  forest-clad 
ranges.  Owls  are  numerous,  and  a  small  species,  Glaucidium,  is 
conspicuous,  breaking  the  stillness  of  the  night  by  its  monotonous 
though  musical  cry  of  two  notes.  Several  kinds  of  swifts  and  night- 
jars are  found,  and  gorgeously-coloured  trogons,  bee-eaters,  rollers, 
and  beautiful  kingfishers  and  barbels  are  common.  Several  large 
hornbills  inhabit  the  highest  trees  in  the  forest.  The  parrots  are 
restricted  to  parrakeets,  of  which  there  are  several  species,  and 
a  single  small  lory.  The  number  of  woodpeckers  is  very  great 
and  the  variety  of  plumage  remarkable,  and  the  voice  of  the 
cuckoo,  of  which  there  are  numerous  species,  resounds  in  the 
spring  as  in  Europe.  The  number  of  passerine  birds  is  im- 
mense. Amongst  them  the  sun-birds  resemble  in  appearance  and 
almost  rival  in  beauty  the  humming-birds  of  the  New  Continent. 
Creepers,  nuthatches,  shrikes,  and  their  allied  forms,  flycatchers  and 
swallows,  thrushes,  dippers  and  babblers  (about  fifty  species),  bul- 
buls  and  orioles,  peculiar  types  of  redstart,  various  sylviads,  wrens, 
tits,  crows,  jays  and  magpies,  weaver-birds,  avadavats,  sparrows, 
crossbills  and  many  finches,  including  the  exquisitely  coloured  rose- 
finches,  may  also  be  mentioned.  The  pigeons  are  represented  by 
several  wood-pigeons,  doves  and  green  pigeons.  The  gallinaceous 
birds  include  the  peacock,  which  everywhere  adorns  the  forest  border- 
ing on  the  plains,  jungle  fowl  and  several  pheasants;  partridges,  of 
which  the  chikor  may  be  named  as  most  abundant,  and  snow- 
pheasants  and  partridges,  found  only  at  the  greatest  elevations. 
Waders  and  waterfowl  are  far  less  abundant,  and  those  occurring  are 
nearly  all  migratory  forms  which  visit  the  peninsula  of  India — the 
only  important  exception  being  two  kinds  of  solitary  snipe  and  the 
red-billed  curlew. 

Of  the  reptiles  found  in  these  mountains  many  are  peculiar.  Some 
of  the  snakes  of  India  are  to  be  seen  in  the  hotter  regions,  including 
the  python  and  some  of  the  venomous  species,  the  cobra  being  found 
as  high  up  as  8000  or  9000  ft.,  though  not  common.  Lizards  are 
numerous,  and  as  well  as  frogs  are  found  at  all  elevations  from  the 
plains  to  the  upper  Himalayan  valleys,  and  even  extend  to  Tibet. 

The  fishes  found  in  the  rivers  of  the  Himalaya  show  the  same 
general  connexion  with  the  three  neighbouring  regions,  the  Palae- 
arctic,  the  African  and  the  Malayan.  Of  the  principal  families,  the 
Acanthopterygii,  which  are  abundant  in  the  hotter  parts  of  India, 
hardly  enter  the  mountains,  two  genera  only  being  found,  of  which 
one  is  the  peculiar  amphibious  genus  Ophiocephalus.  None  of  these 
fishes  are  found  in  Tibet.  The  Siluridae,  or  scaleless  fishes,  and  the 
Cyprinidae,  or  carp  and  loach,  form  the  bulk  of  the  mountain  fish, 
and  the  genera  and  species  appear  to  be  organized  for  a  mountain- 
torrent  life,  being  almost  all  furnished  with  suckers  to  enable  them 
to  maintain  their  positions  in  the  rapid  streams  which  they  inhabit. 
A  few  Siluridae  have  been  found  in  Tibet,  but  the  carps  constitute 
the  larger  part  of  the  species.  Many  of  the  Himalayan  forms  are 
Indian  fish  which  appear  to  go  up  to  the  higher  streams  to  deposit 
their  ova,  and  the  Tibetan  species  as  a  rule  are  confined  to  the  rivers 
on  the  table-land  or  to  the  streams  at  the  greatest  elevations,  the 
characteristics  of  which  are  Tibetan  rather  than  Himalayan.  The 
Salmonid'ae  are  entirely  absent  from  the  waters  of  the  Himalaya 
proper,  of  Tibet  and  of  Turkestan  east  of  the  Terektag. 

The  Himalayan  butterflies  are  very  numerous  and  brilliant,  for  the 
most  part  belonging  to  groups  that  extend  both  into  the  Malayan 
and  European  regions,  while  African  forms  also  appear.  There  are 
large  and  gorgeous  species  of  Papilio,  Nymphalidae,  Morphidae  and 
Danaidae,  andthe  more  favoured  localities  are  described  as  being  only 
second  to  South  America  in  the  display  of  this  form  of  beauty  and 
variety  in  insect  life.  Moths,  also,  of  strange  forms  and  of  great  size 
are  common.  The  cicada's  song  resounds  among  the  woods  in  the 
autumn;  flights  of  locusts  frequently  appear  after  the  summer,  and 
they  are  carried  by  the  prevailing  winds  even  among  the  glaciers  and 
eternal  snows.  Ants,  bees  and  wasps  of  many  species,  and  flies  and 
gnats  abound,  particularly  during  the  summer  rainy  season,  and  at 
all  elevations. 

Mountain  Scenery. — Much  has  been  written  about  the  impressive- 


ness  of  Himalayan  scenery.  It  is  but  lately,  however,  that  any 
adequate  conception  of  the  magnitude  and  majesty  of  the  most 
stupendous  of  the  mountain  groups  which  mass  themselves  about 
the  upper  tributaries  and  reaches  of  the  Indus  has  been  presented  to 
us  in  the  works  of  Sir  F.  Younghusband,  Sir  W.  M.  Conway,  H.  C.  B. 
Tanner  and  D.  Freshfield.  It  is  not  in  comparison  with  the  pictur- 
esque beauty  of  European  Alpine  scenery  that  the  Himalaya  appeals 
to  the  imagination,  for  amongst  the  hills  of  the  outer  Himalaya — the 
hills  which  are_known  to  the  majority  of  European  residents  and 
visitors — there  is  often  a  striking  absence  of  those  varied  incidents 
and  sharp  contrasts  which  are  essential  to  picturesqueness  in 
mountain  landscape.  Too  often  the  brown,  barren,  sun-scorched 
ridges  are  obscured  in  the  yellow  dust  haze  which  drifts  upwards 
from  the  plains;  too  often  the  whole  perspective  of  hill  and  vale  is 
blotted  out  in  the  grey  mists  that  sweep  in  soft,  resistless  columns 
against  these  southern  slopes,  to  be  condensed  and  precipitated  in 
ceaseless,  monotonous  rainfall.  Few  Europeans  really  see  the 
Himalaya;  fewer  still  are  capable  of  translating  their  impressions 
into  language  which  is  neither  exaggerated  nor  inadequate. 

Some  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  Himalayan  mountain  construction 
— a  magnitude  which  the  eye  totally  fails  to  appreciate — may, 
however,  be  gathered  from  the  following  table  of  comparison  of  the 
absolute  height  of  some  peaks  above  sea-level  with  the  actual  amount 
of  their  slopes  exposed  to  view : — 

Relative  Extent  of  Snow  Slopes  Visible. 


Name  of  Mountain. 

Place  of  Observation. 

Height 
above 
sea. 

Amount 
of  Slope 
exposed. 

Everest     .... 

Dewanganj     . 

29,002 

8,000 

,,          .... 

Sandakphu     . 

M 

12,000 

K2  or  Godwin-Austen 

Between  Gilgit   and 

Gor,  16,000  ft. 

28,250 

Pk.XIII.orMakalu 

Purnea,  200  ft.     . 

27,800 

8,000 

,»                  ,, 

Sandakphu,  12,000  ft. 

9,000 

Nanga  Parbat 

Gor,  16,000  ft. 

26,656 

23,000 

Tirach  Mir    . 

Between   Gilgit  and 

Chitral,  8000  ft.     . 

25,400 

17-18,000 

Rakapushi     . 

Chaprot  (Gilgit), 

13,000  ft.    . 

25,560 

18,000 

Kinchinjunga 

Darjeeling,    7000   ft. 

28,146 

16,000 

Mont  Blanc   . 

Above  Chamonix, 

7000  ft. 

15,781 

11,500 

It  will  be  observed  from  this  table  that  it  is  not  often  that  a  greater 
slope  of  snow-covered  mountain  side  is  observable  in  the  Himalaya 
than  that  which  is  afforded  by  the  familiar  view  of  Mont  Blanc  from 
Chamonix.  (T.  H.  H.*) 

AUTHORITIES. — Drew,  Jammu  and  Kashmir  (London,  1875); 
G.  W.  Leitner,  Dardistan  (1887);  J.  Biddulph,  Tribes  of  the  Hindu 
Rush  (Calcutta,  1880);  H.  H.  Godwin-Austen,  "  Mountain  Systems 
of  the  Himalaya,"  vols.  y.  and  vi.  Proc.  R.  G.  S.  (1883-1884); 
C.  Ujfalvy,  Aus  dent  westlichen  Himalaya  (Leipzig,  1884);  H.  C.  B. 
Tanner,  Our  Present  Knowledge  of  the  Himalaya,"  vol.  xiii.  Proc. 
R.  G.  S.  (1891);  R.  D.  Oldham,  "The  Evolution  of  Indian  Geo- 
graphy," vol.  iii.  Jour.  R.  G.  S.;  W.  Lawrence,  Kashmir  (Oxford, 
1895) ;  Sir  W.  M.  Conway,  Climbing  and  Exploring  in  the  Karakoram 
(London,  1898);  F.  Bullock  Workman,  In  the  Ice  World  of  Himalaya 
(1900) ;  F.  B.  and  W.  H.  Workman,  Ice-bound  Heights  of  the  Mustagh 
(1908);  D.  W.  Freshfield,  Round  Kangchenjunga  (1903).  • 

For  geology  see  R.  Lydekker,  "  The  Geology  of  Kashmir,"  &c., 
Mem.  Geol.  Sum.  India,  vol.  xxii.  (1883);  C.  S.  Middlemiss, 
"  Physical  Geology  of  the  Sub-Himalaya  of  Gahrwal  and  Kumaon," 
ibid.,  vol.  xxiv.  pt.  2  (1890);  C.  L.  Griesbach,  Geology  of  the  Central 
Himalayas,  vol.  xxiii.  (1891);  R.  D.  Oldham,  Manual  of  the  Geology 
of  India,  chap,  xviii.  (2nd  ed.,  1893).  Descriptions  of  the  fossils, 
with  some  notes  on  stratigraphical  questions,  will  be  found  in 
several  of  the  volumes  of  the  Palaeontologia  Indica,  published  by  the 
Geological  Survey  of  India,  Calcutta. 

HIMERA,  a  city  on  the  north  coast  of  Sicily,  on  a  hill  above  the 
east  bank  of  the  Himeras  Septentrionalis.  It  was  founded  in 
648  B.C.  by  the  Chalcidian  inhabitants  of  Zancle,  in  company 
with  many  Syracusan  exiles.  Early  in  the  sth  century  the 
tyrant  Terillas,  son-in-law  of  Anaxilas  of  Rhegium  and  Zancle, 
appealed  to  the  Carthaginians,  who  came  to  his  assistance,  but 
were  utterly  defeated  by  Gelon  of  Syracuse  in  480  B.C. — on  the 
same  day,  it  is  said,  as  the  battle  of  Salamis.  Thrasydaeus,  son 
of  Theron  of  Agrigentum,  seems  to  have  ruled  the  city  oppres- 
sively, but  an  appeal  made  to  Hiero  of  Syracuse,  Gelon's  brother, 
was  betrayed  by  him  to  Theron;  the  latter  massacred  all  his 
enemies  and  in  the  following  year  resettled  the  town.  In  415  it 
refused  to  admit  the  Athenian  fleet  and  remained  an  ally  of 
Syracuse.  In  408  the  Carthaginian  invading  army  under 
Hannibal,  after  capturing  Selinus,  invested  and  took  Himera 


476 


HIMERIUS— HINCKS,  SIR  F. 


and  razed  the  city  to  the  ground,  founding  a  new  town  close  to  the 
hot  springs  (Thermae  Himeraeae),  8  m.  to  the  west.  The  only 
relic  of  the  ancient  town  now  visible  above  ground  is  a  small 
portion  (four  columns,  lower  diameter  7  ft.)  of  a  Doric  temple,  the 
date  of  which  (whether  before  or  after  480  B.C.)  is  uncertain. 

HIMERIUS  (c.  A.D.  315-386),  Greek  sophist  and  rhetorician, 
was  born  at  Prusa  in  Bithynia.  He  completed  his  education  at 
Athens,  whence  he  was  summoned  to  Antioch  in  362  by  the 
emperor  Julian  to  act  as  his  private  secretary.  After  the  death 
of  Julian  in  the  following  year  Himerius  returned  to  Athens, 
where  he  established  a  school  of  rhetoric,  which  he  compared 
with  that  of  Isocrates  and  the  Delphic  oracle,  owing  to  the 
number  of  those  who  flocked  from  all  parts  of  the  world  to  hear 
him.  Amongst  his  pupils  were  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  and  Basil 
the  Great,  bishop  of  Caesarea.  In  recognition  of  his  merits, 
civic  rights  and  the  membership  of  the  Areopagus  were  conferred 
upon  him.  The  death  of  his  son  Rufinus  (his  lament  for  whom, 
called  iwvufiia,  is  extant)  and  that  of  a  favourite  daughter 
greatly  affected  his  health;  in  his  later  years  he  became  blind 
and  he  died  of  epilepsy.  Although  a  heathen,  who  had  been 
initiated  into  the  mysteries  of  Mithra  by  Julian,  he  shows  no 
prejudice  against  the  Christians.  Himerius  is  a  typical  repre- 
sentative of  the  later  rhetorical  schools.  Photius  (cod.  165,  243 
Bekker)  had  read  71  speeches  by  him,  of  36  of  which  he  has  given 
an  epitome;  24  have  come  down  to  us  complete  and  fragments 
of  10  or  12  others.  They  consist  of  epideictic  or  "  display  " 
speeches  after  the  style  of  Aristides,  the  majority  of  them 
having  been  delivered  on  special  occasions,  such  as  the  arrival  of 
a  new  governor,  visits  to  different  cities  (Thessalonica,  Constanti- 
nople), or  the  death  of  friends  or  well-known  personages.  The 
Polemarchicus,  like  the  Menexenus  of  Plato  and  the  Epitaphios 
Logos  of  Hypereides,  is  a  panegyric  of  those  who  had  given  their 
lives  for  their  country;  it  is  so  called  because  it  was  originally 
the  duty  of  the  polemarch  to  arrange  the  funeral  games  in 
honour  of  those  who  had  fallen  in  battle.  Other  declamations, 
only  known  from  the  excerpts  in  Photius,  were  imaginary  orations 
put  into  the  mouth  of  famous  persons — Demosthenes  advocating 
the  recall  of  Aeschines  from  banishment,  Hypereides  supporting 
the  policy  of  Demosthenes,  Themistocles  inveighing  against  the 
king  of  Persia,  an  orator  unnamed  attacking  Epicurus  for 
atheism  before  Julian  at  Constantinople.  Himerius  is  more  of  a 
poet  than  a  rhetorician,  and  his  declamations  are  valuable  as 
giving  prose  versions  or  even  the  actual  words  of  lost  poems  by 
Greek  lyric  writers.  The  prose  poem  on  the  marriage  of  Severus 
and  his  greeting  to  Basil  at  the  beginning  of  spring  are  quite  in  the 
spirit  of  the  old  lyric.  Himerius  possesses  vigour  of  language  and 
descriptive  powers,  though  his  productions  are  spoilt  by  too 
frequent  use  of  imagery,  allegorical  and  metaphorical  obscurities, 
mannerism  and  ostentatious  learning.  But  they  are  valuable 
for  the  history  and  social  conditions  of  the  time,  although 
lacking  the  sincerity  characteristic  of  Libanius. 

See  Eunapius,  Vitae  sophistaruw,  Suidas,  s.v. ;  editions  by  G. 
Wernsdorf  (1790),  with  valuable  introduction  and  commentaries, 
and  by  F.  Diibner  (1849)  in  the  Didot  series;  C.  Teuber,  Quaestiones 
Himerianae  (Breslau,  1882);  on  the  style,  E.  Norden,  Die  antike 
Kunstprosa  (1898). 

HIMLY  (LOUIS),  AUGUSTS  (1823-1906),  French  historian 
and  geographer,  was  born  at  Strassburg  on  the  28th  of  March 
1823.  After  studying  in  his  native  town  and  taking  the  university 
course  in  Berlin  (1842-1843)  he  went  to  Paris,  and  passed  first 
in  the  examination  for  fellowship  (agregation)  of  the  lycees 
(1845),  first  in  the  examinations  on  leaving  the  Ecole  des  Charles, 
and  first  in  the  examination  for  fellowship  of  the  faculties  (1849). 
In  1849  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  letters  with  two  theses, 
one  of  which,  Wala  et  Louis  le  Debonnaire  (published  in  Paris 
in  1849),  placed  him  in  the  front  rank  of  French  scholars  in  the 
province  of  Carolingian  history.  Soon,  however,  he  turned 
his  attention  to  the  study  of  geography.  In  1858  he  obtained 
an  appointment  as  teacher  of  geography  at  the  Sorbonne,  and 
henceforth  devoted  himself  to  that  subject.  It  was  not  till 
1876  that  he  published,  in  two  volumes,  his  remarkable  Histoire 
de  la  formation  terriloriale  des  etats  de  I' Europe  centrale,  in  which 
he  showed  with  a  firm,  but  sometimes  slightly  heavy  touch, 


the  reciprocal  influence  exerted  by  geography  and  history. 
While  the  work  gives. evidence  throughout  of  wide  and  well- 
directed  research,  he  preferred  to  write  it  in  the  form  of  a 
student's  manual;  but  it  was  a  manual  so  original  that  it  gained 
him  admission  to  the  Institute  in  1881.  In  that  year  he  was 
appointed  dean  of  the  faculty  of  letters,  and  for  ten  years  he 
directed  the  intellectual  life  of  that  great  educational  centre 
during  its  development  into  a  great  scientific  body.  He  died 
at  Sevres  on  the  6th  of  October  1906. 

HIMMEL,  FREDERICK  HENRY  (1765-1814),  German  com- 
poser, was  born  on  the  2oth  of  November  1765  at  Treuen- 
brietzen  in  Brandenburg,  Prussia,  and  originally  studied  theology 
at  Halle.  During  a  temporary  stay  at  Potsdam  he  had  an 
opportunity  of  showing  his  self-acquired  skill  as  a  pianist  before 
King  Frederick  William  II.,  who  thereupon  made  him  a  yearly 
allowance  to  enable  him  to  complete  his  musical  studies.  This 
he  did  under  Naumann,  a  German  composer  of  the  Italian  school, 
and  the  style  of  that  school  Himmel  himself  adopted  in  his  serious 
operas.  The  first  of  these,  a  pastoral  opera,  //  Primo  Naiiigatore, 
was  produced  at  Venice  in  1794  with  great  success.  In  1792 
he  went  to  Berlin,  where  his  oratorio  Isaaco  was  produced,  in 
consequence  of  which  he  was  made  court  Kapellmeister  to  the 
king  of  Prussia,  and  in  that  capacity  wrote  a  great  deal  of  official 
music,  including  cantatas,  and  a  coronation  Te  Deum.  His 
Italian  operas,  successively  composed  for  Stockholm,  St  Peters- 
burg and  Berlin,  were  all  received  with  great  favour  in  their 
day.  Of  much  greater  importance  than  these  is  an  operetta 
to  German  words  by  Kotzebue,  called  Fanchon,  an  admirable 
specimen  of  the  primitive  form  of  the  musical  drama  known 
in  Germany  as  the  Singspiel.  Himmel's  gift  of  writing  genuine 
simple  melody  is  also  observable  in  his  songs,  amongst  which 
one  called  "  To  Alexis  "  is  the  best.  He  died  in  Berlin  on  the 
8th  of  June  1814. 

HINCKLEY,  a  market  town  in  the  Bosworth  parliamentary 
division  of  Leicestershire,  England,  145  m.  S.W.  from  Leicester 
on  the  Numeaton-Leicester  branch  of  the  London  &  North- 
Western  railway,  and  near  the  Ashby-de-la-Zouch  canal.  Pop. 
of  urban  district  (1901),  11,304.  The  town  is  well  situated  on 
a  considerable  eminence.  Among  the  principal  buildings  are 
the  church  of  St  Mary,  a  Decorated  and  Perpendicular  structure, 
with  lofty  tower  and  spire;  the  Roman  Catholic  academy 
named  St  Peter's  Priory,  and  a  grammar  school.  The  ditch 
of  a  castle  erected  by  Hugh  de  Grentismenil  in  the  time  of  William 
Rufus  is  still  to  be  traced.  Hinckley  is  the  centre  of  a  stocking- 
weaving  district,  and  its  speciality  is  circular  hose.  It  also 
possesses  a  boot-making  industry,  brick  and  tile  works,  and 
lime  works.  There  are  mineral  springs  in  the  neighbourhood. 

HINCKS,  EDWARD  (1792-1866),  British  assyriologist,  was 
born  at  Cork,  Ireland,  and  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 
He  took  orders  in  the  Protestant  Church  of  Ireland,  and  was 
rector  of  Killyleagh,  Down,  from  1825  till  his  death  on  the  3rd 
of  December  1866.  Hincks  devoted  his  spare  time  to  the  study 
of  hieroglyphics,  and  to  the  deciphering  of  the  cuneiform  script 
(see  CUNEIFORM),  in  which  he  was  a  pioneer,  working  out  con- 
temporaneously with  Sir  H.  Rawlinson,  and  independently 
of  him,  the  ancient  Persian  vowel  .system.  He  published  a 
number  of  original  and  scholarly  papers  on  assyriological 
questions  of  the  highest  value,  chiefly  in  the  Transactions  of 
the  Royal  Irish  Academy. 

HINCKS,  SIR  FRANCIS  (1807-1885),  Canadian  statesman, 
was  born  at  Cork,  Ireland,  the  son  of  an  Irish  Presbyterian 
minister.  In  1832  he  engaged  in  business  in  Toronto,  became 
a  friend  of  Robert  Baldwin,  and  in  1835  was  chosen  to  examine 
the  accounts  of  the  Welland  Canal,  the  management  of  which 
was  being  attacked  by  W.  L.  Mackenzie.  This  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  political  life  and  in  1838  he  founded  the  Examiner,  a 
weekly  paper  in  the  Liberal  interest.  In  1841  he  was  elected 
M.P.  for  the  county  of  Oxford,  and  in  the  following  year  was 
appointed  inspector-general,  the  title  then  borne  by  the  finance 
minister,  but  in  1843  resigned  with  Baldwin  and  the  other 
ministers  on  the  question  of  responsible  government.  In  1848 
he  again  became  inspector-general  in  the  Baldwin-Lafontaine 


HINCMAR 


477 


ministry,  and  on  their  retirement  in  1851  became  premier  of 
Canada,  his  chief  colleague  being  A.  N.  Morin  (1803-1865). 
While  premier  he  was  prominent  in  the  negotiations  which  led 
to  the  construction  of  the  Grand  Trunk  railway,  and  in  co- 
operation with  Lord  Elgin  negotiated  with  the  United  States 
the  reciprocity  treaty  of  1854.  In  the  same  year  the  bitter 
hostility  of  the  "  Clear  Grits  "  under  George  Brown  compelled 
his  resignation,  and  he  was  prominent  in  the  formation  of  the 
Liberal-Conservative  Party.  In  1855  he  was  chosen  governor 
of  Barbados  and  the  Windward  Islands,  and  subsequently 
governor  of  British  Guiana.  In  1869  he  was  created  K.C.M.G. 
and  returned  to  Canada,  becoming  till  1873  finance  minister 
in  the  cabinet  of  Sir  John  Macdonald.  In  February  of  that 
year  he  resigned,  but  continued  to  take  an  active  part  in  public 
life.  In  1879  the  failure  of  the  Consolidated  Bank  of  Canada, 
of  which  he  was  president,  led  to  his  being  tried  for  issuing  false 
statements.  Though  found  guilty  on  a  technicality  (see  Journal 
of  the  Canadian  Bankers'  Association,  April  1906)  judgment 
was  suspended,  his  personal  credit  remained  unimpaired,  and 
he  continued  to  take  part  in  the  discussion  of  public  questions 
till  his  death  on  the  i8th  of  August  1885. 

His  writings  include :  The  Political  History  of  Canada  between  1840 
and  1855  (1877);  The  Political  Destiny  of  Canada  (1878),  and  his 
Reminiscences  (1884). 

HINCMAR  (c.  805-882),  archbishop  of  Reims,  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  figures  in  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  France, 
belonged  to  a  noble  family  of  the  north  or  north-east  of  Gaul. 
Destined,  doubtless,  to  the  monastic  life,  he  was  brought  up  at 
St  Denis  under  the  direction  of  the  abbot  Hilduin  (d.  844),  who 
brought  him  in  822  to  the  court  of  the  emperor  Louis  the  Pious. 
When  Hilduin  was  disgraced  in  830  for  having  joined  the  party  of 
Lothair,  Hincmar  accompanied  him  into  exile  at  Corvey  in 
Saxony,  but  returned  with  him  to  St  Denis  when  the  abbot  was 
reconciled  with  the  emperor,  and  remained  faithful  to  the  emperor 
during  his  struggle  with  his  sons.  After  the  death  of  Louis  the 
Pious  (840)  Hincmar  supported  Charles  the  Bald,  and  received 
from  him  the  abbacies  of  Notre-Dame  at  Compiegne  and  St 
Germer  de  Fly.  In  845  he  obtained  through  the  king's  support 
the  archbishopric  of  Reims,  and  this  choice  was  confirmed  at 
the  synod  of  Beauvais  (April  845).  Archbishop  Ebbo,  whom  he 
replaced,  had  been  deposed  in  835  at  the  synod  of  Thionville 
( D  iedenhof  en)  for  having  broken  his  oath  of  fideli  ty  to  the  emperor 
Louis,  whom  he  had  deserted  to  join  the  party  of  Lothair.  After 
the  death  of  Louis,  Ebbo  succeeded  in  regaining  possession  of  his 
see  for  some  years  (840-844),  but  in  844  Pope  Sergius  II.  con- 
firmed his  deposition.  It  was  in  these  circumstances  that 
Hincmar  succeeded,  and  in  847  Pope  Leo  IV.  sent  him  the 
pallium. 

One  of  the  first  cares  of  the  new  prelate  was  the  restitution  to 
his  metropolitan  see  of  the  domains  that  had  been  alienated  under 
Ebbo  and  given  as  benefices  to  laymen.  From  the  beginning  of 
his  episcopate  Hincmar  was  in  constant  conflict  with  the  clerks 
who  had  been  ordained  by  Ebbo  during  his  reappearance.  These 
clerks,  whose  ordination  was  regarded  as  invalid  by  Hincmar  and 
his  adherents,  were  condemned  in  853  at  the  council  of  Soissons, 
and  the  decisions  of  that  council  were  confirmed  in  855  by  Pope 
Benedict  III.  This  conflict,  however,  bred  an  antagonism  of 
which  Hincmar  was  later  to  feel  the  effects.  During  the  next 
thirty  years  the  archbishop  of  Reims  played  a  very  prominent 
part  in  church  and  state.  His  authoritative  and  energetic  will 
inspired,  and  in  great  measure  directed,  the  policy  of  the  west 
Prankish  kingdom  until  his  death.  He  took  an  active  part  in 
all  the  great  political  and  religious  affairs  of  his  time,  and  was 
especially  energetic  in  defending  and  extending  the  rights  of  the 
church  and  of  the  metropolitans  in  general,  and  of  the  metro- 
politan of  the  church  of  Reims  in  particular.  In  the  resulting 
conflicts,  in  which  his  personal  interest  was  in  question,  he 
displayed  great  activity  and  a  wide  knowledge  of  canon  law,  but 
did  not  scruple  to  resort  to  disingenuous  interpretation  of  texts. 
His  first  encounter  was  with  the  heresiarch  Gottschalk,  whose 
predestinarian  doctrines  claimed  to  be  modelled  on  those  of  St 
Augustine.  Hincmar  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  party 


that  regarded  Gottschalk's  doctrines  as  heretical,  and  succeeded 
in  procuring  the  arrest  and  imprisonment  of  his  adversary  (849). 
For  a  part  at  least  of  his  doctrines  Gottschalk  found  ardent 
defenders,  such  as  Lupus  of  Ferrieres,  the  deacon  Florus  and 
Amolo  of  Lyons.  Through  the  energy  and  activity  of  Hincmar 
the  theories  of  Gottschalk  were  condemned  at  Quierzy  (853)  and 
Valence  (855),  and  the  decisions  of  these  two  synods  were  con- 
firmed at  the  synods  of  Langres  and  Savonnieres,  near  Toul 
(859).  To  refute  the  predestinarian  heresy  Hincmar  composed 
his  De  praedeslinalione  Dei  el  libero  arbilrio,  and  against 
certain  propositions  advanced  by  Gottschalk  on  the  Trinity  he 
wrote  a  treatise  called  De  una  el  non  trina  deflate.  Gottschalk 
died  in  prison  in  868.  The  question  of  the  divorce  of  Lothair  II., 
king  of  Lorraine,  who  had  repudiated  his  wife  Theutberga  to 
marry  his  concubine  Waldrada,  engaged  Hincmar's  literary 
activities  in  another  direction.  At  the  request  of  a  number  of 
great  personages  in  Lorraine  he  composed  in  860  his  De  diwrlio 
Lotharii  et  Teutbergae,  in  which  he  vigorously  attacked,  both 
from  the  moral  and  the  legal  standpoints,  the  condemnation 
pronounced  against  the  queen  by  the  synod  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
(February  860).  Hincmar  energetically  supported  the  policy  of 
Charles  the  Bald  in  Lorraine,  less  perhaps  from  devotion  to  the 
king's  interests  than  from  a  desire  to  see  the  whole  of  the  ecclesi- 
astical province  of  Reims  united  under  the  authority  of  a  single 
sovereign,  and  in  869  it  was  he  who  consecrated  Charles  at  Metz 
as  king  of  Lorraine. 

In  the  middle  of  the  9th  century  there  appeared  in  Gaul  the 
collection  of  false  decretals  commonly  known  as  the  Pseudo- 
Isidorian  Decretals.  The  exact  date  and  the  circumstances  of  the 
composition  of  the  collection  are  still  an  open  question,  but  it  is 
certain  that  Hincmar  was  one  of  the  first  to  know  of  their  existence, 
and  apparently  he  was  not  aware  that  the  documents  were  forged. 
The  importance  assigned  by  these  decretals  to  the  bishops  and  the 
provincial  councils,  as  well  as  to  the  direct  intervention  of  the 
Holy  See,  tended  to  curtail  the  rights  of  the  metropolitans,  of 
which  Hincmar  was  so  jealous.  Rothad,  bishop  of  Soissons,  one  of 
the  most  active  members  of  the  party  in  favour  of  the  pseudo- 
Isidorian  theories,  immediately  came  into  collision  with  his 
archbishop.  Deposed  in  863  at  the  council  of  Soissons,  presided 
over  by  Hincmar,  Rothad  appealed  to  Rome.  Pope  Nicholas  I. 
supported  him  zealously,  and  in  865,  in  spite  of  the  protests  of  the 
archbishop  of  Reims,  Arsenius,  bishop  of  Orta  and  legate  of  the 
Holy  See,  was  instructed  to  restore  Rothad  to  his  episcopal  see. 
Hincmar  experienced  another  check  when  he  endeavoured  to 
prevent  Wulfad,  one  of  the  clerks  deposed  by  Ebbo,  from  obtain- 
ing the  archbishopric  of  Bourges  with  the  support  of  Charles  the 
Bald.  After  a  synod  held  at  Soissons,  Nicholas  I.  pronounced 
himself  in  favour  of  the  deposed  clerks,  and  Hincmar  was  con- 
strained to  make  submission  (866).  He  was  more  successful  in 
his  contest  with  his  nephew  Hincmar,  bishop  of  Laon,  who  was 
at  first  supported  both  by  the  king  and  by  his  uncle,  the  arch- 
bishop of  Reims,  but  soon  quarrelled  with  both.  Hincmar  of 
Laon  refused  to  recognize  the  authority  of  his  metropolitan,  and 
entered  into  an  open  struggle  with  his  uncle,  who  exposed  his 
errors  in  a  treatise  called  Opusculum  LV.  capilulorum,  and  pro- 
cured his  condemnation  and  deposition  at  the  synod  of  Douzy 
(871).  The  bishop  of  Laon  was  sent  into  exile,  probably  to 
Aquitaine,  where  his  eyes  were  put  out  by  order  of  Count  Boso. 
Pope  Adrian  protested  against  his  deposition,  but  it  was  con- 
firmed in  876  by  Pope  John  VIII.,  and  it  was  not  until  878,  at  the 
council  of  Troyes,  that  the  unfortunate  prelate  was  reconciled 
with  the  Church.  A  serious  conflict  arose  between  Hincmar  on 
the  one  side  and  Charles  and  the  pope  on  the  other  in  876,  when 
Pope  John  VIII.,  at  the  king's  request,  entrusted  Ansegisus, 
archbishop  of  Sens,  with  the  primacy  of  the  Gauls  and  of 
Germany,  and  created  him  vicar  apostolic.  In  Hincmar's  eyes 
this  was  an  encroachment  on  the  jurisdiction  of  the  archbishops, 
and  it  was  against  this  primacy  that  he  directed  his  treatise 
Dejure  metropolitanorum.  At  the  same  time  he  wrote  a  life  of  St 
Remigius,  in  which  he  endeavoured  by  audacious  falsifications  to 
prove  the  supremacy  of  the  church  of  Reims  over  the  other 
churches.  Charles  the  Bald,  however,  upheld  the  rights  of 


HIND— HINDLEY 


Ansegisus  at  the  synod  of  Ponthion.  Although  Hincmar  had 
been  very  hostile  to  Charles's  expedition  into  Italy,  he  figured 
among  his  testamentary  executors  and  helped  to  secure  the  sub- 
mission of  the  nobles  to  Louis  the  Stammerer,  whom  he  crowned 
at  Compiegne  (8th  of  December  877). 

During  the  reign  of  Louis,  Hincmar  played  an  obscure  part. 
He  supported  the  accession  of  Louis  III.  and  Carloman,  but  had 
a  dispute  with  Louis,  who  wished  to  instal  a  candidate  in  the 
episcopal  see  of  Beauvais  without  the  archbishop's  assent.  To 
Carloman,  on  his  accession  in  882,  Hincmar  addressed  his  De 
ordine  palatii,  partly  based  on  a  treatise  (now  lost)  by  Adalard, 
abbot  of  Corbie  (c.  814),  in  which  he  set  forth  his  system  of  govern- 
ment and  his  opinion  of  the  duties  of  a  sovereign,  a  subject  he 
had  already  touched  in  his  De  regis  persona  et  regio  ministerio, 
dedicated  to  Charles  the  Bald  at  an  unknown  date,  and  in  his 
Instructio  ad  Ludovicum  regent,  addressed  to  Louis  the  Stammerer 
on  his  accession  in  877.  In  the  autumn  of  882  an  irruption  of 
the  Normans  forced  the  old  archbishop  to  take  refuge  at  Epernay, 
where  he  died  on  the  2ist  of  December  882.  Hincmar  was  a 
prolific  writer.  Besides  the  works  already  mentioned,  he  was  the 
author  of  several  theological  tracts;  of  the  De  villa  Noviliaco, 
concerning  the  claiming  of  a  domain  of  his  church;  and  he  con- 
tinued from  86 1  the  Annales  Bertiniani,  of  which  the  first  part 
was  written  by  Prudentius,  bishop  of  Troyes,  the  best  source  for 
the  history  of  Charles  the  Bald.  He  also  wrote  a  great  number 
of  letters,  some  of  which  are  extant,  and  others  embodied  in  the 
chronicles  of  Flodoard. 

Hincmar's  works,  which  are  the  principal  source  for  the  history 
of  his  life,  were  collected  by  Jacques  Sirmond  (Paris,  1645),  and 
reprinted  by  Migne,  Patrol.  Latina,  vol.  cxxy.  and  cxxvi.  See  also 
C.  von  Noorden,  Hinkmar,  Erzbischof  von  Reims  (Bonn,  1863),  and, 
especially,  H.  Schrors,  Hinkmar,  Erzbischof  von  Reims  (Freiburg- 
im-Breisgau,  1884).  For  Hincmar's  political  and  ecclesiastical 
theories  see  preface  to  Maurice  Prou's  edition  of  the  De  ordine  palatii 
(Paris,  1885),  and  the  abb6  Lesne,  La  Hierarchie  episcopate  en  Gaule 
et  en  Germanie  (Paris,  1905).  (R.  Po.) 

HIND,  the  female  of  the  red-deer,  usually  taken  as  being 
three  years  old  and  over,  the  male  being  known  as  a  "  hart. 
It  is  sometimes  also  applied  to  the  female  of  other  species  of 
deer.  The  word  appears  in  several  Teutonic  languages,  cf. 
Dutch  and  Ger.  Hinde,  and  has  been  connected  with  the  Goth. 
hin]>an  (hinthan),  to  seize,  which  may  be  connected  ultimately 
with  "  hand  "  and  "  hunt."  "  Hart,"  from  the  O.E.  heart,  may 
be  in  origin  connected  with  the  root  of  Gr.  /cepas,  horn. 
"  Hind  "  (O.E.  hine,  probably  from  the  O.E.  hinan,  members 
of  a  family  or  household),  meaning  a  servant,  especially  a 
labourer  on  a  farm,  is  another  word.  In  Scotland  the  "  hind  " 
is  a  farm  servant,  with  a  cottage  on  the  farm,  and  duties  and 
responsibilities  that  make  him  superior  to  the  rest  of  the 
labourers.  Similarly  "  hind "  is  used  in  certain  parts  of 
northern  England  as  equivalent  to  "  bailiff." 

HINDERSIN,  GUSTAV  EDUARD  VON  (1804-1872),  Prussian 
general,  was  born  at  Wernigerode  near  Halberstadt  on  the 
1 8th  of  July  1804.  He  was  the  son  of  a  priest  and  received  a 
good  education.  His  earlier  life  was  spent  in  great  poverty, 
and  the  struggle  for  existence  developed  in  him  an  iron  strength 
of  character.  Entering  the  Prussian  artillery  in  1820  he  became 
an  officer  in  1825.  From  1830  to  1837  he  attended  the  Allgemeine 
Kriegsakademie  at  Berlin,  and  in  1841,  while  still  a  subaltern, 
he  was  posted  to  the  great  General  Staff,  in  which  he  afterwards 
directed  the  topographical  section.  In  1849  he  served  with  the 
rank  of  major  on  the  staff  of  General  Peucker,  who  commanded 
a  federal  corps  in  the  suppression  of  the  Baden  insurrection.  He 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  insurgents  at  the  action  of  Ladenburg, 
but  was  released  just  before  the  fall  of  Rastadt.  In  the  Danish 
war  of  1864  Hindersin,  now  lieutenant-general,  directed  the 
artillery  operations  against  the  lines  of  Diippel,  and  for  his 
services  was  ennobled  by  the  king  of  Prussia.  Soon  afterwards 
he  became  inspector-general  of  artillery.  His  experience  at 
Diippel  had  convinced  him  that  the  days  of  the  smooth-bore 
gun  were  past,  and  he  now  devoted  himself  with  unremitting 
zeal  to  the  rearmament  and  reorganization  of  the  Prussian 
artillery.  The  available  funds  were  small,  and  grudgingly 


voted  by  the  parliament.  There  was  a  strong  feeling  moreover 
that  the  smooth-bore  was  still  tactically  superior  to  its  rival 
(see  ARTILLERY,  §  19).  There  was  no  practical  training  for 
war  in  either  the  field  or  the  fortress  artillery  units.  The  latter 
had  made  scarcely  any  progress  since  the  days  of  Frederick 
the  Great,  and  before  von  Hindersin's  appointment  had  practised 
with  the  same  guns  in  the  same  bastion  year  after  year.  Ali 
this  was  altered,  the  whole  "  foot-artillery  "  was  reorganized, 
manoeuvres  were  instituted,  and  the  smooth-bores  were,  except 
for  ditch  defence,  eliminated  from  the  armament  of  the  Prussian 
fortresses.  But  far  more  important  was  his  work  in  connexion 
with  the  field  and  horse  batteries.  In  1864  only  one  battery 
in  four  had  rifled  guns,  but  by  the  unrelenting  energy  of  von 
Hindersin  the  outbreak  of  war  with  Austria  one  and  a  half 
years  later  found  the  Prussians  with  ten  in  every  sixteen  batteries 
armed  with  the  new  weapon.  But  the  battles  of  1866  showed, 
besides  the  superiority  of  the  rifled  gun,  a  very  marked  absence 
of  tactical  efficiency  in  the  Prussian  artillery,  which  was  almost 
always  outmatched  by  that  of  the  enemy.  Von  Hindersin 
had  pleaded,  in  season  and  out  of  season,  for  the  establishment 
of  a  school  of  gunnery;  and  in  spite  of  want  of  funds,  such 
a  school  had  already  been  established.  After  1866,  however, 
more  support  was  obtained,  and  the  improvement  in  the  Prussian 
field  artillery  between  1866  and  1870  was  extraordinary,  even 
though  there  had  not  been  time  for  the  work  of  the  school  to 
leaven  the  whole  arm.  Indeed,  the  German  artillery  played 
by  far  the  most  important  part  in  the  victories  of  the  Franco- 
German  war.  Von  Hindersin  accompanied  the  king's  headquarters 
as  chief  of  artillery,  as  he  had  done  in  1866,  and  was  present 
at  Gravelotte,  Sedan  and  the  siege  of  Paris.  But  his  work, 
which  was  now  accomplished,  had  worn  t>ut  his  physical  powers, 
and  he  died  on  the  23rd  of  January  1872  at  Berlin. 

See  Bartholomaus,  Der  General  der  Infanterie  von  Hindersin 
(Berlin,  1895),  and  Prince  Kraft  zu  Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen,  Letters 
on  Artillery  (translated  by  Major  Walford,  R.A.),  No.  xi. 

HINDI,  EASTERN,  one  of  the  "  intermediate  "  Indo-Aryan 
languages  (see  HINDOSTANI).  It  is  spoken  in  Oudh,  Baghelkhand 
and  Chhattisgarh  by  over  22,000,000  people.  It  is  derived 
from  the  Apabhrarhsa  form  of  ArdhamagadhI  Prakrit  (see 
PRAKRIT),  and  possesses  a  large  and  important  literature.  Its 
most  famous  writer  was  Tulsl  Das,  the  poet  and  reformer, 
who  died  early  in  the  i7th  century,  and  since  his  time  it  has 
been  the  North-Indian  language  employed  for  epic  poetry. 

HINDI,  WESTERN,  the  Indo-Aryan  language  of  the  middle 
and  upper  Gangetic  Doab,  and  of  the  country  to  the  north 
and  south.  It  is  the  vernacular  of  over  40,000,000  people.  Its 
standard  dialect  is  Braj  Bhasha,  spoken  near  Muttra,  which 
has  a  considerable  literature  mainly  devoted  to  the  religion 
founded  on  devotion  to  Krishna.  Another  dialect  spoken 
near  Delhi  and  in  the  upper  Gangetic  Doab  is  the  original  from 
which  Hindostani,  the  great  lingua  franca  of  India,  has  developed 
(see  HINDOSTANI).  Western  Hindi,  like  Punjabi,  its  neighbour 
to  the  west,  is  descended  from  the  Apabhrarhsa  form  of  SaurasenI 
Prakrit  (see  PRAKRIT),  and  represents  the  language  of  the 
Madhyadesa  or  Midland,  as  distinct  from  the  intermediate 
and  outer  Indo-Aryan  languages. 

HINDKI,  the  name  given  to  the  Hindus  who  inhabit  Afghani- 
stan. They  are  of  the  Khatri  class,  and  are  found  all  over 
the  country  even  amongst  the  wildest  tribes.  Bellew  in  his 
Races  of  Afghanistan  estimates  their  number  at  about  300,000. 
The  name  Hindki  is  also  loosely  used  on  the  upper  Indus, 
in  Dir,  Bajour,  &c.,  to  denote  the  speakers  of  Punjabi  or  any 
of  its  dialects.  It  is  sometimes  applied  in  a  historical  sense 
to  the  Buddhist  inhabitants  of  the  Peshawar  Valley  north  of 
the  Kabul  river,  who  were  driven  thence  about  the  5th  or 
6th  century  and  settled  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Kandahar. 

HINDLEY,  an  urban  district  in  the  Ince  parliamentary 
division  of  Lancashire,  England,  2  m.  E.S.E.  of  Wigan,  on  the 
Lancashire  &  Yorkshire  and  Great  Central  railways.  Pop.  (1901) 
23,504.  Cotton  spinning  and  the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods 
are  the  principal  industries,  and  there  are  extensive  coal-mines 
in  the  neighbourhood.  It  is  recorded  that  in  the  time  of  the 


HINDOSTANI 


479 


Puritan  revolution  Hindley  church  was  entered  by  the  Cavaliers, 
who  played  at  cards  in  the  pews,  pulled  down  the  pulpit  and 
tore  the  Bible  in  pieces. 

HINDOSTANI  (properly  Hindoslani,  of  or  belonging  to 
Hindostan1),  the  name  given  by  Europeans  to  an  Indo-Aryan 
dialect  (whose  home  is  in  the  upper  Gangetic  Doab  and  near 
the  city  of  Delhi),  which,  owing  to  political  causes,  has  become 
the  great  lingua  franca  of  modern  India.  The  name  is  not 
employed  by  natives  of  India,  except  as  an  imitation  of  the 
English  nomenclature.  Hindostani  is  by  origin  a  dialect  of 
Western  Hindi,  and  it  is  first  of  all  necessary  to  explain  what 
we  mean  by  the  term  "  Hindi  "  as  applied  to  language.  Modern 
Indo-Aryan  languages  fall  into  three  groups, — an  outer  band, 
the  language  of  the  Midland  and  an  intermediate  band.  The 
Midland  consists  of  the  Gangetic  Doab  and  of  the  country  to 
its  immediate  north  and  south,  extending,  roughly  speaking, 
from  the  Eastern  Punjab  on  the  west,  to  Cawnpore  on  its  east. 
The  language  of  this  tract  is  called  "Western  Hindi";  to  its 
west  we  have  Panjabi  (of  the  Central  Punjab),  and  to  the  east, 
reaching  as  far  as  Benares,  Eastern  Hindi,  both  Intermediate 
languages.  These  three  will  all  be  dealt  with  in  the  present 
article.  Panjabi  and  Western  Hindi  are  derived  from  Sauraseni, 
and  Eastern  Hindi  from  Ardham  gadha  Prakrit,  through  the 
corresponding  Apabhrarhsas  (see  PRAKRIT).  Eastern  Hindi 
differs  in  many  respects  from  the  two  others,  but  it  is  customary 
to  consider  it  together  with  the  language  of  the  Midland,  and 
this  will  be  followed  on  the  present  occasion.  In  1901  the  speakers 
of  these  three  languages  numbered:  Panjabi,  17,070,961;  Western 
Hindi,  40,714,925;  Eastern  Hindi,  22,136,358. 

Linguistic  Boundaries. — Taking  the  tract  covered  by  these 
three  forms  of  speech,  it  has  to  its  west,  in  the  western  Punjab, 
Lahnda  (see  SINDHI),  a  language  of  the  Outer  band.  The 
parent  of  Lahnda  once  no  doubt  covered  the  whole  of  the 
Punjab,  but,  in  the  process  of  expansion  of  the  tribes  of  the 
Midland  described  in  the  article  INDO-ARYAN  LANGUAGES, 
it  was  gradually  driven  back,  leaving  traces  of  its  former  exist- 
ence which  grow  stronger  as  we  proceed  westwards,  until  at 
about  the  74th  degree  of  east  longitude  there  is  a  mixed,  transi- 
tion dialect.  To  the  west  of  that  degree  Lahnda  may  be  said 
to  be  established,  the  deserts  of  the  west-central  Punjab  forming 
a  barrier  and  protecting  it,  just  as,  farther  south,  a  continuation 
of  the  same  desert  has  protected  Sindhi  from  Rajasthani.  It 
is  the  old  traces  of  Lahnda  which  mainly  differentiate  Panjabi 
from  Hindostani.  To  the  south  of  Panjabi  and  Western  Hindi 
lies  Rajasthani.  This  language  arose  in  much  the  same  way 
as  Panjabi.  The  expanding  Midland  language  was  stopped  by 
the  desert  from  reaching  Sindhi,  but  to  the  south-west  it  found  an 
unobstructed  way  into  Gujarat,  where,  under  the  form  of  Gujarati, 

-1  "  Hindostan  is  a  Persian  word,  and  in  modern  Persian  is 
pronounced  "  Hindustan."  It  means  the  country  of  the  Hindus.  In 
medieval  Persian  the  word  was  "  Hindostan,"  with  an  5,  but  in  the 
modern  language  the  distinctions  between  e  and  i  and  between  o 
and  u  have  been  lost.  Indian  languages  have  borrowed  Persian 
words  in  their  medieval  form.  Thus  in  India  we  have  sher,  a  tiger, 
as  compared  with  modern  Persian  shir;  go,  but  modern  Pers.  gu; 
bostan,  but  modern  Pers.  bustan.  The  word  "  Hindu  "  is  in  medieval 
Persian  "  Hindo  "  representing  the  ancient  Avesta  hendava  (Sanskrit, 
saindhava),  a  dweller  on  the  Sindhu  or  Indus.  Owing  to  the  influence 
of  scholars  in  modern  Persian  the  word  "  Hindu  "  is  now  established 
in  English  and,  through  English,  in  the  Indian  literary  languages; 
but  "  Hindo  "  is  also  often  heard  in  India.  "  Hindostan  "  with  o 
is  much  more  common  both  in  English  and  in  Indian  languages, 
although  "  Hindustan  "  is  also  employed.  Up  to  the  days  of  Persian 
supremacy  inaugurated  in  Calcutta  by  Gilchrist  and  his  friends,  every 
traveller  in  India  spoke  of  "  Indostan  "  or  some  such  word,  thus 
bearing  testimony  to  the  current  pronunciation.  Gilchrist  intro- 
duced "  Hindoostan,"  which  became  "  Hindustan  "  in  modern 
spelling.  The  word  is  not  an  Indian  one,  and  both  pronunciations, 
with  o  and  with  «,  are  current  in  India  at  the  present  day,  but  that 
with  6  is  unquestionably  the  one  demanded  by  the  history  of  the 
word  and  of  the  form  which  other  Persian  words  take  on  Indian 
soil.  On  the  other  hand  "  Hindu  "  is  too  firmly  established  in  Eng- 
lish for  us  to  suggest  the  spelling  "  Hindo."  The  word  "  Hindi  " 
has  another  derivation,  being  formed  from  the  Persian  Hind,  India 
(Avesta  hindu,  Sanskrit  sindhu,  the  Indus).  "  Hindi  "  means  "of 
or  belonging  to  India,"  while  "  Hindu  "  now  means  "  a  person  of  the 
Hindu  religion."  (Cf.  Sir  C.  J.  Lyall,  A  Sketch  of  the  Hindustani 
Language,  p.  l). 


it  broke  the  continuity  of  the  Outer  band.  Eastern  Hindi, 
as  an  Intermediate  form  of  speech,  is  of  much  older  lineage. 
It  has  been  an  Intermediate  language  since,  at  least,  the  institu- 
tion of  Jainism  (say,  500  B.C.),  and  is  much  less  subject  to  the 
influence  of  the  Midland  than  is  Panjabi.  To  its  east  it  has 
Bihari,  and,  stretching  far  to  the  south,  it  has  Marathi  as  its 
neighbour  in  that  direction,  both  of  these  being  Outer  languages. 

Dialects. — The  only  important  dialect  of  Eastern  Hindi 
is  Awadhi,  spoken  in  Oudh,  and  possessing  a  large  literature  of 
great  excellence.  Chhattlsgarhl  and  Bagheli,  the  other  dialects, 
have  scanty  literatures  of  small  value.  Western  Hindi  has  four 
main  dialects,  Bundeli  of  Bundelkhand,  Braj  Bhasha  (properly 
"  Braj  Bhasa  ")  of  the  country  round  Mathura  (Muttra),  KanaujI 
of  the  central  Doab  and  the  country  to  its  north,  and  vernacular 
Hindostani  of  Delhi  and  the  Upper  Doab.  West  of  the  Upper 
Doab,  across  the  Jumna,  another  dialect,  Bangaru,  is  also  found. 
It  possesses  no  literature.  Kanauji  is  very  closely  allied  to 
Braj  Bhasha,  and  these  two  share  with  Awadhi  the  honour 
of  being  the  great  literary  speeches  of  northern  India.  Nearly 
all  the  classical  literature  of  India  is  religious  in  character, 
and  we  may  say  that,  as  a  broad  rule,  Awadhi  literature  is  devoted 
to  the  Ramaite  religion  and  the  epic  poetry  connected  with  it, 
while  that  of  Braj  Bhasha  is  concerned  with  the  religion  of 
Krishna.  Vernacular  Hindostani  has  no  literature  of  its  own, 
but  as  the  lingua  franca  now  to  be  described  it  has  a  large 
one.  Panjabi  has  one  dialect,  Dogri,  spoken  in  the  Himalayas. 

Hindostani  as  a  Lingua  Franca. — It  has  often  been  said  that 
Hindostani  is  a  mongrel  "  pigeon  "  form  of  speech  made  up 
of  contributions  from  the  various  languages  which  met  in  Delhi 
bazaar,  but  this  theory  has  now  been  proved  to  be  unfounded, 
owing  to  the  discovery  of  the,  fact  that  it  is  an  actual  living 
dialect  of  Western  Hindi,  existing  for  centuries  in  its  present 
habitat,  and  the  direct  descendant  of  Sauraseni  Prakrit.  It 
is  not  a  typical  dialect  of  that  language,  for,  situated  where  it 
is,  it  represents  Western  Hindi  merging  into  Panjabi  (Braj 
Bhasha  being  admittedly  the  standard  of  the  language),  but  to 
say  that  it  is  a  mongrel  tongue  thrown  together  in  the  market 
is  to  reverse  the  order  of  events.  It  was  the  natural  language 
of  the  people  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Delhi,  who  formed  the 
bulk  of  those  who  resorted  to  the  bazaar,  and  hence  it  became 
the  bazaar  language.  From  here  it  became  the  lingua  franca 
of  the  Mogul  camp  and  was  carried  everywhere  in  India  by  the 
lieutenants  of  the  empire.  It  has  several  recognized  varieties, 
amongst  which  we  may  mention  Dakhini,  Urdu,  Rekhta  and 
Hindi.  Dakhini  or  "  southern,"  is  the  form  current  in  the  south 
of  India,  and  was  the  first  to  be  employed  for  literature.  It 
contains  many  archaic  expressions  now  extinct  in  the  standard 
dialect.  Urdu,  or  Urdu  zaban,  "  the  language  of  the  camp," 
is  the  name  usually  employed  for  Hindostani  by  natives,  and 
is  now  the  standard  form  of  speech  used  by  Mussulmans.  All 
the  early  Hindostani  literature  was  in  poetry,  and  this  literary 
form  of  speech  was  named  "  Rekhta,"  or  "  scattered,"  from  the 
way  in  which  words  borrowed  from  Persian  were  "  scattered  " 
through  it.  The  name  is  now  reserved  for  the  dialect  used  in 
poetry,  Urdu  being  the  dialect  of  prose  and  of  conversation. 
The  introduction  of  these  borrowed  words,  which  has  been 
carried  to  even  a  greater  extent  in  Urdu,  was  facilitated  by  the 
facts  that  the  latter  was  by  origin  a  "  camp  "  language,  and  that 
Persian  was  the  official  language  of  the  Mogul  court.  In  this 
way  Persian  (and,  with  Persian,  Arabic)  words  came  into  current 
use,  and,  though  the  language  remained  Indo-Aryan  in  its 
grammar  and  essential  characteristics,  it  soon  became  un- 
intelligible to  any  one  who  had  not  at  least  a  moderate  acquaint- 
ance with  the  vocabulary  of  Iran.  This  extreme  Persianization 
of  Urdu  was  due  rather  to  Hindu  than  to  Persian  influence. 
Although  Urdu  literature  was  Mussulman  in  its  origin,  the 
Persian  element  was  first  introduced  in  excess  by  the  pliant 
Hindu  officials  employed  in  the  Mogul  administration,  and 
acquainted  with  Persian,  rather  than  by  Persians  and  Per- 
sianized  Moguls,  who  for  many  centuries  used  only  their  own 
languages  for  literary  purposes.2  Prose  Urdu  literature  took  its 
J  Sir  C.  J.  Lyall,  op.  cit.  p.  9. 


48o 


HINDOSTANI 


origin  in  the  English  occupation  of  India  and  the  need  for  text- 
books for  the  college  of  Fort  William.  It  has  had  a  prosperous 
career  since  the  commencement  of  the  I9th  century,  but  some 
writers,  especially  those  of  Lucknow,  have  so  overloaded  it  with 
Persian  and  Arabic  that  little  of  the  original  Indo-Aryan  char- 
acter remains,  except,  perhaps,  an  occasional  pronoun  or  auxiliary 
verb.  The  Hindi  form  of  Hindostani  was  invented  simultane- 
ously with  Urdu  prose  by  the  teachers  at  Fort  William.  It 
was  intended  to  be  a  Hindostani  for  the  use  of  Hindus,  and  was 
derived  from  Urdu  by  ejecting  all  words  of  Persian  or  Arabic 
birth,  and  substituting  for  them  words  either  borrowed  from 
Sanskrit  (tatsamas)  or  derived  from  the  old  primary  Prakrit 
(tadbhavas)  (see  INDO-ARYAN  LANGUAGES).  Owing  to  the  popu- 
larity of  the  first  book  written  in  it,  and  to  its  supplying  the 
need  for  a  lingua  jranca  which  could  be  used  by  the  most  patriotic 
Hindus  without  offending  their  religious  prejudices,  it  became 
widely  adopted,  and  is  now  the  recognized  vehicle  for  writing 
prose  by  those  inhabitants  of  northern  India  who  do  not  employ 
Urdu.  This  Hindi,  which  is  an  altogether  artificial  product  of  the 
English,  is  hardly  ever  used  for  poetry.  For  this  the  indigenous 
dialects  (usually  Awadhi  or  Braj  Bhasha)  are  nearly  always 
employed  by  Hindus.  Urdu,  on  the  other  hand,  having  had  a 
natural  growth,  has  a  vigorous  poetical  literature.  Modern 
Hindi  prose  is  often  disfigured  by  that  too  free  borrowing  of 
Sanskrit  words  instead  of  using  home-born  tadbhavas,  which 
has  been  the  ruin  of  Bengali,  and  it  is  rapidly  becoming  a  Hindu 
counterpart  of  the  Persianized  Urdu,  neither  of  which  is  in- 
telligible except  to  persons  of  high  education. 

Not  only  has  Urdu  adopted  a  Persian  vocabulary,  but  even 
a  few  peculiarities  of  Persian  construction,  such  as  reversing 
the  positions  of  the  governing  and  the  governed  word  (e.g. 
bap  mera  for  mera  bap),  or  of  the  adjective  and  the  substantive 
it  qualifies,  or  such  as  the  use  of  Persian  phrases  with  the  pre- 
position ba  instead  of  the  native  postposition  of  the  ablative 
case  (e.g.  ba-khushi  for  kkushi-se,  or  ba-hukm  sarkar-ke  instead 
of  sarkar-ke  hukm-se)  are  to  be  met  with  in  many  writings; 
and  these,  perhaps,  combined  with  the  too  free  indulgence  on 
the  part  of  some  authors  in  the  use  of  high-flown  and  pedantic 
Persian  and  Arabic  words  in  place  of  common  and  yet  chaste 
Indian  words,  and  the  general  use  of  the  Persian  instead  of  the 
Nagari  character,  have  induced  some  to  regard  Hindostani  or 
Urdu  as  a  language  distinct  from  Hindi.  But  such  a  view 
betrays  a  radical  misunderstanding  of  the  whole  question.  We 
must  define  Urdu  as  the  Persianized  Hindostani  of  educated 
Mussulmans,  while  Hindi  is  the  Sanskritized  Hindostani  of 
educated  Hindus.  As  for  the  written  character,  Urdu,  from 
the 'number  of  Persian  words  which  it  contains,  can  only  be 
written  conveniently  in  the  Persian  character,  while  Hindi, 
for  a  parallel  reason,  can  only  be  written  in  the  Nagari  or  one 
of  its  related  alphabets  (see  SANSKRIT).  On  the  other  hand, 
"  Hindostani  "  implies  the  great  lingua  franca  of  India,  capable 
of  being  written  in  either  character,  and,  without  purism, 
avoiding  the  excessive  use  of  either  Persian  or  Sanskrit  words 
when  employed  for  literature.  It  is  easy  to  write  this  Hindostani, 
for  it  has  an  opulent  vocabulary  of  tadbhava  words  understood 
everywhere  by  both  Mussulmans  and  Hindus.  While  "  Hindo- 
stani," "  Urdu  "  and  "  Hindi  "  are  thus  names  of  dialects,  it 
should  be  remembered  that  the  terms  "  Western  Hindi  "  and 
"  Eastern  Hindi  "  connote,  not  dialects,  but  languages. 

The  epoch  of  Akbar,  which  first  saw  a  regular  revenue  system 
established,  with  toleration  and  the  free  use  of  their  religion  to 
the  Hindus,  was,  there  can  be  little  doubt,  the  period  of  the 
formation  of  the  language.  But  its  final  consolidation  did  not 
take  place  till  the  reign  of  Shah  Jahan.  After  the  date  of  this 
monarch  the  changes  are  comparatively  immaterial  until  we 
come  to  the  time  when  European  sources  began  to  mingle 
with  those  of  the  East.  Of  the  contributions  from  these  sources 
there  is  little  to  say.  Like  the  greater  part  of  those  from  Arabic 
and  Persian,  they  are  chiefly  nouns,  and  may  be  regarded  rather 
as  excrescences  which  have  sprung  up  casually  and  have  attached 
themselves  to  the  original  trunk  than  as  ingredients  duly  in- 
corporated in  the  body.  In  the  case  of  the  Persian  and  Arabic 


element,  indeed,  we  do  find  not  a  few  instances  in  which  nouns 
have  been  furnished  with  a  Hindi  termination,  e.g.  kjiaridna, 
badalnd,  guzarnd,  daghnd,  bakhshnd,  kaminapan,  &c.;  but  the 
European  element  cannot  be  said  to  have  at  all  woven  itself 
into  the  grammar  of  the  language.  It  consists,  as  has  been 
observed,  solely  of  nouns,  principally  substantive  nouns,  which 
on  their  admission  into  the  language  are  spelt  phonetically, 
or  according  to  the  corrupt  pronunciation  they  receive  in  the 
mouths  of  the  natives,  and  are  declined  like  the  indigenous 
nouns  by  means  of  the  usual  postpositions  or  case-affixes.  A 
few  examples  will  suffice.  The  Portuguese,  the  first  in  order  of 
seniority,  contributes  a  few  words,  as  kamara  or  kamra  (camera), 
a  room;  mdrtol  (martello),  a  hammer;  nildm  (leildo),  an  auction, 
&c.  &c.  Of  French  and  Dutch  influence  scarcely  a  trace  exists. 
English  has  contributed  a  number  of  words,  some  of  which  have 
even  found  a  place  in  the  literature  of  the  language;  e.g. 
kamishanar  (commissioner);  jaj  (judge);  ddktar  (doctor); 
daktari,  "  the  science  of  medicine "  or  "  the  profession  of 
physicians";  inspektar  (inspector);  istant  (assistant) ;  sosayati 
(society);  apU  (appeal);  apil  karna,  "to  appeal";  dikri  or 
digri  (decree);  digri  (degree);  inc  (inch);  fut  (foot);  and 
many  more,  are  now  words  commonly  used.  Some  borrowed 
words  are  distorted  into  the  shape  of  genuine  Hindostani  words 
familiar  to  the  speakers;  e.g.  the  English  railway  term  "  signal  " 
has  become  sikandar,  the  native  name  for  Alexander  the  Great, 
and  "  signal-man  "  is  sikandar -man,  or  "  the  pride  of  Alexander." 
How  far  the  free  use  of  Anglicisms  will  be  adopted  as  the  language 
progresses  is  a  question  upon  which  it  would  be  hazardous  to 
pronounce  an  opinion,  but  of  late  years  it  has  greatly  increased 
in  the  language  of  the  educated,  especially  in  the  case  of  technical 
terms.  A  native  veterinary  surgeon  once  said  to  the  present 
writer,  "  kutle-ka  saliva  bahut  antiseptic  hai "  for  "  a  dog's 
saliva  is  very  antiseptic,"  and  this  is  not  an  extravagant 
example.1 

The  vocabulary  of  Panjabi  and  Eastern  Hindi  is  very  similar 
to  that  of  Western  Hindi.  Panjabi  has  no  literature  to  speak 
of  and  is  free  from  the  burden  of  words  borrowed  from  Persian 
or  Sanskrit,  only  the  commonest  and  simplest  of  such  being  found 
in  it.  Its  vocabulary  is  thus  almost  entirely  ladbhava,  and, 
while  capable  of  expressing  all  ideas,  it  has  a  charming  rustic 
flavour,  like  the  Lowland  Scotch  of  Burns,  indicative  of  the 
national  character  of  the  sturdy  peasantry  that  employs  it. 
Eastern  Hindi  is  very  like  Panjabi  in  this  respect,  but  for  a 
different  reason.  In  it  were  written  the  works  of  Tulsi  Das, 
one  of  the  greatest  writers  that  India  has  produced,  and  his 
influence  on  the  language  has  been  as  great  as  that  of  Shake- 
speare on  English.  The  peasantry  are  continually  quoting 
him  without  knowing  it,  and  his  style,  simple  and  yet  vigorous, 
thoroughly  Indian  and  yet  free  from  purism,  has  set  a  model 
which  is  everywhere  followed  except  in  the  large  towns  where 
Urdu  or  Sanskritized  Hindi  prevails.  Eastern  Hindi  is  written 
in  the  Nagari  alphabet,  or  in  the  current  character  related  to 
it  called  "  Kaithi  "  (see  BIHARI).  The  indigenous  alphabet  of 
the  Punjab  is  called  Landa  or  "  clipped."  It  is  related  to  Nagari, 
but  is  hardly  legible  to  any  one  except  the  original  writer,  and 
sometimes  not  even  to  him.  To  remedy  this  defect  an  improved 
form  of  the  alphabet  was  devised  in  the  i6th  century  by  Angad, 
the  fifth  Sikh  Guru,  for  the  purpose  of  recording  the  Sikh  scrip- 
tures. It  was  named  Gurrnukhi,  "  proceeding  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Guru,"  and  is  now  generally  used  for  writing  the  language. 

Grammar. — In  the  following  account  we  use  these  contractions: 
Skr.=  Sanskrit;  Pr.  =Prakrit;  Ap.  =  Apabhramsa ;  W.H.  = 
Western  Hindi;  E.H.  =Eastern  Hindi;  H.=  Hindostani;  Br.= 
Braj  Bhasha;  P.  =  Panjabi. 

(A)  Phonetics. — The  phonetic  system  of  all  three  languages  is 
nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  Apabhramsas  from  which  they  are 
derived.  With  a  few  exceptions,  to  be  noted  below,  the  letters  of  the 
alphabets  of  the  three  languages  are  the  same  as  in  Sanskrit. 
Panjabi,  and  the  western  dialects  of  Western  Hindi,  have  preserved 
the  old  Vedic  cerebral  /.  There  is  a  tendency  for  concurrent  vowels 
to  run  into  each  other,  and  for  the  semi-vowels  y  and  v  to  become 
vowels.  Thus,  Skr.  carmakaras,  Ap.  cammaaru,  a  leather-worker, 

1  This  and  the  preceding  paragraph  are  partly  taken  from  Mr. 
Platts's  article  in  vol.  xi.  of  the  9th  edition  of  this  encyclopaedia. 


HINDOSTANI 


481 


becomes  H.  camdr;  Skr.  rajani,  Ap.  ra(y)ani,  H.  rain,  night;  Skr. 
dhavalakas,  Ap.  tllinnilnii,  H.  dhaiila,  white.  Sometimes  the  semi- 
vowel is  retained,  as  in  Skr.  kdtaras,  Ap.  kd(y)aru,  H.  kdyar,  a 
coward.  Almost  the  only  compound  consonants  which  survived 
in  the  Pr.  stage  were  double  letters,  and  in  W.H.  and  E.H.  these 
are  usually  simplified,  the  preceding  vowel  being  lengthened  and 
sometimes  nasalized,  in  compensation.  P.,  on  the  other  hand,  pre- 
fers to  retain  the  double  consonant.  Thus,  Skr.  karma,  Ap.  kammu, 
W.H.  and  E.H.  ham,  but  P.  kamm,  a  work;  Skr.  satyas,  Ap.  saccu, 
W.H.  and  E.H.  sac,  but  P.  sacc,  true  (H.,  being  the  W.H.  dialect 
which  lies  nearest  to  P.,  often  follows  that  language,  and  in  this 
instance  has  sacc,  usually  written  sac) ;  Skr.  hastas,  Ap.  hatthu, 
W.H.  and  E.H.  hath,  but  P.  hatth,  a  hand.  The  nasalization  of  vowels 
is  very  frequent  in  all  three  languages,  and  is  here  represented  by  the 
sign  ~  over  the  vowel.  Sometimes  it  is  compensatory,  as  in  sac, 
but  it  often  represents  an  original  m,  as  in  kawal  from  Skr.  kamalas, 
a  lotus.  Final  short  vowels  quiesce  in  prose  pronunciation,  and  are 
usually  not  written  in  transliteration;  thus  the  final  a,  i  or  u  has 
been  lost  in  all  the  examples  given  above,  and  other  tatsama  examples 
are  Skr.  mail-  which  becomes  mat,  mind,  and  Skr.  vastu-,  which  be- 
comes bast,  a  thing.  In  all  poetry,  however  (except  in  the  Urdu 
poetry  formed  on  Persian  models,  and  under  the  rules  of  Persian 
prosody),  they  reappear  and  are  necessary  for  the  scansion. 

In  tadbhava  words  an  original  long  vowel  in  any  syllable  earlier 
than  the  penultimate  is  shortened.  In  P.  and  H.  when  the  long  vowel 
is  e  or  6  it  is  shortened  to  i  or  u  respectively,  but  in  other  W.H. 
dialects  and  in  E.H.  it  is  shortened  to  e  or  o;  thus,  befi,  daughter, 
long  form  H.  bifiyd,  E.H.  befiyd;  ghori,  mare,  long  form  H.  ghur.iyd, 
E.H.  ghoriya.  The  short  vowels  e  and  o  are  very  rare  in  P.  and  H., 
but  are  not  uncommon  (though  ignored  by  most  grammars)  in  E.H. 
and  the  other  W.H.  dialects.  A  medial  d  is  pronounced  as  a  strongly 
burred  cerebral  r.,  and  is  then  written  as  shown,  with  a  supposited 
dot.  All  these  changes  and  various  contractions  of  Prakrit  syllables 
have  caused  considerable  variations  in  the  forms  of  words,  but 
generally  not  so  as  to  obscure  the  origin. 

(B)  Declension. — The  nominative  form  of  a  tadbhava  word  is  de- 
rived from  the  nominative  form  in  Sanskrit  and  Prakrit,  but  tatsama 
words  are  usually  borrowed  in  the  form  of  the  Skr.  crude  base;  thus, 
Skr.  hastin-,  nom.  hasti,  Ap.  nom.  hatthi,  H.  hdthi,  an  elephant; 
Skr.  base  mati-,  nom.  matis,  H.  (tatsama)  mati,  or,  with  elision  of  the 
final  short  vowel,  mat.  Some  tatsamas  are,  however,  borrowed  in  the 
nominative  form,  as  in  Skr.  dhanin-,  nom.  dhani,  H.  dhani,  a  rich 
man.  As  another  example  of  a  tadbhava  word,  we  may  take  the 
Skr.  nom.  ghofas,  Ap.  ghodu,  H.  ghor,  a  horse.  Here  again  the  final 
short  vowel  has  been  elided,  but  in  old  poetry  we  should  find  ghoru, 
and  corresponding  forms  in  u  are  occasionally  met  with  at  the 
present  day. 

In  the  article  PRAKRIT  attention  is  drawn  to  the  frequent  use  of 
pleonastic  suffixes,  especially  -ka-  (lem.-(i)kd). 


wife  of  a  caudhn  or  head  man;  mehtrdnj,  the  wife  of  a  sweeper 
(Pres.  mehtar,  a  sweeper).  With  these  exceptions  weak  forms  rarely 
have  any  terminations  distinctive  of  gender.1 

The  synthetic  declension  of  Sanskrit  and  Prakrit  has  disappeared. 
We  see  it  in  the  actual  stage  of  disappearance  in  Apabhrarhsa  (see 
PRAKRIT),  in  which  the  case  terminations  had  become  worn  down 
to  -hu,  -ho,  -hi,  -hi  and  -ha,  of  which  -hi  and  -hi  were  employed  for 
several  cases,  both  singular  and  plural.  There  was  also  a  marked 
tendency  for  these  terminations  to  be  confused,  and  in  the  earliest 
stages  of  the  modern  vernaculars  we  find  -hi  freely  employed  for 
any  oblique  case  of  the  singular,  and  -hi  for  any  oblique  case  of  the 
plural,  but  more  especially  for  the  genitive  and  the  locative.  In  the 
case  of  modern  weak  nouns  these  terminations  have  disappeared 
altogether  in  W.H.  and  P.  except  in  sporadic  forms  of  the  locative 
such  as  gawe  (for  gftwahi),  in  the  village.  In  E.H.  they  are  still 
heard  as  the  termination  of  a  form  which  can  stand  for  any  oblique 
case,  and  is-called  the  "oblique  form"  or  the  "oblique  case." 
Thus,  from  ghar,  a  house  (a  weak  noun),  we  have  W.H.  and  P. 
oblique  form  ghar,  E.H.  gharahi,  ghare  or  ghar.  In  the  plural,  the 
oblique  form  is  sometimes  founded  on  the  Ap.  terminations  -ha  and 
-hu,  and  sometimes  on  the  Skr.  termination  of  the  genitive  plural 
-anam  (Pr.  -ana'  -anham),  as  in  P.  ghar -a,  W.H.  gkarau,  ghar 5, 
gharani,  E.H.  gharan.  In  the  case  of  masculine  weak  forms,  the 
plural  nominative  has  dropped  the  old  termination,  except  in 
E.H.,  where  it  has  adopted  the  oblique  plural  form  for  this  case 
also,  thus  gharan.  The  nominative  plural  of  feminine  weak  forms 
follows  the  example  of  the  masculine  in  E.H.  In  P.  it  also  takes 
the  oblique  plural  form,  while  in  W.H.  it  takes  the  old  singular 
oblique  form  in  -ahi,  which  it  weakens  to  al  or  (H.)  e;  thus  bat 
(fern.),  a  word,  nom.  plur.  E.H.  bat-an,  P.  bat-a,  W.H.  batal  or  (H.) 
bate. 

Strong  masculine  bases  in  Ap.  ended  in  -a-a  (nom.  -a-u);  thus 
ghoda-a-  (nom.  ghoda-u),  and  adding  -hi  we  get  ghoda-a-hi,  which 
becomes  contracted  ghoddhi  and  finally  to  ghore.  The  nominative 
plural  is  the  same  as  the  oblique  singular,  except  in  E.H.  where  it 
follows  the  oblique  plural.  The  oblique  plural  of  all  closely  follows 
in  principle  the  weak  forms.  Feminine  strong  forms  in  Ap.  ended 
in  -i-d,  contracted  to  1  in  the  modern  languages.  Except  in  E.H. 
the  -hi  of  the  original  oblique  form  singular  disappears,  so  that  we 
have  E.H.  ghorihi  or  ghor.i,  others  only  ghori.  The  nominative 
plural  of  feminine  strong  forms  exhibits  some  irregularities.  In 
E.H.,  as  usual,  it  follows  the  plural  oblique  forms.  In  W.H.  (except 
Hindostani)  it  simply  nasalizes  the  oblique  form  singular  (i.e.  adds 
-hi  instead  of  -hi),  as  in  ghori.  P.  and  H.  adopt  the  oblique  long 
form  for  the  plural  and  nasalize  it,  thus,  P.  ghor.la,  H.  ghor.iya. 
The  oblique  plurals  call  for  no  further  remarks.  We  thus  get  the 
following  summary,  illustrating  the  way  in  which  these  nominative 
and  oblique  forms  are  made. 


With  such  a  suffix  we  have  the  Skr.  ghofa-kas, 
Ap.  ghoda-u,  Western  Hindi  ghorau,  or  in  P. 

Panjabi. 

Hindostani. 

Braj  Bhasha. 

Eastern  Hindi. 

and  H.  (which  is  the  W.H.  dialect  nearest  in 

W       1     M              l\/f 

locality  to  P.)  ghord,  a  horse;  Skr.  ghofi-kd, 
Ap.    ghodi-d,    W.H.    and    P.    ghodi,    a    mare. 
Such   modern   forms   made   with   one   pleon- 
astic suffix  are  called  "  strong  forms,"  while 
those    made   without    it    are    called    "  weak 
forms."     All  strong  forms  end  in  au   (or  d) 
in  the  masculine,  and  in  i  in  the  feminine, 
whereas,  in  Skr.,  and  hence  in  tatsamas,  both  a 
and  1  are  generally  typical  of  feminine  words, 
though  sometimes  employed  for  the  mascu- 

weatc i\oun  jviasc.  — 
Nom.  Sing. 
Obi.  Sing.    .      .      . 
Nom.  Plur.        .      . 
Obi.  Plur.    .      .      . 
Strong  Noun  Masc.  — 
Nom.  Sing. 
Obi.  Sing.    .      .      . 
Nom.  Plur.        .      . 
Obi.  Plur.    .      .      . 
VVcalc  r\oun  i*em. 

ghar 
ghar 
ghar 
ghara 

ghora 
ghor.e 
ghor.e 
ghor.ia 

ghar 
ghar 
ghar 
gharo 

ghora 
ghore 
ghor.e 
ghoro 

ghar 
ghar 
ghar 
gharaii,  gharani 

ghorau 
ghore,  ghor.ai 
ghore 
ghor.au,  ghorani 

ghar 
ghar,  gharahi 
gharan 
gharan 

ghora 
ghora,  ghor.e 
ghor.an 
gkoran 

line.    It  is  shown  in  the  article  PRAKRIT  that 
these  pleonastic  suffixes  can  be  doubled,  or 

Nom.  Sing. 
Obi.  Sing. 

bat 

bat 

bat 
bat 

bat 
bdt 

bdt 
bdt 

even  trebled,  and  in  this  way  we  have  a  new 
series  of  tadbhava   forms.      Let   us  take   the 
imaginary  Skr.    *gho(a-ka-kas  with  a  double 
suffix.    From  this  we  have  the  Ap.  ghoda-a-u, 
and   modern  ghorawd    (with   euphonic  w   in- 
serted), a  horse.      Similarly  for  the  feminine 
we    have    Skr.    *ghd(i-ka-kd,    Ap.    ghodi-a-d, 
modern  ghoriya  (with  euphonic  y  inserted),  a 

Nom.  Plur.        '.      '. 
Obi.  Plur.    .      .      . 
Strong  Noun  Fern.  — 
Nom.  Sing. 
Obi.  Sing.    .      .      . 
Nom.  Plur.        .      . 
Obi.  Plur.    .      .      . 

bata 
bala 

ghori 
ghori 
ghona 
ghoria 

bate 
batS 

ghori 
ghori 
ghoriya 
ghor.iy6 

batal 
bdtaii,  bdtani 

ghori 
ghori 
ghorl 
ghoriyau. 

bdtan 
bdtan 

ghori 
ghori,  ghorihi 
ghorin 
ghorin 

mare.     Such  forms,  made  with  two  suffixes, 

gfioriycLm 

are  called   "  long  forms,"   and  are   heard   in 

familiar  conversation,  the  feminine  also  serving  as  diminutives. 
There  is  a  further  stage,  built  upon  three  suffixes,  and  called  the 
"  redundant  form,"  which  is  mainly  used  by  the  vulgar.  As  a  rule 
masculine  long  forms  end  in  -awd,  -iya  or  -ud,  and  feminines  in  -iya, 
although  the  matter  is  complicated  by  the  occasional  use  of  pleonastic 
suffixes  other  than  the  -ka-  which  we  have  taken  for  our  example, 
and  is  the  most  common.  Strong  forms  are  rarely  met  with  in  E.H., 
but  on  the  other  hand  long  forms  are  more  common  in  that  language. 
There  are  a  few  feminine  terminations  of  weak  nouns  which  may 
be  noted.  These  are  -irii,  -in,  -an,  -m  (Skr.  -ini,  Pr.  -ini) ;  and 
-am,  -dni,  -din  (Skr.  -am,  Pr.  -dm).  These  are  found  not  only  in 
words  derived  from  Prakrit,  but  are  added  to  Persian  and  even 
Arabic  words;  thus,  hathini,  hathni,  hdthin  (Skr.  hastini,  Pr.  hatthini), 
a  she-elephant ;  sundrin,  sundran,  a  female  goldsmith  (sdndr)  • 
sherni,  a  tigress  (Persian  sher,  a  tiger) ;  Naflban,  a  proper  name 
(Arabic  naslb);  panQitani,  the  wife  of  a  paydit;  caudhrdin,  the 

XHI.  16 


We  have  seen  that  the  oblique  form  is  the  resultant  of  a  general 
melting  down  of  all  the  oblique  cases  of  Sanskrit  and  Prakrit,  and 
that  in  consequence  it  can  be  used  for  any  oblique  case.  It  is 
obvious  that  if  it  were  so  employed  it  would  often  give  rise  to  great 
confusion.  Hence,  when  it  is  necessary  to  show  clearly  what 
particular  case  is  intended,  it  is  usual  to  add  defining  particles 
corresponding  to  the  English  prepositions  "  of,"  "  to,"  "  from," 
"  by,"  &c.,  which,  as  in  all  Indo-Aryan  languages  they  follow  the 
mam  word,  are  here  called  "  postpositions."  The  following  are 
the  postpositions  commonly  employed  to  form  cases  in  our  three 
languages: — 

1  In  some  dialects  of  W.H.  weak  forms  have  masculines  ending 
in  u  and  corresponding  feminines  in  i,  but  these  are  nowadays  rarely 
met  in  the  literary  forms  of  speech.  In  old  poetry  they  are  common. 
In  Braj  Bhasha  they  have  survived  in  the  present  participle. 


482 


HINDOSTANI 


Agent. 

Genitive. 

Dative. 

Ablative. 

Locative. 

Panjabi 
Hindostani 
Braj  Bhasha 
Eastern  Hindi 

nai 
rt| 
ne 
None 

da 
kd 
kau 
ker,k 

*fl 

ko 
kau 
ka 

te 
se 

tc,  sau 
se 

vice 
me 
mat 
me,  bikhe 

The  agent  case  is  the  case  which  a  noun  takes  when  it  is  the  subject 
of  a  transitive  verb  in  a  tense  formed  from  the  past  participle. 
This  participle  is  passive  in  origin,  and  must  be  construed  passively. 
In  the  Prakrit  stage  the  subject  was  in  such  cases  put  into  the 
instrumental  case  (see  PRAKRIT),  as  in  the  phrase  aham  tena  matio, 
I  by-him  (was)  struck,  i.e.  he  struck  me.  In  Eastern  Hindi  this  is 
still  the  case,  the  old  instrumental  being  represented  by  the  oblique 
form  without  any  suffix.  The  other  two  languages  define  the  fact 
that  the  subject  is  in  the  instrumental  (or  agent)  case  by  the  ad- 
dition of  the  postposition  ne,  &c.,  an  old  form 
employed  elsewhere  to  define  the  dative.  It 
is  really  the  oblique  form  (by  origin  a  loca- 
tive) of  no,  or  no,  which  is  employed  in 
Gujarat!  (?.f.)  for  the  genitive.  As  this  suffix 
is  never  employed  to  indicate  a  material 
instrument  but  here  only  to  indicate  the 
agent  or  subject  of  a  verb,  it  is  called  the 
postposition  of  the  "  agent  "  case. 

The  genitive  postpositions  have  an  interest- 
ing origin.  In  Buddhist  Sanskrit  the  words 
krtas,  done,  and  krtyas,  to  be  done,  were 
added  to  a  noun  to  form  a  kind  of  genitive. 
A  synonym  of  krtyas  was  karyas.  These 
three  words  were  all  adjectives,  and  agreed 
with  the  thing  possessed  in  gender,  number, 
and  case;  thus,  mala-krte  karande,  in  the 
basket  of  the  garland,  literally,  in  the  garland- 
made  basket.  In  the  various  dialects  of 
Apabhramsa  Prakrit  krtas  became  (strong 
form)  kida-u  or  kia-u,  krjyas  became  kicca-u, 
and  karyas  became  kera-u  or  kajja-u,  the 
initial  k  of  which  is  liable  to  elision  after  a 
vowel.  With  the  exception  of  Gujarat!  (and 
perhaps  Marathi,  q.v.)  every  Indo-Aryan  lan- 
guage has  genitive  postpositions  derived  from 
one  or  other  of  these  forms.  Thus  from  (ki)da-u 


The  pronouns  closely  follow  the  Prakrit  originals.  This  will  be 
evident  from  the  preceding  table  of  the  first  two  personal  pronouns 
compared  with  Apabhramsa. 

It  will  be  observed  that  in  most  of  the  nominatives  of  the  first 
person,  and  in  the  E.H.  nominative  of  the  second  person,  the  old 
nominative  has  disappeared,  and  its  place  has  been  supplied  by  an 
oblique  form,  exactly  as  we  have^observed  in  the  nominative  plural 
of  nouns  substantive.  The  P.  Oil,  tust,  &c.,  are  survivals  from  the 
old  Lahnda  (see  Linguistic  Boundaries,  above).  The  genitives  of 
these  two  pronouns  are  rarely  used,  possessive  pronouns  (in  H.  merd, 
my;  hamara,  our;  tera,  thy;  tumhdrd,  your)  being  employed 
instead.  They  can  all  (except  P.  asada,  our;  tusadd,  your,  which 
are  Lahnda)  be  referred  to  corresponding  Ap.  forms. 

There  is  no  pronoun  of  the  third  person,  the  demonstrative 
pronouns  being  used  instead.  The  following  table  shows  the 
principal  remaining  pronominal  forms,  with  their  derivation  from 
Ap.:— 


Apabhramsa. 

Panjabi. 

Hindostani. 

Braj 
Bhasha. 

Eastern 
Hindi. 

THAT,  HE,           Nom. 

? 

uh 

woh 

wo 

u 

Obi. 

? 

uh 

us 

wd 

0 

THOSE,  THEY,   Nom. 

oi 

oh 

we 

wai 

unh 

Obi. 

? 

unha 

unh 

uni 

unh 

THIS,  HE,              Nom. 

ehu 

ih 

yeh 

yah 

t 

Obi. 

eha.su,  ehaho 

ih 

is 

yd 

e 

THESE,  THEY,  Nom. 

ei 

eh  m 

ye 

yai 

inh 

Obi. 

ehdna 

inha 

ink 

ini 

ink 

THAT,                Nom. 

so 

so 

so 

so 

se 

Obi. 

tasu,  taho 

tih 

tis 

to, 

te 

THOSE,               Nom. 

se 

so 

so 

so 

se 

Obi. 

tana 

tinha 

tinh 

tint 

tenh 

WHO,                 Nom. 

j° 

jo 

jo 

jo 

je 

Obi. 

jasu,  jaho 

jih 

if* 

Ja 

je 

WHO  (pi.),         Nom. 

j* 

K    - 

i° 

J° 

jf 

Obi. 

jdna 

jinha 

jinn 

jini 

jenh 

WHO?                Nom. 

ko,  kawanu 

kaun 

kaun 

ko 

ke 

Obi. 

kasu,  kaho 

kill 

kis 

ka 

ke 

WHO?  (pi.),       Nom. 

ke 

kaun_ 

kaun 

ko 

ke 

Obi. 

kdna 

kinha 

kinh 

kini 

kenh 

WHAT?(Neut.),Nom. 

kirn 

••  kid 

kyd 

kaha 

ka 

Obi. 

kaha,  kasu 

kdh,  has 

kahe 

kahe 

kahe 

we  have  Panjabi  da;  from  kia-u  we  have  H.  ka,  Br.  kau,  E.H.  and 
Bihari  k  and  Naipali  ko;  from  (ki)cca-u  we  have  perhaps  Marathi 
cd;  from  kera-u,  E.H.  and  Bihari  ker,  kar,  Bengali  Oriya  and 
Assamese  -r,  and  Rajasthani.-ro;  while  from  (ka)jja-u  we  have  the 
Sindhi  jo.  It  will  be  observed  that  while  k,  ker,  kar,  and  r  are  weak 
forms,  the  rest  are  strong.  As  already  stated,  the  genitive  is  an 
adjective.  Bap  means  "  father,"  and  bdp-kd  ghord  is  literally 
"  the  paternal  horse."  Hence  (while  the  weak  forms  as  usual  do 
not  change)  these  genitives  agree  with  the  thing  possessed  in  gender, 
number,  and  case.  Thus,  bdp-kd  ghord,  the  horse  of  the  father, 
but  bdp-ki  ghon,  the  mare  of  the  father,  and  bdp-ke  ghore-ko,  to  the 
horse  of  the  father,  the  kd  being  put  into  the  oblique  case  masculine 
ke,  to  agree  with  ghore,  which  is  itself  in  an  oblique  case.  The  details 
of  the  agreement  vary  slightly  in  P.  and  W.H.,  and  must  be  learnt 
from  the  grammars.  The  E.H.  weak  forms  do  not  change  in  the 
modern  language.  Finally,  in  Prakrit  it  was  customary  to  add 
these  postpositions  (kera-u,  &c.)  to  the  genitive,  as  in  mama  or 
mama  kera-u,  of  me.  Similarly  these  postpositions  are,  in  the 
modern  languages,  added  to  the  oblique  form. 

The  locative  of  the  Sanskrit  krtas,  krte,  was  used  in  that  language 
as  a  dative  postposition,  and  it  can  be  shown  that  all  the  dative 
postpositions  given  above  are  by  origin  old  oblique  forms  of  some 

fenitive  postposition.  Thus  H.  ko,  Br.  kau,  is  a  contraction  of 
ahu,  an  old  oblique  form  of  kia-u.  Similarly  for  the  others.  The 
origin  of  the  ablative  postpositions  is  obscure.  To  the  present 
writer  they  all  seem  (like  the  Bengal  ha'ite)  to  be  connected  with  the 
verb  substantive,  but  their  derivation  has  not  been  definitely  fixed. 
The  locative  postpositions  me  and  mal  are  derived  from  the  Skr. 
madhye,  in,  through  majjhi,  mdhi,  and  so  on.  The  derivation  of 
vice  and  bikhe  is  obscure. 


Apabhramsa. 

Panjabi. 

Hindostani. 

Braj 
Bhasha. 

Eastern 
Hindi. 

I,            Nom. 

hau 

mat 

mat 

hau 

mai 

Obi. 

mat,  mahu, 

mai 

mujh 

mohi 

mo 

majjhu 

WE,        Nom. 

amhe 

ast 

ham 

ham 

ham 

Obi. 

amaha, 

asd 

hamo 

hamau. 

ham 

hamani 

THOU,    Nom. 

tuhu 

tu 

tu 

tu 

tai 

Obi. 

tat,  tuna, 

tai 

tujh 

tohi 

to 

tujjhu 

YOU,      Nom. 

lumhe 

tust 

turn 

turn 

turn 

Obi. 

tumhahS 

tusd 

tumho 

tumhau 

turn 

The  origin  of  the  first  pronoun  given  above  (that,  he;  those, 
they)  cannot  be  referred  to  Sanskrit.  It  is  derived  from  an  Indo- 
Aryan  base  which  was  not  admitted  to  the  classical  literary  language, 
but  of  which  we  find  sporadic  traces  in  Apabhramsa.  The  existence 
of  this  base  is  further  vouched  for  by  its  occurrence  in  the  Iranian 
language  of  the  Avesta  under  the  form  ava-.  The  base  of  the 
second  pronoun  is  the  same  as  the  base  of  the  first  syllable  in  the 
Skr.  e-$as,  this,  and  other  connected  pronouns,  and  also  occurs  in 
the  Avesta.  Ap.  ehu  is  directly  derived  from  e-sas. 

There  are  other  pronominal  forms  upon  which,  except  perhaps 
koi  (Pr.  ko-vi,  Skr.  ko-'pi),  any  one,  it  is  unnecessary  to  dwell. 
The  phrase  kot  haif  "  Is  any  one  (there)?"  is  the  usual  formula 
for  calling  a  servant  in  upper  India,  and  is  the  origin  of  the  Anglo- 
Indian  word  "  Qui-hi."  The  reflexive  pronoun  is  dp  (Ap.  appu, 
Skr.  alma),  self,  which,  something  like  the  Latin  suus  (Skr.  svas), 
always  refers  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence,  but  to  all  persons,  not 
only  to  the  third.  Thus  mat  apne  (not  mere)  bdp-kd  dekhtd-hu, 
"  I  see  my  father." 

C.  Conjugation. — The  synthetic  conjugation  was  already  com- 
mencing to  disappear  in  Prakrit,  and  in  the  modern  languages  the 
only  original  tenses  which  remain  are  the  present,  the  imperative, 
and  here  and  there  the  future.  The  first  is  now  generally  employed 
as  a  present  subjunctive.  In  the  accompanying  table  we  have  the  con- 
jugation of  this  tense,  and  also  the  three  participles,  present  active, 
and  past  and  future  passive,  compared  with  Apabhramsa,  the  verb 
selected  being  the  intransitive  root  call  or  cal,  go.  In  Ap.  the  word 
may  be  spelt  with  one  or  with  two  Is,  which  accounts  for  the  varia- 
tions of  spelling  in  the  modern  languages. 

The  imperative  closely  resembles  the  old  present,  except  that  it 
drops  all  terminations  in  the  2nd  person  singular;  thus,  cal,  go  thou. 
In  P.  and  H.  a  future  is  formed  by  adding  the 
syllable  gd  (fern,  gt)  to  the  simple  present.  Thus,  H. 
calu-gd,  I  shall  go.  The  gd  is  commonly  said  to 
be  derived  from  the  Skr.  galas  (Pr.  gao),  gone,  but 
this  suggestion  is  not  altogether  acceptable  to  the 
present  writer,  although  he  is  not  now  able  to  pro- 
pose a  better.  Under  the  form  of  -gau  the  same 
termination  is  used  in  Br.,  but  in  that  dialect  the  old 
future  has  also  survived,  as  in  calihau  (Ap.  calihau, 
Skr.  calisydmi),  I  shall  go,  which  is  conjugated  like 
the  simple  present.  The  E.H.  formation  of  the 
future  is  closely  analogous  to  what  we  find  in 
Bihari  (q.v.).  The  third  person  is  formed  as  in  Braj 
Bhasha,  but  the  first  and  second  persons  are  formed 
by  adding  pronominal  suffixes,  meaning  "  by  me," 
"  by  thee,"  &c.,  to  the  future  passive  participle. 


HINDOSTANI  LITERATURE 


483 


Apabhramsa. 

Panjabi. 

Hindostani. 

Braj 
Bhasha. 

Eastern 
Hindi. 

Old  Present- 

Singular  I  .      ... 

callatt 

calla 

calit 

calaii 

calau 

„              2.        ... 

callasi, 

calls 

cole 

calai 

colas 

callahi 

„           3.      ... 

callai 

calle 

cole 

calai 

calai 

Plural      I.      ... 

callahu 

calliye 

cale 

calal 

calal 

„          2.      ... 

callahu 

callo 

cold 

calau 

calau 

3-      •      •     • 

callanti, 

callai), 

cale 

calal 

calal 

callahi 

Present  Participle 

callanta-u 

calldd 

calla 

calatu 

calat 

Past  Part.  Passive 

callia-u 

callia 

cald 

calyau 

cald 

Future  Part.  Passive  . 

callania-u 

callnd 

calna 

calnau 

calliavva-u 

caliwau 

calab 

Thus,  calab-u,  it-is-to-be-gone  by-me,  I  shall  go.     We  thus  get  the 
following  forms.     It  will  be  observed  that,  as  in  many  other  Indo- 
Aryan  languages,  the  first  person  plural  has  no  suffix : — 
Sing.  Plur. 

1.  calabu  calab 

2.  calabe  calabo 

3.  calihai  calihal 

In  old  E.H.  the  future  participle  passive,  calab,  takes  no  suffix  for 
any  person,  and  is  used  for  all  persons. 

The  last  remark  leads  us  to  a  class  of  tenses  in  P.  and  W.H.,  in 
which  a  participle,  by  itself,  can  be  employed  for  any  person  of  a 
finite  tense.  A  few  examples  of  the  use  of  the  present  and  past 
participles  will  show  the  construction.  They  are  all  taken  from 
Hindostani.  Woh  caltd,  he  goes;  woh  calti,  she  goes;  mat  cola, 
I  went ;  woh  call,  she  went ;  we  cale,  they  went.  The  present 
participle  in  this  construction,  though  it  may  be  used  to  signify 
the  present,  is  more  commonly  employed  to  signify  a  past  [con- 
ditional "  (if)  he  had  gone."  It  will  have  been  observed  that  in  the 
above  examples,  in  all  of  which  the  verb  is  intransitive,  the  past 
as  well  as  the  present  participle  agrees  with  the  subject  in  gender 
and  number;  but,  if  the  verb  be  transitive,  the  passive  meaning 
of  the  past  participle  comes  into  force.  The  subject  must  be  put 
into  the  case  of  the  agent,  and  the  participle  inflects  to  agree  with 
the  object.  If  the  object  be  not  expressed,  or,  as  sometimes  happens, 
be  expressed  in  the  dative  case,  the  participle  is  construed  im- 
personally, and  takes  the  masculine  (for  want  of  a  neuter)  form. 
Thus,  mal-ne  kahd,  by-me  it-was-said,  i.e.  I  said ;  us-ne  ci((hl  likhl, 
by-him  a-letter  (fern.)  was- written,  he  wrote  a  letter;  raja-ne 
shernl-kd  mdrd,  the  king  killed  the  tigress,  lit.,  by-the-king,  with- 
reference-to-the-tigress,  it  (impersonal)  -was-killed.  In  the  article 
PRAKRIT  it  is  shown  that  the  same  construction  obtained  in  that 
language. 

In  E.H.  the  construction  is  the  same,  but  is  obscured  by  the 
fact  that  (as  in  the  future)  pronominal  suffixes  are  added  to  the 
participle  to  indicate  the  person  of  the  subject  or  of  the  agent,  as 
in  calat-eu,  (if)  I  had  gone;  cal-eii,  I  went;  mar-eu  (transitive),  I 
struck,  lit.,  struck-by-me ;  mar-es,  struck-by-him,  he  struck.  If 
the  participle  has  to  be  feminine,  it  (although  a  weak  form)  takes 
the  feminine  termination  *',  as  in  mari-u,  I  struck  her;  calati-u, 
(if)  I  (fern.)  had  gone;  cali-u,  I  (fern.)  went. 

Further  tenses  are  formed  by  adding  the  verb  substantive  to 
these  participles,  as  in  H.  mal  caltd-hu,  I  am  going;  mal  calta-tha, 
I  was  going;  mal  cala-hu,  I  have  gone;  mal  cala-tha,  I  had  gone. 
These  and  other  auxiliary  verbs  need  not  detain  us  long.  They 
differ  in  the  various  languages.  For  "  I  am  "  we  have  P.  ha,  H. 
hu,  Br.  hail,  E.H.  bafyeii  or  aheu.  For  "  I  was  "  we  have  P.  si  or  sa, 
H.  tha,  Br.  hau  or  hutau,  E.H.  raheu.  The  H.  hu  is  thus  con- 
jugated : — 

Sing.  Plur. 

1.  hu  hat 

2.  hai  ho 
3^  hai  hal 

The  derivation  of  ha,  hu,  hau,  and  aheu  is  uncertain.  They  are 
usually  derived  from  the  Skr.  asmi,  I  am;  but  this  presents  many 
difficulties.  An  old  form  of  the  third  person  singular  is  hwai,  and 
this  points  to  the  Pr.  havai,  he  is,  equivalent  to  the  Skr.  bhavati, 
he  becomes.  On  the  other  hand  this  does  not  account  for  the 
initial  a  of  aheu.  This  last  word  is  in  the  form  of  a  past  tense, 
and  it  may  be  a  secondary  formation  from  asmi.  The  P.  si  is  not 
a  feminine  of  sa,  as  usually  stated,  but  is  a  survival  of  the  Skr. 
asit,  Pr.  asl,  was.  As  in  the  Prakrit  form,  si  is  employed  for  both 
genders,  both  numbers  and  all  persons.  Sa  is  a  secondary  forma- 
tion from  this,  on  the  analogy  of  the  H.  tha,  which  is  from  the  Skr. 
sthitas,  Pr.  thio,  stood,  and  is  a  participial  form  like  cald;  thus, 
woh  tha,  he  was;  woh  thl,  she  was.  The  Br.  hau  is  a  modern  past 
of  hau,  while  hutau  is  probably  by  origin  a  present  participle  of  the 
Skr.  bhu,  become,  Pr.  huntao.  The  E.H.  bafeu,  is  the  Skr.  varle, 
Ap.  vaffau.  Rakeu  is  the  past  tense  of  the  root  rah,  remain. 

The  future  participle  passive  is  everywhere  freely  used  as  an 
infinitive  or  verbal  noun;  thus,  H.  calna,  E.H.  calab,  the  act  of 
going,  to  go.  There  is  a  whole  series  of  derivative  verbal  forms, 


making  potential  passives  and  transitives 
from  intransitives,  and  causals  (and  even 
double  causals)  from  transitives.  Thus 
dikhna,  to  be  seen;  potential  passive, 
dikhdnd,  to  be  visible;  transitive,  dekhnd, 
to  see;  causal,  dikhldna,  to  show. 

D.  Literature. — The  literatures  of  Western 
and  Eastern  Hindi  form  the  subject  of  a 
separate  article  (see  HINDOSTANI  LITER"A- 
TURE).  Panjabi  has  no  formal  literature. 
Even  the  Granth,  the  sacred  book  of  the 
Sikhs,  is  mainly  in  archaic  Western  Hindi, 
only  a  small  portion  being  in  Panjabi. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  language  is 
peculiarly  rich  in  folksongs  and  ballads, 
some  of  considerable  length  and  great 
poetic  beauty.  The  most  famous  is  the 
ballad  of  ffir  and  Rdnjhd  by  Waris  Shah, 
which  is  considered  to  be  a  model  of  pure  Panjabi.  Colonel  Sir 
Richard  Temple  has  published  an  important  collection  of  these 
songs  under  the  title  of  The  Leginds  of  the  Punjab  (3  vols.,  Bombay 
and  London,  1884-1900),  in  which  both  texts  and  translations  of 
nearly  all  the  favourite  ones  are  to  be  found. 

AUTHORITIES. — (a)  General:  The  two  standard  authorities  are 
the  comparative  grammars  of  J.  Beames  (1872-1879)  and  A.  F.  R. 
Hoernle  (1880),  mentioned  in  the  article  INDO-ARYAN  LANGUAGES. 
To  these  may  be  added  G.  A.  Grierson,  "  On  the  Radical  and 
Participial  Tenses  of  the  Modern  Indo-Aryan  Languages  "  in  the 
Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  vol.  Ixiv.  (1895),  part  i. 
pp.  352  et  seq.;  and  "On  Certain  Suffixes  in  the  Modern  Indo- 
Aryan  Vernaculars  "  in  the  Zeitschrift  fur  vergleichende  Sprachfor- 
schung  auf  dem  Gebiete  der  indogermanischen  Sprachen  for  1903, 
pp.  473  et  seq. 

(b)  For  the  separate  languages,  see  C.  J.  Lyall,  A  Sketch  of  the 
Hindustani  Language  (Edinburgh,  1880);  S.  H.  Kellogg,  A  Grammar 
of  the  Hindi  Language  (for  both  Western  and  Eastern  Hindi),  (2nd  ed., 
London,  1893);  J.  T.  Platts,  A  Grammar  of  the  Hindustani  or  Urdu 
Language  (London,  1874);  and  A  Dictionary  of  Urdu,  Classical 
Hindi  and  English  (London,  1884) ;  E.  P.  Newton,  Panjabi  Grammar: 
with  Exercises  and  Vocabulary  (Ludhiana,  1898) ;  and  Bhai  Maya 
Singh,  The  Panjabi  Dictionary  (Lahore,  1895).  The  Linguistic 
Survey  of  India,  vol.  vi.,  describes  Eastern  Hindi,  and  vol.  ix., 
Hindostani  and  Panjabi,  in  each  instance  in  great  detail. 

(G.  A.  GR.) 

HINDOSTANI  LITERATURE.  The  writings  dealt  with  in 
this  article  are  those  composed  in  the  vernacular  of  that  part  of 
India  which  is  properly  called  Hindostan, — that  is,  the  valleys  of 
the  Jumna  and  Ganges  rivers  as  far  east  as  the  river  Kos,  and 
the  tract  to  the  south  including  Rajputana,  Central  India 
(Bundelkhand  and  Baghelkhand),  the  Narmada  (Nerbudda) 
valley  as  far  west  as  Khandwa,  and  the  northern  half  of  the 
Central  Provinces.  It  does  not  include  the  Punjab  proper 
(though  the  town  population  there  speak  Hindostani),  nor  does 
it  extend  to  Lower  Bengal. 

In  this  region  several  different  dialects  prevail.  The  people  of 
the  towns  everywhere  use  chiefly  the  form  of  the  language  called 
Urdu  or  Rekhta,1  stocked  with  Persian  words  and  phrases,  and 
ordinarily  written  in  a  modification  of  the  Persian  character. 
The  country  folk  (who  form  the  immense  majority)  speak 
different  varieties  of  Hindi,  of  which  the  word-stock  derives 
from  the  Prakrits  and  literary  Sanskrit,  and  which  are  written 
in  the  Devanagari  or  KaithI  character.  Of  these  the  most  im- 
portant from  a  literary  point  of  view,  proceeding  from  west  to 
east,  are  Mdrwdri  and  Jaipuri  (the  languages  of  Rajputana), 
Brajbhasha  (the  language  of  the  country  about  Mathura  and 
Agra),  Kanaujl  (the  language  of  the  lower  Ganges-Jumna  Doab 
and  western  Rohilkhand),  Eastern  Hindi,  also  called  Awadhiand 
Baiswdri  (the  language  of  Eastern  Rohilkhand,  Oudh  and  the 
Benares  division  of  the  United  Provinces)  and  Bihari  (the 
language  of  Bihar  or  Mithila,  comprising  several  distinct  dialects). 
What  is  called  High  Hindi  is  a  modern  development,  for  literary 
purposes,  of  the  dialect  of  Western  Hindi  spoken  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Delhi  and  thence  northwards  to  the  Himalaya,  which  has 
formed  the  vernacular  basis  of  Urdu;  the  Persian  words  in  the 
latter  have  been  eliminated  and  replaced  by  words  of  Sanskritic 
origin,  and  the  order  of  words  in  the  sentence  which  is  proper  to 

1  Urdu  is  a  Turkish  word  meaning  a  camp  or  army  with  its 
followers,  and  is  the  origin  of  the  European  word  horde.  Rekhta 
means  "  scattered,  strewn,"  referring  to  the  way  in  which  Persian 
words  are  intermixed  with  those  of  Indian  origin;  it  is  used  chiefly 
for  the  literary  form  of  Urdu. 


484 


HINDOSTANI  LITERATURE 


the  indigenous  speech  is  more  strictly  adhered  to  than  in  Urdu, 
which  under  the  influence  of  Persian  constructions  has  admitted 
many  inversions. 

.  As  in  many  other  countries,  nearly  all  the  early  vernacular 
literature  of  Hindostan  is  in  verse,  and  works  in  prose  are  a 
modern  growth.1  Both  Hindi  and  Urdu  are,  in  their  application 
to  literary  purposes,  at  first  intruders  upon  the  ground  already 
occupied  by  the  learned  languages  Sanskrit  and  Persian,  the 
former  representing  Hindu  and  the  latter  Musalman  culture. 
But  there  is  this  difference  between  them,  that,  whereas  Hindi 
has  been  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  literary  speech  chiefly  by 
impulses  of  revolt  against  the  monopoly  of  the  Brahmans, 
Urdu  has  been  cultivated  with  goodwill  by  authors  who  have 
themselves  highly  valued  and  dexterously  used  the  polished 
Persian.  Both  Sanskrit  and  Persian  continue  to  be  employed 
occasionally  for  composition  by  Indian  writers,  though  much 
fallen  from  their  former  estate;  but  for  popular  purposes  it 
may  be  said  that  their  vernacular  rivals  are  now  almost  in  sole 
possession  of  the  field. 

The  subject  may  be  conveniently  divided  as  follows: — 

1.  Early  Hindi,  of  the  period  during  which  the  language  was  being 
fashioned  as  a  literary  medium  out  of  the  ancient  Prakrits,  represented 
by  the  old  heroic  poems  of  Rajputana  and  the  literature  of  the  early 
Bhagats  or  Vaishnava  reformers,  and  extending  from  about  A.D.  noo 
to  1550; 

2.  Middle  Hindi,  representing  the  best  age  of  Hindi  poetry,  and 
reaching  from  about  1550  to  the  end  of  the  i8th  century; 

3.  The  rise  and  development  of  literary  Urdu,  beginning  about  the 
end  of  the  l6th  century,  and  reaching  its  height  during  the  l8th; 

4.  The  modern  period,  marked  by  the  growth  of  a  prose  literature 
in  both  dialects,  and  dating  from  the  beginning  of  the  igth  century. 

i.  Early  Hindi. — Our  knowledge  of  the  ancient  metrical 
chronicles  of  Rajputana  is  still  very  imperfect,  and  is  chiefly 
derived  from  the  monumental  work  of  Colonel  James  Tod,  called 
The  Annals  and  Antiquities  of  Rajasthan  (published  in  1820- 
1832),  which  is  founded  on  them.  It  is  in  the  nature  of  com- 
positions of  this  character  to  be  subjected  to  perpetual  revision 
and  recasting;  they  are  the  production  of  the  family  bards  of  the 
dynasties  whose  fortunes  they  record,  and  from  generation  to 
generation  they  are  added  to,  and  their  language  constantly 
modified  to  make  it  intelligible  to  the  people  of  the  time.  Round 
an  original  nucleus  of  historical  fact  a  rich  growth  of  legend 
accumulates;  later  redactors  endeavour  to  systematize  and  to 
assign  dates,  but  the  result  is  not  often  such  as  to  inspire  con- 
fidence; and  the  mass  has  more  the  character  of  ballad  literature 
than  of  serious  history.  The  materials  used  by  Tod  are  nearly 
all  still  unprinted;  his  manuscripts  are  now  deposited  in  the 
library  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  in  London;  and  one  of  the 
tasks  which,  on  linguistic  and  historical  grounds,  should  first  be 
undertaken  by  the  investigator  of  early  Hindi  literature  is  the 
examination  and  sifting,  and  the  publication  in  their  original 
form,  of  these  important  texts. 

Omitting  a  few  fragments  of  more  ancient  bards  given  by 
compilers  of  accounts  of  Hindi  literature,  the  earliest  author  of 
whom  any  portion  has  as  yet  been  published  in  the  original  text 
is  Chand  Bardal,  the  court  bard  of  PrithwI-Raj,  the  last  Hindu 
sovereign  of  Delhi.  His  poem,  entitled  Prithr^Raj  Rasau  (or 
Ray  so),  is  a  vast  chronicle  in  69  books  or  cantos,  comprising  a 
general  history  of  the  period  when  he  wrote.  Of  this  a  small 
portion  has  been  printed,  partly  under  the  editorship  of  the  late 
Mr  John  Beames  and  partly  under  that  of  Dr  Rudolf  Hoernle,  by 
the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal;  but  the  excessively  difficult 
nature  of  the  task  prevented  both  scholars  from  making  much 
progress.2  Chand,  who  came  of  a  family  of  bards,  was  a  native 
of  Lahore,  which  had  for  nearly  170  years  (since  1023)  been  under 
Muslim  rule  when  he  flourished,  an'd  the  language  of  the  poem 
exhibits  a  considerable  leaven  of  Persian  words.  In  its  present 
form  the  work  is  a  redaction  made  by  Amar  Singh  of  Mewar, 
about  the  beginning  of  the  I7th  century,  and  therefore  more 

1  The  only  known  exceptions  are  a  work  in  Hindi  called  the 
Chaurasi  Varta  (mentioned  below)  and  a  few  commentaries  on  poems ; 
the  latter  can  scarcely  be  called  literature. 

2  A  fresh  critical  edition  of  the  text  by  Pandit  Mohan  Lai  Vishnu 
Lai  Pandia  at  Benares,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Nagari  Pracharini 
Sabha,  had  reached  canto  xxiv.  in  1907. 


than  400  years  after  Chand's  death,  with  his  patron  PrithwI-Raj, 
in  1193.  There  is,  therefore,  considerable  reason  to  doubt 
whether  we  have  in  it  much  of  Chand's  composition  in  its  original 
shape;  and  the  nature  of  the  incidents  described  enhances  this 
doubt.  The  detailed  dates  contained  in  the  Chronicle  have  been 
shown  by  Kabiraj  Syamal  Das 3  to  be  in  every  case  about 
ninety  years  astray.  It  tells  of  repeated  conflicts  between  the 
hero  PrithwI-Raj  and  Sultan  Shihabuddin,  of  Ghor  (Muhammad 
Ghori),  in  which  the  latter  always,  except  in  the  last  great  battle, 
comes  off  the  worst,  is  taken  prisoner  and  is  released  on  pay- 
ment of  a  ransom;  these  seem  to  be  entirely  unhistorical,  our 
contemporary  Persian  authorities  knowing  of  only  one  encounter 
(that  of  Tiraurl  (Tirawari)  near  Thenesar,  fought  in  1191)  in 
which  the  Sultan  was  defeated,  and  even  then  he  escaped  un- 
captured  to  Lahore.  The  Mongols  (Book  XV.)  are  brought  on 
the  stage  more  than  thirty  years  before  they  actually  set  foot  in 
India,  and  are  related  to  have  been  vanquished  by  the  redoubt- 
able PrithwI-Raj.  It  is  evident  that  such  a  record  cannot 
possibly  be,  in  its  entirety,  a  contemporary  chronicle;  but 
nevertheless  it  appears  to  contain  a  considerable  element  which, 
from  its  language,  may  belong  to  Chand's  own  age,  and  represents 
the  earliest  surviving  document  in  Hindi.  "  Though  we  may  not 
possess  the  actual  text  of  Chand,  we  have  certainly  in  his  writings 
some  of  the  oldest  known  specimens  of  Gaudian  literature, 
abounding  in  pure  Apabhranisa  SaurasenI  Prakrit  forms " 
(Grierson). 

It  is  very  difficult  now  to  form  a  just  estimate  of  the  poem  as 
literature.  The  language,  essentially  transitional  in  character,  con- 
sists largely  of  words  which  have  long  since  died  out  of  the  vernacular 
speech.  Even  the  most  learned  Hindus  of  the  present  day  are 
unable  to  interpret  it  with  confidence;  and  the  meaning  of  the  verses 
must  be  sought  by  investigating  the  processes  by  which  Sanskrit 
and  Prakrit  forms  have  been  transfigured  in  their  progress  into  Hindi. 
Chand  appears,  on  the  whole,  to  exhibit  the  merits  and  defects  of 
ballad  chroniclers  in  general.  There  is  much  that  is  lively  and 
spirited  in  his  descriptions  of  fight  or  council ;  and  the  characters  of 
the  Rajput  warriors  who  surround  his  hero  are  often  sketched  in  their 
utterances  with  skill  and  animation.  The  sound,  however,  frequently 
predominates  over  the  sense;  the  narrative  is  carried  on  with  the 
wearisome  iteration  and  tedious,  unfolding  of  familiar  themes  and 
images  which  characterize  all  such  poetry  in  India;  and  his  value, 
for  us  at  least,  is  linguistic  rather  than  literary. 

Chand  may  be  taken  as  the  representative  of  a  long  line  of 
successors,  continued  even  to  the  present  day  in  the  Rajput 
states.  Many  of  their  compositions  are  still  widely  popular 
as  ballad  literature,  but  are  known  only  in  oral  versions  sung 
in  Hindostan  by  professional  singers.  One  of  the  most  famous 
of  these  is  the  Alha-khand,  reputed  to  be  the  work  of  a  con- 
temporary of  Chand  called  Jagnik  or  Jagnayak,  of  Mahoba 
in  Bundelkhand,  who  sang  the  praises  of  Raja-Parmal,  a  ruler 
whose  wars  with  PrithwI-Raj  are  recorded  in  the  Mahoba-Khand 
of  Chand's  work.  Alha  and  Udal,  the  heroes  of  the  poem,  are 
famous  warriors  in  popular  legend,  and  the  stories  connected 
with  them  exist  in  an  eastern  recension,  current  in  Bihar,  as 
well  as  in  the  Bundelkhandl  or  western  form  which  is  best 
known.  Two  versions  of  the  latter  have  been  printed,  having 
been  taken  down  as  recited  by  illiterate  professional  rhapsodists. 
Another  celebrated  bard  was  Sarangdhar  of  Rantambhor,  who 
flourished  in  1363,  and  sang  the  praises  of  Hammlr  Deo  (Hamir 
Deo),  the  Chauhan  chief  of  Rantambhor  who  fell  in  a  heroic 
struggle  against  Sultan  'Ala'uddln  Khiljl  in  1300.  He  wrote 
the  Hammlr  Kdvya  and  Hammir  Rasau,  of  which  an  account 
is  given  by  Tod;4  he  was  also  a  poet  in  Sanskrit,  in  which 
language  he  compiled,  in  1363,  the  anthology  called  Sarngadhara- 
Paddhati.  Another  work  which  may  be  mentioned  (though 
much  more  modern)  is  the  long  chronicle  entitled  Chhattra- 
Prakas,  or  the  history  of  Raja  Chhatarsal,  the  Bundela  raja  of 
Panna,  who  was  killed,  fighting  on  behalf  of  Prince  Dara-Shukoh, 
in  the  battle  of  Dholpur  won  by  Aurangzeb  in  1658.  The 
author,  Lai  Kabi,  has  given  in  this  work  a  history  of  the  valiant 
Bundela  nation  which  was  rendered  into  English  by  Captain 
W.  R.  Pogson  in  1828,  and  printed  at  Calcutta. 

Before  passing  on  to  the  more  important    branch  of  early 

'See  J.A.S.B.  (1886),  pp.  6  sqq. 

4  Annals  and  Antiquities,  ii.  452  n.  and  472  n. 


HINDOSTANI  LITERATURE 


485 


Hindi  literature,  the  works  of  the  Bhagats,  mention  may  be  made 
here  of  a  remarkable  composition,  a  poem  entitled  the  Padmdwat, 
the  materials  of  which  are  derived  from  the  heroic  legends 
of  Rajputana,  but  which  is  not  th'e  work  of  a  bard  nor  even  of 
a  Hindu.  The  author,  Malik  Muhammad  of  Ja'is,  in  Oudh, 
was  a  venerated  Muslim  devotee,  to  whom  the  Hindu  raja  of 
Amethi  was  greatly  attached.  Malik  Muhammad  wrote  the 
Padmawat  in  1540,  the  year  in  which  Sher  Shah  Sur  ousted 
Humayan  from  the  throne  of  Delhi.  The  poem  is  composed 
in  the  purest  vernacular  Awadhi,  with  no  admixture  of  traditional 
Hindu  learning,  and  is  generally  to  be  found  written  in  the 
Persian  character,  though  the  metres  and  language  are  thoroughly 
Indian.  It  professes  to  tell  the  tale  of  Padmawati  or  PadminI, 
a  princess  celebrated  for  her  beauty  who  was  the  wife  of  the 
Chauhan  raja  of  Chltor  in  Mewar.  The  historical  Padmini's 
husband  was  named  Bhlm  Singh,  but  Malik  Muhammad  calls 
him  Ratan  Sen;  and  the  story  turns  upon  the  attempts  of 
'Ala'uddin  Khiljl,  the  sovereign  of  Delhi,  to  gain  possession 
of  her  person.  The  tale  of  the  siege  of  Chltor  in  1303  by  'Ala- 
uddln,  the  heroic  stand  made  by  its  defenders,  who  perished 
to  the  last  man  in  fight  with  the  Sultan's  army,  and  the  self- 
immolation  of  PadminI  and  the  other  women,  the  wives  and 
daughters  of  the  warriors,  by  the  fiery  death  called  johar,  will  be 
found  related  in  Tod's  Rajasthan,  i.  262  sqq.  Malik  Muhammad 
takes  great  liberties  with  the  history,  and  explains  at  the  end 
of  the  poem  that  all  is  an  allegory,  and  that  the  personages 
represent  the  human  soul,  Divine  wisdom,  Satan,  delusion 
and  other  mystical  characters. 

Both  on  account  of  its  interest  as  a  true  vernacular  work,  and  as 
the  composition  of  a  Musalman  who  has  taken  the  incidents  of  his 
morality  from  the  legends  of  his  country  and  not  from  an  exotic 
source,  the  poem  is  memorable.  It  has  often  been  lithographed,  and 
is  very  popular;  a  translation  has  even  been  made  into  Sanskrit. 
A  critical  edition  has  been  prepared  by  Dr  G.  A.  Gricrson  and  Pandit 
Sudhakar  Dwivedi. 

The  other  class  of  composition  which  is  characteristic  of  the 
period  of  early  Hindi,  the  literature  of  the  Bhagats,  or  Vaishnava 
saints,  who  propagated  the  doctrine  of  bhakti,  or  faith  in  Vishnu, 
as  the  popular  religion  of  Hindostan,  has  exercised  a  much 
more  powerful  influence  both  upon  the  national  speech  and 
upon  the  themes  chosen  for  poetic  treatment.  It  is  also,  as  a 
body  of  literature,  of  high  intrinsic  interest  for  -its  form  and 
content.  Nearly  the  whole  of  subsequent  poetical  composition 
in  Hindi  is  impressed  with  one  or  other  type  of  Vaishnava 
doctrine,  which,  like  Buddhism  many  centuries  before,  was 
essentially  a  reaction  against  Brahmanical  influence  and  the 
chains  of  caste,  a  claim  for  the  rights  of  humanity  in  face  of 
the  monopoly  which  the  "  twice-born  "  asserted  of  learning, 
of  worship,  of  righteousness.  A  large  proportion  of  the  writers 
were  non-Brahmans,  and  many  of  them  of  the  lowest  castes. 
As  Siva  was  the  popular  deity  of  theBrahmans,  so  was  Vishnu 
of  the  people;  and  while  the  literature  of  the  Saivas  and  Saktas1 
is  almost  entirely  in  Sanskrit,  and  exercised  little  or  no  influence 
on  the  popular  mind  in  northern  India,  that  of  the  Vaishnavas 
is  largely  in  Hindi,  and  in  itself  constitutes  the  great  bulk  of 
what  has  been  written  in  that  language. 

The  Vaishnava  doctrine  is  commonly  carried  back  to  Ramanuja, 
a  Brahman  who  was  born  about  the  end  of  the  nth  century, 
at  Perambur  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  modern  Madras, 
and  spent  his  life  in  southern  India.  His  works,  which  are  in 
Sanskrit  and  consist  of  commentaries  on  the  Vedanta  Sutras, 
are  devoted  to  establishing  "  the  personal  existence  of  a  Supreme 
Deity,  possessing  every  gracious  attribute,  full  of  love  and  pity 
for  the  sinful  beings  who  adore  him,  and  granting  the  released 
soul  a  home  of  eternal  bliss  near  him — a  home  where  each 
soul  never  loses  its  identity,  and  whose  state  is  one  of  perfect 
peace."2  In  the  Deity's  infinite  love  and  pity  he  has  on  several 
occasions  become  incarnate  for  the  salvation  of  mankind,  and 
of  these  incarnations  two,  Ramachandra,  the  prince  of  Ayodhya, 
and  Krishna,  the  chief  of  the  Yadava  clan  and  son  of  Vasudeva, 

1  Worshippers  of  the  energic  power — Sakll — of  Siva,  represented 
by  his  consort  ParvatI  or  Bhawani. 

2  Quoted  from  G.  A.  Grierson,  chapter  on  "  Literature,"  in  the 
India  Gazetteer  (ed.  1907). 


are .  pre-eminently  those  in  which  it  is  most  fitting  that  he 
should  be  worshipped.  Both  of  these  incarnations  had  for 
many  centuries3  attracted  popular  veneration,  and  their 
histories  had  been  celebrated  by  poets  in  epics  and  by  weavers 
of  religious  myths  in  Puranas  or  "  old  stories";  but  it  was 
apparently  Ramanuja's  teaching  which  secured  for  them,  and 
especially  for  Ramachandra,  their  exclusive  place  as  the  objects 
of  bhakti— ardent  faith  and  personal  devotion  addressed  to  the 
Supreme.  The  adherents  of  Ramanuja  were,  however,  all 
Brahmans,  and  observed  very  strict  rules  in  respect  of  food, 
bathing  and  dress;  the  new  doctrine  had  not  yet  penetrated 
to  the  people. 

Whether  Ramanuja  himself  gave  the  preference  to  Rama 
against  Krishna  as  the  form  of  Vishnu  most  worthy  of  worship 
is  uncertain.  He  dealt  mainly  with  philosophic  conceptions 
of  the  Divine  Nature,  and  probably  busied  himself  little  with 
mythological  legend.  His  mantra,  or  formula  of  initiation, 
if  Wilsqn4  was  correctly  informed,  implies  devotion  to  Rama; 
but  Vasudeva  (Krishna)  is  also  mentioned  as  a  principal  object 
of  adoration,  and  Ramanuja  himself  dwelt  for  several  years 
in  Mysore,  at  a  temple  erected  by  the  raja  at  Yadavagiri  in 
honour  of  Krishna  in  his  form  Ranchhor.5  It  is  stated  that 
in  his  worship  of  Krishna  he  joined  with  that  god  as  his  Sakti, 
or  Energy,  his  wife  RukminI;  while  the  later  varieties  of 
Krishna-worship  prefer  to  honour  his  mistress  Radha.  The 
great  difference,  in  temper  and  influence  upon  life,  between 
these  two  forms  of  Vaishnava  faith  appears  to  be  a  development 
subsequent  to  Ramanuja;  but  by  the  time  of  Jaideo  (about 
1250)  it  is  clear  that  the  theme  of  Krishna  and  Radha,  and  the 
use  of  passionate  language  drawn  from  the  relations  of  the  sexes 
to  express  the  longings  of  the  soul  for  God,  had  become  fully 
established;  and  from  that  time  onwards  the  two  types  of 
Vaishnava  religious  emotion  diverged  more  and  more  from 
one  another. 

The  cult  of  Rama  is  founded  on  family  life,  and  the  relation 
of  the  worshipper  to  the  Deity  is  that  of  a  child  to  a  father. 
The  morality  it  inculcates  springs  from  the  sacred  sources  of 
human  piety  which  in  all  religions  have  wrought  most  in  favour 
of  pureness  of  life,  of  fraternal  helpfulness  and  of  humble 
devotion  to  a  loving  and  tender  Parent,  who  desires  the  good 
of  mankind,  His  children,  and  hates  violence  and  wrong.  That 
of  Krishna,  on  the  other  hand,  had  for  its  basis  the  legendary 
career  of  a  less  estimable  human  hero,  whose  exploits  are  marked 
by  a  kind  of  elvish  and  fantastic  wantonness;  it  has  more  and 
more  spent  its  energy  in  developing  that  side  of  devotion  which 
is  perilously  near  to  sensual  thought,  and  has  allowed  the 
imagination  and  ingenuity  of  poets  to  dwell  on  things  unmeet 
for  verse  or  even  for  speech.  It  is  claimed  for  those  who  first 
opened  this  way  to  faith  that  their  hearts  were  pure  and  their 
thoughts  innocent,  and  that  the  language  of  erotic  passion 
which  they  use  as  the  vehicle  of  their  religious  emotion  is  merely 
mystical  and  allegorical.  This  is  probable;  but  that  these 
beginnings  were  followed  by  corruption  in  the  multitude,  and  that 
the  fervent  impulses  of  adoration  made  way  in  'later  times  for 
those  of  lust  and  lasciviousness,  seems  beyond  dispute. 

The  worship  of  Krishna,  especially  in  his  infant  and  youthful 
form  (which  appeals  chiefly  to  women),  is  widely  popular  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Mathura,  the  capital  of  that  land  of  Braj 
where  as  a  boy  he  lived.  Its  literature  is  mainly  composed 
in  the  dialect  of  this  region,  called  Brajbhasha.  That  of  Rama, 

3  The  worship  of  Krishna  is  as  old  as  Megasthenes  (about  300  B.C.), 
who  calls  him  Herakles,  and  was  then,  as  now,  located  at  Mathura  on 
the  Jumna  river.    That  of  Rama  is  probably  still  more  ancient;  the 
name  occurs  in  stories  of  the  Buddha. 

4  Religious  Sects  of  the  Hindus,  p.  40. 

5  This  name  of  Krishna,  which  means  "  He  who  quits  the  battle," 
is  connected  with  the  story  of  the  transfer  of  the  Yadava  clan  from 
Mathura  to  the   new  capital   on   the  coast   of   the   peninsula   of 
Kathiawar,  the  city  of  Dwaraka.    This  migration  was  the  result  of 
an  invasion  of  Braj  by  Jarasandha,  king  of  Magadha,  before  whom 
Krishna  resolved  to  retreat.     As  his  path  southwards  took  him 
through  Rajputana  and  Gujarat,  it  is  in  these  regions  that  his  form 
Ranchhor  is  most  generally  venerated  as  a  symbol  of  the  shifting  of 
the  centre  of  divine  life  from  Gangetic  to  southern  India. 


HINDOSTANI  LITERATURE 


though  general  throughout  Hindostan,  has  since  the  time  of 
Tulsi  Das  adopted  for  poetic  use  the  language  of  Oudh,  called 
AwadhI  or  Baiswari,  a  form  of  Eastern  Hindi  easily  understood 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  Gangetic  valley.  Thus  these  two 
dialects  came  to  be,  what  they  are  to  this  day,  the  standard 
vehicles  of  poetic  expression. 

Subsequently  to  Ramanuja  his  doctrine  appears  to  have 
been  set  forth,  about  1250,  in  the  vernacular  of  the  people  by 
Jaideo,  a  Brahman  born  at  Kinduvilva,  the  modern  Kenduli, 
in  the  Blrbhum  district  of  Bengal,  author  of  the  Sanskrit  Glta 
Govinda,  and  by  Namdeo  or  Nama,  a  tailor1  of  Maharashtra, 
of  both  of  whom  verses  in  the  popular  speech  are  preserved  in 
the  Adi  Granth  of  the  Sikhs.  But  it  was  not  until  the  beginning 
of  the  isth  century  that  the  Brahman  Ramanand,  a  prominent 
Gosdin  of  the  sect  of  Ramanuja,  having  had  a  dispute  with  the 
members  of  his  order  in  regard  to  the  stringent  rules  observed 
by  them,  left  the  community,  migrated  to  northern  India 
(where  he  is  said  to  have  made  his  headquarters  Galtij  in  Raj- 
putana),  and  addressed  himself  to  those  outside  the  Brahman 
caste,  thus  initiating  the  teaching  of  Vaishnavism  as  the  popular 
faith  of  Hindostan.  Among  his  twelve  disciples  or  apostles 
were  a  Rajput,  a  Jat,  a  leather-worker,  a  barber  and  a  Musal- 
man  weaver;  the  last-mentioned  was  the  celebrated  KABIR 
(see  separate  article).  One  short  Hindi  poem  by  Ramanand 
is  contained  in  the  Adi  Granth,  and  Dr  Grierson  has  collected 
hymns  (bhajans)  attributed  to  him  and  still  current  in  Mithila 
or  Tirhut,  Both  Ramanand  and  Kablr  were  adherents  of 
the  form  of  Vaishnavism  where  devotion  is  specially  addressed  to 
Rama,  who  is  regarded  not  only  as  an  incarnation,  but  as  himself 
identical  with  the  Deity.  A  contemporary  of  Ramanand, 
Bidyapati  Thakur,  is  celebrated  as  the  author  of  numerous 
lyrics  in  the  Maithill  dialect  of  Bihar,  expressive  of  the  other 
side  of  Vaishnavism,  the  passionate  adoration  of  the  Deity 
in  the  person  of  Krishna,  the  aspirations  of  the  worshipper 
being  mystically  conveyed  in  the  character  of  Radha,  the 
cowherdess  of  Braj  and  the  beloved  of  the  son  of  Vasudeva. 
These  stanzas  of  Bidyapati  (who  was  a  Brahman  and  author 
of  several  works  in  Sanskrit)  afterwards  inspired  the  Vaishnava 
literatureofBengal,whosemostcelebratedexponentwasChaitanya 
(b.  1484).  Another  famous  adherent  of  the  same  cult  was 
Mira  Bai,  "  the  one  great  poetess  of  northern  India  "  (Grierson). 
This  lady,  daughter  of  Raja  Ratiya  Rana,  Rathor,  of  Merta 
in  Rajputana,  must  have  been  born  about  the  beginning  of  the 
I5th  century;  she  was  married  in  1413  to  Raja  Kumbhkaran 
of  Mewar,  who  was  killed  by  his  son  Uday  Rana  in"  1469.  She 
was  devoted  to  Krishna  in  the  form  of  Ranchhor,  and  her  songs 
have  a  wide  currency  in  northern  India. 

An  important  compilation  of  the  utterances  of  the  early  Vaishnava 
saints  or  Bhagats  is  contained  in  the  sacred  book,  or  Adi  Granth,  of 
the  Sikh  Gurus.  Nanak,  the  founder  of  this  sect  (1469-1538),  though 
a  native  of  the  Punjab  (born  at  Talvandl  on  the  Ravi  near  Lahore), 
took  his  doctrine  from  the  Bhagats  (see  KABIR)  ;  and  each  of  the 
thirty-one  rags,  forming  the  body  of  the  Granth,  is  followed  by  a 
compilation  of  texts  from  the  utterances  of  Vaishnava  saints,  chiefly 
of  Kabir,  in  confirmation  of  the  teaching  of  the  Gurus,  while  the  whole 
book  is  closed  by  a  bhog  or  conclusion,  containing  more  verses  by  the 
same  authors,  as  well  as  by  a  celebrated  Indian  Sufi,  Shekh  Farid  of 
Pakpattan.  The  body  of  the  Granth  (q.v.),  being  in  old  Panjabi,  falls 
outside  the  scope  of  this  article ;  but  the  extracts  included  in  it  from 
the  early  writers  of  old  Hindi  are  a  precious  store  of  specimens  of 
authors  some  of  whom  have  left  no  other  record  in  the  surviving 
literature.  The  Adi  Granth,  which  was  put  together  about  1600  by 
Arjun,  the  fifth  Guru  of  the  Sikhs,  sets  forth  the  creed  of  the  sect  in 
its  original  pietistic  form,  before  it  assumed  the  militant  character 
which  afterwards  distinguished  it  under  the  five  Gurus  who  suc- 
ceeded him. 

2.  Middle  Hindi. — The  second  period,  that  of  middle  Hindi, 
begins  with  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Akbar  (1556-1605);  and 
it  is  not  improbable  that  the  broad  and  liberal  views  of  this 
great  monarch,  his  active  sympathy  with  his  Hindu  subjects, 
the  interest  which  he  took  in  their  religion  and  literature,  and 
the  peace  which  his  organization  of  the  empire  secured  for  Hindo- 

1  In  the  Granth  Namdeo  is  called  a  calico-printer,  Chhlpi.  The 
Marathi  tradition  is  that  he  was  a  tailor,  ShimpH ;  it  is  probable  that 
the  latter  word,  being  unknown  in  northern  India,  has  been  wrongly 
rendered  by  the  former. 


stan,  had  an  important  effect  on  the  great  development  of  Hindi 
poetry  which  now  set  in.2  Akbar's  court  was  itself  a  centre  of 
poetical  composition.  The  court  musician  Tan  Sen  (who  was 
also  a  poet)  is  still  renowned,  and  many  verses  composed  by 
him  in  the  Emperor's  name  live  to  this  day  in  the  memory  of 
the  people.  Akbar's  favourite  minister  and  companion,  Raja 
Blrbal  (who  fell  in  battle  on  the  north-western  frontier  in  1583), 
was  a  musician  and  a  poet  as  well  as  a  politician,  and  held  the 
title,  conferred  by  the  Emperor,  of  Kabi-Rdy,  or  poet  laureate; 
his  verses  and  witty  sayings  are  still  extremely  popular  in 
northern  India,  though  no  complete  work  by  him  is  known 
to  exist.  Other  nobles  of  the  court  were  also  poets,  among 
them  the  Khdn-khdndn  'Abdur-Rahlm,  son  of  Bairam  Khan, 
whose  Hindi  dohas  and  kabittas  are  still  held  in  high  estimation, 
and  FaizI,  brother  of  the  celebrated  Abul-Fazl,  the  Emperor's 
annalist. 

By  this  time  the  worship  of  Krishna  as  the  lover  of  Radha 
(Rddhd-ballabh)  had  been  systematized,  and  a  local  habitation 
found  for  it  at  Gokul,  opposite  Mathura  on  the  Jumna,  some 
30  m.  upstream  from  Agra,  Akbar's  capital,  by  Vallabhacharya, 
a  Tailinga  Brahman  from  Madras.  Born  in  1478,  in  1497  he 
chose  the  land  of  Braj  as  his  headquarters,  thence  making 
missionary  tours  throughout  India.  He  wrote  chiefly,  if  not 
entirely,  in  Sanskrit;  but  among  his  immediate  followers,  and 
those  of  his  son  Bitthalnath  (who  succeeded  his  father  on  the 
latter's  death  in  1530),  were  some  of  the  most  eminent  poets 
in  Hindi.  Four  disciples  of  Vallabhacharya  and  four  of  BiUhal- 
nath,  who  flourished  between  1550  and  1570,  are  known  as  the 
As/it  Chhdp,  or  "  Eight  Seals,"  and  are  the  acknowledged  masters 
of  the  literature  of  Braj-bhasha,  in  which  dialect  they  all  wrote. 
Their  names  are  Krishna-Das  Pay-aharl,  Sur  Das  (the  Bhat), 
Parmanand  Das,  Kumbhan  Das,  Chaturbhuj  Das,  Chhlt  Swami, 
Nand  Das  and  Gobind  Das.  Of  these  much  the  most  celebrated, 
and  the  only  one  whose  verses  are  still  popular,  is  Sur  Das.  The 
son  of  Baba  Ram  Das,  who  was  a  singer  at  Akbar's  court,  Sur 
Das  was  descended,  according  to  his  own  statement,  from  the 
bard  of  PrithwI-Raj,  Chand  Bardal.  A  tradition  gives  the  date 
of  his  birth  as  1483,  and  that  of  his  death  as  1573;  but  both 
seem  to  be  placed  too  early,  and  in  Abul-Fazl 's  Ain-i  Akbari 
he  is  mentioned  as  living  when  that  work  was  completed  (1596/7). 
He  was  blind,  and  entirely  devoted  to  the  worship  of  Krishna, 
to  whose  address  he  composed  a  great  number  of  hymns  (bhajans), 
which  have  been  collected  in  a  compilation  entitled  the  Sur 
Sdgar,  said  to  contain  60,000  verses;  this  work  is  very  highly 
esteemed  as  the  high-water  mark  of  Braj  devotional  poetry, 
and  has  been  repeatedly  printed  in  India.  Other  compositions 
by  him  were  a  translation  in  verse  of  the  Bhdgavata  Pur  ana, 
and  a  poem  dealing  with  the  famous  story  of  Nala  and  Dama- 
yanti;  of  the  latter  no  copies  are  now  known  to  exist. 

The  great  glory  of  this  age  is  Tulsi  Das  (q.v.).  He  and  Sur 
Das  between  them  are  held  to  have  exhausted  the  possibilities  of 
the  poetic  art.  It  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  the  time  of  their 
appearance  coincided  with  the  Elizabethan  age  of  English 
literature. 

To  these  great  masters  succeeded  a  period  of  artifice  and 
reflection,  when  many  works  were  composed  dealing  with  the 
rules  of  poetry  and  the  analysis  and  the  appropriate  language  of 
sentiment.  Of  their  writers  the  most  famous  is  Kesab  Das,  a 
Brahman  of  Bundelkhand,  who  flourished  during  thelatterpartof 
Akbar's  reign  and  the  beginning  of  that  of  Jahanglr.  His  works 
are  the  Rasik-priyd,  on  composition  (1591),  the  Kavi-priyd,  on 
the  laws  of  poetry  (1601),  a  highly  esteemed  poem  dedicated  to 
Parbln  Rai  Paturl,  a  celebrated  courtesan  of  Orchha  in  Bundel- 
khand, the  Rdmachandrikd,  dealing  with  the  history  of  Rama, 
(1610),  and  the  Vigydn-gltd  (1610).  The  fruit  of  this  elaboration 
of  the  poetic  art  reached  its  highest  perfection  in  BIHAR!  LAL, 
whose  Sat-sai,  or  "  seven  centuries  "  (1662),  is  the  most  remark- 
able example  in  Hindi  of  the  rhetorical  style  in  poetry  (see 
separate  article). 

2  It  will  be  remembered  that  Akbar's  reign  was  remarkable  for  the 
translation  into  Persian  of  a  large  number  of  Sanskrit  works  of 
religion  and  philosophy,  most  of  the  versions  being  made  by,  or  in 
the  names  of,  members  of  his  court. 


HINDOSTANI    LITERATURE 


487 


Side  by  side  with  this  cultivation  of  the  literary  use  of  the 
themes  of  Rama  and  Krishna,  there  grew  up  a  class  of  composi- 
tions dealing,  in  a  devotional  spirit,  with  the  lives  and  doings  of 
the  holy  men  from  whose  utterances  and  example  the  develop- 
ment of  the  popular  religion  proceeded.  The  most  famous  of 
these  is  the  Bhakta-mdld,  or  "  Roll  of  the  Bhagats,"  by  Narayan 
Das,  otherwise  called  Nabha  Das,  or  Nabhaji.  This  author,  who 
belonged  to  the  despised  caste  of  Doms  and  was  a  native  of  the 
Deccan,  had  in  his  youth  seen  Tulsl  Das  at  Mathura,  and  himself 
flourished  in  the  first  half  of  the  i7th  century.  His  work  con- 
sists of  108  stanzas  in  chhappdi  metre,  each  setting  forth  the 
characteristics  of  some  holy  personage,  and  expressed  in  a  style 
which  is  extremely  brief  and  obscure.  Its  exact  date  is  unknown, 
but  it  falls  between  1585  and  1623.  The  book  was  furnished 
with  a  Ika  (supplement  or  gloss)  in  the  kabilla  metre,  by  Priya 
Das  in  1713,  gathering  up,  in  an  allusive  and  disjointed  fashion, 
all  the  legendary  stories  related  of  each  saint.  This  again  was 
expanded  about  a  century  later  by  a  modern  author  named 
Lachhman  into  a  detailed  work  of  biography,  called  the  Bhakta- 
sindhu.  From  these  nearly  all  our  knowledge  (such  as  it  is)  of 
the  lives  of  the  Vaishnava  authors,  both  of  the  Rama  and  the 
Krishna  cults,  is  derived,  and  much  of  it  is  of  a  very  legendary 
and  untrustworthy  character.  Another  work,  somewhat  earlier 
in  date  than  the  Bhakta-mdld,  named  the  Chaurdsi  Vdrta,  is 
devoted  exclusively  to  stories  of  the  followers  of  Vallabhacharya. 
It  is  reputed  to  have  been  written  by  Gokulnath,  son  of  Bitthal- 
nath,  son  of  Vallabhacharya,  and  is  dated  in  1551. 

The  matter  of  these  tales  is  j  ustly  characterized  by  Professor  Wilson1 
(who  gives  some  translated  specimens)  as  "  marvellous  and  insipid 
anecdotes";  but  the  book  is  remarkable  for  being  in  very  artless 
prose,  and,  though  written  more  than  300  years  ago,  shows  that  the 
current  language  of  Braj  was  then  almost  precisely  identical  with 
that  now  spoken  in  that  region.  A  specimen  of  the  text  will  be  found 
at  p.  296  of  Mr  F.  S.  Growse's  Mathura,  a  District  Memoir  (3rd  ed., 
1883). 

It  would  be  tedious  to  enumerate  the  many  authors  who 
succeeded  the  great  period  of  Hind  poetical  composition  which 
extended  through  the  reigns  of  Akbar,  Jahanglr  and  Shahjahan. 
None  of  them  attained  to  the  fame  of  Sur  Das,  Tuls  Das  or 
Biharl  Lai.  Their  themes  exhibit  no  novelty,  and  they  repeat 
with  a  wearisome  monotony  the  sentiments  of  their  predecessors. 
The  list  of  Hindi  authors  drawn  up  by  Dr  G.  A.  Grierson,  and 
printed  in  the  Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal  in  1889, 
may  be  consulted  for  the  names  and  works  of  these  epigoni.  The 
courts  of  Chhatarsal,  raja  of  Panna  in  Bundelkhand,  who  was 
killed  in  battle  with  Aurangzeb  in  1658,  and  of  several  rajas  of 
Bandho  (now  called  Riwan  or  Rewah)  in  Baghelkhand,  were 
famous  for  their  patronage  of  poets;  and  the  Mogul  court  itself 
kept  up  the  office  of  Kabi-Rdy  or  poet  laureate  even  during  the 
fanatical  reign  of  Aurangzeb. 

Such,  in  the  briefest  outline,  is  the  character  of  Hind  literature 
during  the  period  when  it  grew  and  flourished  through  its  own 
original  forces.  Founded  by  a  popular  and  religious  impulse  in 
many  respects  comparable  to  that  which,  nearly  1600  years 
before,  had  produced  the  doctrine  and  literature,  in  the  vernacular 
tongue,  of  Jainism  and  Buddhism,  and  cultivated  largely  (though 
by  no  means  exclusively)  by  authors  not  belonging  to  the  Brah- 
manical  order,  it  was  the  legitimate  descendant  in  spirit,  as 
Hindi  is  the  legitimate  descendant  in  speech,  of  the  Prakrit  litera- 
ture which  preceded  it.  Entirely  in  verse,  it  adopted  and  elabor- 
ated the  Prakrit  metrical  forms,  and  carried  them  to  a  pitch  of 
perfection  too  often  overlooked  by  those  who  concern  themselves 
rather  with  the  substance  than  the  form  of  the  works  they  read. 
It  covers  a  wide  range  of  style,  and  expresses,  in  the  works  of  its 
greatest  masters,  a  rich  variety  of  human  feeling.  Little  studied 
by  Europeans  in  the  past,  it  deserves  much  more  attention  than 
it  has  received.  The  few  who  have  explored  it  speak  of  it  as  an 
"  enchanted  garden  "  (Grierson),  abounding  in  beauties  of  thought 
and  phrase.  Above  all  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  it  is  genuinely 
popular,  and  has  reached  strata  of  society  scarcely  touched  by 
literature  in  Europe.  The  ballads  of  Rajput  prowess,  the 
aphorisms  of  Kablr,  Tulsl  DSs's  Rdmdyan,  and  the  bhajans  of 
1  Religious  Sects,  p.  132. 


Sur  Das  are  to  this  day  carried  about  everywhere  by  wandering 
minstrels,  and  have  found  their  way,  throughout  the  great  plains 
of  northern  India  and  the  uplands  of  the  Vindhya  plateau,  to  the 
hearts  of  the  people.  There  is  no  surer  key  to  unlock  the  con- 
fidence of  the  villager  than  an  apt  quotation  from  one  of  these 
inspired  singers. 

3.  Literary  Urdu. — The  origines  of  Urdu  as  a  literary  language 
are  somewhat  obscure.  The  popular  account  refers  its  rise  to 
the  time  of  Timur's  invasion  (1398).  Some  authors  even  claim 
for  it  a  higher  antiquity,  asserting  that  a  dlwdn,  or  collection  of 
poems,  was  composed  in  Rekhta  by  Mas'ud,  son  of  Sa'd,  in  the 
last  half  of  the  nth  or  beginning  of  the  i2th  century,  and  that 
Sa'di  of  Shiraz  and  his  friend  Amir  Khusrau2  of  Delhi  likewise 
made  verses  in  that  dialect  before  the  end  of  the  i3th  century. 
This,  however,  is  very  improbable.  It  has  already  been  seen  that 
during  the  early  centuries  of  Muslim  rule  in  India  adherents  of 
that  faith  used  the  language  and  metrical  forms  of  the  country 
for  their  compositions.  Persian  words  early  made  their  way  into 
the  popular  speech;  they  are  common  in  Chand,  and  in  Kablr's 
verses  (which  are  nevertheless  unquestionable  Hindi)  they  are  in 
many  places  used  as  freely  as  in  the  modern  dialect.  Much  of  the 
confusion  which  besets  the  subject  is  due  to  the  want  of  a  clear 
understanding  of  what  Urdu,  as  opposed  to  Hindi,  really  is. 

Urdu,  as  a  literary  language,  differs  from  Hindi  rather  in  its 
form  than  in  its  substance.  The  grammar,  and  to  a  large  extent 
the  vocabulary,  of  both  are  the  same.  The  really  vital  point  of 
difference,  that  in  which  Hindi  and  Urdu  are  incommensurable, 
is  the  prosody.  Hardly  one  of  the  metres  taken  over  by  Urdu 
poets  from  Persian  agrees  with  those  used  in  Hindi.  In  the  latter 
language  it  is  the  rule  to  give  the  short  a  inherent  in  every  con- 
sonant or  nexus  of  consonants  its  full  value  in  scansion  (though 
in  prose  it  is  no  longer  heard),  except  occasionally  at  the  metrical 
pause;  in  Urdu  this  is  never  done,  the  words  being  scanned 
generally  as  pronounced  in  prose,  with  a  few  exceptions  which 
need  not  be  mentioned  here.  The  great  majority  of  Hindi 
metres  are  scanned  by  the  number  of  mdtrds  or  syllabic  instants — 
the  value  in  time  of  a  short  syllable — of  which  the  lines  consist; 
in  Urdu,  as  in  Persian,  the  metre  follows  a  special  order  of  long 
and  short  syllables. 

The  question,  then,  is  not  When  did  Persian  first  become 
intermixed  with  Hindi  in  the  literary  speech? — for  this  process 
began  witli  the  first  entry  of  Muslim  conquerors  into  India, 
and  continued  for  centuries  before  a  line  of  Urdu  verse  was 
composed;  nor  When  was  the  Persian  character  first  employed 
to  write  Hindi? — for  the  written  form  is  but  a  subordinate 
matter;  as  already  mentioned,  the  MSS.  of  Malik  Muhammad's 
purely  Hindi  poem,  the  Padmdwat,  are  ordinarily  found  to  be 
written  in  the  Persian  character;  and  copies  lithographed  in 
Devanagari  of  the  popular  compositions  of  the  Urdu  poet 
Nazir  are  commonly  procurable  in  the  bazars.  We  must  ask 
When  was  the  first  verse  composed  in  Hindi,  whether  with 
or  without  foreign  admixture,  according  to  the  forms  of  Persian 
prosody,  and  not  in  those  of  the  indigenous  metrical  system? 
Then,  and  not  till  then,  did  Urdu  poetry  come  into  being.  This 
appears  to  have  happened,  as  already  mentioned,  about  the  end 
of  the  1 6th  century.  Meantime  the  vernacular  speech  had  been 
gradually  permeated  with  Persian  words  and  phrases.  The 
impulse  which  Akbar's  interest  in  his  Hindu  subjects  had  given 
to  the  translation  of  Sanskrit  works  into  Persian  had  brought 
the  indigenous  and  the  foreign  literatures  into  contact.  The 
current  language  of  the  neighbourhood  of  the  capital,  the 
Hindi  spoken  about  Delhi  and  thence  northwards  to  the  Hima- 
laya, was  naturally  the  form  of  the  vernacular  which  was  most 
subject  to  foreign  influences;  and  with  the  extension  of  Mogul 

s  Amir  Khusrau  is  credited  with  the  authorship  of  many  still 
popular  rhymes,  riddles  or  punning  verses  (called  paheRs  and 
mukuris) ;  but  these,  though  often  containing  Persian  words,  are  in 
Hindi  and  scanned  according  to  the  prosody  of  that  language ;  they 
are,  therefore,  like  Malik  Muhammad's  Padmawat,  not  Urdu  or 
Rekhta  verse  (see  Professor  Azad'sAbi-Hayat,  pp.  72-76).  A  late 
Dakkham  poet  who  used  the  takkallus.  of  Sa'di  is  said  by  Azad  (p.  79) 
to  have  been  confused  by  Mirza  Rafi'us-Sauda  in  his  Tazkira  with 
Sa'di  of  Shiraz. 


488 


HINDOSTANI  LITERATURE 


territory  by  the  conquests  in  the  south  of  Akbar  and  his  suc- 
cessors, this  idiom  was  carried  abroad  by  their  armies,  and  was 
adopted  by  the  Musalman  kingdoms  of  the  Deccan  as  their 
court  language  some  time  before  their  overthrow  by  the  cam- 
paigns of  Aurangzeb. 

It  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that,  as  happened  with  the  Vaish- 
nava  reformation  initiated  by  Ramanuja  and  Ramanand,  and 
with  the  Vallabhacharya  cult  of  Krishna  established  at  Mathura, 
the  first  impulse  to  literary  composition  in  Urdu  should  have 
been  given,  not  at  the  headquarters  of  the  empire  in  the  north, 
but  at  the  Muhammadan  courts  of  Golkonda  and  Bijapur  in 
the  south,  the  former  situated  amid  an  indigenous  population 
speaking  Telugu,  and  the  latter  among  one  whose  speech  was 
Kanarese,  both  Dravidian  languages  having  nothing  in  common 
with  the  Aryan  tongues  of  the  north.     This  fact  of  itself  defines 
the  nature  of  the  literature  thus  inaugurated.     It  had  nothing 
to  do  with  the  idiom  or  ideas  of  the  people  among  whom  it  was 
born,  but  was  from  the  beginning  an  imitation  of  Persian  models. 
It  adopted  the  standards  of  form  and  content  current  among 
the  poets  of  Eran.     The  qajida  or  laudatory  ode,  the  ghazal 
or  love-sonnet,  usually  of  mystical  import,  the  mar&iya  or  dirge, 
the  masnavi  or  narrative  poem  with  coupled  rhymes,  the  hijd 
or  satire,  the  rubd'i  or  epigram — these  were  the  types  which 
Urdu  took  over  ready-made.     And  with  the  forms  were  ap- 
propriated  also   all   the   conventions  of  poetic   diction.     The 
Persians,  having  for  centuries  treated  the  same  themes  with 
a  fecundity  which  most  Europeans  find  extremely  wearisome, 
had  elaborated  a  system  of  rhetoric  and  a  stock  of  poetic  images 
which,  in  the  exhaustion  of  original  matter,  made  the  success 
of  the  poet  depend  chiefly  upon  dexterity  of  artifice  and  clever- 
ness   of   conceit.     Pleasing   hyperbole,    ingenious    comparison, 
antithesis,   alliteration,   carefully  arranged  gradation  of  noun 
and  epithet,  are  the  means  employed  to  obtain  variety;  and 
few  of  the  most  eloquent  passages  of  later  Persian  verse  admit 
of  translation  into  any  other  language  without  losing  that  which 
in  the  original  makes  their  whole  charm.     What  is  true  of  Persian 
is  likewise  true  of  Urdu  poetry.     Until  quite  modern  times, 
there  is  scarcely  anything  in  it  which  can  be  called  original.1 
Differences  of  school,  which  are  made  much  of  by  native  critics, 
are  to  us  hardly  perceptible;  they  consist  in  the  use  of  one 
or  other  range  of  metaphor  or  comparison,  classed,  according 
as   they  repeat   the   well-worn   poetical  stock-in-trade  of   the 
Persians,  or  seek  a  slightly  fresher  and  more  Indian  field  of 
sentiment,  as  the  old  or  the  new  style  of  composition. 

Shuja'uddin  Nuri,  a  native  of  Gujarat,  a  friend  of  Fai?i  and  con- 
temporary of  Akbar,  is  mentioned  by  the  native  biographers  as  the 
most  ancient  Urdu  poet  after  Amir  Khusrau.  He  was  tutor  of  the 
son  of  the  wazir  of  Sultan  Abu-1-Hasan  Kutb  Shah  of  Golkonda,  and 
several  gha.za.ls  by  him  are  said  to  survive.  Kull  Kutb  Shah  of 
Golkonda,  who  reigned  from  1581,  and  his  successor  'Abdullah  Kut.b 
Shah,  who  came  to  the  throne  in  1611,  have  both  left  collections  of 
verse,  including  ghazals,  ruba'is,  masnavis  and  qafidas.  And  during 
the  reign  of  the  latter  Ibn  Mishap  wrote  two  works  which  are  still 
famous  as  models  of  composition  in  Dakhni;  they  are  magnates 
entitled  the  Tufi-nama,  or  "  Tales  of  a  Parrot,"  and  the  Phul-ban. 
The  first,  written  in  1639,  is  an  adaptation  of  a  Persian  work  by 
Nakhshabi,  but  derives  ultimately  from  a  Sanskrit  original  entitled 
the  Suka-saptati;  this  collection  has  been  frequently  rehandled  in 
Urdu,  both  in  verse  and  prose,  and  is  the  original  of  the  To(a- 
Kahani,  one  of  the  first  works  in  Urdu  prose,  composed  in  1801  by 
Muhammad  Haidar-bakhsh  Haidari  of  the  Fort  William  College. 
The  Phul-ban  is  a  love  tale  named  from  its  heroine,  said  to  be  trans- 
lated from  a  Persian  work  entitled  the  Basafin.  Another  famous 
work  which  probably  belongs  to  the  same  place  and  time  is  the  Story 
of  Kamrup  and  Kola  by  Tahslnuddln,  a  masnavi  which  has  been 
published  (1836)  by  M.  Garcin  de  Tassy;  what  makes  this  poem 
remarkable  is  that,  though  the  work  of  a  Musalman,  its  personages 
are  Hindu.  Kamrup,  the  hero,  is  son  of  the  king  of  Oudh,  and  the 
heroine,  Kala,  daughter  of  the  king  of  Ceylon ;  the  incidents  some- 
what resemble  those  of  the  tale  of  as-Sindibad  in  the  Thousand  and 
One  Nights;  the  hero  and  heroine  dream  one  of  the  other,  and  the 
former  sets  forth  to  find  his  beloved;  his  wanderings  take  him  to 

1  An  exception  may  be  made  to  this  general  statement  in  favour 
of  the  genre  pictures  of  city  and  country  life  contained  in  the  masnams 
of  Sauda  and  Nazir.  These  are  often  satires  (in  the  vein  of  Horace 
rather  than  Juvenal),  and  are  full  of  interest  as  pictures  of  society. 
In  Sauda,  however,  the  conventional  language  used  in  description  is 
often  Persian  rather  than  Indian. 


many  strange  countries  and  through  many  wonderful  adventures, 
ending  in  a  happy  marriage. 

The  court  of  Bijapur  was  no  less  distinguished  in  literature. 
Ibrahim  'Adil  Shah  (1579-1626)  was  the  author  of  a  work  in  verse 
on  music  entitled  the  Nau-ras  or  "  Nine  Savours,"  which,  however, 
appears  to  have  been  in  Hindi  rather  than  Urdu ;  the  three  prefaces 
(dibdjas)  to  this  poem  were  rendered  into  Persian  prose  by  Maula 
Zuhuri,  and,  under  the  name  of  the  Sih  nasr-i  Zuhuri,  are  well-known 
models  of  style.  A  successor  of  this  prince,  "Ali  'Adil  Shah,  had  as 
his  court  poet  a  Brahman  known  poetically  as  Nusrati,  who  in  1657 
composed  a  masnavi  of  some  repute  entitled  the  Gulshan-i  'Ishq,  or 
"  Rose-garden  of  Love,"  a  romance  relating  the  history  of  Prince 
Manohar  and  Madmalati, — like  the  Kamrup,  an  Indian  theme. 
The  same  poet  is  author  of  an  extremely  long  masnavi  entitled  the 
'Ali-ndma,  celebrating  the  monarch  under  whom  he  lived. 

These  early  authors,  however,  were  but  pioneers;  the  first 
generally  accepted  standard  of  form,  a  standard  which  suffered  little 
change  in  two  centuries,  was  established  by  Wall  of  Aurangabad 
(about  1680-1720)  and  his  contemporary  and  fellow-townsman 
Siraj.  The  former  of  these  is  commonly  called  "  the  Father  of 
Rekhtah  " — Bdbd-e  Rekhta;  and  all  accounts  agree  that  the  immense 
development  attained  by  Urdu  poetry  in  northern  India  during  the 
1 8th  century  was  due  to  his  example  and  initiative.  Very  little  is 
known  of  Wall's  life;  he  is  believed  to  have  visited  Delhi  towards  the 
end  of  the  reign  of  Aurangzeb,  and  is  said  to  have  there  received 
instruction  from  Shah  Gulshan  in  the  art  of  clothing  in  a  vernacular 
dress  the  ideas  of  the  Persian  poets.  His  Kultiyal  or  complete  works 
have  been  published  by  M.  Garcin  de  Tassy,  with  notes  and  a  trans- 
lation of  selected  passages  (Paris,  1834-1836),  and  may  be  com- 
mended to  readers  desirous  of  consulting  in  the  original  a  favourable 
specimen  of  Urdu  poetical  composition. 

The  first  of  the  Delhi  school  of  poets  was  Zuhuruddin  Hatim,  who 
was  born  in  1699  and  died  in  1 792.  In  the  second  year  of  Muhammad 
Shah  (1719),  the  diwdn  of  VVall  reached  Delhi,  and  excited  the  emula- 
tion of  scholars  there.  Hatim  was  the  first  to  imitate  it  in  the  Urdu 
of  the  north,  and  was  followed  by  his  friends  Naji,  Mazmun  and  Abru. 
Two  diwans  by  him  survive.  He  became  the  founder  of  a  school,  and 
one  of  his  pupils  was  Raft  us-Sauda,  the  most  distinguished  poet  of 
northern  India.  Khan  Arzu  (1689-1756)  was  another  of  the  fathers 
of  Urdu  poetry  in  the  north.  This  author  is  chiefly  renowned  as  a 
Persian  scholar,  in  which  language  he  not  only  composed  much 
poetry,  but  one  of  the  best  of  Persian  lexicons,  the  Sirdju-l-lugkat; 
but  his  compositions  in  Urdu  are  also  highly  esteemed.  He  was  the 
master  of  Mir  Taqi,  who  ranks  next  to  Sauda  as  the  most  eminent 
Urdu  poet.  Arzu  died  at  Lucknow,  whither  he  betook  himself  after 
the  devastation  of  Delhi  by  Nadir  Shah  (1739).  Another  of  the  early 
Delhi  poets  who  is  considered  to  have  surpassed  his  fellows  was 
In'amullah  Khan  Yaqin,  who  died  during  the  reign  of  Ahmad  Shah 
(1748-1754),  aged  only  twenty-five.  Another  \vas  Mir  Dard,  pupil 
of  the  same  Shah  Gulshan  who  is  said  to  have  instructed  Wali;  his 
diwdn  is  not  long,  but  extremely  popular,  and  especially  esteemed  for 
the  skill  with  which  it  develops  the  themes  of  spiritualism.  In  his 
old  age  he  became  a  darwesh  of  the  Naqshbandi  following,  and  died 
in  1793- 

Sauda  and  Mir  Taqi  are  beyond  question  the  most  distinguished 
Urdu  poets.  The  former  was  born  at  Delhi  about  the  beginning  of 
the  1 8th  century,  and  studied  under  Hatim.  He  left  Delhi  after  its 
devastation,  and  settled  at  Lucknow,  where  the  Nawab  Ajafud- 
daulah  gave  him  a  jdgir  of  Rs.  6000  a  year,  and  where  he  died  in 
1780.  His  poems  are  very  numerous,  and  cover  all  the  styles  of 
Urdu  poetry;  but  it  is  to  his  satires  that  his  fame  is  chiefly  due, 
and  in  these  he  is  considered  to  have  surpassed  all  other  Indian 
poets.  Mir  Taqi  was  born  jit  Agra,  but  early  removed  to  Delhi, 
where  he  studied  under  Arzu;  he  was  still  living  there  at  the  time 
of  Sauda's  death,  but  in  1782  repaired  to  Lucknow,  where  he  likewise 
received  a  pension;  he  died  at  a  very  advanced  age  in  1810.  His 
works  are  very  voluminous,  including  no  less  than  six  diwans. 
Vlir  is  counted  the  superior  of  Sauda  in  the  ghazal  and  masnavi, 
while  the  latter  excelled  him  in  the  satire  and  qasida.  Sayyid 
Ahmad,  an  excellent  authority,  and  himselfpne  of  the  best  of  modern 
authors  in  Urdu,  says  of  him  in  his  Asdru-s.-Sanddid:  "  Mir's 
anguage  is  so  pure,  and  the  expressions  which  he  employs  so  suit- 
able and  natural,  that  to  this  day  all  are  unanimous  in  his  praise. 
Although  the  language  of  Sauda  is  also  excellent,  and  he  is  superior 
:o  Mir  in  the  point  of  his  allusions,  he  is  nevertheless  inferior  to  him 
'.n  style." 

The  tremendous  misfortunes  which  befell  Delhi  at  the  hands  of 
Sladir  Shah  (1739),  Ahmad  Shah  Durrani  (1756),  and  the  Marathas 
(1759),  and  the  rapid  decay  of  the  Mogul  empire  under  these  repeated 
shocks,  transferred  the  centre  of  the  cultivation  of  literature  from 
hat  city  to  Lucknow,  the  capital  of  the  newly  founded  and  flourish- 
ng  state  of  Oudh.  It  has  been  mentioned  how  Arzu,  Sauda  and  Mir 
retook  themselves  to  this  refuge  and  ended  their  days  there;  they 
were  followed  in  their  new  residence  by  a  school  of  poets  hardly 
nferior  to  those  who  had  made  Delhi  illustrious  in  the  first  half 
of  the  century.  Here  they  were  joined  by  Mir  Hasan  (d.  1786),  Mir 
Soz  (d.  1800)  and  Qalandar-bakhsh  Jur'at  (d.  1810),  also  like  them- 
ielves  refugees  from  Delhi,  and  illustrious  poets.  Mir  Hasan  was  a 
riend  and  collaborator  of  Mir  Dard,  artd  first  established  himself  at 
"aizabad  and  subsequently  at  Lucknow;  he  excelled  in  the  ghazal. 


HINDOSTANI  LITERATURE 


ruba'i,  masnavi  and  margiya,  and  is  counted  the  third,  with  Sauda 
Bnd  Mir  Taqi,  among  the  most  eminent  of  Urdu  poets.  His  fam( 
chiefly  rests  upon  a  much  admired  masnavi  entitled  the  Sihru-l 
bayan,  or  "  Magic  of  Eloquence,"  a  romance  relating  the  loves  o 
Prince  Be-nagir  and  the  Princess  Badr-i  Munir;  his  masnavi  callec 
the  Gulzar-i  Iram  ("  Rose-garden  of  Iram,"  the  legendary  'Adite 
paradise  in  southern  Arabia),  in  praise  of  Faizabad,  is  likewise 
highly  esteemed.  Mir  Muhammad!  Soz  was  an  elegant  poet,  re 
markable  for  the  success  with  which  he  composed  in  the  dialec 
of  the  harem  called  Rekhd,  but  somewhat  licentious  in  his  verse;  hi 
became  a  darwesh  and  renounced  the  world  in  his  later  years.  Jur'at 
was  also  a  prolific  poet,  but,  like  Soz,  his  ghazals  and  masnavis  are 
licentious  and  full  of  double  meanings.  '  He  imitated  Sauda  in  satire 
with  much  success;  he  also  cultivated  Hindi  poetry,  and  composec 
dohas  and  kabittas.  Miskin  was  another  Lucknow  poet  of  the  same 
period,  whose  marsiyas  are  especially  admired;  one  of  them,  that 
on  the  death  of  Muslim  and  his  two  sons,  is  considered  a  masterpiece 
of  this  style  of  composition.  The  school  of  Lucknow,  so  founded  anc 
maintained  during  the  early  years  of  the  century,  continued  to 
flourish  till  the  dethronement  of  the  last  king,  Wajid  'All,  in  1856. 
Atash  and  Nasikh  (who  died  respectively  in  1847  and  1841)  are  the 
best  among  the  modern  poets  of  the  school  in  the  ghazal;  Mir  Anis.a 
grandson  of  Mir  Hasan,  and  his  contemporary  Dablr,  the  former  ol 
whom  died  in  December  1875  and  the  latter  a  few  months  later, 
excelled  in  the  marsiyah.  Rajab  All  Beg  Surur,  who  died  in  1869, 
was  the  author  of  a  much-admired  romance  in  rhyming  prose  entitled 
the  Fisanah-e  'Ajaib  or  "  Tale  of  Marvels,"  besides  a  diwan.  The 
dethroned  prince  Wajid  'All  himself,  poetically  styled  Akhtar,  was 
also  a  poet ;  he  published  three  dlivans,  among  them  a  quantity  of 
poetry  in  the  rustic  dialect  of  Oudh  which  is  philologically  of  much 
interest. 

Though  Delhi  was  thus  deserted  by  its  brightest  lights  of  literature, 
it  did  not  altogether  cease  to  cultivate  the  poetic  art.  Among  the 
last  Moguls  several  princes  were  themselves  creditable  poets.  Shah 
Alam  II.  (1761-1806)  wrote  under  the  name  of  Aftab,  and  was  the 
author  of  a  romance  entitled  Manzum-i  Aqdas,  besides  a  diwan. 
His  son  Sulaiman-shukoh,  brother  of  Akbar  Shah  II.,  who  had  at 
first,  like  his  brother  authors,  repaired  to  Lucknow,  returned  to 
Delhi  in  1815,  and  died  in  1838;  he  also  has  left  a  diwan.  Lastly,  his 
nephew  Bahadur  Shah  II.,  the  last  titular  emperor  of  Delhi  (d.  1862), 
wrote  under  the  name  of  Zafar,  and  was  a  pupil  in  poetry  of  Shaikh 
Ibrahim  Zauq,  a  distinguished  writer;  he  has  left  a  voluminous 
diwan,  which  has  been  printed  at  Delhi.  Mashafi  (Ghulam-i  Ham- 
dani),  who  died  about  1814,  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the 
revived  poetic  school  of  Delhi,  and  was  himself  one  of  its  founders. 
Originally  of  Lucknow,  he  left  that  city  for  Delhi  in  1777,  and  held 
conferences  of  poets,  at  which  several  authors  who  afterwards  ac- 
quired repute  formed  their  style;  he  has  left  five  diwans,  a  Taikira 
or  biography  of  Urdu  poets,  and  a  Shah-nama  or  account  of  the 
kings  of  Delhi  down  to  Shah  'Alam.  Qaim  (Qiyamuddin  'All)  was  one 
of  his  society,  and  died  in  1792;  he  has  left  several  works  of  merit. 
Ghalib,  otherwise  Mirza  Asadullah  Khan  Naushah,  laureate  of  the 
last  Mogul,  who  died  in  1869,  was  undoubtedly  the  most  eminent  of 
the  modern  Delhi  poets.  He  wrote  chiefly  in  Persian,  of  which 
language,  especially  in  the  form  cultivated  by  Firdausi,  free  from 
intermixture  of  Arabic  words,  he  was  a  master;  but  his  Urdu 
dtwan,  though  short,  is  excellent  in  its  way,  and  his  reputation 
spread  far  and  wide.  To  this  school,  though  he  lived  and  died  at 
Agra,  may  be  attached  Mir  Wall  Muhammad  Nazir  (who  died  in  the 
year  1832);  his  masnavis  entitled  Jogi-nama,  Kauri-nama,  Banjare- 
nama,  and  Bur.hape-nama,  as  well  as  his  diwan,  have  been  frequently 
reprinted,  and  are  extremely  popular.  His  language  is  less  artificial 
than  that  of  the  generality  of  Urdu  poets,  and  some  of  his  poems 
have  been  printed  in  Nagari,  and  are  as  well  known  and  as  much 
esteemed  by  Hindus  as  by  Mahommedans.  His  verse  is  defaced  by 
much  obscenity. 

4.  Modern  Period. — While  such,  in  outline,  is  the  history 
of  the  literary  schools  of  the  Deccan,  Delhi  and  Lucknow,  a 
fourth,  that  of  the  Fort  William  College  at  Calcutta,  was  being 
formed,  and  was  destined  to  give  no  less  an  impulse  to  the 
cultivation  of  Urdu  prose  than  had  a  hundred  years  before 
been  given  to  that  of  poetry  by  Wall.  At  the  commencement 
of  the  igth  century  Dr  John  Gilchrist  was  the  head  of  this 
institution,  and  his  efforts  were  directed  towards  getting  together 
a  body  of  literature  suitable  as  text-books  for  the  study  of  the 
Urdu  language  by  the  European  officers  of  the  administration. 
To  his  exertions  we  owe  the  elaboration  of  the  vernacular  as 
an  official  speech,  and  the  possibility  of  substituting  it  for  the 
previously  current  Persian  as  the  language  of  the  courts  and 
the  government.  He  gathered  together  at  Calcutta  the  most 
eminent  vernacular  scholars  of  the  time,  and  their  works,  due 
to  his  initiative,  are  still  notable  as  specimens  of  elegant  and 
serviceable  prose  composition,  not  only  in  Urdu,  but  also  in 
Hindi.  The  chief  authors  of  this  school  are  Haidarl  (Sayyid 
Muhammad  Haidar-bakhsh) ,  Husaim  (Mir  Bahadur  'All),  Mir 


489 


Amman  Luff,  Haflzuddln  Ahmad,  Shgr  'All  Afsos,  Nihal  Chand 
of  Lahore,  Kazim  'All  Jawan,  Lallu  Lai  Kavi,  Mazhar  'All  Wila 
and  Ikram  'All. 

Haidarl  died  in  1828.     He  composed  the  Tofa-Kahani  (1801),  a 
prose  redaction  of  the  Tufi-namah  which  has  been  already  mentioned  • 
a  romance  named  Araish-i  Mahfil  ("  Ornament  of  the  Assembly  ") 
detailing  the  adventures  of  the  famous  Arab  chief  Hatim-i  Jai ;  the 
Gul-i  Maghfirat  or  Dah  Majlis,  an  account  of  the' holy  persons  of 
the  Muhammadan  faith;  the  Gulzar-i  Danish,  a  translation  of  the 
Bahar-i  Danish,  a  Persian  work  containing  stories  descriptive  of  the 
craft  and  faithlessness  of  women ;  and  the  Tarikh-i  Nadiri,  a  trans- 
lation of  a  Persian  history  of  Nadir  Shah.     Husaim  is  the  author  of 
an  imitation  in  prose  of  Mir  Hasan's  Sihru-l-bayan,  under  the  name 
of  Nasr-i  Benazir  ("  the  Incomparable  Prose,"  or  "  the  Prose  of 
Benazir,"  the  latter  being  the  name  of  the  hero),  and  of  a  work 
named  Akhlaq-i  Hindi,  or  "  Indian  Morals,"  both  composed  in  1802. 
The  Akhlaq-i  Hindi  is  an  adaptation  of  a  Persian  work  called  the 
Mufarnhu-l-qulub  ("  the  Delighter  of  Hearts  "),  itself  a  version  of  the 
Hitopadesa.     Mir  Amman  was  a  native  of  Delhi,  which  he  left  in  the 
time  of  Ahmad  Shah  Durrani  for  Patna,  and  in  1801  repaired  to 
Calcutta.     To  him  we  owe  the  Bagh  o  Bahar  (1801-1802),  an  adapta- 
tion of  Amir  Khusrau's  famous  Persian  romance  entitled  the  Chahar 
Darwesh,  or  "  Story  of  the  Four  Dervishes."     Amman's  work  is  not 
itself  directly  modelled  on  the  Persian,  but  is  a  rehandling  of  an 
almost  contemporary  rendering  by  Tahsin  of  Etawa,  called  the 
Nau-tarz-i  Mura^a'.    The  style  of  this  composition  is  much  admired 
by  natives  of  India,  and  editions  of  it  are  very  numerous.     Amman 
also  composed  an  imitation  of  Husain  Wa'iz   Kashifi's  Akhlaq-i 
Muhsini  under  the  name  of  the  Ganj-i  Khubi  ("  Treasure  of  Virtue    ), 
produced  in  1802.    Hafizuddln  Ahmad  was  a  professor  at  the  Fort 
William  College;  in  1803  he  completed  a  translation  of  Abu-1-Fazl's 
'Iyar-i  Danish,  under  the  name  of  the  Khirad-afroz  ("  Enlightener 
of  the   Understanding").     The   'Iyar-i  Danish   ("Touchstone  of 
Wisdom  ")   is  one  of  the   numerous  imitations  of  the  originally 
Sanskrit  collection  of  apologues  known  in  Persian  as  the  Fables  of 
Bidpai,  or  Kalilah  and  Dimna.    Afsos  was  one  of  the  most  illustrious 
of  the  Fort  William  school ;  originally  of  Delhi,  he  left  that  city  at 
the  age  of  eleven,  and  entered  the  service  of  Qasim  'All  Khan, 
Nawab  of  Bengal;  he  afterwards  repaired  to  Hyderabad  in  the 
Deccan,  and  thence  to  Lucknow,  where  he  was  the  pupil  of  Mir 
Hasan,  Mir  Soz  and  Mir  tfaidar  'AH  Hairan.     He  joined  the  Fort 
William  College  in  1800,  and  died  in  1809.     He  is  the  author  of  a 
much  esteemed  diwan;  but  his  chief  reputation  is  founded  on  two 
prose  works  of  great  excellence,  the  Araish-i  Mahfil  (1805),  an  account 
of  India  adapted  from  the  introduction  of  the  Persian  Khulas,atu-t- 
tawarikh  of  Sujan  Rae,  and  the  Bdgh-i  Urdu  (1808),  a  translation  of 
Sa'di's  Gulistan.     Nihal  Chand  translated  into  Urdu  a  masnavi, 
entitled   the  Gul-i  Bakawali,   under  the  name  of  Mazjmb-i  "'Ishq 
("Religion  of  Love");  this  work  is  in  prose  intermingled  with 
verse,  was  composed  in  1804,  and  has  been  frequently  reproduced. 
Jawan,  like  most  of  his  collaborators,  was  originally  of  Delhi  and 
afterwards  of  Lucknow;  he  joined  the  College  in  1800.     He  is  the 
author  of  a  version  in  Urdu  of  the  well-known  story  of  Sakuntala, 
under  the  name  o(_Sakuntala  Nafak;  the  Urdu  was  rendered  from 
a  previous' Braj-bhasha  version  by  Nawaz  Kabishwar  made  in  1716, 
and  was  printed  in  1802.     Healso  composed  a  Barah-masa,  or  poetical 
description  of  the  twelve  months  (a  very  popular  and  often-handled 
form  of  composition),   with  accounts  of  the  various  Hindu  and 
Muhammadan  festivals,  entitled  the  Dastur-i  Hind   ("  Usages  of 
India  "),  printed  in  1812.     Ikram  'AH  translated,  under  the  name 
of  the  Ikhwanu-$-safa,  or  "  Brothers  of  Purity  "  (1810),  a  chapter 
of  a  famous  Arabian  collection  of  treatises  on  science  and  philosophy 
entitled  Rasailu  Ikhwani-$-safa,  and  composed  in  the  loth  century. 
The  complete  collection,   due   to  different   writers  who  dwelt  at 
Basra,  has  recently  been  made  known  to  European  readers  by  the 
:ranslation  of  Dr  F.  Dieterici  (1858-1879);  the  chapter  selected  by 
[kram  'All  is  the  third,  which  records  an  allegorical  strife  for  the 
mastery  between  men  and  animals  before  the  king  of  the  Jinn. 
The  translation  is  written  in  excellent  Urdu,  and  is  one  of  the  best 
of  the  Fort  William  productions. 

Sri  Lallu  Lai  was  a  Brahman,  whose  family,  originally  of  Gujarat, 

lad  long  been  settled  in  northern  India.     What  was  done  by  the 

other  Fort  William  authors  for  Urdu  prose  was  done  by  Lallu  Lai 

almost  alone  for  Hindi.     He  may  indeed  without  exaggeration  be 

said  to  have  created  "  High  Hindi  "  as  a  literary  language.     His 

°rem  Sagar  and  Rajniti,  the  former  a  version  in  pure  Hindi  of  the 

:oth  chapter  of  the  Bhagavata  Purana,  detailing  the  history  of 

<rishna,  and  founded  on  a  previous  Braj-bhasha  version  by  Chatur- 

>huj  Misr,  and  the  latter  an  adaptation  in  Braj-bhasha  prose  of  the 

'iitopadesa  and  part  of  the  Pancha-tantra,  are  unquestionably  the 

most  important  works  in  Hindi  prose.     The  Prem  Sagar  was  begun 

°n  1804  and  ended  in  1810;  it  enjoys  immense  popularity  in  northern 

ndia,   has  been   frequently  reproduced   in  a   lithographed    form, 

and  has  several  times  been  printed.     The  Rajniti  was  composed  in 

809;  it  is  much  admired  for  its  sententious  brevity  and  the  purity 

'f  its  language.     Besides  these  two  works,  Lallu  Lai  was  the  author 

of  a  collection  of  a  hundred  anecdotes  in  Hindi  and  Urdu  entitled 

Lafaif-i  Hindi,  an  anthology  of  Hindi  verse  called  the  Sabha-bilds. 


49° 


HINDOSTANI  LITERATURE 


a  Sat-sai  in  the  style  of  Bihari-Lal  called  Sapta-satika  and  several 
other  works.  He  and  Jawan  worked  together  at  the  Singhasan 
Battlst  (1801),  a  redaction  in  mixed  Urdu  and  Hindi  (Devanagari 
character)  of  a  famous  collection  of  legends  relating  the  prowess  of 
King  Vikramaditya ;  and  he  also  aided  the  latter  author  in  the 
production  of  the  Sakuntala  Nafak.  Mazhar  'All  Wila  was  his  colla- 
borator in  the  Baital  Pachisl,  a  collection  of  stories  similar  in  many 
respects  to  the  Singhasan  Battlsl,  and  also  in  mixed  Urdu-Hindi; 
and  he  aided  Wila  in  the  preparation  in  Urdu  of  the  Story  of  Madhonal, 
a  romance  originally  composed  in  Braj-bhasha  by  Moti  Ram. 

The  works  of  these  authors,  though  compiled  and  published  under 
the  superintendence  of  Dr  Gilchnst,  Captain  Abraham  Lockett, 
Professor  J.  W.  Taylor,  Dr  W.  Hunter  and  other  European  officers  of 
the  college  of  Fort  William,  and  originally  intended  for  the  in- 
struction of  the  Company's  officers  in  the  vernacular,  are  essentially 
Indian  in  taste  and  style,  and,  until  superseded  by  the  more  recent 
developments  of  literature  noticed  below,  enjoyed  a  very  wide 
reputation  and  popularity.  They  may,  indeed,  be  said  to  have  set 
the  standard  of  prose  composition  in  Urdu  and  Hindi,  and  for  the 
first  half  of  the  igth  century  their  influence  in  this  respect  continued 
almost  unchallenged.  Side  by  side  with  them,  among  the  Musal- 
man  population  of  northern  India,  another  almost  contemporaneous 
impulse  did  much  for  the  expansion  of  the  Urdu  language,  and, 
like  the  work  of  the  Vaishnava  reformers  in  moulding  literary  Hindi, 
gave  an  impetus  to  composition  which  might  otherwise  have  been 
lacking.  This  was  the  reform  in  Islam  led  by  Sayyid  Ahmad1  and 
his  followers.  In  all  Eastern  countries  religion  is  the  first  and  chief 
subject  of  literary  production;  and  the  controversies  which  the 
new  preaching  aroused  in  India  at  once  afforded  abundant  material 
for  authorship  in  Urdu,  and  interested  deeply  the  people  to  whom 
the  works  were  addressed. 

Sayyid  Ahmad  was  born  in  1782,  and  received  his  early  education 
at  Delhi;  his  instructors  were  two  learned  Muslims,  Shah  'Abdu-1- 
'Aziz,  author  of  a  celebrated  commentary  on  the  Qur'an  (the  Tafsir-i 
'Azlziyyah),  and  his  brother  'Abdu-1-Qadir,  the  writer  of  the  first 
translation  of  the  holy  volume  into  Urdu.  Under  their  guidance 
Sayyid  Ahmad  embraced  the  doctrines  of  the  Wahhabis,  a  sect 
whose  preaching  appears  at  this  time  to  have  first  reached  India. 
He  gathered  round  him  a  large  number  of  fervent  disciples,  among 
others  Isma'fl  Haji,  nephew  of  'Abdu-1'Aziz  and  'Abdu-1-Qadir,  the 
chief  author  of  the  sect.  After  a  course  of  preaching  and  apostleship 
at  Delhi,  Sayyid  Ahmad  set  out  in  1820  for  Calcutta,  attended  by 
numerous  adherents.  Thence  in  1822  he  started  on  a  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca,  whence  he  went  to  Constantinople,  and  was  there  received 
with  distinction  and  gained  many  disciples.  He  travelled  for  nearly 
six  years  in  Turkey  and  Arabia,  and  then  returned  to  Delhi.  The 
religious  degradation  and  coldness  which  he  found  in  his  native 
country  strongly  impressed  him  after  his  sojourn  in  lands  where 
the  life  of  Islam  is  stronger,  and  he  and  his  disciples  established 
a  propaganda  throughout  northern  India,  reprobating  the  super- 
stitions which  had  crept  into  the  faith  from  contact  with  Hindus, 
and  preaching  a  jihad  or  holy  war  against  the  Sikhs.  In  1828  he 
started  for  Peshawar,  attended  by,  it  is  said,  upwards  of  100,000 
Indians,  and  accompanied  by  his  chief  followers,  Haji  Isma'il  and 
"Abdu-1-Hayy.  He  was  furnished  with  means  by  a  general  sub- 
scription in  northern  India,  and  by  several  Muhammadan  princes 
who  had  embraced  his  doctrines.  At  the  beginning  of  1829  he 
declared  war  against  the  Sikhs,  and  in  the  course  of  time  made 
himself  master  of  Peshawar.  The  Afghans,  however,  with  whom 
he  had  allied  himself  in  the  contest,  were  soon  disgusted  by  the 
rigour  of  his  creed,  and  deserted  him  and  his  cause.  He  fled  across 
the  Indus  and  took  refuge  in  the  mountains  of  Pakhli  and  Dhamtor, 
where  in  1831  he  encountered  a  detachment  of  Sikhs  under  the 
command  of  Sher  Singh,  and  in  the  combat  he  and  H§ji  Isma'il 
were  slain.  His  sect  is,  however,  by  no  means  extinct ;  the  Wahhabi 
doctrines  have  continued  to  gain  ground  in  India,  and  to  give  rise 
to  much  controversial  writing,  down  to  our  own  day. 

The  translation  of  the  Quran  by  'Abdu-1-Qadir  was  finished  in 
1803,  and  first  published  by  Sayyid  'Abdullah,  a  fervent  disciple  of 
Sayyid  Ahmad,  at  Hughfi  in  1829.  The  Tambihu-l-ghafilin,  or 
"  Awakener  of  the  Heedless,"  a  work  in  Persian  by  Sayyid  Ahmad, 
was  rendered  into  Urdu  by  'Abdullah,  and  published  at  the  same 
press  in  1830.  Haji  Jsma'il  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  in  Urdu 
entitled  Taqwiyatu-l-Iman  ("  Confirmation  of  the  Faith  "),  which 
had  great  vogue  among  the  following  of  the  Sayyid.  Other  works 
by  the  disciples  of  the  Tariqah-e  Muhammadiyyah  (as  the  new 
preaching  was  called)  are  the  Targhib-i  Jihad  ("  Incitation  to  Holy 
War  "),  Hiddyatu-l-Mumimn  ("  Guide  of  the  Believers  "),  Muzihu- 
l-Kabair  wa-l-Bid'ah  ("  Exposition  of  Mortal  Sins  and  Heresy  "), 
Naflhatu-l-Muslimin  ("Admonition  to  Muslims  "),  and  the  Mi'at 
Masail,  or  "  Hundred  Questions." 

Printing  was  first  used  for  vernacular  works  by  the  College  Press 
at  Fort  William,  at  the  end  of  the  i8th  and  the  beginning  of  the 
I9th  century,  and  all  the  compositions  prepared  for  Dr  Gilchrist 
and  his  successors  which  have  been  mentioned  were  thus  given  to 
the  public.  But  the  expense  of  this  method  of  reproduction  long 
precluded  its  extensive  use  in  India,  and  movable  types,  though 

1  To  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the  reformer  of  the  same 
name  who  flourished  half  a  century  later. 


well  suited  for  alphabets  derived  from  the  Sanskrit,  were  not  equally 
applicable  to  the  flowing  and  graceful  characters  of  Persian. 
Lithography  was  introduced  about  1837,  when  the  first  press  was 
set  up  at  Delhi,  and  immediately  gave  a  powerful  stimulus  to  the 
multiplication  of  literature,  both  original  and  editions  of  older 
works.  In  1832  the  vernaculars  were  substituted  for  Persian  as 
the  official  language  of  the  courts  and  the  acts  of  the  legislature, 
and  this  at  once  led  to  the  transfer  to  the  former  of  a  mass  of  techni- 
cal and  forensic  terms  which  had  previously  been  only  to  a  limited 
extent  in  popular  use.  Thirdly,  the  spread  of  education  in  subjects 
of  Western  learning,  for  which  text-books  (many  of  them  transla- 
tions from  English]  were  required,  not  only  greatly  enlarged  the 
vocabulary  of  the  common  speech,  but  led  by  degrees  to  the  use 
of  a  simpler  and  more  direct  style,  and  the  abandonment  wholesale 
of  the  florid  and  artificial  ornament  which  was  the  legacy  of  the 
Persian  literature  upon  which  Urdu  prose  had  at  first  modelled 
itself.  Lastly,  the  establishment  of  a  vernacular  newspaper  press, 
which  lithography  had  rendered  possible,  placed  within  the  reach 
of  a  continually  widening  public  the  means  of  becoming  acquainted 
with  new  ideas  in  every  department  of  culture,  and  practised  the 
writers  who  contributed  to  it  in  the  art  of  wielding  their  mother- 
tongue  with  effect  in  its  application  to  European  themes. 

All  these  revolutionary  agencies  were  at  work,  though  in  a  tenta- 
tive and  limited  fashion,  when  the  great  change,  following  on  the 
Mutiny  of  1857,  of  the  transfer  of  the  government  of  India  from 
the  Company  to  the  Crown  inaugurated  a  new  era.  Since  1860  their 
operation  has  become  extremely  rapid  and  far-reaching.  The  use 
of  lithography  both  for  Urdu  and  Hindi  annually  gives  birth  to 
hundreds  of  works.  The  extension  of  education  through  both 
public  and  private  agency  has  created  an  immense  mass  of  school- 
books,  and  the  spread  of  instruction  in  English  and  the  activity  of 
translators  have  filled  the  vernaculars  with  a  multitude  of  new 
words  drawn  from  that  lang